ANALYSIS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION: BIOGAS AND IMPROVED COOK STOVES IN

THE VILLAGE OF CHHALING, BHAKTAPUR DISTRICT, NEPAL

BY

MARJORIE D. ELY

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY

Michigan Technological University 2005

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The thesis: “Analysis of Renewable Energy Project Implementation: Biogas and

Improved Cook Stoves in the Village of Chhaling, Bhaktapur District, Nepal” is hereby

approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF

SCIENCE IN FORESTRY.

School of Forest Resources and Environmental Science

Signatures:

Advisor:______________________________ Blair Orr

Dean:______________________________ Margaret Gale

Date:______________________________

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PREFACE

After completing my Bachelors degree, I knew I was not destined for the business career it was assumed I would follow. I moved to the Sierra Mountains in California and began working outdoors. It would have been difficult for me not to become impassioned about the environment there. When I found the Master’s International Program in Forestry at MTU, it seemed the program was created for me. I was ready to learn how to make a difference in both community development and natural resource conservation……. A Community Development Story: Once upon a time, a development office helped build grain storage sheds in a community. Field workers observed rats getting into the sheds and spoke with the villagers about killing the rats. The villagers did not believe it was worth the effort. The agency staff decided to give a small fee for each dead rat as an incentive to kill them. So, people began killing rats and getting paid by the office. With more and more rats killed, the agency allowed the villagers to bring only the rat’s tail for payment. Again, there was an increase in the number of rats killed and the agency staff was perplexed. Eventually, one development worker observed rat-tails that looked alike. He returned to the village to investigate and found they were breeding rats for the money! The moral of the story: incentives, especially financial, may not cause the desired outcome. During my Peace Corps service in Nepal from September 2002 to September 2004, I learned lessons similar to this one, but most importantly I learned flexibility and patience. I found that some people might try to manipulate, but most are honest and hardworking. Accepting change was a lesson I tried to teach others and then realized I had to understand for myself. In September 2004, I had extended my service to complete the research for this thesis. I had the next eighteen months of my life planned. Then a bomb was dropped, literally, and I was being evacuated from Nepal. It felt like I was being torn away from my own family. All my plans were in ruins and I was devastated. However, I had to quickly accept our evacuation and coordinate with the village group so they could continue working. Two weeks later, no longer a Peace Corps volunteer, I was on a tropical island in southern Thailand still a bit dazed. Six months later, I was completing the research for this thesis. Fear of change keeps us from realizing our dreams. And when we let our own light shine, we unconsciously give other people permission to do the same. As we are liberated from our own fear, our presence automatically liberates others. Nelson Mandela We gain strength, and courage, and confidence by each experience in which we really stop to look fear in the face ... we must do that which we think we cannot. Eleanor Roosevelt Life is what happens while you're busy making other plans. John Lennon

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES …….….……………………………………………………………vi LIST OF TABLES ……….…………………………………………………………….vii ACRONYMS AND PSEUDONYMS ………..……………………………………….viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……….…………………………………………..………..ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION …….……………………………………….………...1 CHAPTER 2: NEPAL …….….………………………………………………….………6

General Background …….…………………………………………….……...…8 Geography and Climate …….………………………………………………….12 Forest Degradation of the Mid-Hills ……………….………………………….15 People of Nepal …...……………………………….…………………………..18 History of Nepal …………………………………….………………………….26

CHAPTER 3: BIOGAS AND IMPROVED COOK STOVES IN NEPAL …….……..36

Present Situation of Energy Consumption in Nepal ……….……………..……36 Traditional and Improved Cook Stoves ….…………………………………….38 Biogas Technology …………………….………………………………………43

CHAPTER 4: CHHALING, BHAKTAPUR …….…………………………………….50

Kathmandu Valley …..………………………………………………………….51 Chhaling ………………….…………………………………………………….53 Agricultural System …………………….……………………………………...56 Community Forest User Groups …………...…………………………………..60

CHAPTER5: GENERAL METHODOLOGY: CASE STUDY DESIGN AND PROTOCOL …….……..……………………………………………………………….64

Research Strategy: The Case Study …………………………………………...64 Participant Observation …….…………………………………………………..65 Case Study Design and Protocol ….…………………………………….……...69

CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY COMMUNITY PROJECT …….…………………………………………...84

Community and Social Issues ………………………………………….……...88 Project Management and Design …………………….……………………….106

CHAPTER 7: DATA COLLECTION METHODS ………………………………….129

Formation of the “Biogas Project” …....………………………………….……..129 Data Collection Principles …………….....……………………………..…….132 Data Collection Methods …………………………………………………….133

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CHAPTER 8: PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS IN CHHALING COMPARED TO THE PROPOSITIONS ……………………………..142

Project Implementation in Chhaling: A Three Phase Process …..……………142 Comparison of Implementation Components to the Propositions ……..……..150 Other Components of the Implementation Process in Chhaling ……………..184 Summary: Successes and Failures of the Case Study’s Propositions ….……..187

CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT WORKERS ………………………………….………..189 LITERATURE CITED …………………………………………………………….….195 APPENDICES:

Appendix A: Case Study Design and Protocol ………...……………………..206 Appendix B: Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy Project Proposal ………..243 Appendix C: Study Proposal …..…………………..…………………………259 Appendix D: Documents of the Case Study ………..…………………………264 Appendix E: Community Knowledge Pre-Survey and Post-Survey Questions ..290 Appendix F: Community Knowledge Pre-Survey and Post-Survey

Data Tables ……………………………………………………..304 Appendix G: Biogas Recipient Survey Questions ………………...…….……337 Appendix H: Biogas Recipient Survey Data Tables …………………………339 Appendix I: Pearson Correlation Coefficient Statistical Data Sets .…...…..…348 Appendix J: Improved Cook Stove and Biogas Recipient Cattle Information ...439

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Social context must be learned for successful project implementation …….7 Figure 2.2: Map of Nepal in Asia ………………………………………………………9 Figure 2.3: Map of major administrative and topographical regions of Nepal .……….10 Figure 2.4: River in Terai flatlands of Nepal …………………………………………13 Figure 2.5: The terraced mid-hills of Nepal …………………………………………..14 Figure 2.6: The high mountains and Himalayas ………………………………………14 Figure 2.7: Cattle dung cakes drying in the sun ……………………………………….16 Figure 2.8: Household shrine for Hindu gods …………………………………………19 Figure 2.9: Worshipping the cow as an incarnation of the Hindu goddess Laxmi ……20 Figure 2.10: This low caste tailor cannot enter the home of the people for

whom she works ….………………………………………………………22 Figure 2.11: Women’s social mobilization increases by attending village meetings …25 Figure 2.12: Political protesters prepare for a rally in a busy Kathmandu area ……….30 Figure 3.1: Traditional stove with open fire used to brew alcohol ……………………38 Figure 3.2: Typical two cook-hole mud improved cook stove ………………………..39 Figure 3.3: Inside a two cook-hole mud improved cook stove ………………………..40 Figure 3.4: Bricks for four improved cook stoves drying in the sun ………………….41 Figure 3.5A and B: Building an improved cook stove ……………….……………….42 Figure 3.6: Methane flame from biogas plant …………………………………………43 Figure 3.7: General biogas plant design ………………………………………………44 Figure 4.1: Kathmandu Valley district boundaries and headquarters …………………50 Figure 4.2: The city of Kathmandu is congested due to mass internal migration ……53 Figure 4.3: Chhaling Village Development Committee ……………………………….54 Figure 4.4: Toilet, washroom, and veranda constructed from bamboo …...……………54 Figure 4.5: Village girls attend school, but are often absent to perform farm work …..56 Figure 4.6: Typical scene of agricultural terraces and homes in Chhaling ……………57 Figure 4.7: Lower, irrigated rice fields .……………………………………………….59 Figure 4.8: Leaflitter is harvested from the forest …………………………………….60 Figure 4.9: Seti Devi Community Forest User Group Committee monthly meeting …62 Figure 5.1: Working with and learning about villagers is participant observation ……66 Figure 5.2: Villagers performed work as usual as I participated and observed ……….68 Figure 5.3: Biogas recipients are intermediate players of the case study ……………..73 Figure 6.1: Girls learn their place is at home or on the farm, not in the public sphere ...92 Figure 6.2: Community assets: labor, materials, and money ………………………….98 Figure 6.3: All female groups increase girl’s skills and management capacity ……...108 Figure 6.4: Information exchanged orally while working in fields …………………114 Figure 6.5: Preparing for biogas plant construction …………………………………117 Figure 7.1: Data was collected by interviewing biogas recipients and company staff ....134 Figure 7.2: CFUG members and project managers at a monthly CFUG meeting …..136 Figure 8.1: Field workers and villagers at the mass awareness meeting ……………145 Figure 8.2: Biogas recipients assist the mason in construction ……………………..147 Figure 8.3: End construction and completed biogas plants ...……………………….148 Figure 8.4: Cooking tea on a gas stove of a newly installed biogas plant ……………148 Figure 8.5: Biogas committee informed villagers at a mass meeting ………………..161

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Figure 8.6: Field workers met and supported the biogas committee ..………………168 Figure 8.7: Chipped inlet of a biogas plant installed during the project .……………172 Figure 8.8: Four middle caste status households received an improved cook stove ...178

LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Standard building material amounts for a common sized biogas plant ..…...48 Table 4.1: Seasonal Farm Work Calendar of Chhaling, Bhaktapur District, Nepal …..58 Table 5.1: Necessary implementation components of a renewable energy project ……71 Table 5.2: The case study protocol ……………………………………………………76 Table 5.3: Data collection schedule …………………………...………………………..77 Table 5.4:

Part A: Specific integration and participation questions for data collection ……….81 Part B: Specific implementation activities questions for data collection …………..82 Part C: Questions for each biogas management committee activity or meeting …...83

Table 6.1: Necessary implementation components of a renewable energy project …...85 Table 6.2: A Simple project design …………………………………………………...113 Table 6.3: Theoretical action plan …………………………………………………...120 Table 6.4: Success questions and indicators for action plan component ……………..125 Table 8.1: Necessary implementation components of a renewable energy project …..143 Table 8.2: Goals and objectives formed by the CFUG in the first planning meeting …155 Table 8.3: The biogas management committee’s action plan …..…………….………158 Table 8.4: Success questions and answers for the action plan component .….………164 Table 8.5 Evaluation component questions and answers …………………….………171 Table 8.6: Evaluation of the propositional implementation components of this study ...187

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ACRONYMS

AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Centre AET Alternative Energy Technology BMC Biogas Management Committee BR Biogas Recipient Biogas-R Biogas-Recipient BSP-Nepal Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (formerly Biogas Support

Program-Nepal) CFUG Community Forest User Group CRT/N Centre for Rural Technology/ Nepal DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DDC District Development Office DFO District Forest Office HMG His Majesty’s Government (of Nepal) ICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development ICS Improved Cook Stove ICS-R Improved Cook Stove-Recipient IUCN The World Conservation Union Membership-R Membership-Recipient MFI Micro Finance Institution O&M Operation and Maintenance PC(V) Peace Corps (Volunteer) PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal RET Renewable Energy Technology SNV-Nepal The Netherlands Development Organisation VDC Village Development Committee

PSEUDONYMS (HUMAN SUBJECT RESEARCH)

People were studied as part of this research. Guidelines of human subject research were

followed including the use of pseudonyms. Some data has been omitted to protect

people’s identities and safety. The researcher and the Peace Corps volunteer are the same

person.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I owe many people my thanks for their assistance with this study. The people of in the village of Chhaling, Nepal opened their homes and their minds to a foreign woman they weren’t sure just how to deal with. I thank them for their graciousness and patience, especially when our cultural understandings didn’t mesh well. I thank them for allowing me into their lives and for becoming part of mine. I appreciate their hard work and dedication to this project. But, most of all, I thank them for their friendship and loyalty. I would also like to thank my advisor, Blair Orr, for all his dedication to the Master’s International Program and especially to his students. His efforts go above and beyond the expected and I thank him for his constant encouragement and advice both in Nepal and at MTU. I would also like to thank the members of my graduate committee: Linda Nagel, Christian Giardina, and Susan Martin. I am grateful to graduate students Bharat Pokharel and Kishor Joshi for all their assistance and support at MTU in writing this thesis. In Nepal, I am thankful to the staff of Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) – Nepal and Winrock International for their assistance in my research and the biogas project. As well, the staff members of the Bhaktapur District Forest Office and Telkot Rangepost were helpful and supported me in all my endeavors. I owe my thanks to the personnel at many NGOs in Nepal who assisted me with research on renewable energy projects. Most of all, I thank Anar Basnet, Dinesh Karki, and Sherry Russell, as well as the rest of the Peace Corps-Nepal staff for all their support in my research and work as a volunteer. They were the most dedicated and resilient people working to create change in their country. We all hope the volunteer program will re-open again soon. There were many individual and group donors from the United States and Nepal who contributed to the biogas and improved cook stove project. Without them and the assistance of Kim Sullivan, who collected and transferred funds from the United States, we would not have succeeded. Thank you. To my family and friends both in the US and Nepal, I owe you my most heartfelt gratitude for all your love and support. Finally, I would like to say thank you to my boyfriend, Nathaniel Naidich. Constantly in my heart, he was there even when he was not. I am so grateful for your unconditional love and friendship.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Biogas is called “gobar gas” in the Nepali language, literally translating to gas

from cattle dung. This renewable energy technology, used for cooking and lighting, is

undergoing widespread adoption in Nepal thanks to an NGO initiated by the Netherlands

Development Organisation (SNV), a Nepali government subsidy, the decreasing

availability of firewood, and the increasing expense of fossil fuels. Improved cook stoves

are a simple technology designed to use less firewood than traditional stoves and send

smoke out of the home. Families installing biogas must own at least two cattle, whereas

improved cook stoves are easily adoptable by even the poorest farmers. Renewable

energy community development projects have multi-faceted benefits including natural

resource conservation, health improvement, reduction of women’s drudgery, and

efficiency of energy use. Installing these two technologies was the main goal of the

project of this case study in the village of Chhaling, Bhaktapur District, Nepal.

Development workers must consider two broad categories of propositional

components when planning and executing projects: community and social issues and

project management and design. Community and social issues determine the context of

the project. Managers of renewable energy projects in developing countries must balance

working within the community’s traditional social structure with the promotion of

modern ideas. Participation of villagers at all levels of project implementation is

pertinent to its success. Project management and design defines the roles of the project

leaders and participants. Creating the correct goals and plan to accomplish the vision of a

project is the key to a successful project design. Overall project success is gained with

the successful implementation of each propositional project component of the two

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categories. The implementation process of a renewable energy community project in

Nepal is analyzed and its components evaluated using success indicators of the

propositional components. Conclusions and recommendations for the project, the

community, and renewable energy projects in Nepal are formed based on this

comparative evaluation.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

I lived and worked as a Peace Corps volunteer for just less than two years in

Nepal. My work assignment was to give post-formation support to newly formed

Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) in the village area of Chhaling, Bhaktapur

District. During this time, a rebel insurgency and political instability strained

development efforts in the country. In the fall of 2004, a bomb was detonated in the

complex of the American Center in Kathmandu and although there were no injuries,

Peace Corps evacuated its volunteers from the country. Before the evacuation was

announced in September, I had applied to extend my service. The project managers

planned to have the first rotation phases of the project completed by March 2005. In light

of the political situation causing Peace Corps evacuation and under the advice of my

faculty advisor, Blair Orr, a direct return to Nepal was unrealistic, as I would have to live

six months without in-country support. I decided to return to my village in February

2005. The villagers wanted to continue the project and I hoped my departure would

compel them to work on their own. I could then observe how successful they were in

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implementing the project without my assistance. On February 1, 2005, I found myself on

a flight back to Nepal, this time without the support of the Peace Corps.

The result of my evacuation and return to Nepal gave this case study research two

distinct phases. In the first phase, I was a volunteer working in community development

and natural resource conservation and in the second, I was a returning friend and

researcher. My time was limited in the second phase as the tension between the Maoist

insurgency and the Nepali government was high. The situation in the country seemed to

be deteriorating. This was best exemplified on the day of my return flight. On February

1, 2005, King Gyanendra called a “State of Emergency,” ousted and arrested government

officials including the prime minister, and closed all international communications from

inside Nepal such as internet, phone lines, and the international airport. My flight was

diverted mid-air and I arrived back in Bangkok for what became ten more days in

Thailand. Cautiously, I waited for contact from Nepal to confirm a positive situation in

Kathmandu. I received word, flew to Nepal on February 11, 2005, and resumed my

research.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Chapters Two, Three, and Four explain the background circumstances, which

affect the context of the project implementation and must be considered by development

workers. Chapter Two gives an idea of the national situation in Nepal. An overview of

the Nepal, its geographic and climatic zones, its forest degradation, its national culture

and religion, and its history are presented. Chapter Three gives a background of the

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technical issues of the project. I explain the present scenario of energy consumption and

the need for renewable energy implementation in Nepal. The improved cook stove and

biogas programs and their technical systems are briefly described. Project managers

must understand basic technical ideas to successfully work with the people who install

the technology. Chapter Four illustrates the specific context of the project in the village

of Chhaling located in Kathmandu Valley. The high population growth in the valley and

the degraded forest near Chhaling affect the people of the project. Members of the Seti

Devi Community Forest User Group (CFUG) implemented the project of this study.

Recently formed, the people and goals of this group are presented to understand why they

conducted this project in their village.

This paper is the result of a case study of the project implementation process in

the village of Chhaling. Chapter Five explains why a case study was chosen as the

appropriate research strategy for this study and delineates the methodology of case study

research. The case study design and protocol are defined in general and specifically for

this research.

Propositions are the theoretical framework of a case study. The objective of this

study was to analyze the implementation process of a renewable energy development

project. The propositions are the theoretical components of the implementation process.

Chapter Six describes the propositional components as part of two broad categories:

community and social issues and project management and design. The propositional

components must be recognized by the project managers and incorporated into the

implementation process to realize project goals. Indicators used to analyze success of the

project implementers in managing the components are explained for each propositional

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component. I hypothesized that when the villagers in Chhaling manage the theoretical

components well, they are more likely to be successful in reaching project goals. When

the project managers fail to consider these components, they will have problems in the

project implementation process.

Chapter Seven is the specific methodology of this case study. It explains how the

project began in the village and how the study was conducted. A case study uses a

variety of research methods to support the data collected. Participant observation,

interviews, key informants, group meetings, document collection, and structured surveys

were all methods used in this study.

The implementation process of the biogas and improved cook stove project in

Chhaling is described in Chapter Eight. The process is compared to the propositional

components of a renewable energy development project developed for this study using

the indicators defined in Chapter Six. The resulting successes and failures of

implementation component management are discussed and a simple chart presents the

results for each propositional component. It highlights the areas in need of attention by

project managers.

The final outcomes and analysis of the biogas and improved cook stove project

for this case study are given in the conclusions and recommendations in Chapter Nine.

Relevant to the project managers in Chhaling and renewable energy projects in Nepal, the

main issues of the project are reviewed and innovations proposed for success in the

future.

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CHAPTER 2: NEPAL

Development and conservation project implementers must consider both the

technical and contextual aspects of the project. Each region of the world, country, zone,

and village has unique circumstances in terms of politics, geography, climate, society,

religion, and economics. Development workers and project managers must conduct their

work under these circumstances. Successful implementation requires they understand

and work within these contexts.

When I moved from training to my site in a different region of the country, I had

to learn the situational differences specific to the region and the village. The importance

of religion in the people’s daily life was paramount. They prioritized its practice over all

other activities. The only way I was to truly understand this was to actively participate in

village life and be accepted as a community and family member.

Tihar is an annual Hindu festival in Chhaling and all of Nepal. It has five days of

worship culminating in “bhai tika” or the worship of brothers by sisters on the fifth day.

Sisters give tika, a type of Hindu blessing, to protect their brothers from Yama, the death

god. Leading up to this day, groups travel around the village in a manner similar to

Halloween. The first day, older girls and women will sing and dance, praising the

generosity of the household they are visiting. The next day, boys and men take their turn

in performing for the villagers. In return they are given rice grains, treats, and money. I

was able to meet many villagers and learn the different village areas by participating on

this day (Figure 2.1). At the end of the week, when tikas were given and received, I was

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Figure 2.1: Social context must be learned for successful project implementation

included in the ceremony (Figure 2.1). My family said I would have to return each year

for Tihar because I had become an “official” member of the family. By actively

participating and being accepted into village life, I learned the social context specific to

this village in Nepal. Only by working within this context, from the national to the

household levels, could I be successful in implementing development projects and

trainings.

The overall circumstances of Nepal’s government, physiography, and economy

are described in the general background. Geography and climate are responsible for the

physiographic divisions and zones of Nepal’s diverse terrain. The situation causing

forest degradation in the mid-hills, the physiographic zone of this study, is pertinent. It

reveals why community forest user groups (CFUGs) and conservation projects are

needed. A background of the life of Nepali people is needed to understand the social

context. The practice of Hinduism and how it shapes the social structure in terms of

gender and caste is the main social context in which project implementers must work.

Because of women’s lower status in Nepal, development workers prioritize their

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empowerment. The context in which women live in Nepal today has been impacted by

the strides made by these programs. Instability and uncertainty describe the history and

current politics of Nepal. This situation affects development and the livelihood of the

people. Foreign aid has been used to compensate for the resource deficiencies in Nepal,

yet Nepali people still live in poverty. Development aid and programs must be managed

properly within the context of Nepali society.

General Background

The Kingdom of Nepal is a landlocked country located in South Asia between 26°

22' N and 30° 27' N and 80° 4' E and 88° 12' E (Figure 2.2). It is surrounded by India on

its south, west, and east sides and by (the Tibetan Autonomous Region of) China on its

north side. Nepal has an area of 147,181 square kilometers, slightly larger than the size

of Arkansas (CBS 2004). Elevations range from 70 meters in the Terai or Gangaitic

River Plain in the south to 8850 meters at the peak of Mount Everest, on the northern

border with China. Including Mount Everest, named Sagarmartha in Nepali language,

eight of the ten highest peaks of the world are located here (CIA 2005). The country is

roughly divided into three broad physiographic regions based on the altitude of the

terrain: high mountains, central or mid-hills, and Terai plains (CIA 2005, Savada 1993)

(Figure 2.3). Of all land owned privately, 94.11% is agricultural (CBS 2001).

Politically, Nepal is divided into five development regions: Eastern, Central,

Western, Mid Western and Far Western (Figure 2.3). The development regions are

further divided into fourteen zones and 75 districts. Each district is divided into village

9

Figure 2.2: Map of Nepal in Asia (University of Texas Libraries 2005)

NEPAL

10

Figure 2.3: Map of major administrative and topographical regions of Nepal (after Chapagain et al 2002)

11

development committees (VDC) and municipalities. VDCs are subdivided into nine

wards and municipalities are subdivided into nine to 35 wards depending upon population

density (CBS 2004, Chapagain et al 2002). Each development region has its own

headquarters; Dhankuta, Kathmandu, Pokhara, Birendranagar, and Dipayal are the

headquarters from east to west (Figure 2.3, page 10). The city of Kathmandu is also the

district headquarters and capital of Nepal. It is located in the central region within

Kathmandu Valley. The country is considered a parliamentary democracy and a

constitutional monarchy, but constant changes in government and royal rule have

prevented elections and stability. There have been about a dozen different governments

since 1990, a royal massacre in 2001, and royal takeovers in 2002 and 2005.

Governments have blamed an ongoing armed rebellion as the main obstacle in holding

elections (Sapkota 2003).

Nepal is one of the poorest and most undeveloped countries in the world with

42% of the people living below the poverty line in 1995-96. The unemployment rate was

47% in 2001. The economy of Nepal is dominated by agriculture, as the work of 81% of

the population is agricultural production and 40% of the gross domestic product is based

on it (CIA 2005). Life in the villages of Nepal is based on the crop production (60%),

livestock (30%) and forest products (10%). Therefore, people spend most of their time

either in the fields, in the forest, or with their farm animals. With such a high percentage

of people relying on agriculture and an annual per capita income of US$210 in 2000,

most people exist at a subsistence level (Manandhar 2002). Factors inhibiting economic

growth are the country’s remote and landlocked location, common natural disasters such

as landslides and floods, difficult mountain terrain, political instability including an

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ongoing Maoist insurgency, and the severe lack of skilled labor and modern technology

(CIA 2005).

Geography and Climate

The country has three distinct physiographic regions or zones based on elevation,

temperature, and rainfall (Figure 2.3, page 10). The Terai or hot flatlands are located in

the southern area of Nepal, the mid-hills are centrally located, and the remote high

mountain and Himalayas are located in northern Nepal to the border of China. Although

Nepal is located at sub-tropical latitudes, altitude and aspect have a great affect on

regional climate. With such great diversity of topography, micro-climatic conditions also

vary widely with respect to temperature and rainfall (Bain et al 2000). Climate can be

divided into three categories corresponding to the physiographic zones: tropical and

subtropical in the Terai, temperate in the mid-hills, and sub-alpine, alpine, and tundra or

arctic in the high mountains (Manandhar 2002).

There are differing opinions on the altitude ranges of the three zones. The Terai

(Figure 2.4) ranges from the lowest point of 70 meters (230 feet) to somewhere between

600 and 1000 meters (about 2000 to 3200 feet) where the mid-hills begin (Figure 2.3,

page 10). With an average elevation of 200 meters (about 650 feet), the Terai occupies

23% of the total land area of Nepal (Manandhar 2002, Savada 1993, Chapagain et al

2002). Most of the arable land of Nepal is also located here (about 56%), but before

1950 it was sparsely inhabited due to malaria. After the 1950s, when DDT spraying

began and major highway improvements were completed, many people migrated to the

Terai from the hills. In 2002, the Terai held 49% of the population of Nepal. With a

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Figure 2.4: River in Terai flatlands of Nepal

warm, humid tropical or sub-tropical climate year-round, temperatures exceed 40º

Celsius in the summer months of April and May (Manandhar 2002, Chapagain et al

2002). The Terai is known as the granary of Nepal because its flat terrain is good for

agriculture. Increasing demand for timber and land for farming has caused deforestation

(Savada 1993, Manandhar 2002).

The mid-hills zone occupies about 42% of the land area and holds 44% of the

population (Chapagain et al 2002). It includes a broad range of elevations from where

the Terai meets the hills to about 3000 to 4000 meters (about 10,000 feet to 13,000 feet)

where it intermingles with the rugged mountains of the Himalayas (Figure 2.3, page 10).

Two lower elevation mountain ranges are sometimes included in the mid-hills and

sometimes said to be part of the Terai because their climate is subtropical. The climate of

the mid-hills, therefore, varies based on elevation. It ranges from subtropical in the lower

hill areas to temperate in the upper regions. The hills and valleys of the mid-hills are the

political and cultural center of Nepal. Several mountain valleys, Kathmandu, Pokhara,

and Banepa, are densely settled, urbanized, and agriculturally productive (Manandhar

14

2002, Savada 1993). Humans have modified the surrounding hills for agriculture by

forming complex terracing systems (Figure 2.5). Although it accounts for approximately

Figure 2.5: The terraced mid-hills of Nepal

37% of the cultivated land in Nepal, the mid-hill region only has about ten percent arable

land (Chapagain et al 2002, Banskota and Sharma 1999).

The high mountains of the Himalayas, Figure 2.6, are a source of pride for Nepali

Figure 2.6: The high mountains and Himalayas

15

people. Occupying about 35% of the total land area of the country, the mountains are

also a source of income through the trekking and tourist industry. The elevation of this

physiographic zone ranges from about 3000 meters, characterized by sub-alpine or alpine

climate, to the height of Mount Everest at 8850 meters (29,035 feet), with a tundra and

arctic climate. The high mountains only contain about two percent of the arable land

(seven percent of the total cultivated) in Nepal. The snow line occurs between 4500 and

6000 meters and settlement is limited because of the rugged topography and harsh

climate. Only eight percent of the population of Nepal lives here (Chapagain et al 2002,

Banskota and Sharma 1999). The mountains act as a natural barrier between Nepal and

politically powerful China to the north. This barrier is important to India, Nepal’s other

powerful neighbor to the south. Nepal is seen as a strategic political buffer between India

and China and thus, India supports Nepal in its effort to keep the Chinese north of the

Himalayas (Karan and Jenkins 1963).

Forest Degradation of the Mid-Hills

Nepal is predominantly an agricultural society with over eighty percent of the

population dependent upon agriculture. Nepali people utilize the forest as an integral part

of their farming system and so its resources are necessary in maintaining their livelihood.

In general, the culture is respectful of preservation and practices have been sustainable.

However, the Forest Nationalization Act of 1957 placed control of the forests in

government hands, beginning massive exploitation as people felt they no longer had

control of the land (Gilmour et al 1992). In essence, the people were harvesting all they

could whenever they could because they did not know when they would have another

16

opportunity. Today, many communities have gained back the management of their

forests with Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) initiated by the National Forestry

Plan in 1976. The key community forestry policy was developed in 1988 in the Master

Plan for the Forestry Sector when the government realized the importance of the forest

resource in the mid-hills in maintaining the people’s livelihood (Gilmour et al 1992,

Winrock International 2002).

Traditional biomass resources are the major source of energy, accounting for 91%

of energy consumed. In 1997, fuelwood was the most important source of energy (81%)

followed by cow dung cakes (6%) (Figure 2.7), agricultural residues (4%), and petroleum

Figure 2.7: Cattle dung cakes drying in the sun

products (7%). Nepal’s rural economy supports low per capita energy consumption. The

problem is not the amount of consumption, but rather the reliance on one source for all

energy. Firewood is being consumed at an unsustainable rate while other renewable

energy resources remain virtually untapped (Banskota and Sharma 1999, WECS 1995

17

(a)). A decline in agricultural productivity due to soil erosion and loss of nutrients, as

well as population growth, has intensified the pressure on the forests. Higher demand for

food on less productive land results in conversion of forested land to farms (WECS 1995

(a)). The firewood deficit is increasing even with a decrease in national population

growth rate from 2.6% to 2.2%. Combined with ineffective forest management, the

extraction of fuelwood in excess of the sustainable supply is the primary factor leading to

the degradation of Nepal’s forests (WECS 1995 (b), CIA 2005). Unmet fuelwood

demand is being met by increased use of other biomass and petroleum products, as well

as the rapid depletion of forest resources. In 2002, firewood was still the leading energy

source (66%) followed by kerosene (13.5%), cow dung cakes (10%), and liquid propane

gas (7.6%) (Winrock International 2002). Therefore, population growth, timber

extraction, conversion of forests to farm land, overharvesting of firewood and fodder, and

overgrazing by livestock have all caused widespread degradation to the forests of Nepal

(Bhatt et al 1997).

Community forest user groups (CFUGs) have improved the forests they manage

in the mid-hills of Nepal. CFUGs with conservative operational plans limit the

harvesting of forest resources. This causes increased pressure on neighboring

government forests and common areas. Although the community and private forests

seem to be improving in terms of number of trees and age distribution, the overall annual

rate of deforestation for the mid-hill forests is still 2.3% (Winrock International 2002,

SACEP undated).

18

People of Nepal

The total population of Nepal as of July 2005 was 27,676,547 with an estimated

growth rate of 2.2%, approximately twice the world average (CIA 2005). As Nepal’s

terrain is diverse, so are its people (Acharya 1999, Manandhar 2002). Among the 102

identified castes or ethnic groups in the country, 76 different languages are spoken.

Nepali, the official language taught in public schools, is the mother tongue of 48.61% of

the population (CBS 2004). People who speak their own ethnic language and attend

school in Nepal are bilingual and many speak a third or fourth language such as Hindi or

English. Women are less educated and in rural areas may only speak their mother tongue

(Acharya 1999). Most of the castes and ethnic groups can be placed in one of the two

major categories of people: those of Tibeto-Burman descent, termed Tibeto-Nepali, and

those of Indo-Aryan descent, termed Indo-Nepali (Manandhar 2002, Hagen 1961,

Pokharel 2001). The latest arrivals to Nepal, Indo-Nepalis are the most populous and

dominate the country socially, politically, and economically (Savada 1993).

The literacy rate in Nepal was estimated at 45.2% in 2003 for the total population

over 15 years of age. Estimates for male and female literacy in 2003 were 62.7% and

27.6 % respectively (CIA 2005). These statistics are indicative of the status of women in

the country. Although enrollment has improved for girls at all levels of school, boys

have a higher enrollment. After primary school, the enrollment and attendance division

between boys and girls increases dramatically (ESCAP, United Nations 1996).

19

Religion

The people of Nepal take pride in being the world’s only Hindu state;

approximately 80 percent of the population considers themselves Hindu. About eleven

percent of the population is Buddhist (CBS 2004). Many Nepalese people mix these two

religions (Acharya 1999, Savada 1993). In general, the people of Nepal are tolerant and

open to all religions. Household shrines are worshipped daily with the Hindu practice of

lighting incense, ringing a bell, and placing tika, a mixture of vermilion powder and

water on the images (Figure 2.8). This tika mixture is then pressed on family members

forehead to bless them and “clear their minds.” Images of Jesus are also sometimes

included in household shrines. Islam, Christianity, Jain, Sikh, and other religions

distinctive to ethnic groups in Nepal are found throughout the country (CBS 2004).

Nepal’s calendar is lunar and religious festivals often coincide with agricultural

life. “There are as many festivals as there are days in the year” is a popular saying

because different religions, ethnic groups, and villages all have their own festivals

Figure 2.8: Household shrine for Hindu gods

20

(Manandhar 2002). Although there are many important Hindu festivals, Dasain and

Tihar bring the country to a halt each year for about a month in total. Family is

especially important in both of these festivals and people will travel long distances to be

with their families during this time of the year. Married women are sent to their natal

families for Tihar. Dasain lasts ten days near the end of October and celebrates the

goddess Durga’s triumph over evil. The male head of the family buys clothes and gives

tika (this time rice and yogurt are mixed with vermilion powder) to all family members.

Dasain ends with a feast including the meat of a sacrificed goat. Extended family

members visit the houses of nearby relatives over the next few days to receive tika. The

five-day festival of Tihar is in the beginning of November. The goddess Laxmi is

important as the protector of the soul on its way to heaven and is worshipped on the third

day of this festival. Tika is given to her incarnation, the cow, households are cleaned, and

tiny oil lamps are lit to invite the goddess into their houses at nightfall (Figure 2.9).

Often the time between the Dasain and Tihar festivals is not productive for development

Figure 2.9: Worshipping the cow as an incarnation of the Hindu goddess Laxmi

21

projects, as many people take holidays throughout this time for travel to distant homes.

Farmers start to harvest the rice crop either between Dasain and Tihar or just after Tihar

depending on weather conditions. All other activities cease during this period of festivals

and high agricultural labor requirements.

The Caste System and Gender

Nepal’s social class system is based on the religious caste system of Hinduism.

Although, the government has officially abolished laws based on caste distinctions, it is

still the main social structure and framework in which people relate to one another in

Nepal. This is especially true in the rural villages. Castes are arranged in a hierarchy

based on levels of purity and pollution of people or objects (Bennett 1983, Cameron

1998, Miller 2000). Three main levels are seen in the hierarchal caste system (Caplan

2000). Food and water consumption practices display the divisions between the three

caste levels (Miller 2000). Traditionally priests or scholars, the Bahun or Brahmin caste,

and the original warrior caste, Kshatriya or Chhetri, form the upper caste group. Both

castes wear the sacred Hindu thread. The Vaisaya form a middle caste of merchants and

traders lower than Brahmin and Chhetri, but “touchable” by these upper castes. A

number of lower untouchable castes are the Sudra (Savada 1993). A person’s last name

reflects their status in the caste hierarchy. The upper and touchable classes are

considered the “clean” castes. Based on their traditional occupations handling materials

deemed impure by Hindus, such as leather, the lower untouchables are deemed “unclean”

castes. Clean castes will only eat or drink water from other clean castes, never from an

22

unclean caste. Because food and water are kept inside the homes, the unclean are also

barred from entry into the homes of the clean castes (Figure 2.10). Women in general are

Figure 2.10: This low caste tailor cannot enter the home of the people for whom she works

also seen as having “bodily impurity” temporarily each month during menstruation. At

this time they are not allowed into the kitchen and other regulations include not touching

or being touched by others, especially men, not allowing something they have touched to

touch a clean person, especially a man, and eating separately from the family (Cameron

1998).

The upper castes of Nepal are generally orthodox Hindus and strictly abide by

social constraints based on religion and culture. Of all castes, the Brahmins are the most

rigid and caste or status conscious. People of this caste are also the most educated and

hold most of the government and teaching jobs (Acharya 1999, Miller 2000). The clean

lower castes follow the example of the upper castes. Religion is used to justify the

gender and caste restrictions protecting the power of the men and the upper castes in the

23

community. People follow the social rules because disobedience of them is punishable

by the gods (Cameron 1998). Upper castes prefer the birth of sons and are sad or even

fearful with the birth of a daughter. In their eyes, a son will inherit their land and high-

caste honor, while a daughter will have a difficult life. She has to deal with

untrustworthy men whose actions towards her may threaten her honor and the honor of

her paternal line. Lower castes attitudes contrast this because they have no land or

“high–caste honor” to give to their sons. Although a son is still important to take care of

them in old age, they also welcome the birth of daughters (Cameron 1998).

Traditional laws afforded limited rights to women and lower castes and this lower

status still continues. For example, until recently women have had no rights to property

inheritance and even today a women must have a father or husband’s verification to gain

citizenship. Men have had birthrights to both of these (Tamrakar undated (a)). Women

lose any rights to paternal inheritance after they marry (Pokharel 2001). Economically,

lower caste households are dependent on upper caste households for work (Cameron

1998). Uneducated women and lower castes are not aware of modern changes in the law.

Conservative and restrictive attitudes are slowly changing, especially in urban

areas. In rural villages, the traditional norms are still in place today. National policy now

requires women’s representation in village political offices and CFUG groups. Village

men are sometimes supportive of women’s participation. However, it is not clear if this

is because of the requirement, because it means the men have less responsibility, or

because the men really believe in the changes (Acharya 1999).

24

Women’s Empowerment

Women in Nepal, like other economically poor countries, are considered second-

class citizens. They are less educated, have a double role as laborers and caretakers, have

fewer work options, and are paid much less – many times half the amount – men are paid

for the same work (Birdsall 1983, Shakti 1995). In Nepal, as in other patriarchal systems,

women do most of the agricultural work on land owned by men (Sachs 1996, Shakti

1995). Shakti (1995) concluded women had achieved greater social mobility, higher

literacy rates, and more awareness of legal rights and politics in the decade preceding

1993. Yet, Nepali women were and still are limited to the traditional social roles and

second-class status in the country. They rely on men for their own social status and even

educated professional women will choose to stay home after marriage in this conservative

patriarchal society. Women’s participation in politics and knowledge of laws, rights, and

legal process are extremely low. In village areas, people follow gender biased

“customary laws” rather than national civil codes that protect human rights. Women’s

status is dependent on the patrilineal line of her father and husband, as well as her

procreation of sons for the male lineage (Shakti 1995).

Women’s empowerment is a major part of international and national development

programs in Nepal with activities in literacy, health and HIV/AIDS education, family

planning and childcare, income generation trainings, legal aid, and agricultural extension

and technology to increase the standard of living (Luitel 1992). Literacy classes are

especially empowering because the subject matter of the lessons teaches them life skills

to improve their own and their families’ lives. The women come out of the classes

knowing how to sign their own name and read basic words and will understand more

25

about nutrition, childcare, and the need for sanitation. Signing one’s name is prestigious;

otherwise, a person must leave a thumbprint, a sign of ignorance. Women are known by

their relationships to men such as “Mahesh’s mother” or “Deepak’s wife” and not by

their own name. Signing their name gives them an identity of their own.

Skills trainings, literacy classes, and other NGO activities bring women out of the

home and into the public arena. Based on new experiences and opportunities, the women

become more confident and skillful than when they were only involved in their

immediate neighborhood and family. Improved facilities in the home and on the farm

such as electricity, access to alternative energy other than firewood, and improved water

availability allow more time for other activities (Acharya 1999). Women may be able to

choose less physically demanding tasks than before (Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994,

Opdam 1997).

Financial cooperatives targeting women have been attempted, such as the

Production Credit for Rural Women (PCRW). Improvements for women have been

made in social mobilization (Figure 2.11), but not in decision-making or financial control

Figure 2.11: Women’s social mobilization increases by attending village meetings

26

because the male counterparts of the women members were the ones actually receiving

the credit (Pokharel 2001). Although, achievements have been made towards equality,

there is still much work to be done for women’s empowerment. In Nepal, education of

both men and women in gender issues is necessary, as well as improved economic

stability, health, and literacy for all.

History of Nepal

“It is said that Nepal has had as many kings as it has hilltops.” The rugged terrain

with high mountains, deep valleys, and raging rivers caused the development of small

kingdoms and settlements in the area now called Nepal. In the 17th and 18th centuries

many groups battled over territory (Manandhar 2002). At this time, Kathmandu Valley

was divided into three kingdoms, Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur. In 1769, Prithvi

Narayan Shah, the ruler of the Gorkha Kingdom in western Nepal seized all of

Kathmandu Valley and soon after conquered what is now eastern and northern Nepal.

This accomplishment created the world’s only Hindu state and was important in

preventing potential invasions by the British East India Company, then a political power

in India, and the Ch’ing dynasty in China (Sattaur 1996, Karan and Jenkins 1963, Rose

and Scholz 1980, Manandhar 2002). Nepal lost some of its territory to the British in the

Anglo-Nepali War of 1814-1815, but a portion of the land was returned in 1858 when the

Gorkha soldiers gave aid to the British in India (Karan and Jenkins 1963). Nepal was left

a sovereign state (Rose and Scholz 1980).

The Shah dynasty stayed in power until 1846, when a royal court massacre

occurred (Sattaur 1996, Rose and Scholz 1980). Jang Bahadur Rana took control of both

27

domestic and external affairs as prime minister. The Ranas controlled the royal family

and inter-married with them, establishing a hereditary line of Rana prime ministers. The

king was only a puppet; the Ranas secured themselves as rulers of Nepal (Sattaur 1996).

The Ranas were authoritarian and exploitive; the nobility’s wealth increased and the

masses starved (Rose and Scholz 1980, Karan and Jenkins 1963). They rejected

industrialization and maintained the “isolationist economic policy” to limit Indian and

British influence in trade and politics (Rose and Scholz 1980, Manandhar 2002).

