Anatomy and Physiology

Part 2

Skeletal System• Made up of organs that are called bones

– Adults have 206 bones• Functions of bones

– Framework: support body’s muscle, fat and skin– Protection: surround vital organs to protect

them• Levers

– Attach to muscles to help provide movement• Produce Blood Cells

– Produce red and white blood cells and platelets• Storage

– Store most of bodies calcium supply

Joints• Area where 2 or more bones join together• Ligaments: connective tissue bands that hold

long bones together• Synovial

– Freely moving – Ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip– Hinge joints of the elbow and knee

• Amphiarthrosis– Slightly moveable– Ribs to the thoracic vertebrae

• Synarthrosis– Immovable

» Suture joints of the cranium

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions

• Arthritis– Group of diseases involving an inflammation of the joints

• Osteoarthritis – Chronic disease that occurs with aging– Symptoms: Joint pain, stiffness, aching, limited ROM– Treatment: Rest, heat/cold, aspirin, anti-inflammatory meds, steroids

• Rheumatoid Arthritis– Chronic inflammatory disease of connective tissues and joints– 3x more common in women and usually begins around 35-45– Progressive attacks cause scar tissue formation and atrophy of bone and

muscle tissue– Treatment: Rest and prescribed exercise– Anti-inflammatory medications: aspirin, steroids– Surgery, or arthroplasty (replace damaged joints)

Fractures• Crack in the bone

– Greenstick: bone is bent and splits cuasing a crack or incomplete break

– Simple: complete break with no damage to the skin

– Compound: break in bone that ruptures through skin; increased chance of infection

– Impacted: broken bone ends jam into each other

Fractures

• Comminuted: bone fragments or splinters into more than 2 pieces

• Spiral: severe twisting of a bone causes one or more breaks

• Stress: Hairline fracture of a bone that has been under repeated stress

Dislocation and Sprains• Dislocation– Bone is forcibly displaced from a joint– Frequently occurs in shoulders, fingers and hips– Treatment: reduced and immobilized with splint,

traction, or cast• Sprain– Twisting action tears ligaments at a joint – Common sites are wrist and ankle – Symptoms: pain, swelling, discoloration, limited

movement– Treatment: rest and elevation; immobilization or

splinting, cold applications

Osteomyelitis• Inflammation of bone

usually caused by pathogenic organism

• Pathogen causes formation of abscess with bone and accumulation of pus

• Symptoms: pain at site, swelling, chills, fever

• Treatment: Antibiotics for infection

Osteoporosis• Metabolic disorder that causes

softening of the bones– Deficiency of hormones (estrogen)– Prolonged lack of calcium in diet– Sedentary lifestyle

• Loss of calcium and phosphate causes bones to become porous, brittle, and prone to fractures, and spinal compression fractures

• Bone density tests can lead to early detection

• Treatment– Increase calcium and Vit D– Exercise– Medications – Estrogen replacement

Muscular System• Over 600 muscles make up the muscular

system• Muscles are made of bundles of muscle

fibers that are held together by connective tissue

• Characteristics of Muscles:– Excitability or irritability—ability to respond to stimulus such

as a nerve impulse– Contractibility—when muscle fibers are stimulated by nerves,

they contract or become short and thick causing movement– Extensibility—ability to be stretched– Elasticity—allows muscle to return to its original shape after it

has contracted or stretched3

Types of muscle• Cardiac– Forms the walls of the heart,

contract to circulate blood– Involuntary—functions without

thought or control• Viseral or Smooth– Found in internal organs of the body:

digestive system, respiratory system, blood vessels or eyes

– Contract to cause movement in these systems

– Involuntary• Skeletal– Attach to bones and cause body movements– Voluntary

Functions

• Attach to bones to provide voluntary movement

• Produce heat or energy

• Help maintain posture by holding the body erect

• Protects internal organs

Diseases and Conditions• Muscular Dystrophy– Chronic progressive muscle atrophy– Appears in early childhood– Many types result in total disability and early death– Physical therapy is used to slow progress of the disease

• Fibromyalgia– Chronic widespread pain in specific muscle sites– Symptoms: muscle stiffness, numbness/tingling, fatigue,

headaches, depression– Stress, weather and poor physical fitness affect the

condition– Treatment includes physical therapy, massage, exercise,

stress reduction, pain medication and muscle relaxors

Strains, Spasms, Cramps• Strain– Overstretching or injury to a muscle or tendon– Frequent sites include back, arms, and legs causing

swelling, pain and limited movement– Usually caused by prolonged or sudden muscle exertion – Treatment RICE

• Spasms or Cramps– Sudden, painful, involuntary contractions of muscles– May result in overexertion, low electrolyte levels, or

poor circulation– Gentle pressure and stretching can help relieve pain

Central Nervous System• Consists of:– Brain– Cerebrum– Cerebellum– Midbrain– Pons– Medulla oblongata– Spinal cord– Meninges– Pia Matter

Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic System Autonomic System

Cranial and Spinal nerves Two divisions: Sympathetic and parasympathetic

Responsible for special senses (sight, hearing, taste, and smell as well as touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. Sends out the impulses for voluntary and involuntary muscle control

Helps maintain balance in the involuntary functions of the body, but allows the body to react in times of an emergency

Spinal nerves carry messages to and from the spinal cord

Systems work together to maintain balance

Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Acts in times of emergency “fight or flight”

Counteracts actions of the sympathetic system after an emergency

Prepares the body to act

Slows heart rate and respirations

Increases heart rate and respirations

Lowers blood pressure

Slows activity in the digestive system

Increases activity in the digestive tract

Raises blood pressure

Conditions of the NS• Cerebral Palsy– Disturbance in voluntary muscle action

• Caused by brain damage—usually lack of oxygen at birth

– Symptoms: Exaggerated reflexes, tense muscles, spasms, speech impairment, in some cases mental retardation

– Treatment: No cure. PT, OT, speech therapy, muscle relaxants, braces, surgery for contractures

• Epilepsy • Brain disorder associated with abnormal impulses in neurons of the

brain• Causes: brain injury, birth trauma, tumors, infections• Absent or petit mal seizures• Tonic-Clonic or grand mal• Anticonvulsant medicaiton

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)/Stroke

• Blood flow to the brain is impaired resulting in lack of oxygen and destruction of the brain

• Causes: cerebral hemorrhage (hypertension, aneurysm); occlusion or blockage (thrombous, atherosclerosis)

• Risk Factors: – Smoking, high fat diet, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle

• Symptoms vary depending on area and amount of brain tissue damaged

• Care during the first 3 hours is important and can prevent brain damage

• Treatment after is directed at adapting to symptoms present

Circulatory System• AKA Cardiovascular system• Consists of heart, blood vessels, and blood• Heart: – Transports oxygen and nutrients to body cells and

transports CO2 away from cells– Muscular organ, weights less than 1 pound, size of

fist– 3 layers of tissue form the heart• Endocardium• Myocardium • Pericardium

Circulatory System• AKA Cardiovascular system• Consists of heart, blood vessels, and blood• Heart: – Transports oxygen and nutrients to body cells and

transports CO2 away from cells– Muscular organ, weights less than 1 pound, size of

fist– 3 layers of tissue form the heart• Endocardium• Myocardium • Pericardium

Heart

• Septum: Separates right and left sides, prevents blood moving between sides

• Chambers: 4 chambers– Upper 2 Atrias, Lower 2 Ventricles

• Valves:– One way chambers to keep blood flowing in the

proper direction• Tricuspid—between RA and RV• Bicuspid/Mitral valve—between LA and LV• Pulmonary Valve—between RV and Pulmonary Artery• Aortic Valve—between LV and Aorta

Heart• Aorta:– Largest artery in the body

• Vena Cava– Superior– Inferior

• Pulmonary Arteries– Left and Right

• Pulmonary Veins– Left and right

• Apex: Lowest part of the heart

Blood Vessels• Arteries

– Carry blood away from the heart• Arterioles: Smallest branches of

arteries

– Muscular and elastic to receive blood pumped from the heart

• Capillaries– Thin walls that contain only 1 layer

of cells– Located close to almost every cell in

the body– Allow oxygen to pass through to cells

and wastes to enter• Veins

– Carries blood back to the heart– Thin with less muscle tissue

Blood• Contains cells, often called tissue• About 4-6 quarts in average adult• Circulates continually

transporting:– oxygen to lungs and body cells – CO2 from body cells to lungs– Nutrients from digestive tract to

cells– Metabolic wastes from cells to

organs of excretion– Heat produced by various body

parts– Hormones produced by endocrine

glands

Parts of Blood• Plasma

– Liquid portion of blood– Made up of about 90%

water• RBC—4.5-5.5 million per cc

– Produced in bone marrow– Carry oxygen and CO2

• WBC—5,000-9,000 per cc– Formed in bone marrow– Fight infection

• Thrombocytes/Platelets– Formed in bone marrow– Important in clotting

process

Diseases/Conditions• Anemia– Inadequate number of RBC– Symptoms: pale, fatigue, dyspnea, rapid HR– Causes: blood loss, iron deficiency– Treatment: Iron supplements and increasing foods rich in iron

