An Emergence of English Language Variety in Cambodia The 12 th ESEA Conference: Trends and...

An Emergence of English An Emergence of English Language Variety in Language Variety in

CambodiaCambodia

The 12The 12thth ESEA Conference: ESEA Conference: Trends and DirectionsTrends and DirectionsPresenter: Keuk Chan NarithPresenter: Keuk Chan Narith

RUPP/ IFL – English Department RUPP/ IFL – English Department

An Emergence of English language variety in CambodiaAn Emergence of English language variety in Cambodia

Purposes of the paperPurposes of the paper1.1. to seek preliminary understanding of features to seek preliminary understanding of features

of Cambodian people and learners’ language; of Cambodian people and learners’ language; 2.2. to investigate causes which encourage to to investigate causes which encourage to

such features;such features;3.3. to examine intelligibility of English language to examine intelligibility of English language

used in this country to foreigners, native or used in this country to foreigners, native or non-native speakers of English language; andnon-native speakers of English language; and

4.4. to discuss alternatives for improving English to discuss alternatives for improving English language training in Cambodia.language training in Cambodia.

An Emergence of English language variety in An Emergence of English language variety in CambodiaCambodia

Background informationBackground informationThe history of English language The history of English language

spread into Cambodiaspread into Cambodia

- before civil war (1975): French was - before civil war (1975): French was a dominant foreign language in a dominant foreign language in Cambodia due to French colonization Cambodia due to French colonization (1863-1954); English was little learnt (1863-1954); English was little learnt and spoken in the American and spoken in the American colonization (1970-1975).colonization (1970-1975).


- after Genocidal regime (1980–late - after Genocidal regime (1980–late 1980s): English and French were 1980s): English and French were prohibited; Russian and Vietnamese prohibited; Russian and Vietnamese were taught in schools. were taught in schools.

- UNTAC (1990s): English became a - UNTAC (1990s): English became a dominant foreign language. In mid dominant foreign language. In mid 1990s, the Royal Government of 1990s, the Royal Government of Cambodia declared English and French Cambodia declared English and French as foreign languages in Cambodia.as foreign languages in Cambodia.


Needs of English language: Needs of English language:

- living survival- living survival

- higher education- higher education

- diplomatic relationship- diplomatic relationship

- seeking residency abroad- seeking residency abroad


English language training:English language training:

In addition to formal training of In addition to formal training of teachers of English sponsored by teachers of English sponsored by AUSAIDS, a huge number of private/ AUSAIDS, a huge number of private/ informal English language classes informal English language classes were opened. In this situation, the were opened. In this situation, the Khmer people who have known Khmer people who have known English better would teach the ones English better would teach the ones who don’t English language. who don’t English language.

An Emergence of English language variety in CambodiaAn Emergence of English language variety in Cambodia

Literature reviewLiterature reviewKirkpatrick (2005)’s study for Kirkpatrick (2005)’s study for

International seminar at RELC:International seminar at RELC:

The The added /s/ sound at the end of the added /s/ sound at the end of the wordswords spoken by Cambodian could spoken by Cambodian could be seen as another expanding circle be seen as another expanding circle or learner features of English or learner features of English language. language.

An Emergence of English language Variety in CambodiaAn Emergence of English language Variety in Cambodia

Stern (1997) Stern (1997)

In order to study a language variety In order to study a language variety in one country, ones must study the in one country, ones must study the language that learners produce, language that learners produce, which he calls as interlanguage which he calls as interlanguage studies.studies.


Littlewood (1994): constructivist view:Littlewood (1994): constructivist view:

Second [or foreign] language learners, Second [or foreign] language learners, similar to children of their first similar to children of their first language, language, are actively constructing are actively constructing rules of the target language rules of the target language they are they are exposed to and exposed to and gradually adapting gradually adapting these rules in order to form the target these rules in order to form the target language systemlanguage system. .


Ellis (1996): Cognitive processingEllis (1996): Cognitive processing

- noticing- noticing

- comparing- comparing

- integrating- integrating

- restructuring- restructuring


Framework of the studyFramework of the studyLittlewood (1997)’s suggestion:Littlewood (1997)’s suggestion:

1) Language transfer1) Language transfer

The learners use their previous The learners use their previous native language experience as a native language experience as a means of organizing the second means of organizing the second language.language.


2) Overgeneralization2) Overgeneralization The majority of intralingual errors The majority of intralingual errors are instances of the same process of are instances of the same process of overgeneralization that has been overgeneralization that has been observed in first language observed in first language acquisition.acquisition.

Learners use their previous Learners use their previous knowledge of the second [or foreign] knowledge of the second [or foreign] language that they use to generalize language that they use to generalize the target language systems.the target language systems.


3) Non-standard errors3) Non-standard errors The assumption is that the speech The assumption is that the speech which learners produce is a direct which learners produce is a direct reflection of the rules which they have reflection of the rules which they have internalized, that is, of their underlying internalized, that is, of their underlying competence in the second [or foreign] competence in the second [or foreign] language. language.

Two factors for discussion:Two factors for discussion:- immediate communication strategies- immediate communication strategies- performance factors- performance factors


4) Errors due to the effects of teaching4) Errors due to the effects of teaching

If a learner is taking part in formal If a learner is taking part in formal instruction, some errors will be a instruction, some errors will be a direct result of misunderstanding direct result of misunderstanding caused by faulty teaching or caused by faulty teaching or materials.materials.