Relations improved with the British under Rana rule and the Ranas offered Gorkha

soldiers for service in the British army.

After World War II, the British withdrew from India and the Rana regime lost an

important supporter in the region. Shortly after the invasion of Tibet by the Chinese in

1950, the Indian government aided King Tribhuvan in his escape from Nepal. The newly

formed Nepali Congress party, the King, and Prime Minister Mohun Shamsher Rana

negotiated and a new government was formed, each faction with a share of power

(Sattaur 1999, Rose and Scholz 1980). In 1951, King Tribhuvan proclaimed a

constitutional monarchy and Rana resigned (Karan and Jenkins 1963).

King Mahendra ascended the throne after the death of his father in 1955. He

formed a new democratic constitution and installed an election system in 1959 that failed

nineteen months later. In its place a “Party-less Panchayat Democracy” was formed.

This system was intended to bring power to the people. They would elect their own

village representatives who would in turn elect higher and higher levels up to the

“Rastriya” or National Assembly where the King had control. However, a traditional

power elite was entrenched in village politics and they stayed in power (Sattaur 1996).

28

King Birendra took control after his father died in 1972. College educated in

more than one country and a reputed liberal, the people of Nepal expected change from

him. Violent confrontations occurred between pro-democracy demonstrators and police

from 1979 to 1989 as the situation became more and more tense. On April 15, 1990, the

King lifted the ban on political parties (Sattaur 1996), supported the creation of a new

constitution, and initiated national elections for a multiparty system in 1991. It did not

last and in the twelve years following the creation of the new constitutional monarchy,

the government has changed a dozen times (Gersony 2003, Manandhar 2002).

During this time, in 1996, the United People’s Front (UPF) party, presently the

Communist Party of Nepal (CPN-Maoist), declared a revolt and began an armed struggle

in Nepal’s mid-western development region to “overthrow the feudal system and

establish a rule of the proletariat in the country.” Since 2000, their armed resistance has

become a major national problem. The government blames the “Maoist problem” for its

failure to maintain elections. Peace talks have failed and successive Nepali governments

have used the military to control the conflict. By 2001, thousands of Nepali people had

been killed and a state of emergency was called (Sapkota 2003, Gersony 2003).

King Birendra was murdered along with the rest of his immediate family and

other extended members in a royal massacre allegedly committed by his own son on June

1, 2001. The King and Queen opposed the Crown Prince’s choice in marriage and

threatened to remove him from the royal lineage to the throne. They would also end his

living allowance if he married the woman. After he murdered his family, he then fatally

wounded himself. King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra, became King of Nepal on June

4, 2001 and reigns today (Gregson 2002).

29

Current Political Situation

The Maoist rebel insurgency began in 1996 in the Midwest Roepa district and has

added instability to a country with an already capricious and corrupt political system

(Sapkota 2003). The Maoists call their fight the People’s Movement or the People’s War.

Originally a faction of the Community Party of Nepal (United Centre), the Communist

Party of Nepal (Maoist) split off because of disillusionment with the widespread

corruption and failure of the national government in delivering the material benefits of

democracy to the people (Gersony 2003). Civil unrest in the name of people’s rights is

not new in Nepal. In 1949, the Nepali Congress Party fought for the creation of a

democratic state by denouncing the Rana oligarchy. In 1960, the same party rebelled

against the King’s suspension of democracy (Sapkota 2003). In late 1989 and 1990,

hundreds of thousands took to the streets demanding political reforms. These protests

ended in violent and deadly confrontations with police (Sattaur 1996). Today, the

political parties hold demonstrations and rallies in protest of the current government and

King’s actions (Figure 2.12).

Figure 2.12: Political protesters prepare for a rally in a busy Kathmandu area

30

The guerilla tactics of the Maoists have targeted police and army personnel and

they have assassinated members of different political parties. They have looted banks,

bombed government buildings, and disrupted or blocked transportation. Their original

philosophy seemed to be one of intimidation. The Maoists are known to warn the

workers of buildings fifteen minutes before they detonate a bomb. They wanted to attack

the system, not the people. The rebels received much support in the beginning; especially

from rural villagers who saw the system they attacked as corrupt and sinful. Their

support seems to be waning, as the Maoists and the Nepali army have become

increasingly violent. Human rights activists have criticized both sides for their inhumane

treatment to prisoners of war and both have kidnapped or killed innocent people. An

estimated 12,000 people have died since 1996 (Sharma 2005).

One of the favorite tactics used by the Maoists are bhands or strikes. These

strikes take the form of traffic or shop closures, but the most harmful to Nepal’s economy

and society is the national strike. When the Maoist announce these national strikes, the

entire country is completely shut down and the government is forced to see the power the

rebels hold. Villagers joke about Nepal being “closed” today when a strike occurs. It is

not humorous when a person needs to be taken to the hospital and there is no way to get

them there. The Maoists use the extortion of villagers, large landowners, business

owners, and tourists to fund their movement. Tourists boast about their run-ins with

Maoists on certain trekking trails as a “highlight of their trip.” Trekkers pay

approximately US$15 for passage through Maoist territory and the rebel gives the tourist

a little something for a scrapbook - a receipt!

31

In November 2002, the King dismissed Prime Minister Deuba and took control of

the government. He appointed a new prime minister, but Deuba was again appointed the

head of an interim government in 2004. The main goal of this government was to set up

elections for a new national government. During this time, in August 2004 and following

a weeklong Maoist blockade of vehicular traffic and supplies to Kathmandu, nine Nepali

hostages were murdered in Iraq. The people of the country were overwhelmed with grief

and anger at the apathy of their government. Indian hostages had been saved by

negotiations between the Iraqi captors and the Indian government. Nepalis believed their

government had done nothing to save their brothers and once again, all over the country,

people took to the streets, enraged at the government, Muslims, and the labor agencies

which sent the men abroad. Muslim businesses and the labor agencies were attacked,

looted, and destroyed. The main mosque in Kathmandu was also attacked. The

government set curfews in different cities for a week until the bodies were returned and

the people relaxed. Caught away from home, many people were detained until the

curfews were gradually reduced to a few hours in the morning and evening. The public

was being weaned back to normal life.

In a few weeks, everything returned to normal in Nepal. This changed for foreign

aid agencies on the evening of September 10, 2004. A small pressure cooker type bomb,

typical of the people’s war, was thrown over the fence of the American Center, an

education facility associated with the United States Embassy. This bombing caused

Peace Corps to be evacuated from the country. They left Nepal on September 17, 2004,

as other international aid organizations also re-evaluated, reduced, or cancelled their

programs in Nepal.

32

In February 2005, the King once again dismissed the prime minister and many

other government officers. He placed officials under arrest, declared a state of

emergency, and took over direct power in Nepal. Basic civil rights, such as freedom of

speech and freedom of the press, are now limited in Nepal. The King cited the “Maoist

problem,” and the failure of the parliament to hold national elections. The People’s War

continues in Nepal, hindering aid, development, and the formation of a constitutional

government with national elections. Presently, a one-sided cease-fire is in effect.

Declared by the Maoists on September 3, 2005, the cease-fire is to last three months,

especially set for safe travel during the Dasain and Tihar holidays. The government and

army have not reciprocated. In October 2005, the King declared national elections to be

held by April 2007. However, restrictions on the freedom of the press will hinder the

election process (Kantipur Online 2005). Also hindering the process is the political

parties’ views of this declaration. They believe the King is trying to justify his takeover

in February 2005 with the announcement of an election. A party spokesman feels the

King’s move is a ploy to get the parties to support his autocratic rule because he knows

the current insecurity in the country will bring ultimate failure to the election attempt

(Sangraula 2005).

Development is difficult at best under the current political situation in Nepal.

Although there are people who will continue to work in the aid sector, many aid

organizations have cancelled, suspended, or cut aid based on the Maoists and the King’s

actions. It is difficult to move around the country because of the unpredictable blockades

and assaults on vehicles. To bring materials or work in an area under Maoist control, aid

workers must gain permission from or pay a “tax” to the rebels. Nepali government

33

officials ban metal and other materials, which can be used to make bombs, from being

carried into Maoist areas. Blockades and bhands cause sharp price increases in market

goods needed for projects and infrastructure building, especially in the mid-hills and

Kathmandu Valley. Projects are then delayed or much more expensive than planned. In

this way, the Maoists prove their power. Constant shifts in government leaders and the

King’s unconstitutional seize of power in February 2005 make it challenging for aid

organizations to provide stable and consistent assistance to the people of Nepal.

Foreign Aid in Nepal

Although foreign aid has been an integral part of the Nepali economy since the

1950s, poverty has not been significantly reduced (Acharya 2004). Today, 81% of the

people in Nepal still live on less than US$2 per day (Population Reference Bureau 2005).

Poverty in urban areas has grown due to high migration of people from rural areas to

cities in search of jobs and to escape the armed conflicts between Maoists and the

military. Based on the social system of Nepal, women and low castes are last to receive

the benefits of development in Nepal.

In addition to monetary aid, there are innumerable community development

programs initiated by aid and development organizations. Many of these organizations

work directly with or provide funding to line agencies of His Majesty’s Government of

Nepal, whose goal is to alleviate widespread poverty (Acharya 2004). Projects focus on

many different issues such as improving health, income generation, small business

enhancement, education and literacy, women’s empowerment, and natural resource

management. Aid agencies include the United Nations Development Programme

34

(UNDP), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Asian

Development Bank (ADB), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Care/ Nepal,

the Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV), the World Conservation Union

(IUCN), International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), the

World Wildlife Federation (WWF), the United States Peace Corps, Winrock

International, and many other international and local NGOs.

The Nepali government has become dependent upon foreign aid. All new

development activities require aid because increased regular spending in the government

budgets leaves no resources for these activities. Economic corruption is rampant and

there is no systematic recording of the monetary assistance entering the country. Foreign

aid management has been ineffective, resulting in a situation where the majority of the

people in Nepal still lack access to basic needs, including health and education services

(Acharya 2004)

In each decade of the past 50 years, the amount of aid has tripled. As well,

development activities have become increasingly dependent upon foreign aid. Aid

composition is changing to fewer grants and more loans to the government creating a

larger future burden on the country. Foreign aid is used increasingly to finance

government activities. Presently, foreign aid is even budgeted to manage records of

foreign aid! Political instability, corruption, and poor management have led to problems

with disbursement of funds. In Nepal, foreign aid has been utilized by the traditional

power structures present to maintain their position (Acharya 2004).

When used correctly foreign aid can increase infrastructure and initiate social

change. Its proper use and management is necessary to create these changes (Acharya

35

2004). Development programs utilizing foreign aid must also utilize local funds or

resources to increase local participation and commitment (Gow and VanSant 1981,

Esman and Uphoff 1984). This is true on both local and national levels. Foreign

program managers must understand the social context of Nepali culture and be committed

to long-term goals.

36

CHAPTER 3: BIOGAS AND IMPROVED COOK STOVES IN NEPAL

Foreign aid organizations conduct projects to improve the quality of life and the

conservation of resources in Nepal. Energy consumption and sustainable energy

resources are the focus of programs by the International Centre for Mountain

Development (ICIMOD), the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA),

Winrock International, The Netherlands Aid Organization (SNV), the United States

Peace Corps, the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and many other development

organizations. The focus is sustainable use of traditional biomass fuels and the creation

of decentralized systems of renewable energy technology dissemination (Shrestha et al

2003). The technical aspects of the project must be understood at least on a basic level

by the project implementers.

Present Situation of Energy Consumption in Nepal

Traditional biomass fuels are the main source of energy for the people of Nepal.

Imported fossil fuels are expensive and no reserves have been discovered in the country

(Shrestha et al 2003, Banskota and Sharma 1999, Rijal 1998). When people cannot meet

their energy demands with fuelwood, they turn to other “free” biomass fuels such as dung

cakes and agricultural residues. The costs of using biomass fuels are the collection labor

and the nutrient diversion from soils (Amatya and Shrestha 1998, Rijal 1999). Wealthier

farmers purchase biomass products or imported petroleum products such as kerosene and

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) (Rijal 1999). The development of energy resources is

necessary so Nepali people can meet their basic needs such as cooking and heating.

Reduction of human drudgery, specifically for women, the prime collectors of energy in

37

Nepal; increased economic productivity; and reduction of environmental impacts are also

supported by the development of sustainable energy resources (Rijal 1998, WECS 1995

(c)).

Areas with low-density populations scattered on hillsides and in small villages

require a decentralized energy supply system. Many renewable energy technologies are

provided in this type of system (Shrestha et al 2003). Renewable energy technologies,

termed alternative energy technologies (AET) in Nepal, use local energy resources other

than commercial petroleum products in non-traditional ways. As well as the factors

supported by developing sustainable energy resources, renewable energies are also

cleaner than burning biomass fuels. The main sources of alternative energy are the sun,

water, biomass energy, and air. The alternative technologies most important in Nepal are

micro-hydro, biogas, solar energy, wind energy and improved cook stoves (WECS 1995

(c), Rijal 1998).

Widespread use of renewable energy technologies can help combat forest

degradation in the mid hills of Nepal by reducing pressure on forest resources. While

work can be done to increase the supply of firewood, renewable energy technologies will

also decrease demand. Biogas and improved cook stoves are the two technologies most

applicable to forest conservation and meeting the needs of the villagers of the central

hills. Improved cook stoves are the most basic alternative technology. Using the same

materials as traditional woodstoves and installed by local villagers, iron rods are the only

additional material needed to support the structure of improved cook stoves. Biogas

technology requires more material, financial, and technical input than improved cook

38

stoves. However, the benefits to the family and environment are also greater than

improved cook stoves.

Traditional and Improved Cook Stoves

The traditional stove in Nepal, called a chulo, is an open fire for one pot. Inside

the home, biomass fuels such as firewood, straw and dung cakes are placed in a front

opening of hardened mud used to hold the pot in place (Figure 3.1). The shape and size

Figure 3.1: Traditional stove with open fire used to brew alcohol

of the mud frame depends on the size of the pots used to cook. The traditional model is

inefficient and unhealthy. Only one part of the meal can be cooked at a time, energy

from the fire is lost to the air, and all the smoke is released inside the home. The burning

of biomass fuels produces air pollutants such as particulates, carbon monoxide, and

volatile hydrocarbons, all of which can cause respiratory illness (Dutt and Ravindranath

1993).

39

Improved cook stoves in Nepal follow a design that allows for two or more dishes

to be cooked at once, uses the fire energy more efficiently, and includes a chimney to

direct the smoke outside. In the typical two cook-hole stove, firewood is placed at an

opening of a rectangular chamber (Figure 3.2). The chamber and chimney are designed

Figure 3.2: Typical two cook-hole mud improved cook stove

to create a wind tunnel. The first pothole of the chamber is placed directly over the fire

opening. It receives more heat and is larger than the second cook-hole, placed between

the first cook-hole and the chimney. Inside the chamber, a “baffle” or raised floor is

placed 1.5 inches under the center of the second cook-hole with a side angle of about 60º

from the floor under the first hole (Figure 3.3). The chimney effectively draws the fire

through the chamber because hot gases rise. The baffle slows the fire’s heat so it stays

longer and closer to the pot in the second cook-hole. Pots covering both cook-holes close

the system. The hot gases and smoke flow out of the chimney and leave a cleaner and

healthier environment for the women and their children cooking in the kitchen

(Borthwick and Howard 1988).

40

Figure 3.3: Inside a two cook-hole mud improved cook stove

The dissemination of improved cook stoves has been slow because of complicated

or faulty designs. Ceramic pre-made insert stoves were widely distributed, but villagers

found them slow cooking and inefficient for the needs of their large families (Borthwick

and Howard 1988, WECS 1995 (c)). The Centre for Rural Technology, Nepal (CRT/

Nepal) develops and promotes appropriate rural technology. They are a major

implementer of improved cook stoves through His Majesty’s Government Alternative

Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) and the Energy Sector Assistance Program (ESAP)

supported by DANIDA. The Centre for Rural Technology also facilitates trainings for

network member NGOs to establish collaboration between groups and to gain support for

improved cook stoves in villages (CRT/N 2005).

There are many designs of improved cook stoves. Pre-made ceramic or metal

designs must be carried into the village and are constructed from external materials. The

common two cook-hole mud design relies on local materials and is the cheapest option

41

costing approximately 300 to 400 Nepali Rupees (US$4.30 to $5.70) depending on labor

cost. Sun-dried mud bricks are used to construct the chamber and chimney (Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4: Bricks for four improved cook stoves drying in the sun

The bricks for the chimney are made with a square key with a hole. The bricks must dry

in the sun for three or four days and then the improved cook stove can be built in a few

hours (Figure 3.5A and B). Although training is needed to understand the correct

dimensions, the baffle, and how to use the improved cook stove correctly, any villager

can construct this improved cook stove. Typically, training begins with a day of outside

instruction with a demonstration cook stove. The next day the trainees work together to

construct their own practice stoves outside where the instructor can monitor and assist.

On the final day, the trainees build stoves inside villagers’ homes intended for use by the

owners. A pre-training visit to a household with an improved cook stove to learn how to

cook on it may also be included.

42

Figure 3.5A: Building an improved cook stove

Figure 3.5B: Building an improved cook stove

43

Biogas Technology

Biogas technology is based on the fermentation or anaerobic digestion of cattle

manure or other organic materials. The microbes release a mixture of 60-70% methane,

30-40% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases. In developing countries, the

methane is harnessed and used for cooking and lighting purposes (Figure 3.6) (Devkota

Figure 3.6: Methane flame from biogas plant (Used by permission of BSP–Nepal, 2005)

2001, Karki et al 2003, Fulford undated, SNV and BSP-Nepal 2004, BSP-Nepal 2003 (a),

Winrock International et al 2005, Stuckey 1983, Wolfe 1983, Ke-yun et al 1988, De

Renzo, 1977, Stafford et al 1980). Countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America have

installed biogas. Nepal’s nearest neighbors, India and China, both have successful biogas

programs. Different designs of biogas plants have been researched and used such as a

floating steel drum originally used in India, a fixed concrete dome from China, and a

44

plastic bag biodigester design. Variations of the concrete dome are the designs presently

used in India, China, and Nepal (Devkota 2001). The design in Nepal includes an inlet to

add and mix equal amounts of cattle dung and water (Figure 3.7). The mixture falls

Figure 3.7: General biogas plant design, GGC Model 2047 (Used by permission of BSP –Nepal, 2004)

through a pipe into the digester topped with a concrete dome. The solution ferments and

releases the gases, which rise and are released out a pipe located at the peak of the dome.

The remaining biogas slurry or muck in the digester flows into the outlet tank. High in

nutrients, it can be composted and used as a fertilizer in agricultural fields. The Gobar

Gas Company perfected the fixed dome with “GGC Model 2047” (Figure 3.7) for sizes

45

four, six, eight, ten, fifteen, and twenty cubic meters feasible for use up to 2100 meters

(6900 feet) in altitude (BSP-Nepal 2004).

Biogas replaces biomass and fossil fuels used for cooking and lighting. It can

also be used to power internal combustion engines (Devkota 2001). Indoor air pollution

from burning biomass fuels is a major cause of acute respiratory infections in Nepal.

Biogas reduces this health risk in the homes it is installed (SNV and BSP-Nepal 2004,

Devkota 2001). Calculations have shown each installed biogas plant saves 4.7 tons of

carbon dioxide emissions per year (SNV 2004). Improved household facilities, such as

biogas, allow more time for other activities (Acharya 1999). Because firewood is not

needed for the system, it reduces the workload of the major collectors, women and

children. Women may not necessarily have less work because the time freed will be used

for other things. However, they may be able to decide what work to perform and choose

work that is not as physically demanding (Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994, Opdam

1997). Toilets can be attached to the biogas plant improving household sanitation and

safely increasing gas production. Biogas plants with attached toilets have been found to

have the same number of pathogens in the resulting slurry as biogas plants fed only with

cattle manure (BSP-Nepal 2005, East Consult 2003). In Rwanda, Africa, five prisons are

using giant biogas plants (1000 cubic meters) fed with the 50,000 liters of raw sewage

from each prison per day. The prisoner’s food is cooked over the methane gas and the

slurry fertilizes gardens of fruits and vegetables (KIST 2005)

Conservation of forest resources is also an effect of reduced firewood

consumption. In 2003, each household in Nepal saved 3 tons of firewood annually

totaling 334,000 tons saved in the nation (SNV and BSP-Nepal 2004). Agricultural

46

residues and dung cakes are also saved with the use of biogas. The “slurry” or sludge

byproduct of biogas is higher in nutrients than the traditional farmyard manure used as

fertilizer by Nepali farmers. When the composted slurry is placed on fields, it can

increase agricultural production and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers.

Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (BSP-Nepal)

In Nepal, Father B.R. Sauboll, a Belgian teacher at Godavari St Xavier’s School,

first demonstrated biogas in 1955. In 1975/76, the designated agricultural year, the

Nepali government installed about 250 to 300 biogas plants and in 1977 the Gobar Gas

Company or GGC was formed as a collaboration of the Agricultural Development Bank

of Nepal (ADB/N), the Fuel Corporation of Nepal, and the United Mission to Nepal

(UMN). The company had installed 6615 plants by 1990/91. After the 1990

establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the Netherlands Development Organisation

(SNV) formed the Biogas Support Program (BSP) (Silwal 1999, Devkota 2001).

The long term objectives of SNV/ BSP were to reduce the use of firewood and

dung cakes to decrease environmental degradation, to improve the health and sanitary

conditions of rural people, reduce the time spent collecting biomass fuels for villagers,

and increase agricultural production by the use of nutrient rich slurry (Silwal 1999). This

program has become the leader of the biogas program in Nepal, working closely with His

Majesty’s Government Alternative Energy Promotion Center (AEPC), international aid

organizations, national NGOs, private biogas companies, and villagers of Nepal.

As of 2003, the Biogas Support Program is in its fourth phase. One goal of phase

four is the strengthening of the BSP institution. In July 2003, SNV/ Biogas Support

47

Program (BSP) was transformed to Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (BSP-Nepal) a legal

entity of its own (BSP-Nepal 2004, SNV and BSP-Nepal 2004). By June 2009, financial

support by SNV will be phased out after providing funding for another 200,000 biogas

plants (BSP-Nepal 2003 (b)). In 2004, Twenty thousand plants were planned for

installation, but only 12,000 were built because security problems in villages and

increases in the prices of cement and iron rods. As of December 2003, there had been

111,399 biogas plants installed. The total installed by 45 different private biogas

companies by the end of 2004 was 123,399. BSP-Nepal performs quality control on five

percent of the plants installed each year and places a quality rating on each company

from ‘A’ (excellent) through ‘E’ (poor). The performance indicators are production,

average feeding rates, average defaults, average penalty points, accuracy and quality of

maintenance, and maintenance progress. In 2004, 78.2% of the companies were given

either ‘A’ or ‘B’ ratings. New applications were accepted to total 57 companies

monitored by this NGO. BSP-Nepal also focuses on promotional activities, research and

design, training, slurry extension, gender mainstreaming, carbon credit arrangements, and

subsidy administration (BSP-Nepal 2005).

Promotional activities are conducted using radio, television, exhibitions, and

printed materials. Programs by regional biogas committees distribute literature and

information to villagers. The goal of these activities is to increase knowledge about and

demand for biogas. To increase the appropriateness of biogas to villager’s needs, the

research and design department has conducted experiments to increase biogas production

in cold weather. Greenhouses and compost heaps provide insulation to the digester,

although the greenhouse design has not proven cost efficient. Other recent research has

48

been conducted on different sized plants, rainwater harvesting for dry season water needs,

reducing mosquito breeding, slurry analysis for nutrients and pathogens, and reducing the

cost of biogas plants through reduction of cement and use of Indian stoves. BSP-Nepal

has listed standard amounts of materials for the construction of each size biogas plant

(Table 3.1). They have concluded biogas plants can be constructed with two to four

fewer bags of cement without affecting quality (BSP-Nepal 2005).

Table 3.1: Standard building material amounts for a common sized biogas plant (from BSP-Nepal 1994) Building Material Amount (six cubic meter plant) Bricks 1400 pieces Sand 70 bags Gravel 35 bags Cement 13 bags Six millimeter rod 60 meters Paint 1 liter

The biogas program can be included under the Clean Development Mechanism

(CDM) of the United Nations. Nepal will sell its carbon emission reductions from using

biogas for about US$5 per ton (SNV 2004). The government of Nepal recently ratified

the Kyoto Protocol, the last barrier keeping the World Bank and other banks in the

Netherlands from buying Nepal’s emission reductions (Khadka 2005, BSP-Nepal 2005).

The funds from these sales will increase the capacity of the biogas sector in Nepal as

funding to BSP-Nepal is being phased out from the Netherlands government. BSP-

Nepal’s successful program has gained worldwide recognition. In 2005, the organization

won the Ashden Award for Sustainable Energy in Health and Welfare (Ashden Awards

2005).

49

Reducing the cost of biogas plants for farmers in Nepal is an objective of Phase

four at BSP-Nepal. The most common plant, six cubic meters, costs about 24,000 Nepali

Rupees (US$240), a substantial portion of the income of people living in developing

countries. Farmers with higher education and economic wealth are the villagers who

become biogas owners (Stuckey 1983). To increase the availability of biogas to poorer

farmers, BSP-Nepal facilitates the government subsidy distributed by the Alternative

Energy Promotion Center (AEPC). Loans for constructing biogas plants are also

provided to individuals through the Agricultural Development Bank/ Nepal (ADB/

Nepal) and local micro-finance groups. The AEPC has begun to provide low rate bulk

biogas loans to micro-finance institutions. Biogas technology does not directly generate

income and the six cubic meter system requires at least two cattle. Therefore, farmers

who install biogas must have other income to repay loans and must own cattle.

Biogas and improved cook stove renewable energy technologies improve the

quality of life for the rural farmers of Nepal and other developing countries.

Dissemination of information and education about the technologies is necessary to create

demand from households. Financial loan schemes provide villagers a way to purchase

biogas on their own and subsidies reduce the overall cost. Biogas and improved cook

stoves are appropriate technologies for adoption by the villagers of Nepal.

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CHAPTER 4: CHHALING, BHAKTAPUR

Regional influences and village culture are the immediate contexts of a

development project. The village of Chhaling, the site of this case study, is located

within Kathmandu Valley (Figure 4.1), the center of Nepal. The conditions and culture

of nearby cities in Kathmandu Valley influence the villagers’ lives. The physical,

cultural, economic, and social environment of the community are the direct context in

which the people conduct their daily life. Kathmandu Valley, the village of Chhaling,

and the history of Community Forestry in the village will be introduced to explain the life

of the people implementing the biogas and improved cook stove project.

Figure 4.1: Kathmandu Valley district boundaries and headquarters (after Chapagain et al, 2002)

Chhaling

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Kathmandu Valley

The city of Kathmandu became the capital of present day Nepal in 1769, when the

Gorkha king Prithvi Narayan Shah captured the three kingdoms of Kathmandu Valley

(Sattaur 1996, Karan and Jenkins 1963, Rose and Scholz 1980, Manandhar 2002). The

oval shaped bowl-like basin is located in the mid-hills physiographic zone in the

administrative Central Development Region of Nepal (Figure 2.3, page 10), also the

central part of the entire east-west running Himalayan belt. The valley occupies an area

of about 650 km² (251 square miles) with an elevation between 1300 and 1400 meters

(4265 to 4600 feet in elevation) on the flat central part. Mid-hills rising to 3000 meters

(about 9850 feet) surround the valley (Sharma 1997, Shrestha et al 1999). There are

three districts in Kathmandu Valley, Bhaktapur, the smallest of the three districts,

Lalitpur, and Kathmandu. The project village, Chhaling, is located in Bhaktapur district

(Figure 4.1, page 50).

The climate of Bhaktapur district and all of Kathmandu Valley is mild with four

distinct seasons based on the monsoon cycle. Pre-monsoon is a dry summer with

maximum temperatures averaging between 25 and 30º C (about 77º to 86º F) from March

to June. Monsoon maximum temperatures average around 30º C from the end of June

until September when the temperature starts to drop. The season begins with violent

lightening and thunderstorms before the onset of the monsoon rains, which are vital to the

success of the staple crop, rice. The post monsoon season starts in September with the

rainfall decreasing and finally disappearing by mid-October. This season lasts until

December with maximum temperatures ranging from 20º C to 27º C (68º F to 80º F) and

minimum temperatures as low as 2º C (35º F). The winter “monsoon” in the mid-hills

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and Kathmandu Valley is from January to March. Much needed for the winter crops,

occasional short rainfalls characterize this season. Hail may be harmful to crops and falls

once or twice in this season. The upper hill and high mountain elevations receive snow

in the winter and the spring melt-off is important for crops in the lower valleys (Savada

1993, Fusion Nepal 2004).

The capital city of Kathmandu, located in Kathmandu district (Figure 4.1, page

50), is the center of commerce, government, advanced education, and development aid in

Kathmandu Valley and in all of Nepal. Chhaling, the site of the project case study, is

located approximately 24 kilometers (15 miles) northeast of the heart of the capital city.

Buses traveling to Kathmandu are overloaded each day with villagers from Chhaling and

other valley communities. Villagers making a daily thirty-mile round trip for work and

other business find themselves with up to five or six hours of travel time. From 2001-

2003, Kathmandu and other urban municipalities had a growth rate of 5.2%, more than

twice that of the national growth rate (Poudel 2003). In September 2005 the Central

Department of Population Studies reported the population of Kathmandu surpassing two

million people, driven by internal migration (Figure 4.2). Poor facilities and lack of job

opportunities in the hill areas has caused massive migration to Kathmandu and Terai

cities. Maoist insurgent conflicts in the country have also forced peasant migration from

remote villages (Nepalnews.com 2005). Many village men working in Kathmandu opt to

rent a room during the week and only return to their home on Sunday, the universal day

off in Nepal. The salary of the villager then goes to paying his rent, food, and other city

expenses.

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Figure 4.2: The city of Kathmandu is congested due to mass internal migration

Wives at home in Chhaling complain the husband’s job does not benefit the family; it

only supports the husband in Kathmandu.

Chhaling

Chhaling is located about five kilometers (three miles) northeast of the district

headquarters of Bhaktapur (Figure 4.1, page 50). Officially called “Chhaling Village

Development Committee” (VDC), the village is located at 27º42' 30" N and 85º27'30" E.

It is on the south-facing slope of a ridge extending into Kathmandu Valley from its

northeast corner (Figure 4.3). The elevation of Chhaling ranges from 1370 to 1650

meters (approximately 4500 to 5400 feet). Creeks are heavily vegetated, especially with

bamboo (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii), which is used for construction (Figure 4.4). The

Telkot Forest is located above the village on the ridgeline and on the opposite north-

facing slope. Pine (Pinus spp.) plantations are found only at the ridgeline while the

54

Figure 4.3: Chhaling Village Development Committee

Figure 4.4: Toilet, washroom, and veranda constructed from bamboo (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii)

remaining canopy is a chestnut-needle wood (Schima-Castonopsis) forest type (Winrock

2002).

55

The village of Chhaling is divided into nine administrative wards and small

unofficial “gau” or subvillages of people from the same caste or ethnic group. The total

population in 2001 was 7674 people in 1491 households. According to a government

population survey, upper caste Hindus accounted for approximately 56% of the

population; ethnic groups, predominantly Newar, accounted for 37%; and lower caste

untouchables accounted for only five percent of the people (CBS 2001). Similar to

Hinduism, the Newar people have their own caste system including upper castes and

untouchables. Assuming the current national growth rate of 2.2% (CIA 2005), the

population of Chhaling in 2005 is estimated at 8500. Using the growth rate for the valley

of 5.2% cited by Poudel (2003), the population is estimated as 10,000. However, based

on my observations, the population is probably close to or even below the 8500 estimate

because many men leave the village in search of work in Kathmandu, the military, or

abroad. These men may not be counted in the population surveys of Chhaling. Some

may be included as they consider the village their home and travel from Kathmandu to

the village on weekends.

The people of Chhaling are typical of Nepal in terms of social structure, caste, and

gender roles. Even with the modern influences of the cities of Kathmandu Valley,

Chhaling is a farming village and traditional ideas dominate. Although girls’ education is

improving, conservative gender roles in the village of Chhaling are still in place today.

Women are responsible for all household and daily farming labor. Many villagers send

girls to school so they will marry a husband of higher status. They do not believe girls

need a higher education. Daughters often remain at home to work in the fields when

more labor is needed than older women can supply (Figure 4.5). Sons rarely miss school

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Figure 4.5: Village girls attend school, but are often absent to perform farm work

for this reason. For about two months per year, during the labor-intensive planting

seasons, upper caste men without another job help with farm work. Other times of the

year these men are found at teashops playing cards or “running errands.” Traditionally,

educated men do not dirty their hands. Men who have income generating jobs or who are

educated and unemployed, do not work in agriculture unless absolutely necessary. Lower

caste men usually assist more with farm labor than their upper caste counterparts in this

village, but women are seen doing most of the farm work.

Agricultural System

The people of Chhaling practice a subsistence mixed farming system common to

most rural people in Nepal (Figure 4.6). This system is a complex union of agronomic

57

Figure 4.6: Typical scene of agricultural terraces and homes in Chhaling

products, livestock, and forest products (Beets 1990, Dougill et al 2001, Manandhar

2002) (Table 4.1). In the mid hills, complex terrace systems have been created to farm

the steep slopes. The villagers of Chhaling use the fertile soil of Kathmandu Valley’s

floor to their advantage. Although most residents live on the hillside, their main irrigated

agricultural fields are found at the lowest elevations of the valley (Figure 4.7).

Rice (Oryza sativa) is the staple crop and is planted in the lower irrigated fields

during the monsoon season (Figure 4.7). It is harvested three to four months later at the

end of monsoon. Wheat (Triticum aestivum) replaces rice in these fields and is harvested

near the end of the dry season in April. Maize (Zea mays) is planted in upland non-

irrigated fields after the work of harvesting the wheat is completed. Ethnic groups

replace the corn with millet (Eleusine coracana), a crop used to make local grain alcohol.

58

Table 4.1:

59

Figure 4.7: Lower, irrigated rice fields

Upper castes Hindus do not plant millet, as they do not make or consume alcohol.

Vegetables are planted in kitchen gardens of terraced land near the villagers’ homes.

Planting begins at the end of monsoon in the months of October and November and

vegetables are continuously harvested and eaten fresh throughout December, January,

and February. In March, the remaining vegetables are dried and stored for later

consumption. Major vegetables are potato (Solanum tuberosum), Indian mustard spinach

(Brassica juncea), onion (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum), chili pepper (Capsicum

annuum), mustard or rape seed (Brassica napus), radish (Raphanus sativa), and turnip

(Brassica rapa).

Common livestock are cows, water buffalo, goats, and chicken. Cattle are fed

fodder from agricultural by-products such as rice straw and corn stalks. Other cattle feed

includes ground and boiled grains, fresh grasses, and branches or leaves from trees in

forests and agroforested fields. The time-consuming and frequent activity of collecting

fodder for animals is conducted by females of all ages. Besides fodder, females also

60

collect leaflitter from forests used as animal bedding (Figure 4.8). Later compost is

created from the resulting mixture of manure, leaflitter and uneaten straw. Women

maintain the compost pile and carry it down the steep slopes in “dhoko” baskets to

fertilize lower irrigated fields. Wealthier farmers in Nepal purchase chemical fertilizers

such as urea. Although pesticide use is uncommon in Chhaling, nearby commercial

potato farmers do apply it to their fields.

Figure 4.8: Leaflitter is harvested from the forest

Community Forest User Groups

The forest is also important for the collection of firewood and timber. In 1996,

78% of the forest land in Kathmandu Valley had less than 50% crown cover and was

considered degraded; 34% of the total forest was considered shrubland (HMG 1999).

Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) have been established in Nepal to manage the

local forest, to conserve forest resources, and to generate income for group members.

Five communities in Bhaktapur district, three of which are in Chhaling village, formed

CFUGs to manage different sections of Telkot forest. The District Forest Office (DFO)

61

facilitated their formation according to the regulations of the national forestry program.

On January 1, 2003, just after I arrived in the village, these five CFUGs were given

official status by the District Forest Office. The Telkot forest had belonged to the nearby

military post and it had taken three years for the military to allow the CFUGs to officially

“take over” the forest. The military only agreed with the provision that the forest could

be used for military training without notifying the CFUGs. However, the CFUGs must

notify the military base of all CFUG activities in the forest. Each CFUG has a managing

committee with committee officers.

The main activities of the committee are to open the forest for leaflitter and

firewood collection and monitor the collection activities. They collect small fees from

members and use it for meetings and paying workers. The CFUG committee also works

with the Forest Rangepost staff, a sub-office of the District Forest Office, to receive

management trainings and other support such as materials for tree nurseries. The District

Forest Office of Bhaktapur is supported by Danish development assistance project

“Natural Resource Management Sector Assistance Programme” (NARMSAP). This

project funds all trainings and activities for CFUGs given by the District Forest Office.

Seti Devi Community Forest Group

My Peace Corps assignment was to work with the Community Forest User

Groups (CFUGs). The group I worked with for this study was the Seti Devi CFUG

located in administrative Wards five to nine in Chhaling. The CFUG has approximately

480 household members in total. Wards eight and nine are primarily the upper caste

Brahmin and Chhetri Hindus. Wards six and seven are a mix of upper caste Hindus also

62

including the Sanyasi caste, as well as the ethnic groups Newar, Tamang, and Magar.

The Hindu upper caste Thapa group lives in Ward five.

A CFUG committee was formed along with the group in 2001. It has fourteen to

seventeen members, half of whom regularly attend meetings (Figure 4.9). The committee

Figure 4.9: Seti Devi Community Forest User Group Committee monthly meeting

worked with the Forest Rangepost staff to evaluate their forest area, create an operational

plan, and write a constitution for the group. Seti Devi’s community forest covers 67.16

hectares (approximately 166 acres), but is not satisfying the needs of the community.

The CFUG’s constitution estimated the forest had a twenty percent deficit in the supply-

demand ratio of firewood and a ten percent deficit of leaflitter. The main mission in Seti

Devi’s constitution and operational plan is to conserve and use the forest in the right way,

to keep the ecology of the forest in balance, and to use and produce forest resources for

income generation activities, fodder, firewood, leaflitter, and timber for the CFUG

members. The goal of this management is to increase the quality of life for the people in

63

the village by supplying the CFUG members with enough forest products, involving the

CFUG member in forest development, and providing the members with trainings and

employment. The Seti Devi CFUG committee members determined the biogas and

improved cook stove project would work to satisfy these goals and they designated funds

and members to execute it.

64

CHAPTER 5: GENERAL METHODOLOGY: THE CASE STUDY DESIGN AND PROTOCOL

This chapter will explain why a case study research strategy was selected and how

participant observation was used within this study. It will then outline the design and

protocol of the study (Yin 2003). The specific data collection methods used within this

case study will be discussed in Chapter Seven, Data Collection Methods. These methods

will be used to compare the implementation process of the project in Chhaling to the

necessary implementation components of a renewable energy project. These “necessary

implementation components” are the theoretical framework for this study.

Research Strategy: The Case Study

The focus of this study is the implementation of a biogas project in the village of

Chhaling, Nepal. It examines the process that the managers and community members

used to install the renewable energy technologies biogas and improved cook stoves.

Obstacles, successes, decision-making processes, and interactions during the process

were observed. The components of this specific project implementation will be

compared to the theoretical management components needed for successful project

implementation. The main objective was to study how the villagers acted in the project

implementation process, compare this to the theoretical process, and then evaluate both

the positive and negative outcomes of the project. A case study is the appropriate

research strategy for this project because the case study allows the exploration of all

avenues of the implementation process.

65

The process of the community implementation of the project is the data to be

collected in this case. It includes all the decisions made, activities conducted, and work

completed. This information is found using a variety of methods. The community does

not exist in a vacuum where variables can be fixed. Thus, the community’s

circumstances when the project is implemented are the context in which the data must be

collected. The circumstances in the village, including social rules, economic factors, the

current national political instability, and the accepted Nepali village decision-making

process, affect how the project will be implemented. Therefore, the boundary between

the implementation process and the circumstances surrounding it are not distinct. This

case study analyzes the data within the context of this situation so it is unnecessary to

attempt separation. Both are important and should be studied together (Yin 2003).

One data collection method alone cannot ascertain a complete picture of the

implementation process. Using multiple data collection methods in this study such as

interviews of key informants and project participants, group meetings, community

surveys, document collection, and participant observation allowed me to gather more

information about the community than one method alone (Yin 2003). I was able to

obtain data about community history, personal values, beliefs, and knowledge, as well as

project decisions and activities.

Participant Observation

Upon my arrival to Nepal in September 2002, I spent eleven weeks in training

where I learned Nepali language and culture as well as community forestry topics.

During class we learned about improved cook stoves, biogas, drip-irrigation, composting

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and other appropriate technologies for rural Nepali communities. After training, I moved

to my site in Bhaktapur District within Kathmandu Valley, the most densely populated

area of Nepal and consequently one extremely degraded in all environmental facets

(Shrestha et al 1999). My first few months in the village were spent getting to know the

settlements of the village and the Community Forest User Groups (CFUG’s) formed

within them. I assisted the District Forest Office Rangepost staff in training programs for

five new groups in the area and worked closely with three of these groups during my

volunteer service. I continued Nepali lessons to increase my communication skills and

participated in local cultural functions such as weddings and religious festivals. I also

assisted with daily household and farming activities, many times to the great amusement

of my neighbors (Figure 5.1). While attending meetings in the community forest area I

Figure 5.1: Working with and learning about villagers is participant observation

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learned local forest species and observed that the CFUG’s main function was to regulate

forest collection of leaf-litter, firewood, and timber. I was slowly being accepted as a

member of the village as my language skills increased and I drank more and more tea.

An important part of Nepali meetings and all Nepali people’s daily routine is

drinking tea. Tea grown in eastern Nepal and India is purchased and brewed by the pot in

each village house at least two or three times a day. Every meeting in Nepal includes tea

or tremendous apologies for lack thereof. When visiting a person’s house, it is important

to always accept what is offered. At least, the visitor must take tea. There are no quick

stops of two minutes to say hello. The visitor must sit down and allow the host to show

how much they appreciate a guest in their home. Another distinctive Nepali village

custom is to ask those met on the road where they are going. I learned that this is a

common courtesy and meant as a greeting; an outsider might find it invasive. A foreigner

to Nepal would not know a detailed or even truthful answer is not expected. A simple

‘I’m going to the market’ or ‘I’m going to the upper village’ is all that is usually replied

in Chhaling whether or not this is truly the final destination. This is similar to the vague

reply accepted for “How are you?” in the English language. If an answer supplies more

than vague information then more details will be asked. Nepali villagers will always

interrogate a new acquaintance with questions about age, marital status, and family.