(leafy greens)• Aneurysm– Ballooning out or saclike formation on wall of artery– Caused by disease, congenital defects– Symptoms: pain and pressure or none– If aneurysm ruptures (stroke) can cause death– Treatment: surgical removal of damaged areas, graft or new

vessel

Hypertension• High Blood Pressure

– Systolic 140/150 – Diastolic < 90

• Risk Factors:– Family history– Race– Obesity– Stress– Smoking– Aging– Diet

• Treatment– Antihypertensive medication– Getting rid of risk factors

Myocardial Infarction/Heart attack

• Blockage cuts off blood supply to the heart• Affected tissues die (Infarct) • Symptoms:

– Angina—crushing pain that radiates to arm and jaw– Pressure in chest– Perspiration and cold, clammy skin– Dyspnea– Change in blood pressure

• Treatment:– CPR if heart stops– Thrombolytic drug, vasodilators, Digoxin ( S and S)

• LTC:– Control BP, Avoid tobacco and stress, exercise, weight control, diet

Lymphatic System• Consists of lymph, lymph

vessels, lymph nodes and lymph tissue

• Works with circulatory system to remove wastes and excessive fluid from tissue

• Lymph tissue—tonsils, spleen, thymus

• Tonsillitis– Inflammation or infection of

tonsils– Removal of tonsils in chronic

cases– ATB, fluids, and rest

Respiratory System• Consists of lungs and air

passages• Responsible for taking

in oxygen and removing carbon dioxide.

• Body has a 4-6 minute oxygen supply

• Parts include: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, alveoli and lungs

• Works with circulatory system

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHv9mNbNj2s

Asthma– Respiratory disorder usually caused by

sensitivity to an allergen (dust, pollen, animals, food, meds)

– Symptoms: Bronchospasms narrow openings of bronchioles, mucus production

increases, and edema develops in the mucosal lining

– Dyspnea, wheezing, coughing, tightness in chest– Treatment: bronchodilators to enlarge the bronchioles,

oxygen, epinephrine and anti inflammatory medication– Elimination of or desensitization to allergens causing the

problem

Emphysema• Noninfectious chronic respiratory condition• Occurs when the walls of the alveoli deteriorate and

lose their elasticity– CO2 remains trapped in the alveoli, poor exchange of

gases• Most common causes are heavy smoking and

prolonged exposure to air pollutants • Symptoms: Dyspnea, feeling of suffocation, barrel

chest, chronic cough, cyanosis, rapid respirations• Treatment: Avoid smoking, bronchodilators,

breathing exercises, treatment of infections, O2• No cure—eventually leads to death

COPD

• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease– Chronic lung disease that results in obstruction of the

airways– Smoking is the primary cause but allergens and

chronic respiratory infections are also factors– Chronic asthma, Chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and

tuberculosis can lead to COPD– Treatment: bronchodilators, mucolytics, cough meds– Prognosis is poor because damage to the lungs

causes deterioration of pulmonary function leading to respiratory failure and death

Influenza/Flu

• Highly contagious viral infection of the upper respiratory system with sudden onset

• Symptoms: Chills and fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, muscle pain and fatigue

• Treatment: Bed rest and fluids, analgesics for pain and antipyretics for fever

• Immunization with vaccine– Vaccine is developed each year to immunize

against the most common viruses identified

Digestive System

• Responsible for the physical and chemical breakdown of food so it can be taken into the bloodstream and used by body cells and tissues

• Includes that alimentary canal and accessory organs– Alimentary canal

• Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus

– Accessory organs• Salivary glands, tongue, teeth, liver and pancreas

Oral Cavity

• Mouth• Teeth• Tongue• Hard Palate• Soft Palate• Salivary Glands

Oral Passageway• Pharynx--Throat– Tube that carries air and food– Air is carried to the trachea– Food is carried to the esophagus• When food is swallowed a muscle action causes the

epiglottis to cover the larynx preventing the food from entering the respiratory tract

• Esophagus– Muscular tube that receives food from the pharynx

and carries it to the stomach– Uses peristalsis to move the food forward

Oral Passageway

• Stomach– Receives food from the esophagus– Mucous membrane lining contains folds (rugae)– Food remains in stomach for about 2-4 hours

• Gastric Juices– Produced by glands in the stomach and converts food

into semifluid material (chyme)• Juices contain hydrochloric acid• Kills bacteria• Facilitates in absorption • Activates enzymes

Small Intestine• 20 ft long• Receives chyme from stomach• Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum• Functions: complete digestion, absorb products of

digestion into the blood stream for use by body cells• Intestinal Juices and accessory parts– Bile: Liquid that enters the small intestine from the liver

and gallbladder and emulsifies fats– Pancreatic juice: enters small intestine from pancreas;

contains different enzymes that break down sugars, proteins and fats

Large Intestine

• Functions:– Absorption of water and any remaining nutrients – Storage of indigestible materials before they are

eliminated from the body– Transportation of waste

products • Sections:– Cecum– Colon– Rectum