These situations illustrate the lack of privacy in the life of a villager in Nepal (Miller

2000). As can be seen, it is important to keep responses short and simple or one might be

in for a long conversation on the side of the road! This general lack of privacy in village

Nepal can be difficult at first. I was able to accept it in the same way Miller (2000)

accepted it - as the Nepali way. We both used it to help further our own inquiries later in

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our studies. Just as all villagers in Chhaling, I would walk into houses announcing,

“Where are this house’s people? I am here.”

A newcomer in Nepal would not understand these and other nuances of Nepali

culture. These are social distinctions learned by living in and adapting to a culture. They

are the basis upon which a researcher becomes a participant observer. The name itself

implies the dichotomous lifestyle the researcher must follow as both the village member

and the observant data collector. The longer I remained in the village, the more I was

able to experience the conditions the people of Chhaling live under, such as rodent

problems, constant power outages, carrying heavy loads, washing laundry by hand, and

tough physical labor (Emerson et al 1995). As I came to understand their life more, the

villagers began to trust me and consider me a community member. They performed their

daily work without concern to my presence (Figure 5.2) (Bernard 2002, Pratt and Loizos

1992).

Figure 5.2: Villagers performed work as usual as I participated and observed

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The Case Study Design and Protocol

The creation of a case study design and protocol are needed to increase the

external validity and reliability of the research. These two important research conditions

must be satisfied. The external validity or the ability to generalize the findings of the

study to other cases is satisfied when the correct theory is developed. The data collected

is then generalized to the theory that is used in other cases. When precise documentation

of evidence is maintained, then reliability of the study is also satisfied (Yin 2003). The

design and protocol developed the study’s main ideas and data collection parameters.

While raising funds for the biogas project and concluding other community projects, I

began drafting the “Case Study Design and Protocol” of this research (Appendix A).

This document was completed in July 2004 before the study began. It solidified the main

ideas of the study and was used to direct my data collection. In this document, I

determined the data needed to answer the study’s main questions and the methods useful

to collect it. Presented here is a summary of the original design and protocol of this

study. The design develops the broader questions and theory of the case while the

protocol focuses on the specific procedures and detailed questions to be answered in

conducting the study.

Design

The case study design contains five essential parts:

• A study’s main questions

• Its propositions or theory

• Its units of analysis

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• The logic linking the data to the propositions

• The criteria for interpreting the findings (Yin 2003)

The design of this case is presented here:

The study’s main questions are: How did the CFUG implement the biogas

project compared to the propositional necessary components of a renewable energy

development project? What were the successes and problems within the implementation

process and causes for these successes and problems? In other words – what components

were easy to manage and what components were difficult to manage? What impact did

the project have on the community?

The propositions of a case study are the theoretical framework of the study.

These are the general principles believed to be true by the researcher and are tested by the

data and its analysis. Theory in a case study is not normally tested using statistical

analysis of the results, although surveys conducted within it can be. Instead, the findings

are generalized to the propositions by qualitative analysis (Yin 2003). A proposition then

is similar to the hypothesis of an experiment as they both express the theory to be tested

by the study. The propositions direct which types of data to collect to answer the study’s

main questions. The data is analyzed and the results compared to the original

propositions to answer the questions (Yin 2003). Once the original study’s results have

been concluded, supporting or refuting the propositions, similar studies can be repeated

on other cases to test the theory, just as experiments are repeated to retest a hypothesis

(Kitchin and Tate 2000, Yin 2003).

The propositions of this study are the necessary components of the

implementation process for a community renewable energy project in Nepal (Table 5.1).

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Table 5.1: NECESSARY IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT

Community and Social Issues: Project Management and Design: SOCIAL STRUCTURE PROJECT MANAGMENT PARTICIPATION PROJECT DESIGN

Caste

Gender

Decision-making

Integration

Optimization and Efficiency

Stakeholders

Motivation

Vision, Goals, and Objectives

Action Plan/ Schedule

Project Managing Committee

Monitoring and Evaluation

Role of Field Workers

Budget

Community Assets and Resources

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These propositional implementation components are the main guidelines and

considerations that must be managed for the project’s success. The components can be

placed in two categories: community and social issues and project design and

management principles. The following chapter will develop each of the components in

these two categories. They will be discussed in broad terms and applied specifically to

the biogas project in Chhaling. All of the propositional components are based on

background research conducted on community development projects. These were issues

documented in literature and by renewable energy program staff. The CFUG needs to

manage these project implementation components to successfully initiate the biogas

plants in the community as a continuous project.

The implementation of the project was done on many levels and involved the

managing committee, NGOs, government offices, families, business owners, and

individuals. The case of this study is the overall project implementation process

consisting of multiple units, which includes all the major events and people involved in

executing the project. This is the main unit of analysis of this study. The different

groups and activities that are part of the implementation process are all sub-units of the

case. Therefore, this study has multiple units of analysis. This is termed an embedded,

single–case study design. There are three categories of subunits. The first category is

“process (sub) units” of the implementation process. These are the events and actions of

the management committee and other involved in decision-making. Specifically, these

are the community project meetings, committee meetings and other activities, roles of

individual committee members, the committee’s time schedules or action plan, and social

dynamics between the decision-makers. The second category of subunits is “intermediate

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players.” These are community members involved in the project implementation, but not

in the decision-making. Intermediate players are the biogas recipients and their activities

or roles in the project, roles played by other individuals in the CFUG or community, and

the social dynamics between them (Figure 5.3). “Outside players” may also be involved

Figure 5.3: Biogas recipients are intermediate players of the case study

in the project implementation. This third category of sub-units includes external office

staff from NGO’s, businesses, and government offices. In this project the outside players

were the biogas company, Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP), Winrock International, the

District Forest Office (DFO) staff, the Telkot Forest Ranger, and the Peace Corps

volunteer, as well as the activities and social dynamics between this group and the

community members.

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Pattern-matching is the main technique that will used to match the data collected

to the propositions developed in the next chapter. It is the tool linking the data to the

propositions that will show how the implementation components compare to the

theoretical ones (Yin 2003). If a propositional component is well managed in the

implementation process in Chhaling then a match is found and if all the components are

well managed then the project should be a success. If the CFUG’s implementation fails

to consider one of these criterion, then an impediment within the implementation process

will have occurred. This does not necessarily mean a complete failure of the project. It

indicates that there is some problem within it. After the comparison is completed, the

main study questions will be answered by showing what role each component played in

the project implementation, how components affected the outcome of the project, and

how the community members were impacted by the project.

The criteria for interpreting the findings determine if the project managers

were successful at managing each of the theoretical components. The criteria are the

parameters used to evaluate if a match (successful management) or a mismatch

(unsuccessful management) is found when comparing the project implementation process

to the theoretical model (Yin 2003). Each propositional necessary component has its own

success indicators and trends in the indicator data will be used to ascertain how well each

was considered and managed by the community. These trends in the data are the criteria

to interpret the findings in this case. The indicator and success trends to be used in data

analysis will be presented with each propositional component discussed in the following

chapter. Data analysis will also be used to determine if issues not covered in the

theoretical model have played a major part in the implementation of the biogas project. If

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other components were pertinent to the project in Chhaling then the original propositional

components must be analyzed and possibly altered or supplemented. More studies must

be conducted to determine if this new model is complete (Kitchin and Tate 2000, Yin

2003).

Protocol

In preparation for data collection, I created a protocol to use as a guide in

conducting this case study of the implementation of the biogas and improved cook stove

project by the villagers of Chhaling, Bhaktapur District, Nepal (Yin 2003). Table 5.2, the

case study protocol, outlines the protocol sections and their general guidelines given by

Yin (2003), as well as the specific information I compiled in this study’s “Case Study

Design and Protocol” found in Appendix A.

An overview of the case study project is necessary for the protocol to give the

background and the main purpose of the study (Yin 2003). The existing “Bhaktapur

Biogas Renewable Energy Project” proposal (Appendix B), used to solicit funding for the

project in Chhaling, provided information about the biogas and improved cook stove

project. It gave a short background on the village and CFUG, the need for biogas and

improved cook stoves, and a proposal to implement the project including project goals,

management and monitoring plans, and a budget. An original “Study Proposal” for this

thesis had also been written for this case study (Appendix C). It outlined the basic

questions and main objectives of the study. Together these two documents provided the

background and basic ideas of the case study for the protocol.

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Table 5.2: The case study protocol

Protocol Section Guidelines for the SectionBiogas Project

Implementation Protocol

Overview of the case study project

Background information of the study project, case study objectives and issues, and relevant readings.

"Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy Project" included a review of biogas and improved cook stoves in Nepal, an overview of the need in the village, and the project proposal for the village. Based on that project, a proposal for this study was written. References on project implementation were continually investigated.

Field Procedures

Credentials and access to case study sites, general sources of information, procedural reminders, and a data collection schedule.

Access to sites and people was possible because of Nepali language skills and my status as a member of the village. NGOs and local sources of information were identified and a schedule created for data collection.

Case Study Data Collection Questions

Specific questions to keep in mind while collecting data. Includes potential sources of information for answering each question.

The specific data collection questions were concerned with the organization of project management, the decision-making process, the community's participation and motivation, the social dynamics of the project, and the effects on the community. Each activity also generated specific questions.

Guide for the Case Study Report

Outline of the report and specification of bibliographical information.

The outline was written for the case study, which helped to facilitate the collection of the relevant documents and other data.

The data collection schedule shown in Table 5.3 was the most important aspect of

the field procedures for the protocol of this case study (Table 5.2) because it outlined all

the data collection methods and the plan to execute them. Table 5.3 outlines the basic

procedures planned for each method in the case study protocol. Chapter Seven of this

thesis will describe the detailed methodology of this study. The data collection schedule,

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Table 5.3: Data collection schedule

Data Collection Activity Time Frame to be

Completed In Notes

Research documents relevant to biogas and participatory community projects (for background and propositions/ theory.)

Throughout, but specifically to July 24 and after December 15 to end Feb

From NGO libraries such as BSP, ICIMOD, IUCN, PC, HMG Dept libraries, AEPC

Archival Records Specifically to July 24 and after Dec 15

CFUG constitution and Working (Action) Plan, Records from Village Development Committee and District Development Committee

Group Meetings Throughout CFUG, biogas management committee, and mass community meetings

Interviews with "KEY" Informants: CFUG committee members Biogas management committee members

BR individuals (maybe more than one per family) ICS recipients individuals Membership recipients Biogas company staff or BSP staff

Ranger

Other Key informants in the community July 10 to end

This is an important tactic for this study as the main issues to affect the outcomes of the project are social relations in the group. Thus, informal discussions with key informants provide insight into the real workings of the project that otherwise might not be obtained from a non member of the CFUG.

(Continued on next page)

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Table 5.3 continued: Data collection schedule

Data Collection Activity Time Frame to be

Completed In Notes Interviews of villagers

All those involved in particular topics/ issues of interest

As necessary - most probably mid August - mid December (with a higher rate most probable mid Sept - mid Nov)

Interviews with specific questions to corroborate evidence about implementation. (Possibly also include "Key" Informants, but with all involved in a particular issue/ topic. I want to corroborate or document previous observations and get different perspectives.)

Surveys: Structured Interview surveys

Survey One: Two Rounds of BR, ICS-R, membership -R, CFUG committee members, BMC members

First round: Sept 25 - Oct 10; Second Round: Feb 1- 15

One mid - project survey and one end survey to compare changes and similarities in participants’ view of the project and its implementation. One survey will also include questions about socio-economic status especially of BR to compare to status of recipients in other studies.

Survey Two: Two rounds of entire CFUG community random sample of 100 houses in village wards of the CFUG

At same time of second round of Survey One: Feb 1- 15

This survey is to assess the community's knowledge of the project and project activities including biogas, ICS, and CFUG memberships; attendance to the awareness event (if held), and general knowledge about biogas and ICS.

(Continued on next page)

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Table 5.3 continued: Data collection schedule

Data Collection Activity Time Frame to be

Completed In Notes

Direct Formal Observations

A committee member does not speak for an entire meeting or is reluctant to speak (note caste and gender)

Every meeting mid July to mid December

A man speaks for a woman when she is asked a question Entire study at every event Decision made without consensus achieved Meetings, outside of meetings

BR family's female head not present at meeting

Every meeting with BR end Aug to mid December and trainings

Male BR carries materials Mid Sept - mid Dec at BR sites

Female BR assists in building with biogas company Beg Oct - mid Dec at BR sites Concealment of information Entire study at every event

Gender/ caste of main actors facilitating each activity (i.e. managers) At every activity

Monitory/ supervisory work done by BMC members Entire study at every event

These formal observations can be quantified as evidence to corroborate or dismiss the existence of such behaviors. Other data collection techniques will try to clarify why the behavior has happened.

Direct Informal Observations Entire study at every event Other observations collected throughout study that may become useful.

Participatory Observation

Throughout, most relevant in meetings from July 10 to Oct 13, but also in construction period from Oct 31 to Dec 15

As a PCV, I am assisting the implementation of the project as a way to build the capacity of the CFUG members. Thus, I will also document all that I am asked to participate in and how I perceive the effects of my actions.

Physical Documents or Evidence Materials from throughout study - possibly collect at end of study

Possible copy of meeting minutes, copy of budget ledger, copy of loan contract, copy of work contract, etc.

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the data collection questions, and the guide to this case study report were all specifically

written as part of the protocol to direct this study (Yin 2003).

The data collection questions were specific questions I wanted to answer about

the main propositions of the study and specific questions about activities that related to

the propositions. Answers to these questions were based on observations, documents,

interviews, and surveys. Examples of these specific case study questions for data

collection are given in Table 5.4 parts A, B, and C. The full set is found in the “Case

Study Design and Protocol” (Appendix A). The questions in all three tables illustrate

how the protocol focused the study on the pertinent information needed, the sources of

the information, and strategies to answer the question.

Table 5.4A shows an example of a “table shell.” These empty outlines are used to

define data to be collected, to guarantee data is collected uniformly from different

sources, and to aid in determining how to use the data collected (Yin 2003). The data

collected to fill in Table 5.4B is information about project activities. These data will be

used to create a timeline of events and see who the active participants were in the project.

The timeline and active participants will be analyzed to compare the project

implementation to specific components of the propositions. Tables 5.4 parts A and B

show questions about specific propositional components and Table 5.4C shows specific

activity questions relevant to the propositions. I would enter meetings and activities with

the questions in Table 5.4C in mind so I could observe what happened and collect the

information pertinent to this study. Interviews conducted about management activities

would also focus on collecting information relevant to these questions (Yin 2003). The

information collected from the questions represented in Tables 5.4 parts A, B, and C were

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used to determine how the components of the biogas project in Chhaling compared to the

theoretical model to be developed in the next chapter.

The guide to the case study report is an outline written for this thesis before the

research began. It was followed as a rough guide, although minor deviations were

necessary to improve upon the presentation style. It is also found in Appendix A, the

“Case Study Design and Protocol.”

Table 5.4:

Part A: Specific integration and participation questions for data collection

Is it an integrated and complete community project, i.e. was biogas installed as well as improved cook stoves and waiving CFUG fee membership for poorer community members? Was awareness included in the project to include all community members? How? Were open assemblies utilized for awareness or making decisions for the project? Were other community members interested in the project and able to become involved? How? • Sources of Data:

o Informal and participatory observation of activities – meetings, awareness event, improved cook stoves and free membership activities

o Meeting minutes o Community members survey of knowledge of the project activities,

awareness event, and improved cook stoves/ free membership activities o Surveys of all biogas recipients and improved cook stoves-recipients,

membership-recipients of socioeconomic status • Sample Strategies

o Quantify percentages of community families with knowledge of the project.

o List activities that included awareness efforts and community members not on the committee

o List socioeconomic status of improved cook stoves and free membership recipients vs. biogas recipients

o Did the project accomplish the ideal integration?

(Continued on next page)

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Table 5.4 continued:

Part B: Specific implementation activities questions for data collection What are the (major) activities of the CFUG to implement the project? Who were

the major actors in these activities? When were the activities held? Where? • Sources of Data:

o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of committee meetings o Meeting minutes o Documents created o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff

• Sample Strategies: o Timeline o Compare activities to Ideal Action plan o Fill in chart of major activities (add other activities that occur)

Activity Date Week # Where Who Achievements Goals/ Objectives Created

BMC created Action plan created

Awareness event BR chosen Biogas company chosen

Loan contracts written

Loans signed Biogas contracts signed

Materials purchased

Materials transported

Digging Carrying Skilled labor Construction O&M training

Slurry training

(Continued on next page)

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Table 5.4 continued:

Part C: Questions for each biogas management committee activity or meeting

Each Biogas Management Committee meeting: 1. Who facilitated/ ran the meeting? 2. How was it determined who ran the meeting? 3. Was a process determined for who is to facilitate meetings? 4. Did the person facilitating the meeting keep control of the meeting? 5. Did another person control the meeting? 6. Did one or two members dominate the meeting? Who? How did they

control it? 7. Were all committee members in attendance? 8. Did all committee members participate? Speak? 9. Were there any issues at the meeting? Disagreements? About what

issues? 10. Were all agenda items discussed? 11. Were all agenda completed? If not, why? 12. How did the meeting end? 13. Plans for next meeting? 14. What decisions were made? What were the outcomes of the meeting? 15. Were all decisions/ discussions documented in meeting minutes? 16. Were all expenditures documented in budget ledger and meeting

minutes? 17. Were others beside the committee involved in the meeting and how? 18. What assistance was necessary from Ranger, PCV, or others? 19. Were there any personal issues that came up at the meeting (individual

or group social dynamics)? How did they surface? What were they? Were they relevant to the meeting? How did the facilitator or other members manage them? What was the outcome?

20. Was the meeting successful? 21. Did committee members leave the meeting with a positive motivated

attitude? If not, why?

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CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY COMMUNITY PROJECT

The propositions of the case study design are the theoretical framework of the

study (Yin 2003). In this study they are the necessary components needed to implement a

community renewable energy project in Nepal. The community must successfully

manage these components. This chapter explains these necessary project implementation

components and discusses each, specifically with regard to this case. The categories and

major subdivisions of the components will be explained in broad terms, focused on

Nepal. The components within the major subdivision will be described in terms of how

they apply to the biogas and improved cook stove project in Chhaling. Indicators of

success will also be discussed for each component. Table 6.1 “Necessary

Implementation Components of a Renewable Energy Project in Nepal” shows the

categories, major subdivisions, and individual propositional components developed for

this study.

This case study’s objective is to compare the components of the implementation

process of the project in Chhaling to the theoretical components for renewable energy

projects in Nepal. Each component’s success indicators will be used as the basis of the

comparison to show if the component was managed in the project, if at all. Together, the

comparisons will be analyzed to evaluate the overall outcome of the project. Although

much of the theory reviewed here can be broadened to developing nations or community

projects in general, the focus of this study is Nepal. The successes, failures, and overall

outcome of the project determined in this analysis will be used to make conclusions and

recommendations for renewable energy projects in Nepal.

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Table 6.1: NECESSARY IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT

Community and Social Issues: References SOCIAL STRUCTURE PARTICIPATION

(Continued on next page)

Caste

Gender

Decision-making

Integration

Optimization and Efficiency

Stakeholders

Motivation

Community Assets and Resources

Acharya 1999 Bajracharya 1994 Cameron 1998 Cernea 1991 Davies 1997 DevPart Consult–Nepal 1996, 1998 Esman and Uphoff 1984

Miller 2000 Molnar 1987 Opdam 1997 Schweizer-Ries 2003 Smith et al 2003 Shakya and Tamrakar, undated Tamrakar (b) undated

Anon. (a) 1990 Anon. (b) 1995 Bajracharya 1994 Beets 1990 Britt 1994 Britt and Kapoor 1994 Cernea 1991 Davenport et al 1989 Davies 1997 Dutta 1997 Esman and Uphoff 1984 Gow et al 1979 Gow and VanSant 1981

Karki et al 2003 Keizer 1994 Margoluis and Salafsky 1998 Meilander 2003 Miller 2000 Molnar 1987 Peace Corps 2003 Peace Corps undated Sasse 1990 Tamrakar (b) undated USAID 2005 van Vliet 1993,

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Table 6.1 continued: NECESSARY IMPLMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT

Project Management and Design: References PROJECT MANAGMENT PROJECT DESIGN

Vision, Goals, and Objectives

Action Plan/ Schedule

Project Managing Committee

Monitoring and Evaluation

Role of Field Workers

Budget

Acharya 1999 Beets 1990 Cernea 1991 Davies 1997 Esman and Uphoff 1984 Margoluis and Salafsky 1998,

Messerschmidt 1995 Michels 1962 Parks People Program 2000 Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003

AEPC 2004/2005 Acharya 1999 Britt 1994 Britt and Kapoor 1994 BSP 2003 Davies 1997 Karki et al 2003 Keizer 1994

Margoluis and Salafsky 1998 Moulik 1990 Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003 Shrestha et al 2004 Silwal 1999 Winrock International et al 2005

87

Renewable energy technology (RET) projects, specifically biogas and improved

cook stoves, have multi-faceted benefits including health improvement, reductions of

women’s drudgery, and local natural resource conservation (Anon. 1990 (a), Keizer

1994, van Vliet 1993, Molnar 1987, Tamrakar undated (b)). Community development

projects all have one main goal: to improve the living conditions of the local people.

Conservation and development projects assume natural resources and people are

interdependent upon each other in the development process. The primary goal of these

projects is sustained conservation of natural resources to enhance community

development. Successful project implementation is necessary so goals can be reached

and benefits can affect the targeted population. Project managers approach

implementation in many ways because each community presents its own set of

circumstances. However, many of the procedures involved in project management

require “balancing guidelines with beliefs and experience.” Therefore, although

operational plans will vary in each community of Nepal, there are many similar project

obstacles and influencing factors, which must be managed through basic guidelines

(Margoluis and Salafsky 1998).

Research conducted on both community development and renewable energy

development projects and a literature review on the design and management of these

types of projects yielded a set of propositional components pertinent to their successful

completion. When applied to the biogas project in Chhaling, it will be determined by

comparison if the procedures followed in the implementation process successfully show

the leaders considered and managed each component. When the group manages these

factors well, the project should continue without major problems. Otherwise, obstacles

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will hinder the progress of the project. The components are guidelines to the process, as

well as cultural norms and customs to be balanced by project implementers. The

managers’ own experiences will factor into their management process in the ways they

understand and deal with these components (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998). I have

divided the major components of project implementation into two broad categories. The

first category, community and social issues, explains the components based on people’s

relationship to the project and the circumstances of the community. The second category,

project management and design, contains roles of project managers and methodological

project components (Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003). Table 6.1, pages 85-86, illustrates these

categories, their subdivisions, and propositional components.

Community and Social Issues

This category is used to determine the context of the project. When evaluating

the circumstances of the community, project developers and managers must consider

these components. Evaluating the context enables insightful planning of the project

design and management. A community has been defined as a “description of the social

arrangement that make it possible to cultivate a moral order” (Mandelbaum 2000) or as a

“collectivity the members of which share a common territorial area as their base of

operation for daily activities” (Parsons 1951). Therefore, a community of people can be

seen as both a territorial and social arrangement based on basic needs and moral ideas.

Anderson (1964) refers to the term social as broadly “any behavior or attitude that is

influenced by past or present experience of the behavior of other people, or that is

oriented toward other people.” Therefore, community and social issues pertain to the

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behaviors and attitudes of people in their relationships within the arrangement of people

in the project area. Hierarchies of people within a group, differences of opinion, and

accepted cultural traditions all create these issues. Two main subdivisions of community

and social issues for all projects are social structure and participation. These subdivisions

overlap, as social structure is the context in which participation in the project takes place.

Therefore, project managers must recognize and work within this context for

participation to occur. In Nepal, gender and caste status and the decision-making process

are important issues in the discussion on social structure. Community assets and

resources, optimization and efficiency, naming the stakeholders, integration of the

project, and motivation of participants are components of participation important to

project success.

Social Structure

Social structure of a community divides people into accepted roles or “statuses

such as occupations, offices, classes, age, and sex distinctions.” Each status holds a

position in society with its own rights, duties, and constraints. Many people judge others

on the basis of status. The social structure of the community is the description of the

categories of people seen in the community (Hiller 1947). This is the context in which a

project will be implemented.

Participation of and benefits for the people of different social classes and both

genders is difficult to obtain in one project. This is because of the resistance of some

community members to become involved and the divisions between villagers based on

societal norms. Social dynamics between the various participants in the project can

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enhance or block the accomplishment of project goals. Local elites may direct benefits to

themselves instead of the entire community (Esman and Uphoff 1984). Often some

members of a community feel restrained from being active in programs because the

existing social structure does not allow their voices to be heard in public affairs.

Although it is difficult, participation of many groups of people in all project levels should

be the goal because the project will be more likely to succeed socially, economically, and

ecologically (Schweizer-Ries 2003). The project is also more likely to receive outside

donor funding with greater community participation (Davies 1997). The decision-

making process is pertinent to any project’s completion and success. The working

decision-making process within the established social structure must be recognized in

order to confirm the implementation process coincides with it. This traditional process

may exclude some or many from project management. While implementing the project

within the existing decision making process, the project implementers must also balance

conflicting modern ideas. This means following the traditional process, while allowing

people to act outside accepted roles.

The existing structure in Nepal is derived from the Hindu caste system. Similar to

other developing countries in South Asia, women hold second-class citizenship in the

culture and under the law (Tamrakar undated (a)). Therefore, gender and caste are issues

to be considered when looking at the context of a project to be implemented in Nepal.

Decision-making is based on consensus and is traditionally dominated in the public arena

by high caste males (Miller 2000). Project managers must be aware of this and design

decision-making processes to reflect these traditions.

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Gender and Caste Issues

Caste position affects economic status (Smith et al 2003). Many lower caste

groups have fixed “unclean” occupations limiting their livelihood. Higher castes are

traditionally the leaders and office workers of the community. They have more time and

education because of the inequalities in caste system and the wealth imbalances and thus

dominate the political and public scene (Miller 2000). Lower castes and women of all

castes are traditionally uninvolved in public matters. In mixed meetings or other public

events it is common to see lower caste members silent or allowing the higher caste

members speak for them. Women will do the same, letting their husband, sons, or other

male relatives speak for them. Women and lower castes have constrained roles in

community projects because of the social restrictions and traditional non-involvement in

public work. They may only participate through labor or other menial tasks, not in

management roles where they would be making decisions important to the project

(Esman and Uphoff 1984). Positions of power are only given to them when it is

mandated by an outside organization.

Village women in Nepal do not attend political or village meetings unless

specifically invited. Their movements in the village are limited by culture and time

allocated to domestic and agricultural duties and social visits (Molnar 1987, Acharya

1999). This is because the “patrilocal” structure of the family and village focuses on

public image. A woman must stay in the background, her actions dependent upon her

husband or father’s approval; her role is to uphold a positive image of the husband and

the entire family (Miller 2000, Tamrakar undated (a)). These practices of social

restriction must be adhered to starting in childhood (Figure 6.1). By the time she reaches

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Figure 6.1: Girls learn their place is at home or on the farm, not in the public sphere

adulthood, a woman will lack the social skills and confidence needed to participate in the

public arena (Acharya 1999). Because of orthodox religious philosophy, there are more

restrictions based on purity and honor to female movements in the high Brahmin and

Chhetri castes. High caste women obey movement restrictions and perform their

domestic duties or risk dishonoring their husbands, fathers, and family (Bajracharya

1994, Cameron 1998). Women of clean castes, even those of poor economic status, are

constrained from forms of work and labor deemed impure or dishonorable. All women

work long hours, but the domestic and agricultural work of high caste women is not

deemed an economic value (Cameron 1998). “Untouchable castes” are artisans and

laborers who own little or no land and are extremely poor. At least within the family,

economic instability allows low caste women a more egalitarian stance because all

members must work together to survive. These women must move around the village so

they can trade or sell their agricultural labor or artisan. Because of her economic power,

a woman of lower caste status may divorce and remarry. This is forbidden for upper

caste women. They must honor even abusive husbands and mourn a husband’s death

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their entire lives (Cameron 1998). Ethnic groups in Nepal, generally from Tibeto-

Burman descent, are given middle status (lower, but clean) in the caste hierarchy. These

groups have a more egalitarian social structure and more freedom to choose their careers

than other castes of the same status. Some may attain wealth and prestige in the

community (Gellner et al 1997, Smith et al 2003). These ethnic groups, like lower caste

women, have fewer restrictions on their movements for social and economic reasons.

Old traditions still persist in Nepal, even as some people are challenging the social

structure and modernization continues in the city areas. Therefore, project managers

must consider gender and caste status and try to balance between new and old paradigms.

This will allow those with traditional viewpoints and villagers whose ideas are more

modern to work together and allow a broad representation of the community to be

involved in the project (Guggenheim and Spears 1991). A successful renewable energy

project will have participation from many groups within the community and specifically

targets women and those with limited access to fuel alternatives (Molnar 1987, Smith et

al 2003). The managers must be able to satisfy the traditional norms of the community so

the community at large accepts the project. They must also gain the support and

participation from the targeted groups who traditionally are uninvolved in public affairs.

An indicator showing managers have considered gender and caste in the project is

the participation levels at project activities. We can ascertain if different groups’

participation was low or high at meetings or activities. The number of women, men, low

and high castes involved in decision-making and planning shows if the project succeeded

in reaching its targeted groups. Women’s presence at all management meetings and low

caste or poor farmers (less than two cows) participation in the project are the indicators of

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success for this component. If these indicators are met, it shows successful consideration

of gender and caste in the social structure of the community. It shows the management

committee was able to incorporate new ideas in a traditional system.

Decision Making in Nepal

The implementation of the project must not conflict with the existing decision-

making process, values, and techniques in the village. The managers must work within

this system while also allowing for people to perform non-traditional roles. The process

of decision-making at the family level involves “sabaiko sallah” or consultation of all

with consensus. After this consultation, the household head, normally the male,

announces the decision (Miller 2000). The men are seen as financially productive and

thus control finances and household decisions while women have reproductive roles and

are seen as caretakers and secondary persons. Women cannot make decisions (Shakya

and Tamrakar undated).

Traditionally, only men in Chhaling, as in the rest of Nepal, attend public

assemblies and usually one or two leaders speak to express the consensus of all (Miller

2000). The customs and beliefs surrounding this practice are slowly changing in

Chhaling. Women attend meetings, but most do not speak. Since men and the upper

castes still dominate public meetings, the biogas project managers must work within this

context. A male figure should be involved in managing the project and the committee

members must strategically arrange public meetings so experts in biogas, specifically

male experts, dominate and give support to females in the discussions. This will give

legitimacy to the project in this village setting because the project managers are paying

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respect to the community’s cultural norms. Otherwise, male village leaders may feel

threatened by women taking on leadership roles or some traditional villagers may believe

a project led by women is trivial and will fail. All of these possible reactions to women’s

leadership will threaten the success of the project because villagers who either react this

way or who are guided by those who do will not participate.

Prestige or respect, “caste-centered morality”, “family-centered morality” and

“personalism,” are important values in village Nepal. “Personalism” is defined as doing

no harm, causing no pain, and avoiding making others sad. All these values permeate

decision-making in Nepal and must be remembered in project activities so people will

participate. Treating villagers with respect so they feel their remarks are heard and are

important to the decisions will encourage participation and attendance by giving prestige

to those who speak. As well, if villagers believe their caste and family will be looked

upon favorably and the project will cause no harm to the villagers then they will be more

likely to participate (Miller 2000).

Many men in Nepal view biogas ownership as a symbol of prestige or higher

social status (Opdam 1997, DevPart Consult–Nepal 1996, 1998). This could have both a

positive or negative impact on the project because, although the desire of prestige may

motivate families to install the technology, they might be less apt to use the plant

correctly or keep it in good working condition if there are no other motivational factors.

Therefore, the benefits will not reach the family or forest. Strides must be taken so

biogas plants are prestigious because they improve family living conditions, not because

a family must be rich to own one.

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Villagers in daily life utilize the technique of concealment to create private space

in village life where privacy does not exist. Although this seems to go against

“personalism,” people usually try to withhold the truth before telling a lie. Neighbors

will be told minimum information, with important details hidden to uphold the family’s

image. Other times secret activities, possibly in conflict with accepted customs, will be

performed in haste to accomplish goals beneficial to the family (Miller 2000).

Concealment is practiced in Chhaling to bring benefits to the family. My own family

misguided me when I inquired about the family’s financial situation when moving into

the house. They told me the father in the house held paid positions in a few community

groups. I later learned none of his positions were paid and the family was relying on my

rent and the grandfather’s small pension to survive. A neighbor of mine also complained

to me about her father-in-law. He had concealed the truth in wedding negotiations with

her father. Since she had married the youngest son in the family, her father-in-law gave

them less property than promised. She was forced to live in a rural house when her father

had been told she would be living in the city. She has been married seven years and has

two children. Villagers use concealment to accomplish goals they otherwise would not

be able to achieve. Project managers used the technique during the planning phase of the

project to protect funds in jeopardy.

The success rate of implementing the biogas project within the accepted decision-

making process and values of the village will be evaluated. The implementers must have

balanced traditional and modern social ideas and recognized the possibility of

concealment by community members. To evaluate the success of this component, the

stability of the committee must be examined. Does the committee still exist? Are the

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committee members still working? Has the structure of the committee changed and if

yes, why? These questions must be answered and the results will reveal if the community

accepted the managing committee’s decision-making process and values. If the

community did accept it, then the managers worked well within the existing decision-

making system and values of the community. Otherwise, the managers failed to consider

the community’s own decision-making process and values.

Participation

Community members must be the ones to design the project. This ensures they

have comprehended the project concepts and it confirms a demand for the project

outputs. A sense of ownership and confidence will be instilled in the community once

the project has come to successful completion. It also means the plan should be realistic

with relatively simple activities (Gow and VanSant 1981, Uphoff 1991, Beets 1990). In

Nepal, impractical tasks will lead to failure and compound the lack of confidence already

existing in so many villagers (Anon. 1995 (b)). The community must also participate by

allocating their own local resources, either monetarily or in-kind. This also creates

ownership and commitment to the project (Gow and VanSant 1981, Esman and Uphoff

1984). Within the community, optimizing participation is an important work efficiency

aspect in project management (Esman and Uphoff 1984). Managers must also look at

who is participating in the project, how they are involved, and why. This leads to five

propositional components to be considered by project developers: community assets and

resources, optimal and efficient participation, identifying the local stakeholders in the

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project, integrating the project into the entire community, and determining the motivation

for those involved in the project.

Community Assets and Resources

Projects need material, monetary, and human resources to succeed. A good

project will incorporate both external and internal resources so the community does not

entirely depend on outside assistance. The project then belongs to the community. This

results in increased participation in projects of importance to villagers, as they will only

give their own money, labor, or materials to projects they think are necessary and will

succeed (Figure 6.2). Once they have committed to the project with their resources, they

are more likely to support their commitment with positive participatory actions (Gow and

VanSant 1981, Esman and Uphoff 1984). Resource mobilization and management by the

community enhances their self-reliance (Uphoff 1991).

Figure 6.2: Community assets: labor, materials, and money

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The Japan International Cooperation Agency’s (JICA) Community Development

and Forest/Watershed Conservation Project and the Peace Corps’ Small Project

Assistance and Partnership Program in Nepal all require community resource

contributions (Meilander 2003, Peace Corps 2003, Peace Corps undated). Following this

community contribution approach, the villagers of Chhaling have to commit resources –

either monetary or “in-kind” – needed to accomplish the project. The CFUG must

support the project with some of its own finances. Families must provide their own labor

in the construction of the biogas plants and improved cook stoves as in-kind

contributions. Families installing biogas must also pay a down payment to prove their

commitment to installing the renewable technology. These families also sign a loan

contract to pay for the entire cost of the plant; they have purchased the plant with their

own finances – complete ownership. Along with creating ownership of the technology

and project, this will also reduce the cost and loan principle amounts. Indicators of this

component’s successful implementation are financial records showing inputs by the

CFUG and biogas families. Narratives of installation procedures and labor inputs of

family members will also be used to indicate if the community successfully contributed

to the project.

Optimal and Efficient Participation

The active participation of community members is imperative to attain a

combination of leadership and participation. Each can then sustain the other as leaders

accomplish group goals through participants and in turn are regulated by mechanisms

such as frequent meetings and regular elections (Esman and Uphoff 1984). Participation

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has different levels: planning, decision-making, active implementation, and evaluation.

Each level empowers or benefits individuals in different ways. People involved in

decision-making and planning will be empowered as community leaders and can accrue

project benefits as those “in the know.” If people participate in labor tasks of a project

alone and are uninvolved in the decision-making process, they are working for wages and

not for the benefits of the project. These laborers are unlikely to care much about the

project success. They may be completely uninformed of what the project is trying to

accomplish or what benefits they could attain by participating in other ways. This

situation does not build the capacity of the community (Miller 2000). However,

economic and time efficiency must be preserved by optimal participation, not maximum

participation. Some tasks and decision-making should be done by those more able and

willing to accomplish them. This will create better work quality in project activities. If

group members observe others informally they can discipline unscrupulous members

(Esman and Uphoff 1984). Therefore, increasing the community’s participation in

project planning and maintaining efficiency must be balanced.

In the study of Chhaling, overall participation and efficiency must be studied

separately because other factors affect both. Direct counts and estimates of people at

different activities will be used to evaluate participation success. Each event or meeting

has a different success rate. Some events should have a high percent attendance, close to

one hundred percent, such as committee meetings, because the committee is a smaller

decision-making body. Low attendance would mean one or two members were making

the project decisions. Others activities have a lower success indicator of twenty-five or

even ten percent attendance such as mass community meetings. These meetings are for

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approximately 500 households of the CFUG and rarely do large numbers attend such

meetings.

Project efficiency in time and cost will be evaluated by comparing the actual

timing of events and cost of materials to the scheduled times and costs. The success rate

of time efficiency must be somewhat relaxed to allow for the lack of infrastructure and

cultural perceptions of time and work. Carelessness of workers is caused by lack of

social stability, widespread corruption, and passivity (Beets 1990). These conditions and

the resulting inefficiency are seen in Nepal. People are not expected to show up for

meetings or events until one half hour or even an hour after the scheduled time. A person

fifteen minutes late is considered to be punctual. People come late because they don’t

expect meetings to start on time. The only events I attended in Nepal starting on time

were those held by Peace Corps. At my Forest Rangepost office in Bhaktapur, I was

commended on being so dependable. After showing up 10 minutes late for a planned

meeting, a co-worker commented how I always arrived at the time I promised and I was

never late!! Therefore, projects in Nepal are expected to be inefficient compared to

countries with better infrastructure such as dependable public transportation and a

stronger work ethic. Considering these factors, project events should occur within a few

weeks of the scheduled times for success in this component. In general, cost should be at

or close to budget to meet the criteria. Costs of the project are based on building one

biogas plant or improved cook stove and by building in bulk the per unit cost should be

reduced.

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Stakeholders

Women in Nepal do most of the cooking and labor in the family as well as most

of the collection of leaflitter and firewood for the household use (Keizer 1994, van Vliet

1993, Tamrakar undated (a), Bajracharya 1994, Molnar 1987). A sample of Nepali

households showed women performed 100% of the cooking and dish washing, 75% of

the water and fuelwood collection, and 63% of the fodder collection (Keizer 1994).

Women also provide 50% of farm labor and must attend to childcare on their own

(Bajracharya 1994). They are the ones who will benefit most from this project, have a

vested interest in forest resources, and will be affected most by project activities. These

women are the major local stakeholders (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998). They will be the

ones who use the gas in the kitchen and will operate the improved cook stoves or biogas

plant daily. Benefits of improved health conditions in the kitchen and reduced labor in

certain activities will accrue to them. These women should be actively involved in all

areas of project design, management, and monitoring to create ownership, sustainability,

responsibility and inclusiveness (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998, Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003,

Dutta 1997, Molnar 1987). Ideally women will have an equal if not dominant place in all

project matters, have access to equal education about the technology (instead of relying

on men for information), and will be well represented on the project’s management body

(Dutta 1997, Keizer 1994, van Vliet 1993, Anon. 1990 (a), Karki et al 2003). This will

be evaluated by observing if women have an active position in the project. There must be

a majority of women on biogas managing committee and most women in biogas recipient

households must have signed the loan contract with the committee.

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Integration

Biogas technology has been beneficial to mid to upper income farmers because a

substantial amount of money must be invested, the major input for the system is cattle

manure, and wealthier farmers are less affected by risk aversion. One average family-

size biogas plant (six cubic meters) in Nepal costs approximately US$300, more than the

annual income of US$279 of an average farmer (USAID 2005). With few or no cattle

poorer farmers lack the manure input needed for the system. If they do have enough

cattle, an investment into biogas by a poor farmer is still a risk many will not take. They

would need to take a bank loan using their land as collateral because they do not have

cash. This loan must be paid on time or the farmer risks the loss of their farm. Income

from farming is hard to predict and poor farmers could default easily on a loan. For all

these reasons, it is difficult for biogas technology to benefit the poorest of the poor (Sasse

1990, Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994).

When biogas only benefits a segment of the population it should be implemented

as part of an integrated and complete community project targeting different members of

the village (Anon. 1990 (a)). Instead of only the wealthier, upper class farmers receiving

benefit, the development of the entire community is promoted in an integrated project. A

biogas project may install plants and improve the lives of the higher income farmers in

Nepal without being integrated, increasing the disparity between the lower and upper

castes. This impedes the overall development of the village. As well, donor agencies are

more likely to contribute to projects benefiting a larger community including

marginalized and poorer groups (Davies 1997). This project is complete when others

who cannot take on a biogas loan or do not have cattle are able to install improved cook

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stoves in their homes. This improved cook stove design reduces fuelwood needs and

smoke in the kitchen.

Another way to bring benefits to poor villagers is to waive the late fee to CFUG

membership so they can participate in CFUG forest resource collection. Non-CFUG

members are not allowed to collect forest resources. Many poor villagers could not or

did not want to pay for membership or late fees. The poor villagers of Nepal rely heavily

upon forest resources for their basic needs. Therefore, they are forced to illegally enter

the CFUG forest when they need fuelwood or other forest resources (Winrock 2002).

To evaluate the integration component the number of planned improved cook

stoves will be compared to the number installed to see if the project has met this goal.

This is not a complete evaluation because it does not indicate who received the improved

stoves. The number of cattle each household possesses will be used to determine wealth

and the family’s ability to install biogas. Wealth of the households will indicate if the

poorer community members were targeted and successfully included in this aspect of the

project. A majority of the improved cook stove recipients should have less than two

cows. The number of late-fee waivers for new memberships will also be counted to

indicate the success of this part of the component.

Motivation

The motivation of all project participants from inside and outside the community

can influence the success of the project. In Chhaling, the motivation of biogas

management committee members, villagers, and external office staff should be

considered. Why do they want to be part of the project? Integral to this discussion when

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examining community member’s participation is the precedence of His Majesty’s

Government’s rural development programs in Nepal. These programs strived to improve

people’s living standards for the last 50 years. However, the approach did not build

community member’s capacity (Anon. 1995 (b), Davenport et al 1989). One impact of

the rural development programs can be seen in Chhaling. Villagers believe the

government offices and aid organizations working with the government are obligated to

improve their quality of life. Compounded with their lack of confidence in their skills or

local resources, this belief has made them dependent on outside intervention to improve

their living conditions (Anon. 1995 (b)). If poor communities become dependent upon

external assistance, it can weaken the resourcefulness of the community members (Esman

and Uphoff 1984). There must be a balance between outside and local resources.

Although external assistance can be beneficial, it must be utilized with local resources.

Creating new groups with only outside resources is not a sound practice in community

development (Gow et al 1979).

Are the villagers in Chhaling involved in the biogas project so they can work for

the betterment of themselves and the community or are they looking for external aid to

better their living situation for them? Aid organizations have given money to villagers of

Chhaling in the past expecting little in return. There may be difficulty in collecting loan

payments from borrowers who perceive the money as a “gift” even after signing a

contract. This topic is sensitive and hard to evaluate. Ideally villagers involved in the

project are motivated because they want to improve their quality of life by installing the

renewable energy technologies. They are looking for assistance in the process, but not a

handout. Motivation to install biogas or improved cook stoves will also ideally come

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from recognition of the declining resources in the local community forest and the need to

conserve them for their children.

To examine this component, meeting attendance, observations, and interviews

will be used. Besides overall motivation (attendance), this component is qualitative and

cannot be displayed numerically. Motivation will also be evaluated by listening to what

people say about each other. The project will be impacted by what others think an

individual’s motivation is, even if this is not the person’s true motivation. To determine

if the motivation of participants affected the project outcome, the problems incurred

during project implementation will be examined. Those motivated by greed or fear of

losing their power within the patriarchal social structure will try to accomplish their goals

unnoticed. They may cause problems. These problems of the project combined with the

qualitative analysis of participant’s views will be used to conclude if the motivation

component was effectively managed in the project. The final evaluation will be a simple

‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.

Project Management and Design

The leaders of a project in a community should design and manage the project.

Other participants may assist with both design and management components. Ultimately,

it is the management committee members who will play the major role. The components

have been divided under the subdivisions of project management and project design,

although the two overlap. Project management will describe the roles of different players

and project design will focus on the aspects necessary to plan a project. All components

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will be discussed in terms of how they should be applied to the biogas and improved cook

stove project in Chhaling.

Project Management

The managing committee is responsible for management decisions of a project.

In developing countries assistance from field workers from government and NGO offices

is often requested from community management committees. When assisting the

community, these field workers are required to enhance the capacity of its members. In

particular their assistance in project monitoring and evaluation is needed, as these are

often neglected, but necessary, components in project management (Guggenheim and

Spears 1991, Beets 1990).

Project Managing Committee

Historically, all large groups of people need leadership to make the decisions of

the collective masses (Michels 1962). A leadership committee in the community is

necessary for project management so the decisions of implementation can be made

efficiently (Esman and Uphoff 1984). The leadership committee should develop the

project design including the project vision, goals, action plan and budget. These are all

documented aspects of project design and management and are components of this

theoretical model (Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003, Margoluis and Salafsky 1998, Davies

1997). They also must determine how monitoring and evaluation should be conducted.

The formation of a biogas management committee, a subcommittee of the CFUG, is

necessary to manage the implementation of the project in the community. They are the

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ones who will make the final decisions in the project. They will determine the

responsibilities of the technology recipients, the technical construction company(s), the

field workers of NGO or government office staff, and of themselves. Same sex female

groups in Nepal have been more successful than mixed groups at increasing the

participation of women in management (Parks People Program 2000) (Figure 6.3). Seti

Devi CFUG began this project with a leadership committee comprised of more than 75%

women.

Figure 6.3: All female groups increase girl’s skills and management capacity

Since the major stakeholders in biogas and improved cook stoves are women, the

biogas management (sub) committee should also be predominantly women. However, all

villagers, men and women at all social levels, must be enthusiastic about the project for it

to be integrated into the community.

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Role of Government and NGO Field Workers

In the biogas and improved cook stove project, the leadership (sub) committee

created to manage the project must report the progress back to the larger CFUG

committee and group members. Frequent meetings and other regulating mechanisms, as

well as monitoring by local field office and development workers, are necessary to avoid

“monopolies of power” by this committee or individuals on it (Esman and Uphoff 1984).

In Nepal, local government agency and NGO field staff employees should do this

monitoring of power dynamics. In Chhaling these are the Telkot Forest Rangepost and

the Village Development Committee staff. Development field workers of local NGOs

and offices aiding the project should also assist in this process. Checking documents,

examining work quality, and observing the actions of members are methods to be used to

monitor the project management (Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003).

Staff members of these organizations live outside the community and are treated

respectfully, external to the local social structure. Unlike village members, they can

criticize leaders without fear of social sanctions. Even if the field worker is living among

project participants, they can do this to a lesser extent. This is true for Peace Corps

volunteers like myself. Although I was integrated into the community and abided by the

social rules of Nepali culture, I was able to abandon rules more than others because I was

not from the village. I could criticize disruptive or dishonest behavior by contrasting it to

similar situations in the United States. This did not have a negative impact on my daily

life in Chhaling as I carefully weighed my remarks and gave them respectfully. As with

any criticism, field workers and office staff should give it constructively or privately to

avoid creating distrust of the entire leadership by the community.

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Project Monitoring and Evaluation

Project monitoring and evaluation are integral in maintaining the progression

towards project goals (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998). Any community development

project must include monitoring the responsibilities, awareness, budgeting, motivation,

training, and materials throughout project implementation. The committee can then

manage problems as they arise. A good monitoring plan will detail where to look for this

information such as in a budget ledger to find financial information or in meeting

attendance records to indicate motivation or awareness. The monitoring plan must

indicate in advance who monitors the activities and when they will do it (Peace Corps/

Nepal 2003).

A project evaluation is essential to examine the biogas project after the village’s

biogas plants and improved cook stoves have been installed. The following are the key

indicator questions to be asked by the committee members and field staff.

• Were the biogas plants and improved cook stoves built?

• Did people benefit from the project?

• Are loans being repaid?

• Is the managing committee still existing and planning to build more plants

from the repaid loan money?

• Did Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) – Nepal conduct its low–cost technology

research?

These factors show economic success (loan repayment) is not the only indicator to be

valued in the evaluation of the project’s success (Messerschmidt 1995, Beets 1990). The

improvement of the standard of living (the benefits gained from the building of biogas

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and improved cook stoves) and the sustainability of the committee formation with a plan

to continue building new plants are also important success indicators. Financial success

only indicates capacity of money management. The development of the organizations of

the community such as the biogas management committee and the CFUG sustains the

project and overall community development (Uphoff 1991). Funding will not do

anything if the people cannot work together (Acharya 1999). Biogas Sector Partnership’s

success conducting low-cost research is secondary to the project success in the

community because a research component is not required of all development projects.

BSP’s success in this project is important to the overall biogas program in Nepal.

If data can be collected to validate these indicators then the project can be deemed

an overall success. If one indicator is not met then its corresponding part of the project

failed. The project may still be partially successful as other indicators show success.

Assistance by local field and development workers, especially in monitoring and

evaluating of the project, is necessary to guide villagers who may not have experience in

project management. These outside workers are important in aiding the biogas

committee and community in the project in such a way as to enhance the capacity of the

villagers. The field workers must not do the work for the villagers or discourage people’s

participation because doing so will impede project success.

The evaluation of the project management components begins by checking if

committee and field workers conducted any monitoring and evaluation. To be successful

in monitoring, the committee should have recognized problems early and worked to

overcome them. This will be analyzed by assessing when problems occurred and how

and when the committee managed them, if at all. The success of the monitoring and

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evaluation component is found with the success of the total project. The indicator

questions above will be used to evaluate the overall success of the project. The assistance

given by the field workers to the community will be examined. Field workers were

successful if their actions positively impacted the project. This will be analyzed by

reviewing opinions of key informants. The field workers were successful if management

committee members perceived them positively in project implementation. However, if

some of the committee members believe the field worker is not supporting them, it

undermines people’s motivation and participation. If this occurs then all the project

design and management components of the entire system will be impacted. This would

be seen as a failure of the field workers.

Project Design

The design of the project is important so all managers understand the concept of

the project, the goals and plan of the project, and the roles of participants (Peace Corps/

Nepal 2003). A simple project design starts with a broad vision of the project and this

vision is divided into long-term goals. Goals are reached by accomplishing concrete,

shorter objectives and an action plan divides the objectives into smaller time oriented

tasks to be conducted. Table 6.2 shows a simple project design structure as a hierarchy.

The bottom row of tasks is the action plan. All these tasks must be completed

successfully before the vision of the project is met.

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Table 6.2: A Simple project design

VISION

GOAL 1 GOAL 2

Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 1 Objective 2

Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 1 Task 2 Task 1 Task 2 Task 1 Task 2 Task 3

Vision, Goals, and Objectives

A vision, goals and objectives are the first factors to be considered in the initiation

of a project design. A project vision is the dream of what the future will be with the

success of the project. Goals are individual long-term results. Collectively achieved, the

goals are the vision. The objectives of a project are shorter-term, realistic, and

measurable accomplishments necessary to fulfill a goal (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998,

Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003). It is important for the biogas project managers to envision a

community where the standard of living is improved and forest resources conserved by

the installation of biogas and improved cook stove renewable energy technology. They

need to see a future with functional biogas plants and improved cook stoves, as well as a

functioning rotating loan system to sustain the process. To achieve this vision specific

goals must include awareness activities for the community, implementing a rotating loan

system, constructing the biogas plants, and integrating the project to benefit all in the

community.

The project cannot succeed without awareness activities to inform and educate the

villagers about the benefits of biogas and improved cook stoves. Some villagers may be

familiar with these technologies, but they will still need to be convinced of the benefits.

These benefits must outweigh the financial risks for villagers who install biogas in their

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own home. Many farmers rely on person-to-person contact with somebody they trust and

respect before they are convinced of the benefits of a technology. Some will only believe

technology is advantageous after they have observed its success for some time (Moulik

1990). Illiterate community members rely on oral communication for information, not

written announcements (Acharya 1999). Information is passed along informally during

work and in passing (Figure 6.4), as well as in formal meetings. Therefore, various types

Figure 6.4: Information exchanged orally while working in fields

of awareness activities including written announcements, mass meetings, group

discussion meetings, door-to-door solicitations, and public media announcements must be

conducted. Promotional materials can be given to people at these functions to read on

their own later. It is essential to have those in the village who have previously installed

the technologies speak at meetings. As well, it is necessary to make experts in the field

available for discussions with interested villagers. Awareness information for villagers

must include the benefits of the technologies and the possible detriments, risks,

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qualifications needed, and the project’s loan system. Educating the community about the

loan parameters and co-signers instead of collateral is needed to convince them of the

reduced risk involved.

Biogas is a successful and widely adopted technology in Nepal. Many people

have heard of the technology and may trust it works. Therefore, the most important

aspect to be considered by farmers in their adoption decision is financial (Silwal 1999).

Loans and subsidies have been in use in Nepal for years to give farmers a chance to

install technologies and improve their homes. Banks use different interest rates for

different borrowers and loan types. Private loans can range from six to eighteen percent

(Shrestha et al 2004, Keizer 1994). Bank interest and government subsidy policies can

change quickly and farmers must commit property certificates (usually their farms) as

collateral (Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994, Keizer 1994). Subsistence farmers, of

course, are extremely hesitant to risk their livelihood. Those who do take bank loans may

later prefer to receive a loan from local lenders at higher rates, such as 36 percent, to pay

back the bank and procure their property deeds from the bank (Keizer 1994). Thus, many

poorer farmers will not take bank loans except during an emergency. Wealthier farmers

with large sources of outside income can take advantage of bank loans because they are

confident in their ability to pay the monthly installments and retain their collateral.

Micro-finance institutions (MFIs) are small local loan organizations in Nepal,

many of which incorporate savings and credit functions for their members. These groups

receive loans or grants from larger NGOs, government offices, or banks and have

required monthly savings deposits from their members. The members are then able to

receive loans from the group to finance income generating activities. Biogas does not

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generate direct income so it is not included in these institutions’ portfolios. Today,

organizations such as Winrock International are working to promote renewable energy

technologies’ financing by micro-finance institutions. However, villagers who secure

loans for biogas installation should have another source of income to ensure they can

make the payments (Shrestha et al 2004).

The biogas management committee of the CFUG will essentially act as an MFI

regulating the funds raised locally and internationally to give low interest, no collateral

loans for biogas installation. The committee must determine the interest rate, the

repayment period, the co-signer policy, the monitoring plan, and the rules for late

payment or loan default. The interest rate needs to be less than the local bank rate to be

an incentive for borrowers. The typical loan rate in 2005 for biogas plants in Kathmandu

Valley through the Agriculture Development Bank/ Nepal is about twelve to fourteen

percent (Karki, U.B., Pers. Comm. 2005). The management committee must confirm

borrowers have a source of income to repay the loan (Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994).

The loan payments are to be collected as part of an established rotating loan system and

are essential to continue building biogas plants or possibly other appropriate technology

(Davies 1997).

The construction of the biogas plants involves the biogas managing committee,

trained technicians, company owners, NGO staff, other field workers, and semi-skilled

laborers. To complete a biogas plant the project managers must create and sign a work

contract with the company and loan contract with the farmers (BSP-Nepal 2003 (a)). The

committee needs to negotiate with the company for a reduced price because the purchase

and transport of materials will be done in bulk. After negotiating and signing the

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contracts, materials must be transported from city to village and from road heads to the

farmhouses. The managers must organize how the materials are collectively purchased

and transported for the biogas recipients. Laborers of the families need to begin their

digging work while waiting for material delivery (Figure 6.5). Soon after skilled masons

Figure 6.5: Preparing for biogas plant construction

can start the plant dome construction. Once construction is complete, construction staff

must train household members how to operate and maintain the biogas plant. Another

training to be conducted by BSP is necessary so villagers will utilize biogas slurry (a by-

product of the system) in composting and fertilizer (BSP-Nepal 2003(a)). All of these

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components of the construction must be completed to the satisfaction of the biogas

recipients so they have confidence as users of the technology. Satisfaction of these first

biogas owners will maintain demand for the biogas plants in the community. If this first

group is unsatisfied because of improper use or poor maintenance of the plants then their

neighbors will be unconvinced of the benefits and the project will not continue.

The community integration component serves to bring improved cook stoves and

CFUG memberships to poorer community members so all villagers have access to project

benefits. Poor farmers must be included in the project so the community as a whole

benefits. An improved cook stove has fewer benefits than biogas, but will improve the

health of those in the kitchen with reduced smoke emissions when compared to

traditional stoves. Its design also reduces the amount of firewood needed. Once these

benefits are achieved and the household members are satisfied, their participation in

future projects may increase. To install an improved cook stove, a mason must be hired,

materials purchased, special bricks formed and dried, and the stove constructed. The

mason must then train the family how to use the stove and clean the chimney (AEPC

2004/2005).

These project design components will be evaluated by analyzing committee

documents. The vision, goals, and objectives created by the committee will be compared

to the corresponding propositional components. Although, an exact match is not

necessary, the same ideas should be portrayed. First, I will check if the committee

created a vision, goals, and objectives or some plan for the project. Then the content will

be examined qualitatively to determine if the theoretical vision and associated goals and

objectives were met.

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Action Plan and Budget

An action plan consists of smaller activities and tasks when completed satisfy the

objectives and long-term goals. Completion of the action plan will ultimately lead to the

project’s success. The plan or schedule should be written in advance and tell how each

task will be done, who will do it, when they will do it, and where it should be done

(Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003). There are many activities to be performed before the

project’s goals are met. The most significant activities of the awareness goal are

conducting the individual awareness activities such as meetings, community campaigns,

announcements, and brochures. The activities needed to create the loan system are

setting the loan parameters, creating the criteria for and choosing the loan recipients, and

signing the loans. To construct the biogas plants the tasks include choosing the biogas

company, creating and setting the contract with the company, creating and signing a

contract with BSP about low cost research; purchasing, gathering, and transporting

materials; delegating labor tasks; and installing the biogas plants. The last goal of an

integrated project is accomplished by creating criteria and choosing farmers for

memberships and improved cook stoves, choosing the improved cook stove mason,

signing a contract with the mason, and building the improved cook stoves. Table 6.3

shows these activities in the theoretical action plan for this project.

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Table 6.3: Theoretical action plan

Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?

Plan itinerary for first committee meeting X

CFUG president and treasurer

Create Project Goals and Objectives X X X

CFUG committee members

Form Management Committee X

CFUG committee members

Create Action Plan/ Schedule X X

Biogas Management Committee members

Goal 1: "Awareness" Objective 1: Information

Activity 1: Get biogas materials from BSP and improved cook stove information from PC office? X X X

BMC to delegate

Activity 2: Distribute information in meetings and village canvassing X X X X

BMC to delegate

Objective 2: Meetings Activity 1: Schedule, Plan and Hold Awareness Meeting about biogas and ICS project X X BMC membersActivity 2: Hold meetings and discussions and find interest X X BMC members

(Continued on next page)

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Table 6.3 continued: Theoretical action plan

Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?

Goal 2: "Loan System" Objective 1: Arrange system Activity 1: Develop management plan for loans including loan duration, payment plans, checking procedures, etc. X X X X BMC members

Objective 2: Arrange loans Activity 1: Create criteria for first BR X X X BMC membersActivity 2: Choose and meet with first BR X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X BMC members

Activity 3: Write up loan document. X X X

BMC to delegate

Activity 4: BR sign loan contract X BMC to delegate

(Continued on next page)

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Table 6.3 continued: Theoretical action plan

Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?

Goal 3: "Building Biogas Plants" Objective 1: Contracts Activity 1: Meet with biogas companies to choose company to work with X X BMC members

Activity 2 : Choose company X X BMC members

Activity 3: Write up contract with all pertinent information including itemized bill of materials and labor, repair agreement, and O & M full day training. X X X BMC membersActivity 4: If low cost research is done, meet and sign contract with BSP. X X X X BMC membersObjective 2: Materials

Activity 1: List materials needed - divide between "must purchase" and "locally available" X X X X BMC membersActivity 2: Purchase materials for plants X X X

Delegated to specific BR

Activity 3: Gather local materials for plants X X X

Delegated to specific BR

Activity 4: Transport materials to building sites. X X X

Delegated to specific BR

(Continued on next page)

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Table 6.3 continued: Theoretical action plan

Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?

Goal 3: "Building Biogas Plants" continued

Objective 3: Labor Activity 1: Determine and list all labor needed from BR X X BMC membersActivity 2: Delegate labor activities and other work to BR individuals. X X X BMC members

Activity 3: Perform labor X X X X X X X X X X X X X BR

Objective 4: Construction

Activity 1: Company constructs plants with help of BR. X X X X X X X

Biogas Company Technicians and BR

Activity 2: Company trains BR in O & M for plants. X X

Biogas Company Staff

(Continued on next page)

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Table 6.3 continued: Theoretical action plan

Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?

Goal 4: "Other Community Benefits" Objective 1: Free CFUG membership Activity 1: Create criteria for eligibility for free membership (e.g. economic, caste status) and select families. X X X BMC membersActivity 2: Give membership to families. X X X BMC members

Objective 2: Improved Wood Cook Stoves Activity 1: Create criteria and locate members who would like Stoves built. X X X BMC membersActivity 2: Create and sign contract with locally trained person(s) to build stoves. X X BMC members

Activity 3: Build stoves. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X XLocally trained mason

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The action plan and its individual activities will be evaluated using the questions

and indicators in Table 6.4. The overall project evaluation questions (page 110) will be

used to determine if the committee successfully implemented its action plan.

Table 6.4: Success questions and indicators for action plan component Question Indicator Was an action plan written? Check committee minutes and documents. Were events within two weeks of the planned time?

Check written time schedule against actual timing of events.

If timing was not efficient, did lateness affect the overall outcome of the project?

Check if main goals of the project were met even if events were not on time.

Were tasks delegated? Did people know what their responsibilities were and did they accomplish them?

Make observations and conduct interviews.

Three important tasks of the action plan have not yet been presented. The criteria

for choosing the recipients of the biogas plants are needed so the recipients are selected

uniformly. The selection of the biogas company and the improved cook stove mason by

the management committee must include examination of work quality and price

negotiation. Contracts must be created and signed by the biogas committee managers

with the biogas construction company and Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (BSP-Nepal).

The criteria for the biogas recipients are set to reduce bias in the selection of plant

recipients. Once the management committee has set the criteria, it limits their choices.

This means the committee’s own family members or friends must also fit the criteria to

be selected. The criteria are also set to ensure proper utilization of the biogas systems.

Farmers must have at least two cattle so enough dung is available to produce gas. The

farmers should also normally cook with biomass resources so their technology

conversion to biogas affects the local forest and land positively. Some wealthier farmers

transport LPG gas to their homes. Although benefits would still accrue to them, if these

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community members install biogas it will not help conserve forest resources. The

recipient’s criteria must include social parameters targeting lower caste families and

women’s participation. Female heads of the family must co-sign loan contract and attend

meetings with male heads. By insisting on these social criteria, targeted members of the

community will be represented in the project. Household women will not be dependent

on their husbands for information. The women will have access to the information first-

hand and be able to make informed decisions on their own. Minutes of committee

meeting must be checked and the qualification of biogas recipients reviewed to evaluate

this component.

Another key task in the project is choosing the biogas company and improved

cook stove mason. BSP conducts quality evaluations of the registered biogas companies.

Certified biogas technicians of this NGO sample at least 5 percent of the total plants

installed by all companies each year with at least two from each company. Companies

are committed to the high standards set by BSP because if one biogas plant is found to be

substandard then the installation company must pay a penalty to BSP. This penalty could

be the subsidy amount BSP provided for the plant or approximately twenty to thirty

percent of the cost of the biogas plant depending upon location. BSP also grades the

companies with a “Biogas Performance Index” based on how they meet standards (Karki

et al 2003). The committee has only to choose from the existing companies based on

their rating by BSP and the quantity of biogas plants constructed in the area by each

company. The choice of the improved cooks stove mason is actually more difficult than

choosing the biogas construction company because the committee members must be the

ones to evaluate the mason’s previous work. The improved cook stove masons are not

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regulated by any agency. The committee must inspect the quality of the mason’s

previous stoves. The committee’s process of hiring the mason will be analyzed to

determine if they evaluated the mason’s work.

After the committee chooses who will construct the technology, they also must

negotiate the cost of the service. For both technologies the fees should be reduced

because of bulk construction. Work contracts must include all the details of the

negotiations including costs, exact services and materials to be provided, and who is

responsible for each task. The managing committee, biogas company, and the improved

cook stove mason need to sign the appropriate work contracts. If BSP conducts low cost

plant design research then a signed agreement is also necessary between the committee

and BSP. If the low cost design fails the biogas recipient must be compensated. This

component will be evaluated by checking if contracts were signed and the pertinent

information included. The committee was successful if the contracts were sufficient to

maintain the responsibilities of the signing parties. This is also true for the loan contracts

with the farmers.

Knowing how to maintain a budget is an important skill for people and in daily

life. In all projects, precise record keeping of financial matters preserves transparency of

the actions of the fund managers. In this way leaders can be scrutinized and held

accountable for missing funds. All transactions must be written and receipts filed to

prove money has been spent the way shown in the ledger. A group bank account must be

opened for large funds (Davies 1997). In this project, a project bank account is necessary

so funds for the project are separate from CFUG funds. This is important to keep the

management committee in control of the funds and block access by other individuals in

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the CFUG. Payment plans for technology installers and the loan repayment must be

agreed upon in the contracts created between all parties.

The actual cost of all items will be compared to the known costs used in the

budget. For example, BSP has set the average construction price of approx 24,000

Nepali Rupees (about US$340) to be the average cost of a family size (six cubic meters)

biogas plant in the mid-hills. They have also delineated the cost of the materials, labor,

the service guarantee, and other fees within the construction price (Winrock International

et al 2005). This will be compared to the actual cost of these factors in constructing the

biogas plants in Chhaling. This comparison will be used to evaluate how well the

committee managed the budget. The budget documents will also be checked for

accuracy. The committee must stay within budget for the success of this component.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

This chapter defined the propositions or theory of this case study and explained

the indicators to be used to analyze success rates. The next chapter will describe the

specific methods used to collect data in the study. This data is analyzed using the

indicators to compare what actually happened in the implementation of the project in

Chhaling to the propositional components presented here.

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CHAPTER 7: DATA COLLECTION METHODS

The implementation process in Chhaling must be assessed so its components can

be compared to the propositional necessary components developed in Table 6.1, page 85-

86. This chapter explains how the project in Chhaling began, defines basic principles of

data collection in case studies, and then describes the specific methods used to assess the

community’s implementation process for this project.

Formation of the “Biogas Project”

When I arrived to the village, I assisted the District Forest Office with trainings

for all five CFUGs. In these first few months in Chhaling, I also conducted Participatory

Rural Appraisal (PRA) activities creating a seasonal farm work calendars and pairwise

ranked priorities. During this appraisal period, one group asked about biogas. Wealthy

families had been building biogas plants in the village for the last five years. We

discussed the pros and cons known about the technology. Although there are many

benefits, it is also expensive for the average farmer. After promising to return to the

group with more information, I contacted NGOs in Kathmandu to learn more about how

a biogas system worked, how to reduce costs, and what would be needed to initiate a

project in Chhaling. When I returned to this original group, they continuously showed

lack of motivation by canceling meetings and poor attendance. A training workshop had

to be cancelled because they were unable to perform small tasks necessary in preparation

for it. For these reasons, I decided not to work with them as a group. Of the remaining

two CFUGs, members of Seti Devi were motivated and spent extra time to continue

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projects started at trainings. Eventually this was the group I was to come to work with on

the “biogas project.”

In August 2003, the president of a local NGO suggested I to write a proposal to

donor agencies for assistance in financing a biogas project in my community. With the

help of CFUG members, we discussed the project idea with villagers, asked if they could

afford it, and asked if they would be interested in biogas for their homes. A main list

totaling over seventy names was generated. We decided the community was interested

and a proposal should be written. At this time, I attended a Peace Corps facilitated

Project Design and Management Training Session with the local Forest Ranger. We

developed the rough draft of a plan for the “Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy

Project” proposal (Appendix B).

The project proposal was completed in February 2004. It highlights the need and

benefits of biogas and improved (wood) cook stoves in the community. As well, it

presents goals and objectives for the project and gives a detailed action plan for attaining

the goals. Our basic goals were to build biogas plants and improved cook stoves in the

community and create a revolving loan fund to continue the construction of the biogas.

The rotating loan fund would be created by grants from external sources and funds from

internal Nepali sources. The loans system created the sustainability for project by

keeping the funds in the community. The budget shows how the community should help

in financing the project in all ways possible including funds, labor, and materials. The

proposal also maps out monitoring and evaluation. In February 2004, donors began

committing funds and in August 2004 Peace Corps transferred all funding from the

United States to Nepal.

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After deciding I could not work with the first CFUG, I was inclined to work with

a local credit and savings group familiar with lending and loan systems. This local group

proved too small and unstable. Peace Corps Natural Resources Program Officer, Dinesh

Karki, suggested discussing the project with the Seti Devi CFUG committee because

their numbers were large and motivation high. These group members were aware of the

project, as word travels fast in the village. The committee decided to work on the project

because it was beneficial both to the community and the forest and thus satisfied the

goals of their constitution and operational plan.

In May 2004, the CFUG committee began fundraising locally for the project.

Funds were acquired from the United States through St. Marks Episcopal Church

Outreach program; generous colleagues, friends, and family; and an individual

anonymous donor who doubled our budget based on the “Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable

Energy Project” proposal (Appendix B) published on the Peace Corps website. In

addition to the money raised from these generous donors in the USA, the CFUG added a

percentage of its own finances into the loan fund and raised other money from the

District Development Office in Bhaktapur.

Village life revolves around farm activities. In an earlier Participatory Rural

Appraisal (PRA) activity, the community women taught me the cycles of their farm work

(Table 4.1, page 58). There is a lull in farm activities after the rice transplanting is

completed and people have time to attend meetings. The CFUG president and I worked

closely to plan the first meeting about the project as we waited for the monsoon rains to

begin and rice transplanting to be completed. The CFUG committee chose a managing

Biogas Management Committee (BMC) and decided they needed training in Project

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Design and Management in the first meeting held in July 2004. Although fundraising

was essential for the project, this is the day that I chose to start my research, as it was the

official day that the CFUG began managing the project. This is when the ‘case’ of my

case study began.

Data Collection Principles

Appropriate principles of data collection are essential to obtain the correct data

applicable to the study’s propositions. Three important principles of data collection for

case studies are using multiple sources of data, creating a case study database, and

maintaining a chain of evidence (Yin 2003).

Using multiple sources of evidence in data collection, termed triangulation, is

useful to confirm the validity of the data collected (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998). These

complementary methods and multiple data sources corroborate facts obtained (Nichols

2000, Miller 2000). Qualitative methods are essential in exploring community attitudes

and priorities while quantitative methods give precise estimates. Employing both

qualitative and quantitative methods was important in this study’s data collection to

create a full picture of the project’s management. Information from sources such as

interviews and group meetings is supported by quantitative surveys.

The two other principles of data collection, creating a case study database and

maintaining a chain of evidence, are linked together and useful in evaluating the data

collected. The database includes field notes, physical documents, journal entries,

transcribed interviews and meetings, and tabular data. It is indexed so an individual

could easily inspect the data of the case. The evidence is used to document my analysis

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of the project managers’ implementation. By using a chain of evidence, the

documentation source supporting the results is cited so the database may be checked and

the conclusions evaluated (Yin 2003).

Data Collection Methods

After completing the case study design and protocol, specific methods were

selected to cover the wide range of data necessary. The major methods used in this case

study were participant observation, group meetings with project participants, document

collection, unstructured and semi-structured interviews of key informants, informal and

unstructured interviews of villagers, and structured interview surveys of community

forest members and biogas plant recipients in the village (Bernard 2002, Kitchin and Tate

2000, Miller 2000, Nichols 2000).

Participant Observation and Document Collection

Participant observation began upon my arrival in Nepal and continued throughout

the duration of this study. It enabled me to take notes during project activities and easily

collect data during interviews, surveys, and even document collection with a reasonable

certainty of reliability (Figure 7.1). Because I lived among the people of Chhaling, they

knew about my work as a volunteer and student from our daily conversations. In fact, my

work was often the subject of conversation when talk of farming and household chores

grew monotonous. Because the villagers were accustomed to conversing with me about

my work and research, they wanted to help me obtain correct information for my study

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Figure 7.1: Data was collected by interviewing biogas recipients and company staff

(Miller 2000). The village of Chhaling is a large community with many small

settlements and a survey brought me in contact with strangers. Often, they had already

heard about me in the village. My language skills, knowledge of Nepali etiquette, and

ability to discuss village ‘news’ also created a relaxed atmosphere with the person I was

interviewing. Researchers unfamiliar with the village would not have access to such an

atmosphere. I was confident I would receive valid responses to my questions. People

also knew that as I spoke to other villagers, any incorrect information might be uncovered

and most would not want to risk that embarrassment (Miller 2000). I did receive false

information once during a survey from a man I did not know well. Ten minutes after his

interview, this man’s neighbor informed me about false information given about his

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income. The neighbor wanted to make sure the deceit did not harm my study. Even

though I had not met the neighbor, he knew about me, where I lived and with whom, and

my work. This knowledge is what probably motivated him to inform me of the correct

information. Interestingly, I had felt that the original respondent was untruthful during

the interview. I had been thinking of who might verify his statements when the neighbor

approached me. The neighbor gave me the correct information about the man’s income.

In this instance, living in the village allowed me to obtain better information than I might

have otherwise.

I collected literature on topics that helped shape the theoretical propositions of the

case study. Internal project documents that included official letters, meeting

announcements and minutes, contracts, and financial papers were collected, translated

into English as needed, and indexed for the database found in Appendix D. These

documents were an important source for checking information given by informants about

activities and decisions in meetings. Acquiring materials at government agencies can be

long and tiresome (Barrett and Cason 1997). I was able to procure documents I might not

have received otherwise because I knew channels of communication and hierarchy within

the agencies.

Group Meetings

Participant observation was particularly important at project management

committee and CFUG meetings (Figure 7.1, page 134 and Figure 7.2). I played a support

role to the biogas committee in managing the project, but also kept a journal of

observations and discussions from all project activities. These meetings were invaluable

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Figure 7.2: CFUG members and project managers at a monthly CFUG meeting

in the data collection of this study. I witnessed the biogas committee reach the major

decisions about the basic project design and management while their meetings were in

session. In CFUG meetings, the project biogas committee reported to the larger group

about the progress and activities of the project. In all meetings I was able to observe

people discussing their ideas and views in the decision-making and monitoring process

(Davies 1997). Social interactions were noted at meetings in terms of gender and caste

hierarchy. Decision-making and motivation indicators of participants were documented.

When Peace Corps volunteers were evacuated from Nepal, this case study was

interrupted at an important phase and I missed many group meetings. Fortunately, when

I returned to Nepal I was able to rely on the interviews of key informants and I continued

attending group meetings to collect the necessary data to complete the study.

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Interviews of Key Informants

Key informants were used to gain a clear understanding of the project’s activities.

These were people who I knew would be trustworthy, well informed, observant, and

articulate about the activities of the project (Bernard 2002, Margoluis and Salafsky 1998).

Many of the key informants in this study were active participants in the project and in the

community. These included project managers and CFUG committee members, NGO and

company staff. Although they were the ones being studied, they also provided critical

observations and interpretations. Sometimes, informants would also tell me about others

I should interview or places to find more information (Stake 1995). Both unstructured

and open-ended semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants.

Unstructured interviews were used to allow the informant to direct the flow of a

conversation even as the project participant knew they were being interviewed (Bernard

2002, Nichols 2000). The topics of concern in these interviews were past circumstances,

events, or statements of others that needed further discussion. I asked questions about

meetings, project activities, or statements of others, as well as about their views of these

subjects. This sometimes led to new information that I needed to investigate (Yin 2003).

Especially upon my return to Nepal, I used interviews with key informants to open my

study up to new information.

A semi-structured style was also used in interviews to guide key informants to the

ideas and questions that were of concern to me for the study. Many questions were set up

before the interview based on information needed to compare the biogas project

implementation to the propositional management components. However, the questions

were open-ended in nature and left room for additional inquiries and responses.

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Questions could be rephrased from their original format depending on the circumstances

and the person being interviewed (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998, Nichols 2000, Roche

1999). This semi-structured interview format was also used for interviewing the director

of BSP. Although he was not a key informant for the project, his opinions and

knowledge about biogas and BSP proved invaluable in forming the background of biogas

in Nepal and the propositional necessary management components.

Interviews of Villagers

Informal interviews took place at all times as I went through my day listening to

others comments and conversing with community members. At the end of the day I

would write in a computer journal and unburden my memory to create field notes of the

day (Bernard 2002). People were aware of my study and identifying characteristics were

not revealed in the report. I also conducted unstructured interviews, which were similar

to informal conversations, where the villager specifically knew they were being

interviewed and I wrote their answers during the interview.

Structured Interview Surveys

Two rounds of surveys were conducted to gain information from the community

about the project (Appendices E and G). Many respondents of both surveys already

knew of my research. All respondents were explained their rights and permission was

gained before the interview began.

The 23 Seti Devi Community Forest Group (CFUG) members who chose to

install biogas with the project were interviewed to learn how they perceived the

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procedures of the project and to determine their view of the project’s management and

success. All participants were asked the same questions, but the questions were open-

ended because the aim of the survey was to establish the respondent’s views on the

project and management in their own words (Kitchin and Tate 2000). Because of the

open-ended nature of the questions, theses biogas recipient survey questions were not

pre-tested as they were reworded and discussed with each respondent (Appendix G).

Out of the 479 total household members of the CFUG, 76 members were

randomly surveyed before and after the biogas plant construction was completed to

determine community knowledge about the technologies and the project. The

respondents were determined using random number generation software of Microsoft

Excel. These community knowledge questionnaires utilized closed questions intended to

gain quantitative evidence about the respondents and their community (Appendix E).

The first phase of this interview also included socio-economic questions to determine the

wealth of community members. Other indicators of wealth were also used alongside

monetary questions as wealth is often found in the property and possessions in the

village. The questions were pre-tested and revised from previous survey work I

conducted with BSP Nepal in a nearby community.

The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) was used in the analysis of survey data to

indicate associations between surveyed variables. High correlation, when the coefficient

(r) is close to +1 or –1, indicates that a change in one variable implies approximately a

similar and predictable change in the other variable (Steel and Torrie 1960). This means

a correlation exists between the two variable because as the value of one variable

changes, the value of the other variable also changes. The level of significance given by

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the probability (P) shows if the value of the correlation coefficient (r) is indicative of the

relationship between the two variables. When (P) is close to zero it indicates a high

probability that the values of the variables are well described by (r). Many correlations

discussed in Chapter Eight are not strong, although they were significant (the correlation

coefficient (r) was not high, but the probability (P) that the correlation shown was

indicative of the actual relationship between the two variables was high). This indicates

other variables also had an important role in the relationship between the two variables

discussed. The Pearson Correlation coefficient statistical data sets generated by the SAS

software program is shown in Appendix I.

Data Analysis

The data results present the full picture of the project implementation process by

the biogas committee and community of Chhaling. The next chapter reveals the project’s

story – both the good and the bad. Interviews and meetings will be documented to

display the villagers in their own words and an analysis of survey data (Appendices F and

H) will support or challenge observations and statements by informants. The data was

checked for accuracy when discrepancies or weak data was collected. For example, upon

my return to Nepal in February 2005, I learned the biogas committee and I were being

accused of mismanagement of the project funds. Villagers suggested a field worker was

the originator of the accusations. After several failed attempts to meet the field worker, I

verified this information in meetings with the field worker’s supervisor and CFUG

members. When Peace Corps volunteers were evacuated, the project’s funds were

transferred to the NGO, BSP, to manage for the community. Not understanding the

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reasoning behind the transaction, the field worker believed some kind of corruption was

involved. In this way, the validity of information collected was confirmed.

Chapter Eight begins the data analysis with a discussion of the village’s

implementation process and how the process components compare to the propositional

necessary management components. Final conclusions and recommendations about what

the comparison means for the project, the community of Chhaling, and renewable energy

projects in Nepal will be made in Chapter Nine.

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CHAPTER 8: PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS IN CHHALING

COMPARED TO THE PROPOSITIONS

The objective of this study is to compare the components of the biogas project

implementation process to the propositional components (Table 8.1). After the creation

of the project proposal and fundraising by the PCV, Seti Devi CFUG formed a biogas

management committee in July 2004 to manage the project. The starting point for the

analysis of this case coincides with the formation of this committee and the end point of

the case is the collection of the loan payments for the first rotation of the project. The

events of the project implementation will be explained and each of the corresponding

propositional components involved will be compared and discussed. A picture of the

current situation updated via email and telephone conversations with many of the key

informants will also be presented.

Project Implementation in Chhaling: A Three Phase Process

The CFUG president, other CFUG committee members, the Forest Ranger, and

the village’s Peace Corps volunteer discussed the biogas and improved cook stove

project. They were satisfied that if the funding was found, the CFUG could implement it.

A biogas project proposal (Appendix B) was written to acquire funding from external

sources. The planning phase of the project began in July 2004 when the CFUG

committee wrote project goals and created a biogas management (sub) committee of five

members, upper caste with four females and one male. Training was given to this new

committee in project design and management by the Peace Corps volunteer and a local

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Table 8.1: NECESSARY IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT

Community and Social Issues: Project Management and Design: SOCIAL STRUCTURE PROJECT MANAGMENT PARTICIPATION PROJECT DESIGN

Caste

Gender

Decision-making

Integration

Optimization and Efficiency

Stakeholders

Motivation

Vision, Goals, and Objectives

Action Plan/ Schedule

Project Managing Committee

Monitoring and Evaluation

Role of Field Workers

Budget

Community Assets and Resources

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student. With the assistance of the Peace Corps volunteer, the committee wrote an action

plan and schedule of events to accomplish the project. Encouraged by the doubling of the

budget by an anonymous donor that would provide enough funds for sixteen biogas

plants and fifty improved cook stoves, they immediately began the work to achieve each

of the small tasks set out for themselves. They started by creating all the rules for the

project participants.

The Peace Corps volunteer organized the meetings between the biogas committee

meeting and two NGOs in Kathmandu, Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) and Winrock

International. BSP is the main office in Nepal facilitating the installation of biogas

plants. They wanted to perform low cost research in the Chhaling project, reducing the

cost of each plant for the biogas recipients. The biogas committee met with BSP staff to

learn about the biogas system and the low cost technology. Convinced of its benefits, the

committee decided to install the low cost plants in the project. A staff member of

Winrock International assisted the biogas committee in the creation of a rotating loan

system and contract. He trained the committee members in the correct parameters of a

good loan and in a payment collection system. Both the staff of these NGOs and the

local Forest Ranger attended the mass meeting of the CFUG members where the biogas

committee informed the villagers about the technologies and the project (Figure 8.1).

The staff from the NGOs supported the committee in explaining the process, the reason

for the loan, and the source of the funding. Loan applications were distributed in this

meeting. Interested members also gave their names and the small fee to install the

improved cook stoves at the end of the meeting.

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Figure 8.1: Field workers and villagers at the mass awareness meeting

Soon after this meeting, the Peace Corps volunteer was evacuated from Nepal due

to the escalating violence surrounding the political rebel insurgency. Although the

managers assumed the project would be cancelled, careful logistics maintained the

funding in Nepal and ensured the continuation of the project. The biogas committee

managers were afraid to have the US$3025 in foreign funds in their group account. They

believed it could be embezzled by others and asked to have an office outside the

community manage the money for them. BSP agreed to serve in this function and a

document was signed completing the transaction of funds from Peace Corps to the staff at

BSP. The biogas committee members, Peace Corps staff, BSP staff, and the Peace Corps

volunteer all signed this agreement verifying the amount and the responsibility of BSP.

The volunteer then left Nepal, to return five months later as a private citizen.

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In this time the direct implementation phase of the project began. BSP chose a

biogas company to construct the plants for the project and in a meeting attended by BSP

staff, the project, and the biogas committee, a contract was signed including the payment

and responsibilities of each party. BSP had negotiated with the company to cut the cost

by buying bulk materials and by installing the low cost technology. They agreed to build

25 biogas plants. Winrock International staff and the biogas company helped the

committee write the loan contract with the biogas recipients including the need for co-

signers and both male and female household members’ signatures. This occurred in the

beginning of October 2004 and by late November, eleven people had signed contracts.

By mid December the total had reached nineteen and by mid-February there was a total

of 23 plants being built in this first building rotation.

Construction of the plants started in the beginning of December (Figure 8.2). The

company surveyed the biogas plant sites and the biogas recipients dug the pit where the

plants would be built. The biogas company brought all the materials to the road head.

Although a little behind the schedule of the project’s action plan, construction was going

well. In mid-January the project was brought to a halt. Many of the households had run

out of cement and the biogas company said they had already given the agreed amount.

The problem was there were two work contracts written for the company – one with BSP

and one with the biogas management committee members. The former stated the specific

material amounts, but the latter stated “all the needed construction materials as per plan

and design – for 6 cubic meter plant” (Appendix D). Most of the farmers agreed to pay

for the extra materials on their own. This caused dissent in the CFUG and some villagers

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Figure 8.2: Biogas recipients assist the mason in construction

(Used by permission from Nellie Ingram 2003)

told the biogas committee members they had done poor management work. They said

because they were women, they were unable to conduct the project properly.

In January, the post-construction phase began and with it the president resigned

from the CFUG, but not from the biogas management committee. A new CFUG

committee was formed and they wanted full control of the project from the biogas

committee. When the former Peace Corps volunteer arrived back to Nepal in February

2005, the debate in the village was about who would control the project. Most of the

biogas plants were completed or near completion when she arrived (Figure 8.3) and some

were already producing gas (Figure 8.4). Loan payments were coming due. The new

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Figure 8.3: End construction and completed biogas plants

Figure 8.4: Cooking tea on a gas stove of a newly installed biogas plant

CFUG committee wanted this responsibility believing the funds belonged in the CFUG

account. The biogas committee members were unsure if the motives of the new CFUG

committee members were only selfish benefits. They were worried because in the past

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other villagers had been able to embezzle group funds. The new CFUG committee

expressed their disapproval of the project’s management by the biogas committee. In the

CFUG committee members’ eyes, the biogas committee had signed a faulty loan contract

costing the villagers money. They believed the biogas committee members might be

using project money for their own benefit because the group account was in the personal

name of two members. The new CFUG members also said the biogas committee

mismanaged the external source fund by allowing Peace Corps to give it to BSP. As

well, they believed the biogas management committee would not be able to collect the

loan payment on their own for two reasons, they were not supported by the CFUG and

they were women.

A meeting to discuss and solve these issues was held at the District Forest Office

on March 9, 2005. The biogas management committee, CFUG committee members, BSP

staff, biogas company staff, District Forest Office staff, the District Forest Officer, the

former Peace Corps Natural Resources Program Officer, and the former Peace Corps

volunteer all attended this meeting. The outcome was a new biogas project management

committee with seven members, the original five members and two added from the

CFUG. In this way, collaboration was formed between the two committees. Today this

collaboration still exists, although the group has shrunk to four members, two members

from the former biogas committee and two members from the new CFUG committee.

They are collecting loan payments and as of October 2005 there is demand for five more

plants. Members of the biogas committee have emailed with assurance that the project is

continuing and with the end of the monsoon rains, the demand for plants in the 2005-

2006 dry season should increase.

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Comparison of Implementation Components to the Propositions

Implementing the project was not an easy task for the biogas management

committee. They had to consider many components, manage different groups of people,

and complete many activities. The committee successfully completed the installation of

the biogas and improved cook stove renewable energy technologies in Chhaling.

Throughout the three phases of the first rotation of biogas plants, they had both successes

and failures in managing the propositional implementation components of the project. A

discussion and evaluation of the success of each component follows. Many components

overlapped chronologically and analytically in the implementation process. Issues that

affected the project, but were not included in the propositions of this case study, are also

presented.

Community Assets and Resources (Participation)

Dependence on external funding can be detrimental to a community. Villagers

develop expectations for outside forces to improve their lives without making much of an

effort. Internal community resources included in a project create a sense of ownership of

the project and the infrastructure built (Gow and VanSant 1981, Esman and Uphoff

1984). This project was developed with external funding as a major source of input to

create the rotating loan fund. Donors in the United States granted funds through the

Peace Corps Partnership Program. To be accepted by this program the community and

local sources had to contribute at least 25% of the total budget as monetary or “in-kind”

contributions.

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When first introduced to the CFUG president, she said the CFUG committee

would give approval and funds for the project. This amount, 8000 Nepali Rupees (just

over US$100), was 80% of their entire forest group funds. The biogas recipients were

also to contribute in-kind semi-skilled labor such as carrying materials, digging the pit,

mixing the concrete, and assisting the masons. The in-kind contribution was estimated at

6000 Nepali Rupees (about US$80) per plant. The Ranger, the CFUG president, and the

Peace Corps volunteer solicited funding from the District Development Committee

Office. The Local Development Officer committed 20,000 Nepali Rupees

(approximately US$265) to assist the project. Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP-Nepal)

manages the government subsidy commissioned from the Alternative Energy Promotion

Center (AEPC). At the time of the project, BSP committed 8500 Nepali Rupees

(US$114) per constructed biogas plant.

Although the original plan was to build eight plants and 25 improved cook stoves,

an increase in funding doubled the budget. The final project proposal (Appendix B) was

written to construct sixteen biogas plants and fifty improved cook stoves. The CFUG and

Local Development Officer did not increase their monetary contributions, but the

community’s semi-skilled labor increased, as did BSP’s contribution. Once the budget

was recalculated, the community had committed approximately 26% of the funding for it

in monetary and “in-kind” labor and materials. The District Development Office

contributed almost 4% of the funding, BSP gave 26% in the form of a subsidy payment to

the biogas company, and funding from foreign donors amounted to 44% of the project

resources. Commitments from multiple groups and offices created an atmosphere of

partnership in project development.

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In the direct implementation phase, the biogas recipients dug the pits, carried the

materials, mixed the cement, and assisted the technicians in the construction of the biogas

plants (Figure 8.2, page 147). According to the biogas recipient survey, the division of

labor based on gender and caste was significant. After the biogas company brought the

materials to the road head, women carried materials in almost all households (91%). Men

in lower caste households were more likely to help carry materials than men in upper

caste households (r = 0.64889, where r = the Pearson correlation coefficient; P = 0.0011,

where P = level of significance). In general, when women carried the materials, the men

did not (r = 0.51640, P = 0.0139). Women in lower caste households were more likely to

assist the masons and dig than those in upper caste households (r = 0.36274, P = 0.0971; r

= 0.79582, P<0.0001). Upper caste women have more restrictions on the labor they do.

They are deemed incapable of performing tasks associated with strength and technical

knowledge.

Unfortunately, the low cost design became problematic for the villagers. It is

uncertain if the biogas recipients were clearly informed of BSP’s low-cost research

because the villagers used more cement than necessary for the design. An agreement

about the low cost design between the biogas committee and BSP was never signed. Yet,

the biogas company and BSP staff determined the cost for each plant based on using a

reduced amount of cement. Farmers mixed the concrete during building and ultimately

every farmer ran out of cement before construction was complete. Construction came to

a halt for about a month when the company refused to give more cement without more

money and the villagers refused to pay. Eventually, a meeting was held where the

villagers agreed to pay more for the materials necessary to complete the plants. Their

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community contribution to the project increased. Some biogas recipients blamed the

biogas management committee for signing a faulty work contract with the biogas

company.

The source of the funding was an important issue in the planning phase of the

project. One committee member asked me to speak in the mass meeting about the donors

in the United States. Others in the committee said the foreign source should not be

revealed. A previous project in the community was completely funded by foreigners who

granted the funds to the villagers. Even with the loan contract, the biogas committee

members were worried the biogas recipients would think they did not have to repay it.

The female CFUG committee president, Meena, said they should explain the Peace Corps

volunteer’s role in the project as a trainer, but not reveal the funding was from the United

States. The committee decided to say the money was given to the CFUG from an office

in Nepal to help with biogas and ICS. During the mass meeting, another project

participant revealed the foreign source. In the post-construction phase, this issue seems

to have been alleviated. Twenty-one of the 23 biogas recipients from the first round are

paying back their loan consistently.

Project Design and Project Management

Creation of the Vision, Goals, Objectives and Project Management Committee

The Seti Devi Community Forest User Group (CFUG) committee planned a

meeting for the end of rice planting season in July 2004. The main goals of this meeting

were to discuss and approve the biogas and improved cook stove project idea. Meena

conducted the meeting with assistance from their Peace Corps volunteer, the local Forest

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Ranger, and a local student. The group reviewed its main goals, how the project related

to them, and decided they would initiate the project by creating a sub-committee of the

CFUG to manage it.

Meena, the Ranger, the student, and the PCV had planned the meeting to include

basic training in project design and management for the CFUG members. Necessary to

implement the project, the training would begin on this day and continue in subsequent

biogas management committee meetings. The PCV, student, and Ranger would assist the

CFUG in the project management, but the training was to teach the managers basic skills

to implement the project implementation on their own. Training was derived from the

Peace Corps “Project Design and Management” workshop and included how to create

realistic goals and how to form an action plan from the goals. The training was focused

on strategies to make the project easier such as accomplishing small tasks, creating a

timeline, defining the roles and responsibilities, networking for assistance, frequent

meetings of the biogas management committee, and monitoring by the CFUG committee.

The trainers emphasized completing the small tasks of each goal in the action plan to

achieve the overall vision of the project.

The main vision of the project was determined by the CFUG in a discussion about

what the project should accomplish to fit into the CFUG’s own mission and goals. The

following is directly translated from meeting minutes for July 20, 2004.

Overall objective for the biogas and improved cook stove project (vision):

The purpose of this construction is to save forest and develop [improve] the

lifestyle or living standards of the people of this area. To accomplish this we will

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construct biogas plants and smokeless stoves. We will also provide loans without

collateral and with low interest to the farmers so that they can protect or preserve

the forest and improve their lives. So, the next purpose of this project is to

provide support to helpless/poor farmers, who cannot construct biogas plants, to

install the improved cook stoves without any cost. From this poor farmers also

will be benefited. This project will completely run and planned by the members

of the Community Users groups and Ranger and PCV will be advisors for this

project.

The CFUG committee succeeded in recognizing and creating four major goals for the

project (Table 8.2). The field workers advised the CFUG members to create criteria for

the new biogas committee members. The resulting decision by the CFUG was to require

Table 8.2: Goals and objectives formed by the CFUG in the first planning meeting Goal #1: Inform all Community Forest Members:

• Posting notice • Houses visits • Group meeting

Goal #2: Create Loan System Policy

• Prepare policies • Convince people to become biogas plant owners

Goal #3: Construct 16 Biogas Plants

• Select a company and prepare agreement • Agreement with Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) • Discuss regulations with biogas plant owners (pre-construction) • Collect materials • Provide training by the BSP

Goal #4: Construct 50 Smokeless Stoves and Provide 25 Memberships for a Small Fee.

• Select technician who makes improved cook stoves. • Prepare policy

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the new committee to consist of three different caste levels and five or six members, four

of whom must be women. They knew they should include all people when conducting

social work and they understood the project’s main beneficiaries were women.

Participants of the meeting volunteered to be on the biogas management committee and

the end result was four women and one man. Only two caste levels were represented;

four of the five biogas committee members were upper caste and only one woman, an

ethnic Tamang, fit into the middle caste category, lower than the upper caste, but are

considered clean. However, the CFUG committee members attending this planning

meeting were also of these two caste levels only. Other Tamang members present were

unable to make the time commitment. The group discussed whether to invite other

middle caste level members onto the biogas management committee who had not

attended the meeting. They determined the others must be too busy to attend the meeting

and as such, were unreliable. This successfully completed the formation of a

management committee with key stakeholders representative of the CFUG members.

In the following meeting of the biogas management committee, they completed

the objectives for each goal (Table 8.2, page 155) and elected a treasurer, Anar, to handle

the funds. It was necessary for her to be trained in basic account keeping skills. Meena

naturally began to take a leadership role in the new committee because of her leadership

on the CFUG committee. All the others agreed she was the person with the most

experience. They decided to meet again the next day to work on the action plan. They

realized they needed to complete it to get the project running. Meetings were scheduled

close together so Meena would have more time for her husband when he returned from

his work outside Kathmandu Valley. Meena’s household responsibilities increased when

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her husband was home so she did not have time to perform CFUG functions. The biogas

project committee had to work around this gender-based problem. They scheduled

meetings quickly, anticipating the arrival of Meena’s husband in a few short weeks after

the new committee was formed.

Creating an Action Plan and Accomplishing Its Goals

In the second and third meetings of the biogas management committee, an action

plan was created for the project by discussing each goal and objective (Table 8.3). They

wrote the tasks needed to accomplish each goal, the people responsible, and the deadline

for each task based on the project design and management training. All of the tasks of

the action plan were conducted during the planning and direct implementation phases of

the project. Some of the tasks for each goal will be discussed so the success indicator

questions can be answered for this component (Table 6.4, page 125). The process of

creating the action plan was chaotic. Members would begin to discuss the details of each

task, unable to stay on point to complete the entire plan in one meeting. The decisions

were made using consensus.

The first task to be accomplished was a mass meeting to inform the CFUG

members about the project. This activity was leading toward the achievement of the

awareness goal, the first goal of the action plan (Table 8.3). While completing the action

plan, the members discussed the date and itinerary and decided to hold the mass meeting

after one month on August 28, 2005. They completed a draft of a community notice

announcing the project and the date of the mass meeting. All five members were to

speak about the different topics in the mass meeting.

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Table 8.3: The biogas management committee’s action plan What? Who? When? Where? Goal #1.: Inform members

- Prepare Notice - Buy materials - Post notice - Set meeting place and time - Call People

All members of sub Committee

July 25, 2004 (notice) After August 21 (materials) August 28, 2004(meeting)

Radha Krishna Primary School

Goal #2: Loan System - Prepare rules - Select people that want to have Biogas Plant - Discussion with Farmers

Ranger and PCV, Members of subcommittee, and Winrock staff will support

August 5, 2004 After August 28 Mid-September

Radha Krishna Primary School 10:30 AM

Goal #3.: Sixteen Biogas Plants Construction Objective 1: Select company - Find out company that works

better - Prepare questionnaires to

discuss with BSP office - Contact with three BSP

construction companies. - Select one construction

company - Tell company and consult with

them

All members of Sub-committee

Select company before August 28

Range-Post office

Goal #3 Objective 2 Agreement with BSP about low cost - Discuss with BSP - Sign on agreement

Sub-committee August 2, 2004 and August 23

Kupandole

(Continued on next page)

159

Table 8.3 continued: The biogas management committee’s action plan What? Who? When? Where? Goal #3 Objective 3 Contract with farmers - First meeting and sign

on agreement (with farmers).

- Meeting about works and responsibilities

- Checking

Sub-committee After August 28

Goal #3 Objective 5 Find place for biogas plant - Set a place - Dig a hole - Company’s work

(construction) - Trainings on

Operation and Maintenance

- Operate biogas plant - Training about

fertilizer

Company Farmers Company

Company Farmers B. S. P

Mid November to Mid January

Goal #4 Improved cook stoves and membership - Prepare rules for ICS

and membership receivers (choose the receivers and meet them.)

- Select the ICS mason - Sign agreement with

mason - Construct Stoves - Distribute

membership

Sub-committee ICS mason Sub-committee

Mid August Mid September Mid October to Mid January

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Before the mass meeting, four of the five members traveled to meet with staff

from Winrock International and Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (BSP-Nepal). In these

two meetings, these members learned the information needed to plan and implement the

project and to explain the process to the CFUG members. Winrock International staff

trained the committee in the creation of a rotating loan system with low interest and no

collateral, the second goal of the action plan (Table 8.3, page 158). At BSP, they learned

the basic principles of low cost biogas, more about the biogas system, and work needed

to accomplish the construction of the biogas plants, the third goal of the action plan

(Table 8.3, page 158-159). As in any project, the biogas management committee was

working on small tasks involving all the goals at once. Once back in the village, the

committee discussed the loan system and the criteria for choosing villagers to receive the

loan, part of the second goal. The criteria were written into questions and a loan

application was created. A smaller set of criteria was written for the recipients of the

improved cook stoves. Also, by comparing the pros and cons, the committee decided to

use low cost technology from BSP for the project, part of the third goal of the action

plan. The Ranger helped plan the agenda of the mass awareness meeting. They

expected the villagers to ask them about the amount and source of funding for the project.

The biogas committee considered asking Peace Corps to give the money to the District

Forest Office for the CFUG. The Forest Officer could then put the money in the CFUG

account and could monitor the funds. The issue was left undecided.

The mass awareness meeting was held on Saturday, August 28, 2004 at a nearby

local primary school (Figure 8.5). Approximately 100 people attended the three-hour

meeting. As decided by the biogas committee, the Peace Corps volunteer did not

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Figure 8.5: Biogas committee informed villagers at a mass meeting

participate and observed this meeting from the side. The amount and source of the

money was the main question raised by the members from the beginning of the meeting.

The people asked if they could get the biogas plants for free. The 8500 Nepali Rupee

(US$114) government subsidy administered by BSP, the villagers’ down payment, and

loan was explained. The CFUG president told villagers they must provide a down

payment to prove they were responsible. She said only if they were responsible would

the project be successful. The Ranger informed the villagers the funding came from

Peace Corps and the Bhaktapur District Development Office. He did not mention the

District Forest Office as previously suggested, but did include in his speech his office’s

role in monitoring and punishing the CFUG committee members if they were corrupt.

He also suggested if the villagers worked hard then future biogas plants might be free.

People may have lost enthusiasm about being the first to adopt the biogas technology

because of this statement. If it will be free later, why should they pay now to install it?

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However, this point was not debated by anybody at the meeting. Other staff from BSP

again explained the financial matters of the biogas construction and the quality of the

plants. The family of a young woman in the audience had installed a biogas plant and the

people asked her questions. She listed the benefits to her family and the amount it cost

them, 15,000 Nepali Rupees (US$214). She also described the problems. Less gas was

produced in the winter and the biogas plant consumed 36 kilograms of dung per day.

Meena introduced the improved cook stove component of the project. She

maintained it was for those without cattle, part of the fourth goal of their action plan

(Table 8.3, page 159). A teacher in the audience had received training in building

improved cook stoves. He commented on the benefits of the improved stoves and the

ease of obtaining the local materials to build it.

The second objective of the integration goal, CFUG memberships, created a

major debate. Some villagers did not want the CFUG to provide memberships without

late fees because when memberships were first solicited, many rich villagers did not

become members. Then when the rich needed something from the forest in an

emergency, they would quickly pay the membership fee. Why should rich farmers now

receive a benefit because they were delinquent in paying for membership earlier? After

the meeting, the CFUG was unsure if they would conduct this part of the community

integration goal. Household names and the fee of 50 Nepali Rupees were taken for the

improved cook stoves initiating the integration goal. The biogas plant application forms

for the loan system goal were also distributed to 50 people to be completed and returned

in a week. The meeting successfully informed a large percentage of the community

about the biogas and improved cook stove project. The committee would also later

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canvass the village informing people about the technologies and the project to find

interested households. Together these activities fulfilled the awareness goal of their

action plan.

After the completion of the meeting, a villager announced the disbandment of the

current CFUG committee in two months. Meena announced she would also resign in

January after the project first phase of the project was completed. BSP staff had

supported Meena in the meeting when villagers challenged her statements. They told her

after the meeting not to be frustrated with the challenges of the villagers because this is

the way community meetings are in Nepal. They promised to help her in conducting the

project.

Project managers successfully conveyed the information about the project and the

two renewable energy technologies to the community members. The results of the

community knowledge surveys revealed few villagers knew about the project in the

planning phase (nine percent). In the post-construction phase 91% were aware of the

project. Villagers who knew about the project in the post-construction phase also had

more knowledge about the benefits of improved cook stoves than those people unaware

of project. They understood the improvements in health and reduction in firewood (r =

0.26574, P = 0.0297; r = 0.33797, P = 0.0052). People aware of the project in the post-

construction phase also knew the committee and CFUG were working to provide

assistance with adopting improved cook stove and biogas renewable energy technologies

(r = 0.37014, P = 0.0020; r = 0.32800, P = 0.0067). The community knowledge survey in

the planning phase revealed people of higher caste are more likely to be interested in

biogas (r = (-) 0.50289, P = <0.0001). In the post-construction phase wealthier families

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were more likely to be interested in the technology because as land, grain sales, office

salary, male income, and army income increased so did the desire to install biogas (r =

0.35231, P = 0.0037; r = 0.32518, P = 0.0073; r = 0.26593, P = 0.0296; r = 0.29147, P =

0.0167; r = 0.23347, P = 0.0572 respectively). These correlations are weak, but still

statistically significant.

To evaluate the action plan and the accomplishment of its activities, indicator

questions developed in Table 6.4, page 125 were answered (Table 8.4). Overall, the

Table 8.4: Success questions and answers for the action plan component Question Answers Was an action plan written? Yes. Were events within two weeks of the planned time?

Only for some tasks, some tasks were accomplished more than one or two months late.

If timing was not efficient, did lateness affect the overall outcome of the project?

Lateness did not affect overall outcome of the project, but did affect the changing of management.

Were tasks delegated? Did people know what their responsibilities were and did they accomplish them?

Yes. Overall, the biogas recipients, company, and committee knew their responsibilities. Within the committee, one or two people did most of the work. Two people on the committee did little work on the project.

biogas management committee accomplished most of the activities of the action plan.

Unaccomplished tasks and objectives were preparing and signing an agreement with

BSP, selecting and distributing new CFUG memberships at a reduced fee, and choosing a

biogas company by the biogas committee. The tasks of the awareness goal to inform

members were conducted on time. However, the tasks of the loan system goal were

completed two months after the scheduled time. The activities for constructing the plants

varied in their time efficiency. The company was selected by BSP instead of the biogas

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management committee about a month later than scheduled and an agreement about the

low cost technology was never completed. The committee had not put a time-line on the

selection of the biogas recipients. Construction by the company began only two weeks

behind schedule. However, most plants were not completed until the middle to end of

February, at least a month late. The biogas management committee succeeded in

accomplishing all of its project goals, even if they were conducted later than planned.

Budget Management

The biogas management committee elected a treasurer trained by the Peace Corps

volunteer in basic account management before Peace Corps evacuation from Nepal.

They kept a typical ledger for the group management and improved cook stove expenses

(Appendix D) funded by the District Development Committee and the CFUG. They also

collected the down payment from the biogas loan recipients and paid it to the company

through this account. When the former Peace Corps volunteer returned to the village in

February 2005 to finish data collection for the case study, the treasurer and president had

all the correct receipts for the committee purchases. Unfortunately, the account book had

not been kept up to date with the transactions. It took several meetings to sift through the

paperwork and get the account up to date. This poor bookkeeping was not a major issue.

It could have been had the former volunteer not returned to finish the data collection for

this study.

BSP managed the external source funds for the biogas committee and through

their negotiations with the biogas company, 25 biogas plants were contracted instead of

the sixteen originally planned in the budget. The cost of each plant was 17,500 Nepali

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Rupees (US$250), a far smaller amount than the average cost of 24,000 Rupees

(US$342) for a six cubic meter biogas plant. In the survey conducted, biogas recipients

reported they paid on average 1760 Nepali Rupees (US$25) extra for cement, other

materials, pipelines, and two-mouthed gas stove appliances. The total for each plant was

then 19,260 Nepali Rupees (US$275), about 4740 Nepali Rupees (US$67) less than the

average cost.

One major monetary issue was the separate bank account created by the

committee members when the project had begun. In July 2004, before the mass meeting

was held, funds from the District Development Committee arrived and a project bank

account was opened separately from the CFUG account. Unfortunately, the bank would

not allow them to put it into a separate subcommittee account of Seti Devi CFUG without

a letter from the District Forest Office. Meena and Anar opened a joint account in their

personal names planning to change it as soon as they could obtain the letter. During the

direct implementation phase, this would cause two obstacles to success of this

component. First, the new CFUG members felt the funds should be in the group account,

as the project originally began as a group project. Second, villagers began to think

Meena and Anar were corrupt in the management of the funds.

During the planning phase, Bharat, a male CFUG member, declined to join the

new biogas committee. The Peace Corps volunteer asked him why and learned a new

CFUG committee would be formed a few months later. He said other community

members wanted to be on the CFUG committee because of the money this project was

bringing from the District Development Office. Bharat was convinced these new

members would take control of the biogas project and embezzle all the money. The

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volunteer explained to him it was not possible for them to steal money if the proper

precautions were taken. He remained skeptical and did not want to join the committee.

The new CFUG wanted control of the project and the project funds. The biogas

committee members did not trust their intentions and the new CFUG members did not

trust the previous work or motives of the biogas committee. In the post-construction

phase of the project, this caused a great debate in the community group over who should

manage the project and who was in control. The success of the rotating loan system and

the sustainability of the project was in jeopardy. If the people did not know who was in

control, they might not make their loan payments. The issue was solved through the

collaboration of the biogas management committee and the new CFUG members. As of

October 2005, the payments are being collected into the CFUG bank account with a new

biogas management committee made up of original biogas committee members and

members of the new CFUG committee. The president of the CFUG monitors the

collection and the account funds.

Field Workers

Field workers played various roles in the project assisting the community to work

with the biogas company and improved cook stove mason to complete the project’s goals.

Field workers had both a positive and negative impact on the project implementation.

They trained the biogas management committee in the skills necessary to design, manage,

and conduct the project. Training was also given in techniques to accomplish specific

project goals such as the loan management system and managing the construction of the

biogas plants. Field workers met with the biogas management committee and assisted

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them in alleviating project obstacles (Figure 8.6). The committee had their assistance in

writing and signing work and loan contracts. Encouraged by field workers, the biogas

committee members had confidence and believed in their abilities, even with unfavorable

comments by the villagers about their gender.

Figure 8.6: Field workers met and supported the biogas committee

Negative impacts of field workers assistance are associated with the main

problems of the project. When helping the committee write the work contract with the

company, they did not advise the committee to ask about the detailed responsibilities of

the company. The contract left out important information about the amount of materials

(Appendix D) and this formal agreement was then ineffective. A verbal agreement was

needed after the shortage of the materials to complete the biogas plants (Guggenheim and

Spears 1991). Ultimately, the biogas committee was held responsible for the mistake and

deemed incapable of doing quality work.

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Another negative effect of field workers was a topic of conversation in a CFUG

monthly committee meeting during the planning phase. Some field workers wanted extra

payment from the CFUG for their assistance. The CFUG members said the field workers

would not assist them or may even block the committee’s work in this project if they

were not paid. The CFUG and biogas committee did not receive consistent support from

these field workers. It is unknown whether they attempted to hinder the CFUG’s work.

The Peace Corps volunteer’s affect as a field worker was also positive and

negative. Many villagers saw her as the source of the funding and involved in project

management. Untrusting villagers even implied the possibility she could be corrupt and

used this against the biogas management committee. The volunteer promoted women as

managers of the project, convincing and encouraging the women in the biogas committee

to take on non-traditional leadership roles. The committee members conveyed their

uncertainty about some village males, traditionally the leaders in the community.

Increasingly the committee worked on the margins of the traditional decision-making

system in the village, unsupported by male village members in the planning phase. Later

high caste men used the biogas committee’s isolated position against them. Yet, the

women gained confidence and self-esteem. Not only did they understand their struggle

within the conservative patriarchal system, they believed they could actively promote

change. Two women of the group expressed how they see themselves as the female

pioneers in their village, the ones to inspire younger female students to work harder, go to

school longer, and have an identity of their own.

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Monitoring and Evaluation

A monthly CFUG committee meeting during the planning phase was held one

week before the mass meeting. Eleven women and one man attended this meeting. The

main purpose of the meeting was to hear the biogas committee’s report, to officially

record the decision to conduct the project, and to record the commitment of 8000 Nepali

Rupees from the CFUG for the project. A field worker in attendance criticized how the

biogas committee reported to the CFUG. The meeting participants gave proper respect to

the field worker in the meeting. They did not heed his advice that all CFUG members

manage the project together because other field workers had encouraged a small biogas

management committee.

During the direct implementation phase, the biogas committee members checked

the biogas plants as they were being built. They learned of the shortage of materials,

primarily cement. The committee called upon BSP and the biogas company owner to

mitigate the problem. Although not completely resolved to the villagers’ satisfaction, it

was solved within a month.

The biogas committee also monitored project control and the collection of the

loan payments. During the direct implementation phase, rumors about corruption and

lack of ability to work with the biogas company had circulated in the village. However,

the committee did not address the issue until the former Peace Corps volunteer returned

in the post-construction phase. When the president resigned from the CFUG in January

2005, she was the sole representative of the biogas committee in the meeting.

Bombarded with accusations about her inability to manage the project on her own, she

was told to resign from both committees. She refused to give in and awaited the former

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Peace Corps volunteer’s arrival for advice. The returned field worker obtained

information about the progress of the project from the biogas management committee,

villagers, biogas recipients, and government and NGO staff. The District Forest Officer,

former Peace Corps Natural Resource Program Officer, and former Peace Corps

volunteer convinced the biogas management committee and the new CFUG committee to

work together.

The evaluation component is examined by answering the key indicator questions

(Table 8.5). According to these indicative questions the overall the project was a success.

Table 8.5: Evaluation component questions and answers Questions Answers Were the biogas plants and improved cook stoves built?

Yes.

Did people benefit from the project? Yes. As of March 2005, all the improved cook stoves were installed and as of August 2005, all the biogas plants were producing gas.

Are loans being repaid? Yes. As of August 2005, there are only two biogas recipients who are late paying the monthly loan installments.

Is the managing committee still existing and planning to build more plants from the repaid loan money?

A management committee still exists, but it now has two new members and two former members. The committee is half women and half men, all upper caste. They are planning to build five new biogas plants in the 2005-2006 dry season and believe the demand will increase as the weather dries.

Did Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) – Nepal conduct its low–cost technology research?

Only in some biogas plants. BSP attempted to install the technology through the biogas company, but the villagers were uninformed about the low cost design. The villagers saw the shortage of materials as low quality design and some inlets of the biogas plants exhibited chipping (Figure 8.7). Many biogas recipients paid more money for more materials to install biogas plants of the general design in Nepal.

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The only component to fail was the installation of low cost technology. Uninformed

about the technology, the villagers used the cement in the concrete mixture with the

higher proportions they use for other purposes. This led to a shortage of material. The

biogas recipients eventually chose to pay for more cement and construct what they

considered higher quality biogas plants. Two households were observed with chips on the

biogas plant inlet (Figure 8.7). Both families had purchased one extra bag of cement.

Figure 8.7: Chipped inlet of a biogas plant installed during the project

The inlet was constructed last, with less cement when supplies were low. Although this

should not affect the construction of the dome under the ground and the company

guaranteed all the plants for ten years, a biogas recipient might feel the entire plant was

of low quality. However, survey questions about the success of the project indicated 77%

believed it a success while the remaining 23% responded it might be a success. This 23%

were hesitant because they wanted to see the success of their individual biogas plant (r =

0.64207, P = 0.0013). The new biogas management committee, formed from the new

CFUG committee and the former biogas committee in the post-construction phase, is

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conducting the collection of the loan installments as of October 2005 and is facilitating

the construction of more biogas plants for the 2005-2006 dry season.

Remaining Components of Participation

Optimal and Efficient Participation during Implementation

Development of the community as a whole only occurs with participation of all

people in the different aspects of the project. Decision-making and planning are

empowering activities and should involve community members from all levels of society

(Miller 2000). However, optimal participation is not necessarily maximum participation

(Esman and Uphoff 1984). A biogas sub-committee was formed by the Seti Devi CFUG

to manage the biogas and improved cook stove project. They were responsible for the

major decisions for the collective masses of CFUG members (Michels 1962)

According to key informants from the biogas committee and BSP, the biogas

management committee completed all the work for the project together. All the

committee members worked to convince their neighbors and went on rounds to monitor

the installation of the plants at least once. The former CFUG president and biogas

committee leader by default, conducted most of the project’s activities either on her own

or by designating others on the committee to assist her. The informants, observations,

and interviews of biogas recipients all revealed Meena as the leader and prime entity

associated with the project. It was commonly stated, “She did all the work” or “She is

the one who explained/ convinced us/ helped us.” Of the 22 respondents in the biogas

recipient survey, 63.6% named her the main project manager. Half of those respondents,

31.8% of the total, also included another woman on the committee, Anar, as a manager.

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Only 13.6% named ‘Anar’ only as the main manager. The remaining respondents felt

either the biogas management committee as a whole was managing (4.5%), the CFUG

was managing (13.6%), or they did not know who the managers were (4.5%). Upper

caste households especially indicated Meena as the primary manager (r = (-) 0.52566 P =

0.0120) and the few lower caste biogas recipients named Anar (r = 0.43529 P = 0.0429).

The lower caste households are all located closer to Anar’s home and were probably in

contact with her more than with Meena.

The sole female middle caste member of the biogas committee missed meetings

and rarely spoke when she attended. Another committee member proposed this was

because the other woman probably did not think she understood the discussions as well as

the rest of the committee. The next day the silent member confirmed her friend’s

assertion. “I do not speak without understanding, “ she said. The others tried to convince

her to ask, as other members do, when information is unclear. Although she is a member

of a clean caste, this biogas committee member is the only person who is not upper caste.

This may explain her trepidation. Overall most biogas committee meetings had 100% or

80% participation rates.

The survey of biogas recipients taken in the post-construction phase revealed 70%

of them attended some meeting about the project. The community knowledge survey

taken at the same time also indicated 91% of the people in the sample knew about the

project. The mass meeting to educate the CFUG member about biogas and improved

cook stove technologies and inform them about the project was attended by

approximately 100 people. If each person represented one household of the CFUG, about

20% of the CFUG’s households attended. Overall, the community’s participation was

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high, although biogas recipients who had missed meetings earlier were the ones to blame

the biogas committee’s management of the project for the problem with the biogas

company about the materials.

Time efficiency varied for the different tasks of the project; many were conducted

months after the planned time for the event. Although some biogas recipients responded

that the project materials arrived late and it took a long time to construct the plants, the

success of the project’s goals was not impeded by the delays. In terms of cost efficiency,

the project budget was maintained, and more biogas plants were built than originally

planned. The only issue was the extra, unplanned costs incurred by the biogas recipients.

The managers would have built fewer plants with a small increase in the size of

individual loans.

Stakeholders

Women are the major stakeholders in the project. They receive the greatest

benefit from the installation of the renewable technologies and perform the labor for daily

maintenance and operation of the biogas plants and the improved cook stoves. They are

the cooks, household laborers and caretakers for the family and their belongings,

including farmyard animals. Women played a dominant part in the implementation of the

project in Chhaling. They were the majority of the biogas management committee and

they led the CFUG until the post-construction phase of the project. With the advice of

the staff of BSP and Winrock International, the women leaders made the community

aware of the project, signed work and loan contracts, and monitored the construction of

the biogas plants and improved cook stoves.

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The biogas management committee worked to include women from the

households in the decision-making process. Canvassing the community, they spoke with

both women and men of the households and explained the project process and benefits of

the renewable technologies. The two outspoken women on the committee signed all the

loan contracts with the biogas recipients. Meena, the main leader, signed twelve, and

Anar signed seven. The remaining three households responding to the biogas recipient

survey were unsure who had signed the contract. Out of 22 installed biogas plants,

fourteen head of household females signed the biogas loan contract with the head of

household males. Three respondents were unsure if the head female household member

had signed. Of the five remaining households responding, the woman head of the house

had not signed, Anar was the signer from the committee on four contracts. In an

interview with Anar as a key informant of the project, she admitted she had difficulty and

performed poorly in the creation of loan contracts. Two contracts were signed late, while

construction had begun based on verbal agreement alone. She had only obtained the

male signatures on the four contracts and there were no co-signers on three contracts.

She blamed her busy household, her own poor time management, and a shortage of the

proper paperwork on these mistakes.

Women acted as project managers, household decision-makers, and played a

major role in the construction labor. Including women in the financial decision-making is

a new idea for many households in this community, yet they signed the loan contract at

63% of the households. In all except two houses, women carried materials, performed

labor, or assisted the masons. Women have had an active position in the implementation

of this first loan rotation of the project.

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At the end of the post-construction phase and now beginning the second loan

rotation of the project, men have begun to play a larger role in the biogas management

committee. Yet, women are still active on the committee and have an equal position

within it. It remains to be seen what the gender roles will be in this round with the new

biogas management committee.

Integration

Biogas plants in Nepal require cattle manure for the operation of the system.

Only middle income and wealthy families have two or more cattle necessary for the six

cubic meter plant installed in Chhaling. Biogas indirectly benefits the entire community

by conserving forest resources, but cannot directly benefit the quality of life of the

poorest community members. Integration of the project into the entire community could

only be accomplished by also installing improved cook stoves, a technology easily

affordable by those unable to adopt biogas. Waiving the late fee for CFUG memberships

was also a measure to distribute benefits to the poor community members.

The integration component failed to meet all its intended objectives. The biogas

management committee installed all fifty improved cook stoves proposed in the doubled

budget during the planning phase. They had determined they would give priority to the

untouchable castes and the poor. Although 80% of the improved cook stove participants

had two cattle or less, only 24 households, about 50% had less than two cattle (Appendix

J). The improved cook stove recipients were high caste (92%); just four households

(eight percent) were of middle caste status and none were of low caste untouchable status

(Figure 8.8). The late fee waivers for CFUG membership were never distributed. CFUG

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Figure 8.8: Four middle caste status households received an improved cook stove

members in attendance at the mass meeting disapproved of the fee-waiver because they

believed instead of the poor, rich villagers would receive this benefit. They said the

membership fee should be equal for all because discrimination did not exist in the village.

Therefore, the project managers never completed the portion of this integration

component. The community survey verified the relationship between caste and wealth in

Chhaling. Upper caste families had more land, sold more grain, received higher office

salary, received higher pensions, and used expensive liquefied petroleum gas for cooking

(r = (-) 0.29728 P = 0.0096, r = (-) 0.27309 P = 0.0170, r = (-) 0.27429 P = 0.0165, r =

(-) 0.23011 P = 0.0455, r = (-) 0.24054 P = 0.0363 respectively). Therefore, lower caste

families in the village are economically disadvantaged and need to be integrated into the

project. The improved cook stove component could have successfully brought benefits to

these households, but this component of the project was not managed well. Demand was

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high for the improved cook stoves from high caste households. The fund was depleted

quickly because unlike biogas, the improved cook stoves were not distributed as a loan.

Each farmer paid 50 Nepali Rupees and the project funds subsidized the remaining 250

Rupees. They succeeded in installing the technologies to benefit the CFUG families, but

those people were from the upper caste, wealthier families perpetuating the disparity

between the haves and have-nots in the village.

Motivation

Were the project managers and participants motivated to improve the quality of

life in the community or were they looking for their own personal benefit by working on

the project? The answer is both. Most villagers want to improve the living conditions for

themselves and their neighbors. However, Nepal’s society is dominated by a “take care

of your own” attitude. Observations indicate most members of the biogas management

committee were dedicated to community development. Of course, they hoped for side

benefits from the project such as payment for their work.

The main leaders did not work specifically for financial benefit; they were not to

receive a large fee for their work. This is why the former president of the CFUG became

so frustrated with the accusations about her actions and previous work. She could not

convince distrustful villagers of the committee member’s intentions. She believed the

gossiping villagers knew the truth of the biogas committee’s honesty, but were spreading

rumors so they could take control of the project or because they had been unable to do so.

Eventually, the original biogas committee lost some of its control of the project. The new

biogas management committee is now a combination of men and women from the CFUG

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and the former biogas committee. Meena assured field workers that the funds are secure

and monitored closely by herself and the CFUG president.

Social Structure

Gender, Caste and Decision Making in Nepal Issues

Although the female members of the biogas management committee increased

their skills, the committee encountered several problems with gender. Community men

viewed them as incapable of managing a project or its finances. The husbands and family

of the committee members determined the time the women had available. Others

silenced the women in the community and committee meetings based on their gender,

younger age, or lower caste. The decision-making process in the committee was

consensus, but did not involve many village males. However, it was the work of the

committee, 80% women, which facilitated the success of the project.

The members of the biogas committee received criticism about their gender

almost from the start. Field workers told them they could not accomplish the work on

their own without more male influence and the villagers in the mass meeting challenged

their previous work, knowledge about the project, and abilities. Many villagers do not

trust each other. Many people think others are corrupt and looking for their own benefit

only, as this is the traditional way in Nepal. Corruption is common in the government

offices (Acharya 2004, Gersony 2003). This also spreads out to the village level where

people expect to receive extra “fringe” benefits and payments for all work. People in

control receive these benefits while others do not. To keep their power and prestige the

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villagers with power convince the uneducated and women they are incapable of other

work besides farming or must work under their specific direction.

After the shortage of construction materials in the direct implementation phase,

some villagers requested the biogas committee relinquish control of the project to other

CFUG members. In January, as the direct implementation phase was coming to a close,

Meena resigned as CFUG president. The new CFUG president and the resulting new

CFUG committee quickly challenged her position on the biogas management committee.

The other biogas committee members had not attended this meeting and the new CFUG

members used the opportunity to question her lack of support and ability to complete the

work on her own. They also criticized her for allowing the transfer of project funds to

BSP in the planning phase when the Peace Corps volunteer had been evacuated. The new

CFUG members wanted control of the project so the biogas loan payments would be

deposited into the CFUG account. Unrelenting, Meena waited for assistance from the

District Forest Officer, the former Peace Corps Natural Resources Program Officer, and

the former Peace Corps volunteer. With their help, a new collaborative project

management committee was formed. In Chhaling, women on CFUG and other

committees have increased social mobility and awareness from attending group meetings

and working on committees. However, their role is challenged and reduced by village

men when there is a perceived benefit to be gained.

Meena’s husband works in an army barrack outside of Kathmandu Valley. He

comes home periodically for two weeks. When her husband is away, Meena determines

her own daily plans. Like many Nepali households, when her husband is home, he makes

the household decisions. A wife must ask to participate in activities outside of her

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normal routine. Many husbands do not approve of their wives working outside the home.

Meena’s husband approved of her work with the CFUG, but sometimes felt she had taken

on too much responsibility. He was worried about the time commitment and about

Meena’s health. Meena told me she might have to leave the CFUG. She did not attend

some meetings in the planning phase because of these reasons. Although it caused

problems during the planning phase, Meena was able to resolve the issue. She resigned

as CFUG president, but her husband allowed her to continue working on the biogas

committee. He was pleased because her workload had diminished. As of October 2005,

she is still a member of the biogas committee and also monitors the work of the CFUG.

Two members of the biogas management committee spoke infrequently and

missed the most meetings. One was the sole middle caste member and the other was a

young unmarried female. Somewhat chaotic, interruptions and tangents of thought

dominated the conversation of the committee meetings. The middle caste woman was

not only interrupted, but when asked a question, a male in attendance said he could speak

for her. Later, on the walk home she was asked why she let him speak for her. Again

confirming her compliance with the traditions, she said, “Because he is an older man, he

can speak for me.”

The decision-making process of the project was the traditional Nepali process of

consultation and consensus. If a person did not agree, they would speak and try to sway

others’ views. The biogas management committee respected Nepali values such as

prestige, caste-centered morality and family-centered morality by arranging meetings

around participants’ personal obligations and respecting people of higher status in

attendance. The committee used concealment to protect project finances. They did not

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inform the CFUG about transfer of funds to BSP from Peace Corps until after the

transaction was complete. In this way, they were able to act as they thought best without

criticism, until others found out later.

A male member of the CFUG was an original committee member and male

experts from BSP and Winrock International assisted the female majority committee.

Men in the community were not satisfied with the male participation in the project. They

distrusted the male experts because they were outsiders from the village. They believed

because the committee members were female, they had a difficult time managing the

project with the male staff of the biogas company. The structure of the biogas

management committee changed in March 2005. The former members were told they

could not collect the funds without the male-headed support of the new CFUG so the

committee now has both former biogas committee and new CFUG members.

Gender was the most contentious issue in the project. Traditional attitudes about

the capacity of women to perform tasks outside the home and farm prevail in the village

culture of Chhaling. In the planning phase of the project the committee aspired to gender

and caste equality for the distribution of benefits. They did not achieve it for the poor

and lower castes. Women led the project throughout the planning and direct

implementation phase. They received training and support from field workers that

improved their capacity as project and financial managers. Women in the community

were involved in the direct implementation construction process, benefited by technology

installation, and co-signed the loan documents with their husbands. However, women

lost their management role in the post-construction phase. A biogas management

committee still exists, as of October 2005, but only with two of the original committee

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members. Although successful in the direct implementation phase, the gender ratio of the

committee changed for the post-construction phase to a more traditional male dominated

one. The committee, officially four people with a male monitor from the CFUG

committee, is effectively 60% men and 40% women. One woman is younger, unmarried,

attending college and a long-term member of the CFUG. She works well, but her

responsibilities leave her with limited time for the committee. Men then comprise 75%

of the effective working members of the committee.

The results of the gender component therefore show both successes and failures in

Chhaling, as women were both empowered and restricted during the project phases. The

project managers in Chhaling failed to implement the caste component; lower and middle

castes did not substantially participate in or benefit from the project. As well, the project

managers were seen as working outside the decision-making structure of the village.

They were unsuccessful in the management of this component and therefore, the

committee was reorganized to include more male upper caste villagers.

Other Components of the Implementation Process in Chhaling

Other components of the implementation process in Chhaling were not included

in the propositional components of this case study. Although considered part of the

context in terms of increasing material expenses and time restraints, national politics

played a much larger role than expected. Beginning in the planning phase, the biogas

committee members considered the impact of an American source of funding. Maoists in

the area could cause trouble for the CFUG if made aware of the American financial

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support. The evacuation of the US Peace Corps because of the insurgency and violence

in Kathmandu interrupted and affected the implementation process.

Politics and Finances

An issue, not a component, of the theoretical propositions was politics and how it

relates to foreign funding. During the planning phase, members of the biogas

management committee believed if they revealed money came from “America” (the

United States) they would have problems later with nearby Maoists. I was unaware of

these statements until revealed later on taped recordings of meetings. While living in

Chhaling, I had learned of conflicts between Maoists and the army in nearby villages. A

government office in the next village had been bombed, as well as the main District

Forest Office in the city. Peace Corps had warned me to shorten my time at my office to

avoid the time before or after work hours when bombs were always detonated. I was

unaware of any problems or contacts with Maoists in the village of Chhaling. The

villagers had told me to avoid the forest alone and not to come home late. The also said

the army patrolled the village to keep it safe. Biogas committee members repeated in

meetings how Maoists might stop the project because of the American funding. Villagers

may have underplayed the presence of Maoists in the community to keep the Peace Corps

volunteer from leaving the community. I have not been informed of any issues in the

post-construction phase related to the Maoists.

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Politics and Peace Corps Evacuation

In the week before the Peace Corps was evacuated from Nepal, much logistical

work was completed in Kathmandu. All unused funding from the Peace Corps

Partnership Program, the program by which funds were sent from American donors, must

be returned or receipts submitted. The funds had arrived only one month earlier and the

CFUG had not used one Nepali Rupee of the funding for the biogas and improved cook

stove project. In discussions with Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) staff, the local NGO

assisting in technical and research aspects of the project, they confirmed their

commitment to the project and agreed to assist the CFUG with management of the

finances. Consultations with Peace Corps/ Nepal senior staff and the Peace Corps office

in Washington, DC led to approval for the continued project. Funds must be entrusted to

an organization that would submit receipts and reports to Peace Corps. After filing some

paperwork, an agreement with BSP was formed.

The evacuation of the Peace Corps volunteer created a complicated problem for

the biogas management committee. They needed the approval of Peace Corps to keep the

funding in Nepal, but were also nervous about embezzlement and corruption if the

community controlled the funds. BSP was the best choice as funding manager and the

money was transferred. A document signed by the Peace Corps former Natural

Resources Program Office and former volunteer, BSP staff, and biogas management

committee members verified the amount and the transaction. The volunteer left the

country feeling good about the funding situation. Later, the agreement would cause

problems for the committee. It was agreed that the implementation of the project would

187

truly be a test of the biogas management committee’s capacity, as well as of the

sustainability of the training given by the volunteer.

Summary: Successes and Failures of the Case Study’s Propositions

The biogas and improved cook stove project managers of this case study met both

success and failure in managing the components of the propositional implementation

process (Table 8.6). The main problems occurred with community and social issues,

Table 8.6: Evaluation of the propositional implementation components of this study Propositional Project Implementation Components

Success = (+); Failure = (-);

Community and Social Issues Social Structure

Gender (+) and (-) Caste (-) Decision-Making (-)

Participation Community Assets and

Resources (+)

Optimization and Efficiency (+) and (-) Stakeholders (+) Integration (-) Motivation (+) and (-)

Project Management and Design Project Management

Project Managing Committee (+) Role of Field Workers (+) and (-) Monitoring and Evaluation (+)

Project Design Visions, Goals, and Objectives (+) Action Plan/ Schedule (+) and (-) Budget (+)

which affected the implementation of the action plan. Integration of the project to

include the poor and empower women in the community was not compatible with

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working inside the accepted social structure of this village. The balancing of these ideals

of project implementation is precarious, as it is difficult to satisfy the differing beliefs of

community members. The success of meeting the project’s goals depends on how well

community members can compromise, work together, and trust each other. The

propositions did not include the component category of national politics, which also

affected the project’s outcome in this village. Project managers must consider the

propositional components of this study and also be ready to manage the less obvious

ones. The success of the project implementers is evident by a planned second rotation of

biogas plant construction in the 2005-2006 dry season. Despite obstacles to the process,

the biogas management committee continued working and improved the quality of life in

their village.

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CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT WORKERS

The objective of this case study, to analyze the implementation process of the

biogas and improved cook stove project in Chhaling by comparing its components to the

propositional implementation components, revealed both the successes and failures of the

project managers (Table 8.6, page 187). Each development project has its own context,

however the results of this study show the main problems in Chhaling revolved around

community and social issues, specifically social structure. Managers had the most

problems with the social context of gender, caste, and decision-making in the village.

They were unable to integrate the project into the entire community and only partially

overcame the negative motivation of some project participants. Field workers, although

absolutely necessary to the success of this project, also committed mistakes assisting the

community. Some members of the biogas management committee participated less than

others leaving a few people to conduct the project. The biogas recipients survey

respondents named only two of the five participants as the main project managers. The

implementation of the action plan was affected by all these factors.

The biogas committee was composed of 80% women. Their role as decision-

makers was outside of the accepted social structure of the village. Although they tried to

incorporate male figures in the project as committee members and as experts from local

NGOs, the villagers did not legitimize the committee member’s work because they were

female. Community members blamed mistakes made by the committee members on their

gender. Two recommendations must be considered to alleviate this problem. More men

from the village should be incorporated into the decision-making process during the

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planning phase of a project and gender awareness trainings should be given to both male

and female villagers.

Any development is a slow process. The women rights movement has existed

since the 1800s in the United States and yet an equal rights amendment has yet to be

added to the Constitution. In the village of Chhaling, men hold the power of decision-

making in financial matters. They need to learn the benefits of including and working

with women in community projects. Otherwise, they will not accept and advocate for

change. In the current social context in Chhaling, men must have a sufficient voice in the

decision-making process or they will maneuver themselves into the leadership roles.

Although the project was implemented as part of an existing organization, the CFUG, the

structure of the biogas management committee was not oriented with the local social

structure (Kottak 1991). However, progress has been made in gender awareness and

women’s empowerment in Nepal. Women from the original biogas management

committee were able to remain members of the new biogas committee after its

transformation. In the recent past, men would not have considered a woman on a public

committee (Acharya 1999). Training about the benefits of female inclusion for both

villagers and field workers must be continued in all regions of Nepal.

Project integration of the poorer members of the community was deficient. The

middle caste villagers only received 8% of the improved cook stoves and 17% of the

biogas plants. Not one lower caste untouchable family received either technology of the

project. Late-fee waivers for new CFUG membership were not distributed because the

villagers believed it would only benefit the rich. Although they planned to benefit the

poor and lower castes, especially for the improved cook stove component, the biogas

191

committee could not overcome community members who believe there is no

discrimination in the village. Many CFUG members maintain all the people in the

village should have equal access to assistance from external agencies and local groups;

they do not support affirmative action philosophies. Demand was high for improved

cook stoves from the upper castes and the fund was depleted. The project was successful

in its implementation of the technology, however it also increased the disparity between

the wealthy and poor, typically higher and lower caste groups respectively (Kottak 1991).

Did project planners intentionally include the integration ideas to satisfy the development

agencies providing the funds or was integration beyond the capabilities of the biogas

management committee? The common improved cook stove installed in this project is

designed to cook family meals and not to brew alcohol, an activity of middle and lower

caste groups. The CFUG and biogas management committee are upper and middle caste

villagers; lower castes are not represented.

Although only 250 Nepali Rupees (US$3.50), the subsidy for improved cook

stoves may have been detrimental to the adoption of the technology in the village. Will

others adopt the technology without the subsidy or will they wait for future assistance

from development agencies they believe must work to improve the quality of their lives?

When external funds are given in this way, it may foster dependent relationships between

local organizations and donor agencies (Uphoff 1991, Anon. 1995 (b)). This must be

examined in Chhaling.

The mistakes made by field workers and the biogas management committee

caused some tasks of the action plan to be mismanaged. This was the first time the

CFUG members had conducted a large project for the community. They had no

192

experience in managing contracts and relied on the field workers’ advice in those matters.

Evacuated from Nepal, the Peace Corps volunteer was unable to give assistance to them

and other field workers missed an important parameter of the biogas work contract. The

emphasis was on the quantity of the biogas plants to be installed. The cost was reduced

to the amount required to install 25 plants, but the villagers were never informed of the

low cost technology design. They added a higher proportion of cement than required and

a shortage resulted. The managers were able to overcome many of the problems and

successfully implement the project. Three of the four evaluation questions (Table 8.5,

page 171) indicated project success. In the future, managers can learn from the mistakes

of this experience and employ new strategies. The project management committee

should consult with the installation company to confirm the specifics of the technology.

The amount of materials should be verified and written in both the company work

contract and technology recipient loan contracts. The last decision of installation should

rest with the biogas recipients installing the technology. If the villagers of Chhaling had

chosen not to build the low cost design, the loan for each biogas recipient would have

increased by a small amount. However, the out of pocket expenses in the beginning

would have been reduced for the villagers even if fewer biogas plants were built.

Although an overall success, the biogas and improved cook stove project in the

village of Chhaling had its problems. Community men challenged the abilities of the

predominantly female project management committee. Eventually, the original

committee members were forced to administer the project together with male leaders.

The project failed to integrate into the entire community, as recipients of both renewable

energy technologies were middle to upper income farmers in Chhaling. Field workers

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contributed greatly to project success, but failed to assist the management committee in

evaluating the work contract with the biogas company. However, the final price of the

biogas plants for the farmers in Chhaling was less than the average cost of biogas plants

in Nepal. Although challenged by some, the female management committee received

training and support from others. They succeeded in meeting their main goals and, as of

October 2005, the project continues to install biogas plants with its successful rotating

loan system.

Implementing a renewable energy community development project is a balance of

implementation guidelines and the beliefs of the community (Margoluis and Salafsky

1998). It is also a balancing act between old and new ideas. Development fosters

change, sometimes seen as threatening to traditional practices. Biogas and improved

cook stoves alone do not threaten the social structure of a village in Nepal, but they

lessen the burden on women and open the door to other opportunities. Better facilities

free time for new activities, such as income generating or community action projects. A

person’s confidence increases as they understand they are capable of contributing to

community welfare. They begin to think critically about their own culture and history

(Acharya 1999). Project managers must balance working within a traditional culture that

devalues women’s abilities while promoting the modern idea that empowerment of lower

status people will improve the standard of living for all. This task will never be an easy

one, but it is always important to the success of development projects.

Biogas and improved cook stove renewable energy technologies have many

benefits for rural farmers of Nepal. The implementation of community projects that

install these technologies is an important step in increasing the conservation of forest

194

resources and improving the living standards of people in the villages of Nepal. Besides

project design and management components, development workers must consider the

community and social issues pertaining to the context of the project implementation.

Although basic guideline components such as the propositions of this study can be

assessed, each village is unique and its own context must be analyzed (Margoluis and

Salafsky 1998). Most important in the implementation process of development projects

is the flexibility of the organizations involved (Uphoff 1991). All components may not

be obvious at the beginning of the planning phase of the project. The project managers in

the village must be ready to deal with unexpected issues and field workers must assist the

villagers to increase their working capacity. Including non-represented groups such as

lower caste or women in the decision-making process is important for an integrated

project, but simultaneously, the managers must work within the community’s own

decision-making process for successful and sustainable implementation. Development is

a gradual process and awareness increases for each generation about how natural resource

conservation and social equality will benefit their lives.

195

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APPENDIX A

CASE STUDY DESIGN AND PROTOCOL

Final Draft: July 24, 2005

The Case Study Design and Protocol delineates the content and methodology of the study

before the study began. The hypothesis questions and theoretical propositions are

defined, as well as data collection methods and field procedures necessary to gather the

correct information. Specific questions were prepared to direct the data collection and a

guide was written for this case study paper. This paper loosely fits the guide because of

alterations necessary to improve the flow of ideas.

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Designing Case Study: Based on “Case Study Research: Design and Methods by Robert Yin. This is a explanatory study of the implementation of a biogas project by a community group that will show the causal links between the implementation process and the outcome (s) of and within the project. The five important items to include in the design of the study are:

Case study questions: How did the CFUG implement the biogas project compared to an ideal implementation? What were the successes and failures or problems with the implementation process? What were the reasons/ causes for the successes, failures, or problems i.e. why did the successes, failures, or problems occur?

Propositions: The ideal implementation of a community group project specifically involving biogas or renewable energy includes the following. These are issues that have been documented about community development projects in general and specifically to Nepal and/ or biogas. If the CFUG manages these components of the project, the project will be successfully completed without any major problems. If they divert from these issues in the implementation process then obstacles will occur. In other words, if these issues are not dealt with in some way, they will cause difficulties in the implementation process. The ideal way to handle each situation is also described with each factor:

- Motivation of the group/ individual members: Ideally the motivation should be that the CFUG members have recognized the detriments of collecting and using firewood in wood stoves e.g. smoke related illnesses, hours of hard labor collecting wood and cooking on wood stoves, and the decline of resources in the CF and that biogas can help relieve some of these problems.

- Those who will benefit from the biogas project (stakeholders:

in this case specifically women) are directly involved in the decision making, planning, implementation and evaluation of the project: Ideally women will have an equal if not dominant place in the project phases. (Various documentations from BSP surveys and Report of the International Conference on Biogas: Technologies and Implementation Strategies and other documents?)

a. There should be more than half women on the biogas managing (sub)committee (BMC). [See below ‘x’ on how this overlaps with staying congruent with the Nepali village decision making process.

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- When biogas can only benefit part of a population it should be implemented as part of an integrated and complete community project that targets different members of the village. (Report of the International Conference on Biogas: Technologies and Implementation Strategies, 1990.) This project is complete when others who cannot take on a biogas loan or do not have cattle are able to have Improved “Smokeless” Stoves built in their homes to reduce the amount of smoke produced and the amount of wood necessary by design. As well, poor community members who have been unable to afford to become members of the CFUG can have their fees waived through this project thereby they can legally collect firewood on open days and do not have to risk heavy fines and possible arrests by stealing necessary wood.

- The following procedures are part of the process:

a. A biogas management committee (BMC) formed based on the following criteria:

a. 4-6 members b. at least 4 women members c. Members nominated by another person d. Mixed castes. (see ‘x’ below)

b. Vision, Goals and Objectives that cover the following:

Vision: To construct the biogas and ICS to improve the conditions of the forest and of the people. Project Goals and Objectives: Goal 1: Create Awareness among CFUG general members in the detriments of the traditional wood stoves and the benefits of biogas (and the lesser benefits of “Improved Smokeless¹ Wood Stoves as an much cheaper alternative.)

Objective 1: Post informative posters in village community areas and hand out pamphlets about biogas and improved stoves. Objective 2: Hold Awareness meeting(s) for general assembly of CFUG members about biogas, Improved Stoves, and the CFUG project.

Goal 2: Create a rotating loan system for CFUG members who would like to install biogas.

Objective 1: Arrange loan system (payment plan, checking plan, duration of loan, etc.) Objective 2: Arrange loans with first eight biogas receivers.

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Goal 3: Build first eight biogas plants. Objective 1: Create and sign contract with BSP and biogas companies including itemized bill of all materials and labor, repair agreement about research technology, and agreement on full day training on operation and maintenance.

Objective 2: Collect and transport materials. Objective 3: Perform collective community (CFUG BR) labor.

Objective 4: Company constructs plants and performs O & M trainings for BR. Objective 5: BSP performs training about benefits and effective composting utilization of biogas slurry.

Goal 4: Provide direct benefits to other CFUG members that cannot afford biogas specifically targeting poorer members.

Objective 1: Grant free membership to XX eligible community members based on criteria. Objective 2: Build Improved “Smokeless” Stoves for XX number of CFUG members that are unable or unwilling to undertake a biogas loan for low or no cost.

c. Creation of criteria for choosing first beneficiaries of biogas to help keep out bias by committee that cover the following:

a. At least two stall – fed cows or buffalo (as per BSP) b. Documented history of collecting firewood from the CF i.e. has bought tickets from the CFUG on open collection days (as per previous Ranger.) c. At least four of the eight must be from outside the committee or committee’s family (to provide benefits to group as a whole, not just committee that are wealthier families in the community.) d. At least four from disadvantaged caste i.e. Tamang, Magar, Dalit (to provide benefits to a range of castes, not just the upper.) e. Receivers must agree to all loan conditions. f. Both male and female head of household must agree to and sign loan contract. g. Both male and female head of household must attend all meetings and work in project.

h. As per BSP, all contracts signed for biogas company must be in female head of household’s name.

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d. Creation of a specific Action Plan/ Schedule that covers the following:

Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?

Plan itinerary for first committee meeting X

CFUG president and treasurer

Create Project Goals and Objectives X X X

CFUG committee members

Form Management Committee X

CFUG committee members

Create Action Plan/ Schedule X X

Biogas Management Committee members

Goal 1: "Awareness" Objective 1: Information

Activity 1: Get biogas materials from BSP and improved cook stove information from PC office? X X X

BMC to delegate

Activity 2: Distribute information in meetings and village canvassing X X X X

BMC to delegate

Objective 2: Meetings Activity 1: Schedule, Plan and Hold Awareness Meeting about biogas and ICS project X X BMC membersActivity 2: Hold meetings and discussions and find interest X X BMC members

(Continued on next page)

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Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?

Goal 2: "Loan System" Objective 1: Arrange system Activity 1: Develop management plan for loans including loan duration, payment plans, checking procedures, etc. X X X X BMC members

Objective 2: Arrange loans Activity 1: Create criteria for first BR X X X BMC membersActivity 2: Choose and meet with first BR X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X BMC members

Activity 3: Write up loan document. X X X

BMC to delegate

Activity 4: BR sign loan contract X BMC to delegate

(Continued on next page)

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Week Number

Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? Goal 3: "Building Biogas Plants" Objective 1: Contracts Activity 1: Meet with biogas companies to choose company to work with X X BMC members

Activity 2 : Choose company X X BMC members

Activity 3: Write up contract with all pertinent information including itemized bill of materials and labor, repair agreement, and O & M full day training. X X X BMC membersActivity 4: If low cost research is done, meet and sign contract with BSP. X X X X BMC membersObjective 2: Materials

Activity 1: List materials needed - divide between "must purchase" and "locally available" X X X X BMC membersActivity 2: Purchase materials for plants X X X

Delegated to specific BR

Activity 3: Gather local materials for plants X X X

Delegated to specific BR

Activity 4: Transport materials to building sites. X X X

Delegated to specific BR

(Continued on next page)

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Week Number

Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?

Goal 3: "Building Biogas Plants" continued

Objective 3: Labor Activity 1: Determine and list all labor needed from BR X X BMC membersActivity 2: Delegate labor activities and other work to BR individuals. X X X BMC members

Activity 3: Perform labor X X X X X X X X X X X X X BR

Objective 4: Construction

Activity 1: Company constructs plants with help of BR. X X X X X X X

Biogas Company Technicians and BR

Activity 2: Company trains BR in O & M for plants. X X

Biogas Company Staff

(Continued on next page)

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Week Number

Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? Goal 4: "Other Community Benefits" Objective 1: Free CFUG membership Activity 1: Create criteria for eligibility for free membership (e.g. economic, caste status) and select families. X X X BMC membersActivity 2: Give membership to families. X X X BMC members

Objective 2: Improved Wood Cook Stoves Activity 1: Create criteria and locate members who would like Stoves built. X X X BMC membersActivity 2: Create and sign contract with locally trained person(s) to build stoves. X X BMC members

Activity 3: Build stoves. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X XLocally trained mason

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e. Good Budget Management: a. Keep precise records of all money

transactions. b. Negotiate with company for reduced

price in building all eight plants and agree on payment plan.

c. Budget money for building smokeless stoves.

d. Budget money for management purposes.

e. Costs incurred vs. “ideal” costs (See Ideal Costs Table)

f. BMC manages action plan and delegates tasks to specific beneficiaries that covers activities in the above action plan. g. Implementation of Action Plan and Labor together by beneficiaries delegated by BMC for activities in above action plan. h. Assistance by Local field and development workers (Telkot Rangepost Forest Ranger and Peace Corps Volunteer) that does not impede their process, but enhances it to meet success.

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i. Creation and implementation of monitoring and evaluation of the project by committee and local workers that covers the following:

Monitoring Plan:

What to Monitor? Things and Places

to Check How? Who does it? When? Roles and Responsibilities

Work done by schedule of action plan, quality of work,

check BMC meeting minutes, check work sites (houses of biogas plants and improved stoves)

CFUG committee president

Bi – weekly

Education (Awareness) and Training

general assembly attendance, training attendance, new skills used?, knowledge gained?

check attendance, interview members of assembly and trainings

BMC members At general assembly, at trainings, interviews in month following event

Materials and Equipment

Inventory at sites check lists of materials, equipment needed to build

BMC members Daily as per need

Budget Precise Records kept of all transactions, budget in balance

check budget ledger of the BMC treasurer

Another member of the BMC than the treasurer and/ or a member of the CFUG committee and/ or the Ranger of PCV

Minimum weekly – daily at periods of many transactions.

Interest and Motivation

Work done on schedule, attendance to meetings by BR,

Observation, check attendance, check BMC meeting minutes

CFUG committee president

Bi – weekly

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Evaluation Plan:

Key Questions Quantitative or Qualitative

Sources of Information

Methods of Collection Who? When?

1. Did Seti Devi succeed in building eight biogas plants within a rotating loan plan and XX improved smokeless stoves?

Quantitative Families of BR and families who are to have improved stoves built, BMC meeting minutes, BMC members and CFUG members

Interviews, observation, review meeting minutes

CFUG committee members/ PCV After 30 weeks from start of project

2. Have Seti Devi CFUG members benefited from the project?

Both BR families and families who received stoves, CFUG members, community members

Interviews and observations

CFUG committee members/ PCV After 30 weeks from start of project

3. Was low cost technology successfully installed?

Both BR families, BSP staff, biogas technicians

Interviews, inspection/ observation of plant (by BSP)

CFUG committee members/ PCV/ BSP staff – after completion of plants and one year later

4. Are loans being repaid and is there a plan to continue the loan plan for more BR in a rotating schedule?

Both BMC members, loan paperwork, CFUG members, BR families, Ranger, other community members

Interviews, review loan paperwork of treasurer

CFUG committee members/ PCV

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j. The implementation process of ‘i’ through ‘ix’ above must be in congruence with the process, nature, and techniques of decision making in the village, but also be ready for incongruencies that can occur when people perform actions that depart from the accepted ways. (Taken from “Decision – Making in Village Nepal by Casper Miller; Pilgrims Publishing, 1990, 2000.)

a. Process: “sabaiko sallah” or consultation of all with consensus. There is usually one or two leaders, traditionally male , that speak to express the consensus of all. Therefore, the group ideally will have consensus on how to organize the BMC and what the main goals are of the project. As well, consensus is ideal for the all the BMC work. (ibid.) Gender and caste diversity in a group affects this consensus process. Groups of one gender have had more success in some large scale projects covering several wards or an entire district in Nepal (as well as one caste groups) when compared to mixed gender groups in the same project specifically when it comes to women’s involvement n the decision making (People in Parks project– PCP interview and from PIP document). Miller has also seen that many times lower castes do not speak or let the higher castes speak for them when in mixed caste company (1990.) This seems to have to do with women’s and lower caste members inability or unwillingness to voice opinions or even speak at all in the presence of others of higher status. Ideally there would be one gender and/ or caste group, but since this group committee is already of mixed genders (but mostly women) and mixed castes that seems to work, the creation of an all women or caste biogas managing committee might cause dissension between members. Therefore, for this project, the ideal managing committee will have a majority of women on it in and in leading positions as this the form of the functioning committee as well as having a diversity of castes. “What is important is that the members of the BMC are motivated, active, and understand the project – not what the gender or caste status make-up is of the it.” (Karki, Informal advisory discussion 7-01-2004.)

b. Nature: Values on Prestige or respect, caste-centered morality, and family-centered morality. “Personalism”, or doing no harm/ causing no pain/ avoid saddening others permeates decision making at all the levels of process, nature and techniques. (Miller, ibid.)

c. Techniques:

a. Understanding that concealment is a legitimate means to creating private space in village life where privacy does not exist. This of course is an issue when dealing with a large sum of money and trying to evenly distribute the benefits of the project to many community members of different class and caste levels.

b. Open assembly that encourages others to express ideas, brings about consensus, and creates the conviction that attending the meeting is a matter of prestige by listening and finding significance in what people say. (Miller, ibid.)

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Units of Analysis: This will be an embedded, single – case study design meaning there is one case, but multiple units of analysis. This is inevitable because implementation of the project will be done on many levels such as managerial and physical and will involve groups, families, business owners, and individuals. The case or main unit is the total System and sub-units of the system are “process units” (actions, roles, meetings, schedules, and social dynamics*) of the total system, intermediate players, and outside players that may affect the system:

• Total System: The overall implementation process by the management committee, which includes all the major events in the process: major meetings, major decisions (by the management committee or that could have been decided by subunits), overall social dynamics between major actors (again these are the dynamics between subunits), and major outcomes of the entire project.

• Sub-units: Process Subunits of the Total System o Committee and other meetings o Other committee activities o Roles of individual committee members o Committee time schedules/action plan o Social dynamics between committee members Intermediate Players o Activities of the BR group o Roles played by each BR family o Role played by BR individuals o Roles played by other individual CFUG/ community

members o Social dynamics in each BR family separately and between

BR families o Social dynamics between BR and other players in the

project o Social dynamics of individuals of CFUG and other

Community members with project players Outside Players o Activities of the biogas company and social dynamics with

community members o Activities of Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) and social

dynamics with community members o Activities of District Forest Office (DFO)/ Telkot Ranger

and social dynamics with the community members o Activities of PCV involvement and social dynamics with

community members

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Linking Data to Propositions: There are three principles of Data Collection for Case Studies:

• Using multiple Sources of Evidence: Triangulation o Participant – Observation of mass assembly, CFUG

committee, and biogas management committee meetings and other activities where they arise

o Document collection: letters of financial commitment, meeting announcements, meeting minutes, agendas, written schedules or action plan, loan contracts, building contracts, bills, documents from government or mass media about the area or group

o Archival Records: census data about the area, CFUG records about the group – the Constitution and Operational Plan

o Interviews: Identifying key informants by conducting open-ended interviews where the respondent can give facts but also opinion that can lead to further lines of inquiry; conducting short interviews and to corroborate evidence with both biogas receivers, ICS receivers, and committee members for their analysis of the implementation process and procedural problems and achievements; conducting surveys of biogas receivers and ICS receivers (survey for socio-economic information and project perceptions)

o Direct observation: Document with photos! - Formal observations that are part of the case study

protocol (see below) where the incidence of certain behaviors or situations are measured. I need to work on these- maybe such things as: silence of members in meetings, consensus achieved, women are not involved in the decision making, women involved in only physical unskilled labor for the plant, men or husbands answering for women, etc.

- Informal Observations made throughout a field visit: the condition of family houses as indicator of economic status, progress of building, who is doing what labor, other observations that occur that seem significant.

• Create a Case Study Data base: Field Notes, physical documents, narratives, and tabular data collected

should be organized and documented in such a way that an individual could retrace the steps or inspect the evidence of the case to evaluate the conclusions of the case study.

• Maintain a Chain of Evidence: Also for evaluation of the conclusions by another party: Case study report

findings should have sufficient citation to the relevant part of the database and the database should reveal the actual evidence and circumstances of the evidence (time, place, etc.) These circumstances should be consistent with the procedures and question that are part of the original case study protocol (again see below) and the protocol should indicate the link between it and the original study questions.

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With these principles intact, the data needs to be analyzed in such a way to connect it back to the original questions and propositions of the study or in this case how the implementation compares to the theoretical ideal. Right now, I believe the best technique will be pattern matching to the ideal. In other words, the specifics of the implementation of the project will be compared to the “pattern” of the ideal above and if a match is found then the project should be a success. If for some reason (cause) the CFUG’s implementation fails to meet one of the criteria of the ideal meaning that some issue above was not managed well then an impediment within the implementation process will have occurred. Whether or not there is a “complete failure” (levels of failure/ success will need to be defined – e.g. all plants built - but some not operated or operated correctly, not all plants built, loan not being repaid, reasonable time schedule not met, etc.) depends on how many criteria are not met and the significance of each criteria to the overall project.

Criteria for Interpreting Findings:

How close does a match have to be for it to be considered a match? In this case, if all criteria are met, then the implementation should have succeeded overall and for each criteria that isn’t met then the implementation process should have had some kind of resulting problem.

Preparation for Data Collection: The “Case Study Protocol” is a specific way to increase the reliability of the study. It is a guide for the investigator in carrying out the study. It includes:

1. An overview of the case study project : See “Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy Project” and “Study Proposal”

2. Field Procedures: How to gain access to organizations and interviewees, resources needed in the field, procedures for calling for assistance and guidance, making a clear schedule of data collection activities that are expected to be completed within specified periods of time, providing for unanticipated events

3. Case Study Questions: these are questions that have to do with the original case study questions and propositions, but are more numerous and specific to the actual inquiries. They are questions that the investigator must answer, not questions for the respondent. They are the reminders to the investigator regarding the information that needs to be collected and why. Along with these questions should be a list of probable sources whether they are people, documents, or observations. These questions relate to the entire case and not to subunits. As per Stakes (1995) there are “issue questions” and “topical questions.” The former refers to the abstract problems that are linked to political , social, historical, and especially personal contexts and the latter cover informational and evaluative (quality and effectiveness) questions.

4. Guide for the Case Study Report: A basic outline of the report can be included in the protocol because case studies do not necessarily follow the same report format of other research strategies. It will facilitate the collection of the relevant data and the amount of and kind of documentation necessary for the report.

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Field Procedures

1. Access to key organizations and interviewees: a. Because I have lived in Chhaling for eighteen months, I have

become friendly with many of the community members, some of who will be the key players in the project. I live in the field area of the project and thus have the advantage of all day access of those who become involved in the project. I also have good grasp of the language and understanding of the culture that makes me much more approachable by others and vice versa. For those involved in the project that I have not met, I will make sure to meet ASAP and with the help of a mutual Nepali friend.

b. I have already made contacts with many people in the field of biogas – both companies and organizations involved in building biogas in Nepal – to with whom I have discussed this community project, my interest in it as a research project, and my interest in making biogas a realistic possibility for more rural families of Nepal.

2. Resources Needed in the Field: a. Personal computer at my house in the field b. Quiet place – my house in the field c. Small field notebooks/ pens d. Recording devices/ tapes/ batteries

3. Procedures for Requesting Assistance: Depending on the nature of the assistance necessary, follow the line of those closest to farthest away that may be able to help when in need of guidance:

a. Ranger or other Nepali student assistance in field area b. PC Program Officer or other PC staff in Nepal or Staff of biogas

organizations specifically BSP c. Emailing graduate advisor and/ or committee in USA d. Phoning graduate advisor in USA

4. Schedule of Data Collection Activities:

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Data collection schedule

Data Collection Activity Time Frame to be

Completed In Notes

Research documents relevant to biogas and participatory community projects (for background and propositions/ theory.)

Throughout, but specifically to July 24 and after December 15 to end Feb

From NGO libraries such as BSP, ICIMOD, IUCN, PC, HMG Dept libraries, AEPC

Archival Records Specifically to July 24 and after Dec 15

CFUG constitution and Working (Action) Plan, Records from Village Development Committee and District Development Committee

Group Meetings Throughout CFUG, biogas management committee, and mass community meetings

Interviews with "KEY" Informants: CFUG committee members Biogas management committee members

BR individuals (maybe more than one per family) ICS recipients individuals Membership recipients Biogas company staff or BSP staff

Ranger

Other Key informants in the community July 10 to end

This is an important tactic for this study as the main issues to affect the outcomes of the project are social relations in the group. Thus informal discussions with all, but especially key informants can provide great insights into the real workings of the project that might not otherwise be viewed from a non member of the CFUG.

(Continued on next page)

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Data collection schedule

Data Collection Activity Time Frame to be

Completed In Notes Interviews of villagers

All those involved in particular topics/ issues of interest

As necessary - most probably mid August - mid December (with a higher rate most probable mid Sept - mid Nov)

Interviews with specific questions to corroborate evidence about implementation (possibly also include "Key" Informants, but with all involved in a particular issue/ topic I want to corroborate or document further to get views from different perspectives.)

Surveys: Structured Interview surveys

Survey One: Two Rounds of BR, ICS-R, membership -R, CFUG committee members, BMC members

First round: Sept 25 - Oct 10; Second Round: Feb 1- 15

One mid - project survey and one end survey to compare changes/ similarities in participants’ view of the project and its implementation. One survey will also include questions about socio-economic status especially of BR to compare to status of recipients in other studies.

Survey Two: Two rounds of entire CFUG community random sample of 100 houses in village wards of the CFUG

At same time of second round of Survey One: Feb 1- 15

This survey is to assess the community's knowledge of the project and project activities including biogas, ICS, and CFUG memberships; attendance to the awareness event (if held), and general knowledge about biogas and ICS.

(Continued on next page)

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Data collection schedule

Data Collection Activity Time Frame to be

Completed In Notes

Direct Formal Observations

A committee member does not speak for an entire meeting or is reluctant to speak (note caste and gender)

Every meeting mid July to mid December

A man speaks for a woman when she is asked a question Entire study at every event Decision made without consensus achieved Meetings, outside of meetings

BR family's female head not present at meeting

Every meeting with BR end Aug to mid December and trainings

Male BR carries materials Mid Sept - mid Dec at BR sites

Female BR assists in building with biogas company Beg Oct - mid Dec at BR sites Concealment of information Entire study at every event

Gender/ caste of main actors facilitating each activity (i.e. managers) At every activity

Monitory/ supervisory work done by BMC members Entire study at every event

These formal observations can be quantified as evidence corroborate or dismiss the existence of such behaviors. Other data collection techniques will try to clarify why the behavior has happened or not.

Direct Informal Observations Entire study at every event Other observations collected throughout study that may become useful.

Participatory Observation

Throughout, most relevant in meetings from July 10 to Oct 13, but also in construction period from Oct 31 to Dec 15

As a PCV, I am assisting the implementation of the project as a way to build the capacity of the CFUG members. Thus, I will also document all that I am asked to participate in and how I perceive the effects of my actions.

Physical Documents or Evidence Materials from throughout study - possibly collect at end of study

Possible copy of meeting minutes, copy of budget ledger, copy of loan contract, copy of work contract, etc.

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Case Study Questions for Protocol:

1. How have the CFUG committee members organized themselves to manage the project? [Who are the main people managing the project? What are the roles of these managers? How did these managers divide the work? (Also see “delegation of responsibilities” below.)Are the main people motivated and active? Has one or two people taken total control of the project? Why? Are the managers the people who will most benefit from the project (the stakeholders, i.e. women)? Did the key players in implementation change throughout the project? Are the managers meeting on a regular basis?] • Sources of Data:

o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of Committee meetings o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff

• Sample Strategies: o Draw an organizational chart of the project including roles, create a new

chart when roles change o List the people involved, their titles (in the project and out), and their roles o Create a timeline of major role changes. o Compare those involved in management to ideal

2. What are the (major) activities of the CFUG to implement the project? Who were the major actors in these activities? When were the activities held? Where? • Sources of Data:

o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of Committee meetings o Meeting minutes o Documents created o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff

• Sample Strategies: o Timeline o Compare activities to Ideal Action plan o Fill in chart of major activities (add other activities that occur)

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Activity When

(Date) Week No.

Where Who Accomplishments

Goals/ Objectives Created

BMC created Action plan created

Awareness event

BR chosen Biogas company chosen

Loan contracts written

Loans signed Biogas contracts signed

Materials purchased

Materials transported

Digging Carrying Skilled labor Construction O&M training Slurry training

3. Which are the (major) decisions made by the CFUG managing the project? What were the goal, objectives, and action plan decided on? (Were these planned out?) What were the criteria for the BMC, BR, ICS-R, and free membership? Which biogas company, which ICS mason? Other decisions? When were decisions made? What is the decision making process? Was consensus used? Did all people speak? If not, who made final decision? • Sources of Data:

o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of Committee meetings o Direct observation of consensus in meetings/ a person not speaking for an

entire meeting

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o Meeting minutes o Documents created o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff

• Sample Strategies o Narrative of decision making process o Create a timeline of decisions and those involved o Compare to ideal goals/ objectives/ action plan/ criteria o Fill in table of decisions (add other decisions that occur):

Decision

Order (N= not made)

Project Week

Number

Date

People Present

Consensus Reached

No. Silent People

Project Main Goals

Main Objectives of Goals

Action Plan/ Schedule for Project

Criteria for “BMC” or other management

Who sits on “BMC”

Criteria for BR

Criteria for ICS-R

Criteria for waiving CFUG mem.

BR ICS-R Free members

Loan rules Who signs BR loan contract from CFUG

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Decision

Order

(N= not made)

Project Week

Number

Date

People Present

Consensus Reached

No. Silent People

Who signs loan contract from BR family

Biogas company

Details of BR contracts with Biogas company

Awareness event

Who is responsible to gather local materials

Who is responsible to purchase and transport materials

Who supervises labor

Who performs what labor

When to start labor

When to start construction

When to hold O&M training

When to hold slurry training

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4. How were responsibilities delegated? To Whom? By whom? • Sources of Data

o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of Committee meetings o Meeting minutes o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff

• Sample Strategies: o Create table of each responsibility:

Responsibility To Whom? When delegated?

By Whom? When Completed?

Write final copy of Goals and Objectives

Write final copy of action plan

Facilitate awareness event

Contact BR for first meeting

Write final loan contract

Sign loan contracts Meets with loan companies to evaluate

Purchase materials Gather local materials

Transport materials

Digging labor Carrying labor Skilled labor

o Narratives of each delegation of responsibility observed.

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5. What are the social dynamics between major actors in the project? How do these social dynamics affect the project and the decisions made in the project? How do gender and caste affect social dynamics? Did prestige or respect play a part in social dynamics? • Sources of Data:

o Informal and participatory observation of meetings, interactions between individuals (committee members and BR)

o Direct observation of men speaking for women, people not speaking at meetings

o Interviews with individual actors about the project and social dynamics o Survey Questions on social dynamics o Ranger o Biogas Staff

• Sample Strategies: o Quantify Direct Formal Observations of above social actions o Compare the data found with data found in organization question and

decision making question – show comparisons in a chart to show the similarities between social dynamics and how the project was implemented. How did this differ from the “ideal” implementation and the “ideal” involvement of all people?

o Narratives of social interactions within the decision making process

6. How were women and lower caste people involved in the project? What roles did they play? Were they involved in decision making? How? • Sources of Data:

o Meeting observations – direct formal, informal, and participatory o Meeting minutes o Formal, informal, and participatory observations of all activities o CFUG/ community members o Committee members o Ranger o Biogas company staff o BR individuals o Surveys?

• Sample Strategies o Highlight women’s/ disadvantaged people’s roles in activity, decision, and

responsibility tables above o Compares to ideal role o How did these people’s role compare to knowledge of the project, project

activities, biogas, ICS, and their attendance to awareness events found in surveys?

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7. What part have BR played in the overall implementation process? What part have other outside actors (biogas company, BSP, Ranger, PCV, etc) played in the project? • Sources of Data:

o Meeting minutes o Informal and participatory observations of activities involving or about

BR o Informal and participatory observations of activities involving or about

outside players actions o Informal and participatory observations of all project activities o Ranger o Biogas staff o Committee members o BR

• Sample Strategies: o Create chart of activities of BR in the project that shows how the activity

relates to the entire project implementation o Create chart of activities of in outside players in the project that shows

how the activity relates to the entire project implementation o List all project activities and players involved (see project activities

question above.) o Compare to “Ideal” involvement of these players

8. How have the CFUG committee members become motivated? • Sources of Data:

o CFUG committee members – interviews, group and individual discussions, surveys

o Ranger o BR o Other Community (CFUG) members o Biogas company staff o Informal and Participatory observations of committee members

• Sample Strategies: o Narratives interviews and discussions o Quantify survey results about motivation o Compare surveys to interviews and discussions o Compare motivations to “ideal.”

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9. Is it an integrated and complete community project, i.e. was biogas installed as well as ICS and waiving CFUG fee membership for poorer community members? Was awareness included in the project to include all community members? How? Were open assemblies utilized for awareness or making decisions for the project? Were other community member interested in the project and able to become involved? How? • Sources of Data:

o Informal and Participatory observation of activities – meetings, awareness event, activities about ICS and free memberships

o Meeting minutes o Community members survey of knowledge of the project activities,

awareness event, and ICS/ free membership activities o Surveys of all BR and ICS-R, membership-R of socioeconomic status

• Sample Strategies o Quantify percentages of community families with knowledge of the

project, etc. o List activities that included awareness efforts and community members

not on the committee o List socioeconomic status of ICS and free membership receivers vs.

biogas receivers o Did the project accomplish the ideal integration?

10. How was the budget managed? Was a ledger used? Were all transactions recorded? Was the ledger monitored by other people? What costs were incurred in the project? • Sources of Data:

o Meeting minutes o Ledger o Ledger transactions recorded vs. receipts o CFUG committee members – who is monitoring the budget ledgers of the

“treasurer” of the project o Ledger transactions recorded vs. observed transactions

• Sample Strategies: o Compare project costs to ideal costs o Narratives of budget management procedures observed.

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11. How was the project monitored and evaluated by the CFUG? (Were these planned out?) • Sources of Data:

o Meeting minutes o Informal and participatory observations of activities/ major actors o Committee members o Ranger o Documents

• Sample Strategies o Compare monitoring and evaluation events to “ideal” o Create table of monitoring activities showing who, when, what was

monitored , and how it was monitored o Create table of evaluation procedures including criteria for evaluation,

how it was evaluated, who, and when o Compare to ideal

12. What affect did the project have on the CFUG? What affect on the community? What were the major outcomes of the project? Include direct and indirect benefits/ detriments. • Sources of Data:

o Survey, interviews, discussions with committee members, CFUG members, community members

o Ranger o Biogas company staff o Observations

• Sample Strategies o Show results of surveys o Narratives of interviews

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Research Question for the Case Study – for subunits

Every Activity 1. How has this activity been organized? 2. Is the activity going as planned? Procedures? 3. Who were the main people involved? Managers/ Facilitators? 4. Who had what responsibility? 5. What was the main work accomplished? 6. What decisions were made? How? 7. How have people become motivated for this activity? 8. Are all the BR actively engaged in the activity 9. Are other community members involved in the project? 10. Women’s involvement? 11. Lower caste people’s involvement? 12. What social dynamics observed? 13. How is this activity integrating the whole community in the project? 14. Expenses of activity

First Meeting: 1. How was the first meeting facilitated? 2. Who facilitated the first meeting? 3. Were the facilitators effective in running the meeting? 4. Did other CFUG committee members take control of the meeting? 5. Were committee members responsive to the facilitator? 6. Did the Ranger respect the facilitators role and only act as an advisor? 7. What input particularly did the Ranger have in the first meeting? 8. What input by the PCV? 9. What input by the other Nepali assistant? 10. Were the PCV, Ranger, and other Nepali assistant effective as advisors?

Why or why not? 11. What were the items or issues that caused the biggest problems in the

meeting? How did the Ranger, PCV, and other assistant help with these issues? What was the outcome?

12. What decisions were made in the first meeting? 13. Were CFUG committee members responsive to the work asked of them in

the meeting? 14. Did meeting attendees know the detriments of traditional woodstoves? 15. Did they know the benefits of biogas and ICS? 16. Did they know the worked involved and possible negative aspects of

biogas and ICS? 17. Did they know and understand that women most benefit from and do the

work to maintain biogas plants and ICS?

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18. After a discussion about the mission, strategies and goal of the CFUG and then about biogas and ICS, were the attendees able to state how biogas and ICS relate to the mission and goals of the CFUG? If not, did they understand it when someone else stated it? Were they able to then restate the answer in their own words?

19. Do the CFUG committee members understand that they are the ones planning and implementing the entire project? In other words do they understand that they will only receive guidance and advice from the Ranger and PCV?

20. Was a committee (BMC) formed to manage the project in the first meeting? If not, why? Was any other form of management put in place?

21. Do the BMC/ CFUG committee members understand the responsibilities of managing the project?

22. What was the process to decide the criteria for the BMC? 23. What were the criteria? 24. Who was nominated? Who accepted? 25. Were goals and objectives determined and written in the first meeting? If

not, why? 26. What are the goals and objectives? 27. Did all CFUG committee members attend the meeting? 28. Did all in attendance speak and/or participate? 29. Who did not speak? Why? 30. Who spoke in the meeting? Did they dominate the meeting? If yes, Did

others seem to mind that one or two people were dominating the meeting? 31. Were attendees paying attention? 32. Did all in attendance seem to understand the material being covered? 33. What criteria were used to choose the BR? How was it determined? 34. Was the criterion for the BR determined by the CFUG committee alone

acceptable to the project advisors? 35. Did the project advisors need to give suggestions to the CFUG committee

for criteria so that not all the BR would come from the committee? 36. Were there many suggestions for first BR? 37. What did the CFUG members think about the fact that they could not

decide the BR – which the BMC would decide? 38. Were they enthusiastic about the project in the meeting? Why? Why not?

Who?

Each BMC meeting: 22. Who facilitated/ ran the meeting? 23. How was it determined who ran the meeting? 24. Was a process determined for who is to facilitate meetings? 25. Did the person facilitating the meeting keep control of the meeting? 26. Did another person control the meeting? 27. Did one or two members dominate the meeting? Who? How did they

control it? 28. Were all BMC members in attendance?

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29. Did all BMC members participate? Speak? 30. Were there any issues at the meeting? Disagreements? About what

issues? 31. Were all agenda discussed? 32. Were all agenda completed? If not, why? 33. How did the meeting end? 34. Plans for next meeting? 35. What decisions were made? What were the outcomes of the meeting? 36. Were all decisions/ discussions documented in meeting minutes? 37. Were all expenditures documented in budget ledger and meeting minutes? 38. Were others beside the BMC involved in the meeting and how? 39. What assistance was necessary from Ranger, PCV, or others? 40. Were there any personal issues that came up at the meeting (individual or

group social dynamics)? How did they surface? What were they? Were they relevant to the meeting? How did the facilitator or other members manage them? What was the outcome?

41. Was the meeting successful? 42. Did BMC members leave the meeting with a positive motivated attitude?

If not, why?

First BMC meeting: 1. Were goal and objectives finalized? 2. Was an action plan formed – started? 3. What was the process to finalizing goals and creating action plan? 4. Were criteria for free membership determined? 5. What process for FM criteria? 6. Were community members identified for free membership? Who? 7. Were criteria for ICS determined? 8. Process? 9. CFUG members identified? Who? 10. Was Budget ledger started? 11. Was awareness meeting, general assembly, or other awareness event

scheduled? When? 12. How will event be planned? 13. Who will run event? 14. What materials will be used for event? 15. What is the plan to notify CFUG members about event? 16. Is the CFUG committee continually motivated about the project?

Second BMC meeting: 1. Was action plan finalized? 2. What is the form of the action plan? 3. Were criteria for BR, ICS, and FM finalized? 4. What is criteria? 5. Were any changes made to last meetings’ decisions? What ? Why? 6. Was awareness event held or is it scheduled for next week?

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Third and fourth meetings: 1. Were activities held to create awareness among CFUG members about

biogas, smokeless stoves, and the project (such as a general assembly meeting)?

2. Who brought informational materials about biogas and ICS to community?

3. What process to choose BR? ICS receivers? FM receivers? 4. Has the above lists been finalized? 5. Do the people on the lists satisfy the criteria? 6. Is everyone on the committee happy or satisfied about who is on the lists? 7. Is everyone on the CFUG satisfied about who is on the lists? 8. What plans were made to meet biogas companies? 9. What questions, preparation was done for meeting with biogas companies? 10. Who will meet biogas companies? 11. Has materials list for biogas plants been started? 12. Was ICS mason chosen? Who? 13. Was contract written and signed? 14. Is loan system being developed? 15. What is the process for deciding about the loan system rules?

Subsequent Meetings and Other activities: 1. How were the membership fee issued and smokeless stove installation handled by

the BMC and /or the CFUG committee? 2. What criteria was used to choose the smokeless stove receivers? How was it

determined? 3. Did the CFUG waive the membership fees to individuals? 4. What were the criteria used to give free memberships? 5. What was the process to determine the criteria for free membership? 6. Who were the ones given free membership? 7. What was the process used to create the loan system? 8. What were the factors of the loan system? 9. What were the rules and regulations of the loan contracts? 10. What was the process to determine the rules of the loan contracts and how to

write it? 11. Who wrote the loan contracts? 12. Who signed the loan contracts? 13. When were the loan contracts signed? 14. What was the process in determining which biogas company to hire? 15. Was more than one company met with or spoken to in this process? 16. What were the main factors in determining which company to use? 17. Who wrote work contracts? 18. Who signed the work contracts with the biogas company? When? 19. Was low cost design installed? Why or Why not? 20. Was BSP consulted in this matter of low cost design? 21. Was a contract written with BSP? How? Who signed it? When?

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22. What was the process to determine the materials needed and local labor necessary for the project?

23. Did the BMC successfully delegate responsibilities to the BR? 24. What was the process to delegate responsibilities to the BR? 25. Were local materials used (esp. stones)? If not, why? 26. Where did materials come from? 27. How were the materials gathered and transported? 28. Who gathered and transported/ gathered? 29. When were materials purchased? 30. When were materials transported? 31. Was this work monitored and/or supervised? By whom? 32. What local labor was done? By whom specifically for each type of labor done by

locals? 33. When did the each labor start and end? 34. Was the local labor supervised? By whom specifically? 35. When were BMC meetings held? Where? 36. Were BMC meetings held on schedule? 37. When were meetings held with BR? 38. Were meetings held regularly with BR? 39. How did the committee monitor progress of project by themselves and work by

BR, ICS mason, biogas masons, etc? 40. Did both men and women from each household attend the meetings? 41. When were the responsibilities delegated? 42. Was a budget determined? 43. What was the process to manage funding? 44. What was the process to manage purchases? 45. When did construction by company start? 46. What was process by company to complete plants? 47. Who chose the sites for plants? Women involved? 48. How long did it take companies to complete construction? 49. How were families involved in construction with companies? 50. When were O&M trainings held? 51. When were slurry training(s) held? 52. What evaluation was done of project by CFUG?

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Guide for Case Study Report (written 7/31)

1 Introduction 1.1 Summary of the Case Study and Report Conclusions 1.2 Introduction to Nepal 1.2.1 Geography/ physical 1.2.1.1 Climate 1.2.1.2 Forests – current condition 1.2.1.3 Social- Economic 1.2.2 Political – Infrastructure/ Insurgency 1.2.3 Foreign Aid 1.2.3.1 INGOs/ NGOs 1.3 Introduction to Biogas and Renewable Enterprises in Nepal 1.3.1 Overview of biogas technology and process of fermentation 1.3.2 Background of Biogas in Nepal 1.3.2.1 History of biogas in Nepal 1.3.2.2 Overview of different organizations involved in biogas, renewable energy in

Nepal and their roles today 1.3.2.3 Summary of other biogas projects and methods 1.3.2.4 Summary of other community projects and methods 1.3.3 Brief summary of other renewable enterprises in Nepal – solar, wind, water 1.4 Introduction to Improved Cook Stoves (ICS) 1.4.1.1 How ICS Works 1.4.1.2 ICS in Nepal 1.4.1.2.1 History of ICS Nepal 1.4.1.2.2 Organizations involved in ICS 1.4.1.2.3 Summary of ICS projects and methods 1.5 Introduction to Project Area 1.5.1.1 Chhaling, Bhaktapur (HMG structure) 1.5.1.1.1 Seti Devi Community Forest Group – Brief history of CFUG formation in

Nepal and Chhaling 1.5.1.1.2 Other organizations, groups in the village 1.6 Overview of project from Protocol: Refer to “Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy

Project” (include in Annex) 1.6.1.1 Main Goals 1.6.1.2 Main Outcomes 1.6.1.2.1 Successes 1.6.1.2.2 Failures, Problems 2 Methods 2.1 Overview of Case Study Design (include in Annex) 2.2 Overview of Case Study Protocol (except overview above in Intro) (include in

Annex) 2.2.1 What Field Procedures used and why 2.2.1.1 Specific field procedures details 2.2.2 Case Study Questions – how answered 2.2.3 Guide for Report

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3 Project Results 3.1 Major Successes 3.2 Major Failures, Problems 3.3 Social Issues – problems, innovations, management of issues 3.3.1.1 Gender 3.3.1.2 Caste 3.3.1.3 Other socio-economic issues 3.3.1.4 Group dynamics 3.3.1.5 Individuals 3.3.1.5.1 Issues between individuals 3.3.1.5.2 Individual own issues 3.4 Organization of committee for management 3.5 Major activities/ decisions and those involved 3.5.1 Action plan of committee 3.5.2 Committee meetings – major decisions and how they were made (consensus) 3.5.3 Other major activities 3.5.4 Values involved in decision making and implementation of major decisions/

activities 3.6 Delegation of Responsibilities: How? By Whom? To Whom? 3.7 Roles of people and their motivation in the project 3.7.1 Roles 3.7.1.1 Major Players – Who? Caste, gender, 3.7.1.2 Biogas Receivers 3.7.1.2.1.1 How chosen 3.7.1.2.1.2 Major leaders 3.7.1.2.1.3 Gender roles in construction 3.7.1.2.1.4 Caste roles in construction 3.7.1.2.1.5 Group dynamics/ ability to work together 3.7.1.3 ICS receivers 3.7.1.4 Memberships 3.7.1.5 Ranger and PCV 3.7.1.6 Biogas company staff 3.7.1.7 BSP 3.7.1.8 Other? 3.7.2 Motivation of players in project –how motivated? 3.8 Budget management 3.9 Monitoring and Evaluation by committee 3.10 Affects of project on community 3.10.1 On CFUG 3.10.2 On BR 3.10.3 On ICS –R 3.10.4 Others

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4 Analysis 4.1 Comparison to ideal 4.1.1 Motivation 4.1.2 Stakeholders 4.1.3 Integrated Project 4.1.4 Committee formation 4.1.5 Goals and Objectives 4.1.6 BR criteria 4.1.7 Action plan 4.1.8 Budget management 4.1.9 Delegation 4.1.10 BR roles 4.1.11 Ranger, PCV roles 4.1.12 Monitoring and evaluation 4.1.13 Consensus process 4.1.14 Gender, caste involvement in management 4.1.15 Nepali values – respect, prestige, family – centered, caste- centered, personalism 4.1.16 Concealment? 4.1.17 Open assemblies 4.2 Deviations from the ideal 4.2.1 How deviations from the ideal were handled 4.2.2 Activities, etc that worked better than the ideal 5 Conclusions and Recommendations 5.1 Conclusions 5.1.1 Overall success vs. failure/ problems – did the project succeed? 5.1.2 Will the project last? (sustainability based on analysis) 5.2 Recommendations 5.2.1 To the CFUG and the community 5.2.2 To the local development workers 5.2.3 To Other development workers for future projects 6 References 7 Annexes 8 Bibliography of Documents Collected

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APPENDIX B

BHAKTAPUR BIOGAS RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT PROPOSAL

February 2004 and updated July 2004

The draft to this proposal for a biogas and improved cook stove project in

Chhaling was created in a project design and management training given by the staff at

Peace Corps/ Nepal. The proposal was finalized and distributed for fundraising in

February 2004. It was updated in July 2004 after grants were offered according to

official Peace Corps Partnership Program guidelines. Signs of success were added and

the budget was re-written to reflect the increased funding available. This document was

used as background information for the Case Study Design and Protocol.

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The Bhaktapur Biogas

Renewable Energy Project Energy to Conserve Forests and

Improve Rural Living/ Health Conditions

Marjorie Ely February 2004

(updated July 2004)

Seti Devi Community Forest User Group

Chhaling, Bhaktapur Nepal

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A. Project Summary:

The overall mission of this project is to improve the welfare and living conditions of rural households by generating clean biogas energy and to simultaneously conserve local forest resources. The added composting technology will increase cold weather gas production and can be utilized to increase agricultural productivity and thus also promote economic growth. As well, to integrate this project into the larger community and improve the living conditions of the poorest villagers (with no cattle), Improved Cook Stove technology will be installed.

Biogas is an important renewable energy resource in Nepal that can be used by farmers for cooking, gas lamps, and possibly even electricity when constructed on a large scale. Right now the overwhelming majority of Nepal’s rural people use wood in small mud stoves to cook all their food. This puts a huge burden of work on the people (mostly the women) to collect firewood for the stoves (up to approximately 100 loads per year weighing from 50 to 100 kilograms each.) As well, the exploding population of Nepal, especially in Kathmandu valley, makes this practice a great detriment to the forests. Many of the forests of surrounding hillsides of Kathmandu valley are only considered 'shrubland' because they have been so devastated by this and other timber -wood collection by an ever increasing amount of people.

The Seti Devi Community Forest User Group (CFUG) was formed approximately three years ago and was officially handed over the forest from the government on January 1, 2003. The executive committee is effective in managing the user collection of forest resources and the small fees given on these collection days. Our vision is to have this established group start a biogas loan project that does not require collateral to build biogas plants on a continual basis. The first plants will be built with the technical assistance of Biogas Sector Partnership Program (BSP) using innovative technology for the program's own study. BSP is a internationally known NGO that was previously financed by the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV/ Nepal) that works to provide quality control, new technology, training to farmers and biogas companies, research in biogas innovations, and ensures proper administration of the government subsidy through Alternative Energy Promotion Center (AEPC). This study would use low cost technology to increase biogas availability to poor farmers of Nepal and in addition compost technology will be added to increase cold weather gas productivity (and can be applied by farmers to their fields to increase soil nutrients and therefore increase vegetable production on their farms.)

Improved Cook Stoves (ICS) do not compare to biogas. As can be seen in the photo on page 247, there is still significant smoke and wood is still necessary. However, as an alternative to traditional wood stoves that have no chimney and are mud fire pit inside the house, ICS are a great improvement for the family. The design as a closed system (with less oxygen to the wood) burns less wood and therefore conserves resources. For all of these reasons, this project will also promote ICS in the community and will install it at minimal cost for those who cannot install biogas i.e. those who do not have cattle to supply manure to the biogas system.

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The strategy of this project is to use a well-established and working community forest group infrastructure to implement a new loan system for biogas that require no collateral with new funds other activities. Local labor, materials, and CFUG funds will be used providing over 35% of the total needed input for the project. Together with the BSP/AEPC subsidy and the funds the District Development Committee (DDC) has now promised to us (as of June 11, 2004) the total IN-Country funding is providing 64.7% of the total funds needed!! Technical knowledge will be provided by BSP and trainings in maintenance and effective slurry use will also be given to plant owners. A continual process of loans, repayments, and new loans will create a renewing cycle of biogas plants being built in the village.

B. Statement of Need:

Background Information

Biogas or “Gobar – gas” in Nepali literally meaning “manure gas” and it is just that. A process that ferments the manure to create methane gas from the farmer’s cattle, two large buffalo can provide enough for a family of four to cook from and three enough for 8 – 10. Traditionally the manure from the buffalo or cows is used for fertilizer in the family’s fields. Though this practice is good, the manure is not allowed to sit and compost long enough and therefore is not nutrient rich. Therefore, most farmers who can afford it buy urea (a chemical fertilizer) to apply to their fields to increase the productivity of the crops. On the other hand, the sludge manure byproduct resulting from the process of the biogas system is quite rich in nutrients and thus is better for the fields than the original manure. In fact, if this compost is so high in nutrients that after applying it to the fields for two seasons, urea is no longer needed. This saves the farmers money in the long run.

The village of Chhaling is located in a rural area on the south facing hillside slope of Bhaktapur District in Nepal. Its forest is located on the opposite north-facing slope of the same hill. Eighty to Ninety percent of the families are subsistence farmers. Some of the richer CFUG members, who do have outside income, have installed biogas successfully. But, other subsistence farmers have indicated in informal discussions that they are fearful of loans where collateral must be given. Biogas only can indirectly help in income generation and though many sell farm products for income that could repay the loans, in the event of an emergency they are uncertain that they would be able to repay the loan. Not wanting to risk their own source of survival, they will not put up their farms for the loan. If farmers have a way to take loans without risking their livelihood, many will do so. And the CFUG has ideas like putting a cosigner on the loans to ensure repayment.

Biogas is a very valuable resource that provides real benefits to farmers in Nepal. Perhaps the most significant is the health benefit to all those that are in the kitchen while cooking takes place (mostly women and children). Wood burning stoves for cooking is a major source of respiratory problems (and resulting deaths) in Nepal and so changing to gas burning stoves that produce no smoke has been shown to greatly reduce these health problems. There are other benefits that are especially important to the rural women, as women are responsible for most of the farm and household labor. Biogas significantly

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changes the type of labor they must perform. They no longer need to carry firewood from distant forests up and down steep slopes to their homes. As well, the cooking time is drastically reduced when cooking with gas and the cleaning time is quicker because gas does not leave the same black residue that wood burning does. After biogas installation, women are normally the ones who maintain the daily manure and water input into the plant, but as long as a water source is nearby (a prerequisite for this project) this is not a difficult or time consuming task. As well, since the women are already the manure handlers in the family, carrying it for placement into the inlet is not bothersome.

Description of Need

This project replaces traditional wood burning stoves with biogas and is essential because it provides the fulfillment of many needs. The most important are:

• Dramatically increases the health of poor rural women and their children by eliminating smoke in the kitchen

• Greatly changes the type of labor in many ways for these women. Among these changes are that they no longer must carry firewood long distances, sit for hours over a wood stove watching and stoking the fire, or clean coal stained pots. These changes may greatly reduce their labor time per day.

• Substantially lowers the demand for firewood and thus conserves the local forest resources.¹

This photo shows the smoke produced when cooking even on an Improved "Smokeless" (meaning less smoke than traditional stoves) Cook Stove (ICS). The improvement is the chimney that reduces some of the smoke in the house, but as you can see the smoke is still significant. However, when compared to traditional wood stoves, the ICS use less wood and create less smoke for a healthier environment. This can especially benefit those families with no cattle.

The forest near Chhaling is severely degraded for many reasons. There are so few large trees that you may not even call it a "forest." The local users have been recently trained

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by the District Forest Office in some basic silvicultural (forest management) techniques in order to open up the forest and lesson the competition among the trees, but this isn't enough. The demand by the exploding population is too high. This forest needs serious conservation to be done in order for it to move out of this degraded stage of development and into a healthy flourishing forest again.

Biogas essentially eliminates the need for firewood and therefore is a major contributor to forest conservation in Nepal. Rural families, however, cannot afford this technology on their own. This project will provide the funds while the village people provide all the local labor and materials possible. A loan with no collateral is needed, as farmers are not willing to risk their farms because without them their family will starve.

The traditional way leaflitter and firewood are carried up and down steep slopes. This leaflitter is lighter, but woman carry firewood loads up to 50 kg (approx 110 lbs.)

The project will fulfill community needs by enhancing its assets. Community forests will begin restoration, community funds will be increased for biogas and later other loan possibilities, there will be increased nutrients for field fertilization because biogas "slurry" is much better than traditional dung compost, and healthy families can work harder and possibly have more time once firewood collection is eliminated.² These families may be able to start other activities to increase their income such as mushroom farming that is now being introduced in another project or vegetable production for sale. The applied composting technology also make sure that these benefits are available year-round even in the cold months. As well, Nepal's own biogas strategy will be enhanced by including research to be done by BSP. Farmers all over Nepal and around the world can benefit from research to lower costs and enhanced productivity.

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C. Goals:

1. By the end of September 2004, the governing committee of the Seti Devi Community Forest User Group will be loaning funds to paying members for the building of family biogas plants on a rotating continual basis in Chhaling, Bhaktapur.

Objectives:

a. Raised funds to be used for loan principles. b. Ensure community forest user group members understand the details of

the loan and benefits of biogas. c. Arrange loans: Check that President and Treasurer are well trained in loan

accounting.

2. By the end of December 2004, there will be biogas plants built for the CFUG members with the assistance of BSP that have added compost technology. The biogas receivers have begun repayment of the loans and have been trained in proper operation/ maintenance and slurry utilization.

Objectives:

A. Create and sign agreement contracts with BSP and biogas technician(s) to build plants.

B. Determine loan rate and monthly payments (tentatively 5% monthly interest for three years with no collateral.)

C. Hold trainings given by BSP in slurry use and proper maintenance.

3. These first biogas plants will be built by BSP as part of research in biogas innovations including low cost plants. Failed plants will be repaired by BSP to run properly.

Objectives:

a. Verify creation of research proposals with structured study methods b. Sign agreements for BSP to replace and repair research involved

biogas plants that fail.

4. By the end of December 2004, there will be 50 Improved Cook Stoves (ICS) built by a locally trained mason to provide benefits to those who do not have cattle. As well, the CFUG will have given out membership waiving the late fee by this time.

Objectives:

a. Choose members to receive ICS based on criteria and interest (hold awareness meeting.)

b. Sign agreement with mason and build ICS. c. Give out memberships.

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Beneficiaries: The main beneficiaries of this proposal are the rural women, girls and children of

Chhaling, Bhaktapur. As explained above, their health, workload, and generally standard of living will benefit in possibly tremendous ways. Respiratory illnesses are the major cause of death in Nepali women and major studies have linked the smoke of wood fires used for cooking with the respiratory illness in women and children in Nepal. Traditional wood fires take hours to cook on and need constant supervision, stoking, and blowing to keep going. Improved Cook Stoves reduce all of the detriments by using a more efficient and healthier design. Biogas can more than half that cooking time and does not need as much supervision. As well, cooking on gas will dramatically reduce cleaning time, as pots are not covered in fire soot. But, the most significant benefits of biogas are the reduction of smoke related illness and that the women will no longer have to spend days to collect firewood several times a year walking up and down the steep slopes to get it to their home.

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D. Action Plan and Project Design/Management: Action Plan

Task Who? When?Goal 1a, b and c: Search for donor groups and individuals and secure funds. PCV, Ranger, CFUG Members By end of June 2004

Hold informative meetings with CFUG committee to discuss biogas and the project. PCV and Ranger at CFUG meetings January 2004 – September 2004

Perform “Biogas Awareness Day” for general assembly of all CFUG members and create list of interested families to be involved in project. CFUG committee, Ranger, PCV By end July 2004

Choose eight families to receive biogas plants in first round based on established criteria. CFUG committee By end July 2004

Hold meetings with president, treasurer, and first eight families from CFUG to ensure all details about loan and loan bookkeeping are understood.

PCV, Ranger, CFUG “first round” members By end of August 2004

Goal 2a,b and c:

Write and sign work contracts with BSP and biogas technician(s). PCV, BSP staff, biogas technicians, CFUG President By end of August 2004

Determine loan properties (interest/ length/no collateral) PCV, Ranger, CFUG Members By end of August 2004

Build plants CFUG Members, BSP Beg September – end December 2004

Hold maintenance trainings BSP After completion of plants

Hold slurry utilization trainings BSP After completion of plants

Goal 3a and b:

Review BSP research proposal(s). Ranger and PCV By end July 2004

Verify costs and building plans in meeting with BSP, biogas technician(s), and CFUG loan receivers. PCV, BSP staff, biogas technicians, CFUG loan receivers By end of August 2004

Sign agreements between BSP and CFUG members including clause that BSP will repair or replace failed biogas research units.

BSP staff, CFUG loan receivers with PCV help By end of September 2004

Goal 4 a,b,c

Hold awareness meeting and choose ICS receivers and families for CFUG memberships. CFUG committee By end August 2004

Sign agreement with local ICS mason CFUG committee By end August 2004

Build ICS and give out memberships CFUG committee By end of December 2004

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Project Management and Sustainability:

The Telkot Ranger, Loknath Ghimire and the Peace Corps Volunteer, Marjorie Ely will begin the implementation process, but ultimately it is the community forest user group that will manage the loans, determine the building plans with local labor and materials, and coordinate with BSP and other biogas technicians. The Ranger and PCV will attend and assist where needed at all meetings, but the CFUG committee members (president and treasurer specifically) will facilitate, organize, and direct all the participants involved. Agreements with donors will be made through the CFUG with the PCV and Ranger's help in document writing. This will enhance the capacity of the group's members in dealing in such transactions. Monitoring and evaluation will be done by all involved especially by the PCV and Ranger, but in such a way to develop these skills within the community. The entire project is designed to promote sustainability as can be seen by the above management plans. As well, since the funds are used for rotating loans, more and more members of the CFUG will be able to install biogas in their homes. Biogas itself has no time limits or expiration on its usage. As long as the family has cows or buffalo, they can produce the gas. This project is directly related to sustaining the natural resources of the community by reducing villager’s demand on those resources. Potential Problems and Solutions:

• Late repayment of loans: Call upon other biogas receivers to put pressure on the late borrower by including a clause in the contract that if one receiver is late on a payment then after one month a late payment fee is applied to ALL the receivers and/ or cosigners on the loan.

• Technology failure: agreements with companies and BSP to fix/ maintain plants.

• Low interest of CFUG members in biogas installation after initial loans: Awareness campaigns by first borrowers as to benefits and successes of their biogas plants.

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E. Budget: As of July 27, 2004 Exchange Rate $1USD = 74.64 NRs

Biogas Plants Item Quantity Unit Rate (NRs) Amount NRs Amount $ Bricks 2000 Brick 1.5 3000 $40.19Cement 16 25 kg bag 375 6000 $80.39Sand 90 25 kg bag 12 1080 $14.47Gravel 40 25 kg bag 20 800 $10.72Emulsion Paint 1 Bucket 350 350 $4.69Ms rod 8 mm 6 Rod 30 180 $2.41Appliances 1 Assorted 5000 5000 $66.99Transportation of goods 1 ---- 1500 1500 $20.10Technician fee and training 1 Person 4600 4600 $61.63Local Semi-Skilled Labor 40 Peop*days 150 6000 $80.39

Total Costs for Each Plant 28510 $381.97Subtract BSP/ AEPC Subsidy (28.6%) -8500 -$113.88Subtract Local Resources (24.4%): Labor -6000 -$80.39Requested Funds for Each Plant (47.0%) 14010 $187.70

Total Requested for 16 plants 224160 $3003.22 CFUG Planning and Monitoring Costs: 25 weeks Stationary 5 People 200 1000 $13.40Meeting Costs (tea, phone calls, photocopies, etc.) 25 Weeks 350 8750 $117.23

Total Requested for Planning and Monitoring 9750 $130.63

Compost Structure Construction Costs Bamboo 5 Bamboo 120 600 $8.04Labor 4 peop*days 150 600 $8.04Plastic sheet (500 gauge) 3 Meters 100 300 $4.02Nail 1" long 1 Kg 30 30 $0.40Binding wire 3 Bundle 50 150 $2.01Plastic Rope 2 Bundle 5 10 $0.13Plastic Tape 1 Tape 125 125 $1.67

Total Cost for each Structure 1815 $24.32Subtract Local Resources (71.4%): Bamboo and Labor -1200 -$16.08

Requested Funds for each Structure(28.6%) 615 $8.24Total Requested for 16 Composting Structures 9840 $131.83

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Budget continued

Overall Budget Summary

Improved Cook Stoves (ICS) Item Quantity Unit Rate (NRs) Amount NRs Amount $

Rods / tin 10 rod 5 50 $0.67

Tin for chimney outlet 2 Piece 25 50 $0.67

Sunbaked brick 100 Brick 1 100 $1.34

Labor 1 Peop*days 200 200 $2.68

Total for each ICS 400 $5.36

Subtract Family contribution (bricks) -100 -$1.34

Total Requested for each ICS 300 $4.02

Total for 50 ICS 15000 $200.96

Amount (NRs) Amount US$

Percent

Total Project Cost (16 plants: 28510*16) + (Planning:9750) + (16 Compost: 1815*16 ) + (50 ICS: 400*50) = 514950 $6,899.12

100.00%

Total Local Community Labor and Materials[6000*16] +[1200*16]+ [100*50): -125000 -$1,674.71

24.27%

Total Local Community Forest Contribution (monetary) -8000 -$107.18

1.55%

Total BSP/AEPC (Nepal NGO/ government) Subsidy [8500*16] -136000 -$1,822.08

26.41%

Total Nepal District Development Committee Contribution -20000 -$267.95

3.88%

Total Project Funds Requested (42.0%): 225950 $3,027.20

43.88%

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F. Monitoring Plan:

What to Monitor? Things and Places to Check How? Who does it? When?

Interest and Motivation

Attendance to CFUG meetings, members volunteering to help each other with work to lower costs, participation at meetings, help in planning by CFUG members Roll call at meetings, observation

CFUG president and committee, Ranger, and PCV

At each CFUG meeting (weekly)

Roles and Responsibilities Work is done on schedule, work quality

Review work at meetings, survey work done at sites

CFUG committee, PCV

At each CFUG meeting (weekly)

Training and Education

(Awareness)

Attendance to CFUG meetings and trainings, new skills are proficient, new skills learned are being used?

Roll call at trainings and meetings, observation and testing of skills, observation of use of skills after training

CFUG committee members and BSP staff (trainers)

At trainings, at site visits

Materials and Equipment Inventory

List of needed tools for community labor. CFUG members

At each CFUG meeting (weekly)

Budget Ledgers are being kept in good order at CFUG group. Book-keeping by treasurer

CFUG Treasurer with help from PCV and Ranger

At meetings as necessary

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G. Evaluation Plan:

Key Questions Quantitative or Qualitative

Sources of Information Methods of Collection

Who? When?

1. Is the Seti Devi Community Forest User Group using its supplemented funds to provide rotating loans for biogas plants whose borrowing members are consistently repaying the loan? Both

CFUG committee and members, other community members, Forest Ranger, PCV

Interviews and discussions at CFUG meetings, in groups, and with individual community and CFUG members; review of CFUG work records or meeting minutes

Ranger, PCV, and CFUG committee

2. Are the Community Forest User Group members working to continue building biogas plants in Chhaling, Bhaktapur? Qualitative

CFUG committee and members, other community members, Forest Ranger, PCV

Interviews and discussions at CFUG meetings, in groups, and with individual community and CFUG members; review of CFUG work records or meeting minutes

Ranger, PCV, and CFUG committee

3. Has innovative technology by BSP been installed (successfully?) in the first plants of the project?

Both (Quantitative - Y or N; Qualitative - Was the research successful?)

Biogas plant owners, CFUG committee and members, BSP staff/ research team

Interviews and discussions at CFUG meetings, in groups, and with individual community and CFUG members; Interviews of BSP staff, review of CFUG work records or meeting minutes

Ranger, PCV, and CFUG committee

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H. Signs Of Success:

a. Quality of Life: i. 40 beneficiaries experience direct change from installation of first

round of biogas plants and 250 beneficiaries from Improved Cook Stove installment (average 5 people per family * eight families.)

ii. 30 biogas beneficiaries perceive a change in the quality of their life (3/4 of the people in the families with new biogas plants) and 125 of the ICS beneficiaries perceive a change in the life quality (1/2 of the ICS people – lower because a lower benefit than biogas.)

iii. 45 beneficiaries acquire new skills: 40 people in operation and maintenance of new biogas plant and 5 in committee to plan, monitor, and manage budget of the project.

iv. CFUG members accept committee with both men and women to control all dimensions of project. Women have direct say in decision making of project.

v. Both men and women sign all the loans and ownership contracts giving women more participation in life decisions.

b. Organizational Capacity: i. CFUG demonstrated capacity to define goals and objectives of

project and ability to choose appropriate members for subcommittee.

ii. Subcommittee demonstrated capacity to put together action plan and implement it by delegating responsibility to plant receivers. Subcommittee also monitored these tasks and evaluated project’s success at the end.

iii. CFUG was able to request, handle, budget, and use appropriate financial and material resources.

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I. Reference for Footnotes: East Consult (P) Ltd. 2003. Biogas User Survey 2002/2003, Main Report. Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC), His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Biogas Project Funding Management Summary

Seti Devi Community Forest User Group; Chhaling VDC, Bhaktapur As of July 28, 2004

Exchange Rate $1 USD =74.64 NRs

Name of Agency/Donor Amount Donated (NRs)

Amount Donated ($USD)

St. Marks Episcopal Church Outreach 37320

500.00

Individual Donors via Kim Sullivan 69042

925.00

Other US Donor (Anonymous) 119424 1600.00 TOTAL Outside Funding 225786 3025.00

Amount NRs Amount $USD Total Project Cost: 514950 $6,899.12 Subtract Total Community Contribution: -125000 -$1,674.71 Subtract Total CFUG Contribution (letter attached): -8000 -$107.18 Subtract Total BSP/AEPC Subsidy: -136000 -$1,822.08 Subtract Funding From District Development Committee (DDC) (letter attached) : -20000 -$267.95 Subtract Outside Funding: 225786 $3,025.00

Difference:

164 $2.20

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APPENDIX C

STUDY PROPOSAL

June 2004

This last revision to the thesis proposal for this case study, it defines the main question,

my motives, and the general background of biogas in Nepal. It was useful in writing the

Case Study Design and Protocol.

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Title: Group Management of Integrated Community Projects including Renewable Energy in Nepal: A Case Study of the Seti Devi Community Forest User Group in Chhaling VDC, Bhaktapur District, Nepal B. Hypothesis: How did this group implement the project compared to the “ideal”

implementation [to be developed] outlined in the Methods section below. Specifically gender, caste, and other social dynamics and their implications within decision making and the project implementation will be examined as well as the project planning design and management such as fund management, group organization, time management, implementation problems, and solutions established by the CFUG members.

By studying the implementation process of this rural project, successes and failures, problems and solutions, and the group’s thoughts on these issues will be assessed. This evaluation will be used to create recommendations for the project, which may be used for future projects in Nepal and other countries. These recommendations will be useful for both Nepali rural community group members and international development workers involved in such projects.

C. Motivation: Biogas is a perfect application of appropriate technology for rural farmers of

Nepal. Although it is somewhat technical to install the original plant, after it’s installation the system is simple to use and maintain daily. Major technical problems are not usual (BSP, 2003). Its benefits are diverse from health to time to resource conservation (especially with widespread installation.) At the present time only the medium to rich farmers are installing biogas because of the initial investment needed that is beyond most Nepali’s means. Loans are available, but as there is no direct monetary benefit, most people are not willing to put up collateral for the loan they are not sure how they can repay. This project has been set to establish a loan system for the CFUG that will be of low interest and no collateral and will provide the opportunity for these loans to all members with cattle regardless of caste or financial background. The project committee will be trained in design and management in the first meetings and then will have the PCV and Ranger as advisors throughout their implementation. By studying how the committee manages the project and how social dynamics play into the project implementation, I’d like to ascertain the best criteria for rural projects that can bring this resource to many farmers who up to now have been unable to acquire it.

D. Background: Biogas is an important renewable energy resource for farmers in Nepal. The

major use for this technology is cooking, though it can also be used for lighting in gas lamps, as well. Right now the overwhelming majority of Nepal’s rural people use wood in small mud stoves to cook all their food. This puts a huge burden of work on the people (mostly the women) to collect firewood for the stoves (up to approximately 100 loads per year weighing from 50 to 100 kilograms each.) As well, the exploding population of Nepal, especially in Kathmandu valley where I live, makes this practice a great detriment to the forests. Most of the forests of surrounding hillsides of Kathmandu valley are only

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considered shrub-land because they have been so devastated by this and wood collection for other purposes by an ever increasing amount of people. Biogas or “Gobar – gas” in Nepali literally meaning “manure gas” and it is just that. A process that ferments the manure to create methane gas from the farmer’s cattle, one large buffalo can provide enough for a family of four to cook from and two - three cattle is enough for 8 – 10. Traditionally the manure from the buffalo or cows is used for fertilizer in the family’s fields. Though this practice is good, the manure is usually not allowed to sit and compost long enough and therefore is not nutrient rich. Therefore, most farmers who can afford it buy urea (a chemical fertilizer) to apply to their fields to increase the productivity of the crops. On the other hand, the sludge manure byproduct of biogas systems is quite rich in nutrients after the fermentation process and thus is better for the fields than the original manure. In fact, if this sludge is composted with straw or grass and kitchen waste, the resulting compost is so high in nutrients that after applying it to the fields for two seasons, urea is no longer needed with the compost thus saving the farmers money in the long run. Thus, biogas is a very valuable resource that provides real benefits to farmers in Nepal. Another of the most significant is the health benefit to all those that are in the kitchen while cooking takes place (mostly women and children). Wood burning stoves for cooking is a major source of respiratory problems (and resulting deaths) in Nepal and so changing to gas burning stoves that produce no smoke may greatly reduce these health problems. Other benefits are especially important to the rural women because women are responsible for most of the farm and household labor. Biogas significantly cuts down the amount of labor for women. They no longer need to carry firewood from distant forests up and down steep slopes to their homes. As well, the cooking time is drastically reduced when cooking with gas and the cleaning time is quicker because gas does not leave the same black residue that wood burning does.

The problem is that this resource is being wasted in Nepal as the cost of building the system is well beyond the reach of most rural people. It is approx. 25,000 Nepali Rupees [NRs] (or $340) to build one system. The government of Nepal in coordination with another International Non – government office (Biogas Support Program or BSP) [BSP has undergone a transformation from INGO to a local Nepali NGO with outside advisors and financial support dramatically reduced and fading out. The name is still BSP, but now standing for Biogas Sector Partnership Program] provides a varying amount of subsidy (from 5000 to 10000 NRs depending on district location) but this leaves a substantial amount remaining which is virtually impossible for a family of 5 that lives off of 3000 – 4000 NRs or less per month. A loan is possible to attain through this same system of subsidy, but almost all farmers are unwilling to put their farms up for collateral for the loan because biogas plants themselves do not provide income generation. (Though they do free up time and biogas slurry can be used in conjunction with income generating farm activities.) Also, because the direct benefits of biogas mostly affect women, men who are the financial decision makers in the household, usually do not see biogas as a priority. Most Nepalis therefore see biogas as a useful luxury item that is unattainable by most farmers. Micro- finance in Nepal is a relatively new system that is starting to bloom in many rural areas. The idea is based on a savings and loan scheme where by the members each put a certain amount of money in week and then can take loans from the group. Usually these loans are short term, one time payment

262

plans at relatively high interest (18% in Chhaling), for either income generating ideas or emergencies. New ideas for incorporating biogas into these micro-finance institutions are being explored by groups like Winrock International who works closely with BSP.

Though much has been written about the positive impacts, socio-economic status of biogas users, and evaluation of biogas installation companies and the overall status of biogas in Nepal; there does not seem to be any previous studies on group formation and dynamics for individual plant construction. Most studies are based on individually built plants to show success of the overall biogas program in Nepal or of an individual installation company. These studies characterized biogas households and evaluated performance of the plants. These studies focused on sample surveys of households with biogas systems covering different portions of Nepal. There are other group projects in Nepal initiated by INGO/NGOs such as the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) in varying, but mainly Terai (hot flatland) districts of Nepal. Unfortunately, in the current unstable political situation of Nepal extensive travel to these different districts is not recommended and possibly dangerous (in addition to being unallowed by Peace Corps while I am a PCV.) A comparative study of the different projects and how they are implemented by the group participants would be optimum, but since this is impossible a case study of one project recommended by myself to this local group can provide much insight to the idiosyncrasies of community projects involving renewable energy for individual members.

E. Summary of Study: This study will monitor the progress of the group from project introductory phases

until the initial rounds of biogas plants are built and second round plants are planned. The group will be given a project organizational design to work from and the process by which they manage the project based on this design will be observed. All activities of the group and it’s individual members (related to the study) will be documented in detail. How well the group adheres to the project design, problems, successes, group dynamics, socio-economic factors, and necessary design alterations will all be evaluated. Previous renewable energy case studies especially those involving community groups in developing countries will be reviewed and recommendations and conclusions compared to those developed by this study.

F. Methods:

The entire project will be monitored by direct observation of activities, informal and formal interviews, and review of all documents involved in the project. Specifically social, economic, and technical aspects will be examined for how they factor into the project management. Direct observation will be in the form of field notes and daily journal entries as well as recording meetings when this is appropriate and acceptable. Informal interviews of group participants, community members, and other involved peoples will be held whenever necessary to obtain or clarify information and/or opinions. Formal interviews will be conducted of identified key informants and new plant owners during and after the study cycle to ascertain viewpoints, group and family statistics (# of members, age, gender, etc.) and other pertinent information.

263

G: Support and Equipment: Support:

Assistance in writing surveys in Nepali from Peace Corps staff or my Nepali language teacher.

Assistance from Forestry Ranger and support from District Forest Office in planning and monitoring of ongoing biogas project.

Cooperation of local agencies for background information Cooperation from biogas installation companies to identify technical

constraints and issues during construction. Equipment:

Surveys Pens/pencils Audio recorder - batteries/ audio tapes

H. Copyrights: not applicable right now I. Human Subject Research:

a) The risk involved in this study is no greater than the normal risk for individuals if they were not to participate in it.

b) Participants may only be identified by a number or pseudonym, but this precaution most likely not necessary.

c) I will state all implications and non-involvement withdrawal rights. d) Surveys

264

APPENDIX D

DOCUMENTS OF THE CASE STUDY

Collected from July 2004 to March 2005

The documents collected in this study include official letters, contracts, meeting minutes,

an announcement, the biogas recipient application, and the biogas management

committee ledger. The documents were an important source of information and verified

observations and the statements of respondents. Names have been changed or omitted

when necessary to protect the identity of individuals.

265

266

267

268

District Development Committee (DDC) Office

Bhaktapur, Kathmandu

Letter #: A. S. 060/61 Date: 2061/2/32 Forward #: 1968 Subject: Transferred Rs. 18,000 (Eighteen thousand Rupees) Shree Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling, Bhaktapur. As per above mentioned subject, DDC’s meeting on 2061/2/28 has decided to provide total Nrs. 20,000/ (twenty thousand rupees) for Bio Gas plant construction project. Currently, DDC has provided only Nrs. 18,000 (eighteen thousand rs.) Cheque # XXX for the BSP construction project. It is informed that after using money, please submit all the receipts and vouchers to the DDC, Bhaktapur. By: Local Development Officer DDC, Bhaktapur c.c.: Chhaling Village Development Committee, Bhaktapur

269

Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling – 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 Wards

Letter #: A. S. 061/62 Date: 2061/4/14 Forward #: 58 Subject: Regarding Information District Development Committee Office Bhaktapur. With reference to the above subject, We inform you that DDC’s grant money Nrs. 18,000 (eighteen thousand) has been received by this Seti Devi Forest Users Group and would use this grant as per biogas plant construction plan. This fund has been given to Mrs. Meena xxxx, Chairperson, and Mrs. Anar xxxxx, Advisor Chairperson CFUG committee, Chhaling.

Bharat xxxx Fund received by: Treasurer Mrs. Meena xxxx Seti Devi CFUG Mrs. Anar xxxx Chhaling

270

Plant Tree and Save Forest

Notice Notice Notice

As per meeting held among Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group on 2061/4/5, it has been decided that 16 bio gas plants and 50 improved smokeless stoves will be constructed and membership would be provided to 25 persons. Therefore, we request you to attend meeting on the following place, date and time to discuss about this.

Requested by:

Meena Chairperson

Place: Radha Krishna School Compound Date: 2061/5/12 Time: 10 AM

271

Household Application Form for Biogas (Sample) House owner’s Name: Father/Husband’s Name: Address: Number of family members: Q. # 1 How many cattle/domestic animals do you have?

Answer:

Q. # 2 Do you have toilet at your home?

Answer:

Q. # 3 How far is water source from your home?

Answer:

Q. #4 Do you keep/feed your animal at your home or in fields?

Answer:

Q. #5 Have you and your husband, both, discussed or not?

Answer:

Q. # 6 Do you both agree to sign on the agreement letter or not?

Answer:

Q. # 7 Are you happy to use toilet in Bio Gas plant?

Answer:

Q. # 8 Have you received Community Forest User membership?

Answer:

Q. # 9 Where do you collect firewood from?

Answer:

272

Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal Shree Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling V. D. C., Bhaktapur District, Nepal Date: 2061/8/24 Letter #: BSP/SB/04/239 Subject: Transfer amount (Money) Dear Sir, As per request letter # 061/62 dated 061/8/24 submitted by the Shree Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling V. D. C., Bhaktapur District, Nepal Peace Corps Volunteer provided fund to set a Bio Gas Plant in their work area. According to the agreement letter, the collected money was planned to distribute to Bio Gas Company to 25 Bio Gas Plant @ the rate of Rs. 8000/ (eight thousand) and NRs. 1000/ (one thousand) was provided to the related farmers in advance. Therefore, we would like to inform you that currently farmers will get NRs. 1,75,000 (NRs. one hundred, seventy five thousand) for 25 Bio Gas Plants @ the rate of NRs. 7000/ (seven thousand). We inform you that NRs. 1000/ (one thousand) will be made available upon completion of the Bio Gas Plant construction. Name Sundar Bajgain Executive Director B. S. P. Nepal c.c.: Bio Gas Company Private Ltd.

273

Agreement for Biogas Plant Construction (Contract) Biogas Company (P.) Ltd. and Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group Conditions to be kept in mind:

Biogas Company P. Ltd. will provide: • Provide technical support. • All the needed construction materials as per plan and design – for 6. cft. • 3 years’ guarantee for repairs and maintenance of biogas plant. • Complete plant construction works within 20 days of hole making. • Training for maintenance and repair will be provided by the company. • All the construction need to be completed at all the areas of the Community

Forest Sub-Users groups.

Seti Devi Community Forest User Groups will: • Farmers would have to be used to dig holes as per set guidelines provided by the

company. • Ask farmers to transport construction materials from the nearest road head to their

own plant construction sites (if there is not road access). • Provide unskilled labors • Make sure that farmers will be responsible to manage lodge and foods for the

construction groups at their respective sites. • Ask farmers to make two compost fertilizers as per BSP guidelines. • Collect Rs. 1000/(one thousand) from each farmer, who will have a bio gas plant,

to give it to the construction company after the completion of the project. • Company will regularly monitor the plant. • Community will provide total Nrs. 9000 (nine thousand). But in advance,

community will pay Nrs. 8000 (eight thousand) as an installment to buy materials. NRs. 1000 (one thousand) will be paid to the company after completion of the project.

• Mobile loan system will be used for Seti Devi Community Forest Users Groups and construction work will be given to the second group.

If needed, above mentioned points will be amended or changed by both parties. Signatures: Seti Devi Community Forest User Biogas Company (P.) Ltd. Group Members Representatives Chhaling, Bhaktapur Witnesses: B. S. P. Representative: Winrock International Rep. Seti Devi Forest Users Rep.: Anar Seti Devi Forest Users Rep.: Mahesh Date: 2061, Ashoj 5

274

Agreement for Biogas Plant Construction (Contract) Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal

& Biogas Company (P.) Ltd.

Peace Corps Volunteer, Ms. Marjorie D. Ely, provided fund of Nrs. 2,25, 212 (Rs. Two lakh, twenty five thousand and two hundred twenty) to B.S.P. Nepal to construct bio Gas plants at ward # 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of Chhaling V. D. C., Bhaktapur district. As per suggestion and ideas of Shree Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group members, construction agreement have been made with Biogas Company, with the following conditions:

• Biogas plant should be constructed with 6cft. capacity following G.G.C. model

plant. • Company is responsible to transport needed materials (Bricks- 1200 pieces,

cement: 10 sacks, Iron rods 10.50 kg and other materials as per quotation) to the road head of the construction sites.

• Polythene pipes should be used for the pipelines. If G. I. pipes are used, then farmers would be charged for any additional costs.

• If any farmer wants to have a cow dung refining machine, the real cost will be paid for by the farmer. It is not necessary to use 6 cft size biogas machine. Therefore, it should be discussed with farmers.

• Post construction policies and rules will be followed as per BSP Nepal. Farmers’ (Forest Users Group) Responsibilities: • Construction materials, provided or transported by the company, will be

transported from the road head to the construction sites by the farmers. • Manage labors. • If needed, more funds will be managed by the farmers.

-------------------------------- ____________________ xxxxxxxxxx Sundar Bajgain Biogas Company (P.) Ltd B. S. P. Nepal xxxxxxxxxx Bakhundole, Lalitpur Date: 10 Kartik, 2061 Date: 10 Kartik, 2061

275

Minute Book

Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling, Bhaktapur

________________________________________________________ Date: 2061/4/9 Attendance:

Meena Anar Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely

As meeting of today following points were decided after the discussion; Decision # 1: (From the meeting of the CFUG on 2061/4/5)

Overall Objective for The Biogas and Improved Cook Stove Project (Vision). The purpose of this construction is to save forest and develop [improve] the lifestyle or living standers of the people of this area. To accomplish this we will construct biogas plants and smokeless stoves. We will also provide loans without collateral and with low interest to the farmers so that they can protect or preserve the forest and improve their lives. So, the next purpose of this project is to provide support to helpless/poor farmers who cannot construct biogas plants to install the improved cook stoves without any cost. From this poor farmers also will be benefited. This project will completely run and planned by the members of the Community Users groups and Ranger and PCV will be advisors for this project.

Decision # 2: Goal #1: Inform all Community Forest Members:

- Posting Notice - Houses visits - Group meeting Goal #2: Create Loan System policy

- Prepare Policies - Convince Bio Gas Plant Owners

Goal #3: Construct 17 Bio Gas Plants - Select a Company and prepare agreement/MOU - MOU (agreement) with Bio Gas Promotion Support - Discuss with Bio Gas Plant Owners (Pre-construction) - Collect Materials - Provide training by the Bio Gas Promotion Support Goal #4: Construct 50 Smokeless Stoves and provide membership to 25 farmers with a considerable fee. - Select technician who makes Smokeless stoves. - Prepare policy =====================================================================

276

Date: 2061/4/10 Attendance:

Meena Person 1 Anar Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely

Decision # 1 Work Plan for Gobar Gas and Improved Cook Stove Sub-Committee Meeting

What? Who? When? Where? Goal #1.: Inform

members - Prepare Notice - Buy materials - Post notice - Set meeting place and

time - Call People

All members of sub Committee

Shrawan 10, 2061

After Bhadra 5 Bhadra 12

Radha Krishna Pra. V.

Goal #2: Loan System - Prepare rules - Select people what wants

to have Bio Gas Plant - Discussion with Farmers

Ranger and PCV, Members of sub

committee, and Winrock Representative’s support

Shrawan 21

After Bhadau 12 End of Bhadau

Radha

Krishna Pra. V.

10:30 AM

Goal #3. 16 Bio Gas Plant

Construction Objective 1:Select company - Find out company that

works better - Prepare questionnaires to

discuss with BSP office - Contact with three BSP

construction companies. - Select one construction

company - Tell company and consult

with them

All members of Sub-

committee

Sub-committee

Before Bhadau

12

Range Post

277

What? Who? When? Where? Goal 3 Objective 2 Agreement with BSP - Discuss with BSP - Sign on agreement -

Sub-committee Shrawan 18 and Bhadau 7

Kupandole

Goal #3 Objective 3 Contract with farmers - First meeting and sign on

agreement (with farmers).

- Meeting about works and responsibilities

- Checking

Sub-committee After Bhadau 12

Goal #3 Objective 4: Materials - Discuss about materials

with BSP & Company. - Collect materials - Responsibilities should

take by the farmers that want to have bio gas plant

Sub-committee First week of Asoj

Goal #3 Objective 5 Find out place for bio Gas plant - Set a place - Dig a hole - Company’s work

(construction) - Trainings on Operation

and Maintenance - Operate bio gas plant - Training about fertilizer

Company Farmers Company Company Farmers

B. S. P

Mangsir or Poush

Goal 4 Improved stoves and membership - Prepare rules for ICS

and membership receivers (choose the receivers and meet them.)

- Select the ICS mason - Sign on agreement with

mason - Construct Stoves - Distribute membership

Sub-committee

ICS mason

Sub-committee

End of Shrawan End of Bhadau

Kartik-Poush

278

Date: 2061/4/17 Sub-Committee Meeting Attendance:

Meena Person 1 Anar Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely

Discussion:

1. Post notice, Set criteria and rules for membership and smokeless stove, call technical persons, write notice, Visit Winrock and B. S. P. and select a company.

2. Criteria for Farmers who want to have Bio gas Plant.

Farmers should have: - 2 cattle or domestic animals (at least) - Toilet - Water facility - Animals in cattle shed. - Tap – within 60-meter distance - Plan made from husband and wife – both - All caste groups - Sign on agreement - Member of the Users Committee - Collect firewood from the community forest - No biogas plant and improved cook stove facility will be provided.

3. Criteria for ICS owners (Who want to have)

They should be: - member of the Users Group - priority to Dalit group or disadvantaged community - Responsible to collect dung, clay/soil and straw for chulo construction.

279

Date: 2061/4/21 Sub-Committee Meeting Attendance:

Meena Person 1 Anar Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely

Decision: 1. Develop Loan system

- For one loan receiver should be three witness (at least) - Invest 5% money - Time will be set as per loan process - Interest 10% per year - Last process: 5% interest for 1 week, 10% interest for 2 weeks, 15% interest for 3 weeks and

20% interest for 4 weeks. Witnesses’ persons also will be presented. - Loan pay system: Any person takes loan in Kartik month and pay 5% interest should pay

loan in Push not in Mangsir.

2. Rs. 50 should pay for chulo construction. 3. Membership: - Organize general meeting. - Membership fee Rs. 50/ - Membership will be provided to the selected person 4. Try for low cost Bio gas plant construction plan. Plan will be made after consultation

with B. S. P. 5. Next meeting will be on 2062/4/28 at Anar’s home at 10.30 AM

Date: 2061/4/28 Sub Committee Meeting

Attendance: Person 1 Anar Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely Ranger Discuss and Decision: 1. Loan System;

- Rs. 10,000 (ten thousand) to 12,000 (twelve thousand) should pay within 24 month with interest.

2. Next meeting will be on Bhadra 12 , 2061 during general meeting.

280

Date: 2061/5/9 Sub-committee meeting Attendance:

Anar Person 1 Meena Person 2 Person 3

Decision: 1. Responsibilities:

- Plan for Bhadra 12 general meeting – All sub-committee members. - Rationale and objectives of the general meeting - Meena - Information about biogas plan - Person 1 - Information about ICS - Person 2 - Membership – Person 3 - Other discussion will be led by Anar and Meena.

Date: 2061/5/20 Sub Committee Meeting Attendance:

Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Meena Anar

Decision: 1. Received 10 applications for bio gas plant. Last date for application was to be 2061/5/20

(today) but we will meet again on 2062/5/25 to check for more applications and discuss about the received application.

Date: 2061/5/25 (No Nepali Minutes?)

281

Date: 2061/8/12 Sub Committee Meeting Attendance:

Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Meena Anar Marjorie Ely

Decision: 1. Responsibility to construct 50 Improved cook stoves is given to the CFUG Committee

Treasurer A - Agreement: 1. Straw, mud/clay, husks, dung should provide by the farmers. 2. Iron rod will be provided by Sub-committee. 3. Sub Committee will give to the main constructor rs. 250/day 4. Application fee for chulo is Rs. 50/ 5. Chulo Construction should start from Mangsir 15 to end of Phagun month 2061. 6. Main constructor will train farmers (Chulo owners) regarding cleaning and

maintenance. 7. Sub-committee will supervise and monitor chulo construction works. 8. Coming Tuesday, Sub-Committee members will buy iron rods for chulo

construction.

Date: 2061/6/28 Sub-committee Meeting Attendance: Other:

Person 1 BSP representative Person 2 Winrock representative Person 3 Biogas Company owner Meena Local Student Assistant Anar

Decision: 1 Meeting with Farmers who want to set a bio gas plant. Prepared an agreement

papers with the suggestion and help from Winrock rep. and BSP rep. Agreement is made with the sub-committee and Biogas Construction Company.

2 Sign on agreement with Farmers and collect Rs. 1000 (One thousand). 3 Prepare a sample Loan Form with Winrock rep.

282

Date: 2061/7/10 Attendance:

Person 1 Meena Person 2 Person 3 Anar

Decision:

1. Sign on agreement by the farmers and collect Rs. 1000 (one thousand) as advance from each farmer who wants to have bio gas plant.

Date: 2061/7/27 Other Attendance:

Meena Biogas Company staff Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Anar Decision: 1. Collected Rs. 11,000 (Eleven Thousand Rs) from 11 farmers and Loan form

given to the company staff. Name list of farmers Rs. 1. A 1000/ 2. B 1000/ 3. C 1000/ 4. D 1000/ 5. E 1000/ 6. F 1000/ 7. G 1000/ 8. H 1000/ 9. I 1000/ 10. J 1000/ 11 K 1000/ 2. Next meeting will be on 2061/8/4 at 10 AM Meena’s house

283

Date: 2061/8/8 Sub-Committee Meeting

Meena Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Anar

Decision: No decision is made from today meeting.

Date: 2061/9/6 Attendance:

Meena Person 1 Person 2 Anar Person 3

Decision: 1. Collected other Rs. 8000/ (eight Thousand Rs.) from the following farmers:

1. L Rs. 1000/ 2. M Rs. 1000/ 3. N Rs. 1000/ 4. O Rs. 1000/ 5. P Rs. 1000/ 6. Q Rs. 1000/ 7. R Rs. 1000/ 8. S Rs. 1000/

284

Date: 2061/9/15 Bio Gas Plant construction sub-committee meeting Attendance:

Meena Person 1 Person 2 Anar Person 3

Other Attendance:

Ranger Forest Rangepost staff Decision:

1. Bio Gas Plan supervision and monitor will be done by Sub-committee members with Forest Rangepost staff.

2. Needed support will be taken from Rangepost staff for all the construction works (Biogas and ICS).

Date: 2061/10/9 Bio Gas Plant construction sub-committee meeting Attendance:

Meena Person 1 Person 2 Anar Person 3

Decision:

1. On 2061/9/17 collected Rs. 2000/ (two thousand) from following farmers and given this rupees. To company staff

1. T Rs. 1000/ 2. U Rs. 1000/

2. Decided to conduct a meeting and discuss about bio gas plant construction with Biogas construction Company and BSP rep.

285

Date: 2061/10/13 Bio Gas Plant construction sub-committee meeting with farmers and BSP & Company staff Attendance:

Person 1 Meena Anar Person 2 Person 3

Other Attendance: BSP representative (1) Biogas Company owner BSP representative (2) Biogas company staff

Meeting with BSP Staff and Bio Gas Company staff and discussed about construction plan. Farmers asked different questions to the B. S. P. staff and company staff. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Date: 2061/11/20 Bio Gas Plant construction sub-committee meeting Attendance:

Meena Person 1 Person 2 Anar Person 3

Decision:

1. 33 rods for the improved cooks stoves had been already distributed. 120 small rods and 10 big rods are still remaining. Besides this, 24 big rods and 33 small rods should be bought.

2. According to the decision of making only 50 improved cook stoves, from today ‘s date 2061/11/20, the quota has been already fulfilled so only 50 improved cook stoves will be made.

3. All the accounts of this sub-committee are checked and according to this all accounts are in good condition.

4. Decided to go to meeting at District Forest Office on 2061/11/26

286

Meeting Minutes from Bhaktapur District Forest Office

Today on the date 2061/11/26 the meeting of the officers of the Seti Devi CFUG with the District Forest Officer was conducted in the Bhaktapur District Forest Office with the following people present:

District Forest Officer Advisor from CRTEC (former Peace Corps Natural Resources Program Officer) Anar (Biogas Management Committee) Person 1 (Biogas Management Committee) BSP staff Person 2 (Biogas Management Committee) Meena (Biogas Management Committee) Marjorie Ely (former PCV) Biogas Company staff Person 3 (Biogas Management Committee) Person A (new CFUG committee) Person B (new CFUG committee) Person C (new CFUG committee) Person D (new CFUG committee) Person E (new CFUG committee) District Forest Office Ranger Decision

1. In this meeting abut the making of biogas plants through the Seti Devi CFUG was discussed and according to this meeting’s decision two people from the Seti Devi CFUG [new] committee will be added to the biogas sub-committee to make altogether seven members in the sub-committee. The name of the seven members is given in decision 3.

2. About using the bank balance: While discussing about opening the bank balance of Seti Devi sub-committee, it is decided that from the sub-committee, two persons, Meena and Anar, and from the main committee side two persons, A and B, (all together four members) must have their signatures (agreement) to use the bank balance.

3. The name of the members of the sub-committee are as follows: i. Meena

ii. Person 1 iii. Anar iv. Person 2 v. Person 3

vi. Person A (from CFUG) vii. Person B (from CFUG)

287

BIOGAS MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE ACCOUNT LEDGER

Account of : Bio Gas Sub Committee (Anar) 2061 Nepali Date

English Date Particulars Debit Credit Balance

4/14/61 7/29/04 Funding support from

Dist. Dev. Committee 18,000 18,000/ 7/29

Register 100

Account book 160

Glue 10

5 Note books 75

4/14

Photo copy 5

17,650/

7/29 Bus Fare – 4 persons 57 4/14

Meal for 4 persons 85 17,508/

8/1 5 chow-chow 55

4/17

Half litre milk 11 17,442/

8/2 Snacks for 5 persons 81

Bus fare 150

4/18

Bus fare BSP-Winrock 68

17,143/

8/5 Snacks chow chow 5 55 Snack 12

4/21

Milk ½ litre 11

17,065/

8/13 Computer typing 20/

4/29

Photo Copy 51 16,994

5/30 9/15

80 16914

40 16874

5/31 9/16

Meeting to Winrock 150 16614

6/1 9/17

Bus fare five people 60 6554

snack 90 16464 60/ 16,404/

6/22 10/8

Meeting at BSP 156 16248

6/28 10/14

Meeting, snack, tea 105 6143 7/10

10/26

From CFUG funds 7000 23143

288

Nepali Date

English Date

Particulars Debit Credit Balance

7/12 10/28

Loan Form Photo copy 70 23073/

7/15

10/31 Advance from members’ application for Bio Gas plants:

1. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 24073

2. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 25073

3. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 26073

4. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 27073

5. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 28073

6. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 29073

7. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 30073

8. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 31073

9. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 32073

10. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 33073

11. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 34073

7/26 11/11

Gave to company 11000 23073

8/19 12/04

12. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 24073

13. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 5073

9/6 12/21

14. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 26073

15. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 27073

16. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 28073

17. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 29073

18. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 30073

19. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 31073

8/23 12/8 Monitor plants and phone

call to BSP 85 30988

9/6 12/21

Gave to company 8000 2988

9/9 12/24

Meeting snack 70 22918

9/29 1/13/05

Bank interest 165 23086

10/13 1/26/05

Meeting 30 23053/

10/9 1/22/05

? 1000 24053

289

Nepali Date

English Date

Particulars Debit Credit Balance

10/18 1/31/05

Snacks & Copy 83 23970

10/22 2/4/05

Bus fare to buy rods 60 23906/ 10/22 2/4 Iron Rods 1370 22536 10/23 2/5 20. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 23536 21. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 24536 22. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 25536 23. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 26536 10/25 2/7 Iron rods 374 26162 11/6 2/17 Iron Rods 1732 24430 bus 37 24393 11/13 2/24 77 24316 11/15 2/26 Iron Rods, bus 2499 21817 11/20 3/3 Meeting 55 21762 11/26 3/9 Meeting 96 21666

Fund collected from:

• 23 farmers x Rs. 1000= Rs. 23,000 • Seti Devi Rs.8000 • Dist. Dev. Committee Rs. 18,000

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

290

APPENDIX E

COMMUNITY KNOWLEDGE PRE-SURVEY AND

POST-SURVEY QUESTIONS

Conducted in August 2004 and March 2005, respectively.

Information collected in this survey was to determine the differences in knowledge about

the renewable energy technologies and the CFUG project. Some questions asked were

related to caste, wealth, and gender.

291

“Pre – Community Knowledge Survey” Questions

1. Name: _____________________________________________ Gender: M F

2. Number of people living in house: ___________

3. Main sources of household income (Rank those that apply. Let respondent answer and then

prompt about remaining sources. Put an asterisk next to all prompted responses.):

Farm (Include income from animals)

Office/ Sales Work

Merchant/ Shop Owner

Labor (construction/ work in fields for pay)

Service Work (tailor/ blacksmith, etc)

Rent (of land/ room/ house/ etc)

Other_______________________________

4. Amount of Land (Number of Ropani):_____________

5. Number of (prompt):

• Cow__________

• Buffalo________

• Goat__________

• Chicken________

• Other__________

6. Monthly household Income:

a. Farm (prompt source, amount is open):

Source __Selling grain____________ Amount________________________

Source __Selling vegetables _______ Amount ________________________

Source __Selling milk____________ Amount ________________________

Source ___Use of stud____________ Amount ________________________

Source ___Other________________ Amount ________________________

292

b. Non-Agriculture Sources (source from #3 above, prompt for Amount <2000, >2000, >

4000, >6000, >8000)

Who___________________ Source___________________ Amount______________

Who___________________ Source___________________ Amount______________

Who___________________ Source___________________ Amount______________

Who___________________ Source___________________ Amount______________

7. Literacy (open):

a. Who is literate?: Age______________ Gender____________________

Age______________ Gender____________________

Age______________ Gender____________________

Age______________ Gender____________________

b. Who is illiterate?: Age______________ Gender____________________

Age______________ Gender____________________

Age______________ Gender____________________

Age______________ Gender____________________

8. What do you use to cook? (prompt and Rank):

Wood Stove

Kerosene

Electric

Gas

Biogas

Other_______________________

9. If woodstove, what kind?(prompt and check one):

Traditional (old)

ICS

293

10. Monthly use of those listed above in question 8(prompt unit amount if necessary):

a. Firewood: Amount_________________ dhoko

b. Kerosene: Amount_________________ liters

c. Electric: Amount_________________ hours

d. Gas: Amount_________________ hours

e. Biogas: Amount_________________ hours

f. Other _______________________: Amount__________________ (Unit?)_____

11. Where do you get firewood from? (Open and rank after initial response with asterisks – Rank and

amount/month):

Community Forest: Amount/ month _____________________

“Barri” (Upland Field): Amount/ month_____________________

Other__________________: Amount /month____________________

Other__________________: Amount /month____________________

12. Have you heard about the Seti Devi CFUG current project? YES NO

13. If yes, how did you hear about the project? (Open – check one or rank if more than one):

CFUG committee member

Family member

Friend/ Neighbor

Other___________________________

14. If yes, what do you know about the project? (Open – check all that apply):

Biogas (Build/ bring/ give, etc)

ICS (Build / bring / give, etc)

Loan for biogas

Rotating Loan System

Lower membership fee for new members

294

Low cost biogas

Other_________________________________

15. Have you heard of ICS?: YES NO

16. If yes, how did you find out about it? (Open – check one or rank if more than one)

Family Member

Friend/ Neighbor

Radio

Television

Newspaper/ Magazine

Notice/ poster/ pamphlet

Calendar

Field Workers (in village)

Government/ NGO offices (at office)

Government/ NGO office (at a training of meeting in village)

Other___________________________________

17. If yes to 12, what do you know about the benefits and detriments of ICS? (Open – check off all

that apply):

Chimney/ smoke goes outside/ less smoke inside

Health benefit for respiratory

Less firewood needed

Less labor (because less firewood needed)

More wood in forest (conservation)

Most benefit to women and children (because they are in kitchen during cooking)

295

No place for warming hands

Less smoke to rid house of insects

Other____________________________________

18. If yes to 12, do you want to install ICS? YES NO

19. If yes to 15, why haven’t you installed it, yet? (Open)

Money

Don’t know a mason/ No one available in village to make

Family doesn’t want it

Other_________________________________________

20. If yes to 15, do you know of any sources of assistance for installing ICS? YES NO

Name the known sources (Open):

The CFUG project

Center for Rural Technology in Kathmandu

DDC/ VDC training in installation

Other_______________________________

21. Have you heard of biogas?: YES NO

22. If yes, how did you hear about biogas? (Open – check one or rank if more than one):

Family Member

Friend/ Neighbor Radio

Television

Newspaper/ Magazine

Notice/ poster/ pamphlet

Calendar

Field Workers (in village)

296

Government/ NGO offices (at office)

Government/ NGO office (at a training of meeting in village)

Other___________________________________

23. If yes to 18, what do you know about the benefits and/ or detriments of biogas?(Open – check all

that apply):

No smoke

Improvement of/ benefit for respiratory health

Use cow/ buffalo manure

Use/ connect toilet

Can also use (add) straw/ kitchen waste/ goat manure/ other manure

Need to add water

No firewood needed(do not need to collect firewood for biogas)

Conserves forest resources

Shorter to cook meals (don’t have to start fire)

Easier to cook/ less work to cook (don’t have to keep fire going – stoking, blowing)

Less work to clean pots and pans

Can cook small snacks/ tea easily

Biogas slurry has more nutrients than FYM/ slurry good for compost for fields

Sanitation health benefit (in community because of toilet use)

No smoke to rid house of insects

Labor needed daily to put manure and water into plant

Less gas in winter months

Smaller flame than wood fire

297

Taste of food different (no smoke to add flavor)

May still need to build fires (to cook in winter/ for warmth in winter)

Other___________________________________________

24. If yes to 18, do you want to install biogas at your home? YES NO

25. If yes to 21, why haven’t you installed biogas, yet? (Open)

Money – lack of own funding

Unable to get a loan

Don’t know how to find company

Family doesn’t want it

Other_____________________________________________

26. If yes to 21, do you know of sources of assistance for installing biogas? YES NO

Name the known sources (Open):

Loan from CFUG project

Loan from local bank/ individuals

Subsidy from BSP/ AEPC

Asking for help from VDC/ DDC

Other NGO’s assistance

Other_________________________________________________

NOTES:

298

Post Project “Community Knowledge Survey” Questions

1. Name_____________________________________Ward_______ Date___________________

2. What do you use to cook? (Change from before??) (Rank):

Traditional Wood Stove

ICS

Kerosene

Electric

Gas

Biogas

Other_______________________

3. If woodstove, what kind? (Change from before??) (check one):

Traditional (old)

ICS

4. Monthly use of those listed in Question 2 (Change from before??):

g. Firewood: Amount_________________ dhoko

h. Kerosene: Amount_________________ liters

i. Electric: Amount_________________ hours

j. Gas: Amount_________________ hours

k. Biogas: Amount_________________ hours

l. Other _______________________: Amount__________________ (?)_____

5. Have you heard about the Seti Devi CFUG current project? YES NO

6. If yes, how did you hear about the project? (Open - check one or rank if more than one):

Me (if checked then rank other sources if any)

CFUG committee member

299

Family member

Friend/ Neighbor

Other___________________________

7. If yes, what do you know the goals about the project? (Check all that apply):

Biogas (Build/ bring/ give, etc)

ICS (Build / bring / give, etc)

Loan for biogas

Rotating Loan System

Lower membership fee for new members

Low cost biogas

Other_________________________________

8. Who is managing the project? (open)

9. What have you heard about how the project is being managed? (Open NO PROMPTING -

Looking for how the project is running –e.g. problems/success in the committee/CFUG/ between

people/ social/ financial or e.g. who is doing/heading the project or any other information.) Use

back of paper if needed.

10. Have you heard of ICS?: YES NO

11. If yes, How did you find out about it? (Check one or rank if more than one)

Me (From last interview – if checked, then have heard from other source, too? Rank other

sources)

Family Member

Friend/ Neighbor Radio

Television

300

Newspaper/ Magazine

Notice/ poster/ pamphlet

Calendar

Field Workers (in village)

Government/ NGO offices (at office)

Government/ NGO office (at a training of meeting in village)

Other___________________________________

12. If yes, what do you know about the benefits and detriments of ICS? (Check off all that apply):

Chimney/ smoke goes outside/ less smoke inside

Health benefit for respiratory

Less firewood needed

Less labor (because less firewood needed)

More wood in forest (conservation)

Most benefit to women and children (because they are in kitchen during cooking)

No place for warming hands

Less smoke to rid house of insects

Other____________________________________

13. If yes to 9, do you want to install ICS? YES NO

14. If yes to 12, why haven’t you installed it, yet? (Open)

Money

Don’t know a mason/ No one available in village to make

Family doesn’t want it

301

Other_________________________________________

15. If yes to 12, do you know of any sources of assistance for installing ICS? YES NO

Name the known sources (Open):

The CFUG project

Center for Rural Technology in Kathmandu

DDC/ VDC training in installation

Other_______________________________

16. Have you heard of biogas?: YES NO

17. If yes, how did you hear about biogas? (Check one or rank if more than one):

Me (from last interview- if checked then rank other sources if any)

Family Member

Friend/ Neighbor Radio

Television

Newspaper/ Magazine

Notice/ poster/ pamphlet

Calendar

Field Workers (in village)

Government/ NGO offices (at office)

Government/ NGO office (at a training of meeting in village)

Other___________________________________

18. If yes, what do you know about the benefits and/ or detriments of biogas? (Check all that apply):

No smoke

302

Improvement of/ benefit for respiratory health

Use cow/ buffalo manure

Use/ connect toilet

Can also use (add) straw/ kitchen waste/ goat manure/ other manure

Need to add water

No firewood needed(do not need to collect firewood for biogas)

Conserves forest resources

Shorter to cook meals (don’t have to start fire)

Easier to cook/ less work to cook (don’t have to keep fire going – stoking, blowing)

Less work to clean pots and pans

Can cook small snacks/ tea easily

Biogas slurry has more nutrients than FYM/ slurry good for compost for fields

Sanitation health benefit (in community because of toilet use)

No smoke to rid house of insects

Labor needed daily to put manure and water into plant

Less gas in winter months

Smaller flame than wood fire

Taste of food different (no smoke to add flavor)

May still need to build fires (to cook in winter/ for warmth in winter)

Other___________________________________________

19. If yes to 15, do you want to install biogas at your home? YES NO

303

20. If yes to 18, why haven’t you installed biogas, yet? (Open)

Money – lack of own funding

Unable to get a loan

Don’t know how to find company

Family doesn’t want it

Other_____________________________________________

21. If yes to 18, do you know of sources of assistance for installing biogas? YES NO

Name the known sources (Open):

Loan from CFUG project

Loan from local bank/ individuals

Subsidy from BSP/ AEPC

Asking for help from VDC/ DDC/Gov't

Other NGO’s assistance

Other_________________________________________________

Notes: (Use back of page if needed)

337

APPENDIX G

BIOGAS RECIPIENT SURVEY QUESTIONS

March 2005

The questions of this survey of the biogas recipient asked respondents about their views

of the project and its managers. It asked about the roles of participants, the problems, the

installation process, the costs involved for the respondents, and what they knew about the

loan system.

338

Biogas Recipient Survey Questions

1. Awareness: a. How did you first learn about the project? b. What have you learned about the project by participating in it? c. When was the construction begun on your plant?

Labor/ Delegation of tasks #2 -4 2.

a. What work did you family do for construction? (Distinguish by gender). b. What meetings did your family members attend? Who attended and what

happened in the meeting? 3. Who told you what work your family had to do? 4. When was your plant construction completed? Plant Operations #5-6 5. Is your plant producing gas now? How much? 6. Do you have any problems with operation of the plant?

a. Input b. Output (using gas in kitchen) c. Slurry

Financial #7-10 7. How much have you paid so far for your biogas plant? 8.

a. How much was your loan amount? b. Did you sign a contract? c. Who signed it?

9. When will you start to pay the loan? 10. How much do you pay per month for the loan? Management of the Project # 11-14 11. Who is managing the project in the community? How many people? 12. What work do they do? 13. Who else in the community is doing work for the project? What work? 14. Who or what organizations have participated from outside the community? What

work? Problems #15-17 15. Have you had any problems with the project? 16. When? What was the solution? 17. Project Success or not? Suggestions for the future 18. Other comments – what suggestions do you have to improve the project?

439

APPENDIX J

IMPROVED COOK STOVE AND BIOGAS RECIPIENT

CATTLE INFORMATION

The following two data tables were collected after completion of the Biogas Recipient

Survey in March 2005. Information about the caste and the ward location of the

household is omitted to follow Human Subject Research Guidelines.

440

Improved Cook Stove Recipients Y/N Y/N

HH No. No.in HH no of cows no of buffaloes Total < two cattle <=two cattle 1 7 1 2 3 0 02 5 1 1 2 0 13 14 1 1 2 0 14 7 1 0 1 1 15 6 1 1 2 0 16 6 0 2 2 0 17 6 2 0 2 0 18 7 1 2 3 0 09 5 0 1 1 1 1

10 3 0 0 0 1 111 5 2 0 2 0 112 4 2 0 2 0 113 2 1 0 1 1 114 4 1 0 1 1 115 6 1 0 1 1 116 7 1 2 3 0 017 3 0 0 0 1 118 7 1 2 3 0 019 5 1 0 1 1 120 3 1 0 1 1 121 4 1 1 2 0 122 4 1 0 1 1 123 4 1 0 1 1 124 8 1 1 2 0 125 5 1 1 2 0 126 5 0 2 2 0 127 6 1 2 3 0 028 4 0 0 0 1 129 5 0 0 0 1 130 4 1 2 3 0 031 8 1 1 2 0 132 5 1 0 1 1 133 4 0 0 0 1 134 4 1 2 3 0 035 7 1 2 3 0 036 6 1 0 1 1 137 4 0 0 0 1 138 4 1 0 1 1 139 6 0 1 1 1 140 9 3 0 3 0 041 0 1 142 7 0 0 0 1 143 4 2 0 2 0 144 7 1 0 1 1 145 6 0 2 2 0 146 5 1 1 2 0 147 5 1 0 1 1 148 6 1 1 2 0 149 10 1 2 3 0 050 6 1 0 1 1 1

Total 24 40

441

Biogas Recipients, Number of Cattle

HH No. No. in HH No. buffalo No.cows Toilet? 1 7 1 2 yes 2 7 2 0 yes 3 4 1 2 no 4 6 0 2 yes 5 5 1 1 yes 6 8 0 3 yes 7 8 1 1 no 8 6 2 1 no 9 7 2 0 yes

10 6 1 1 no 11 11 1 1 no 12 6 0 3 yes 13 6 2 1 yes 14 7 2 1 yes 15 10 2 2 yes 16 6 1 3 yes 17 10 2 2 no 18 6 1 1 yes 19 11 1 1 no 20 11 1 2 yes 21 11 0 3 no 22 10 3 0 yes 23 6 1 2 no