- Material uses- Material uses

- The effectiveness of teaching- The effectiveness of teaching


MethodMethod

- Qualitative analyses of the recorded - Qualitative analyses of the recorded materials in forms of interviews, group materials in forms of interviews, group discussions, learners’ presentations and discussions, learners’ presentations and other means of communication and other means of communication and written materials offered by his students. written materials offered by his students.

- Participants: year-two students at RUPP, - Participants: year-two students at RUPP, Institute of Foreign Languages, English Institute of Foreign Languages, English Dept. and 2 Australian, 1 American, 1 Dept. and 2 Australian, 1 American, 1 Swedish, and 1 Singaporean.Swedish, and 1 Singaporean.


Findings & ConclusionFindings & ConclusionOne major problem is phonological One major problem is phonological

features.features.

- Learners mistress English words.- Learners mistress English words.

- - Learners mispronounce mispronounce //ðð/, and /d/; //, and /d/; /θθ/, /, //∫∫/, and /s/; /z/ and //, and /s/; /z/ and /ƷƷ/. /.

- Learners do not pronounce the ending - Learners do not pronounce the ending

sounds of words.sounds of words.

An Emergence of English language Variety in An Emergence of English language Variety in CambodiaCambodia

‘‘……yes main problems for Khmer people who speak yes main problems for Khmer people who speak English is that there’re two problems for Khmer English is that there’re two problems for Khmer speakers: one is intonation. So you talk about in speakers: one is intonation. So you talk about in Khmer you say [table], this is a table [no stress]. In Khmer you say [table], this is a table [no stress]. In English we say [English we say [TaTable], so we stress [ble], so we stress [tata] and we ] and we go down on [ble]. Another one is that Khmer do not go down on [ble]. Another one is that Khmer do not pronounce clearly the end of the words. …when I pronounce clearly the end of the words. …when I first came here I never knew what they said first came here I never knew what they said because I never heard the end of the words. I can’t because I never heard the end of the words. I can’t understand what they said,’ understand what they said,’ said an American said an American teacher who has been working in Cambodia for teacher who has been working in Cambodia for four years. four years.


- Learners tend to pronounce /s/ at the - Learners tend to pronounce /s/ at the end of words – adjectives, adverbs, end of words – adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, etc.prepositions, etc.

Ex. In an interview 3:Ex. In an interview 3:

Yes. In fact the study always have a difficulty but –er- Yes. In fact the study always have a difficulty but –er- in –er- my study in IFL I face some of problems such in –er- my study in IFL I face some of problems such as –er- er- manyas –er- er- manyss document[document[ss] I have to read] I have to readss more moress such –er- more such for example I have tosuch –er- more such for example I have toss search for search for moremoress book[ book[ss] for develop myself but I think I don’t ] for develop myself but I think I don’t have enough time for me to work andhave enough time for me to work andss study at the study at the same time. ([s] means the speaker dropped ending same time. ([s] means the speaker dropped ending sound). sound).


Some of these features are caused Some of these features are caused by non-equivalence in the two by non-equivalence in the two languages in phonological languages in phonological propositions in the form of language propositions in the form of language transfer and overgeneralization of transfer and overgeneralization of the target language.the target language.


A second major problem is the A second major problem is the features caused by language features caused by language transfer. It is affected by learners’ . It is affected by learners’ experience in the native language experience in the native language and knowledge of other languages and knowledge of other languages they know and use. they know and use.

- Culturally, Khmer language and - Culturally, Khmer language and Khmer culture do affect English Khmer culture do affect English language learning. language learning.


Ex. One obvious feature of English Ex. One obvious feature of English language which is not found in Khmer language which is not found in Khmer language is language is article (a, an, and the). article (a, an, and the).

Khmer learners of English language Khmer learners of English language may interchangeably use may interchangeably use a, an a, an and and thethe, or they may not use these , or they may not use these articles at all. Let’s look into the articles at all. Let’s look into the extract of one university learner’s extract of one university learner’s introduction of a reflection paper. introduction of a reflection paper.


A short story, An Incident, was given me a valuable of A short story, An Incident, was given me a valuable of life of human being after I read it. The story was set in life of human being after I read it. The story was set in China more than fifty years ago. The incident was China more than fifty years ago. The incident was happened athappened at ʌʌ South Gate during the winter of 1917 South Gate during the winter of 1917

when when ʌʌ rickshaw man was hired for taking a rich man rickshaw man was hired for taking a rich man

to to ʌʌ South Gate. Suddenly, when South Gate. Suddenly, when ʌʌ old woman crossing old woman crossing

the road, she had left the pavement without warning the road, she had left the pavement without warning to cut across in front of the rickshaw. The main actor is to cut across in front of the rickshaw. The main actor is

ʌʌ rickshaw man who is the kindly gentleman. Another rickshaw man who is the kindly gentleman. Another

people are people are ʌʌ old woman, old woman, ʌʌ police man and police man and ʌʌ man who man who

is hiring the rickshaw, is hiring the rickshaw, ʌʌ rich man. rich man. (9 articles were (9 articles were

dropped)dropped)


Another major problem is caused by Another major problem is caused by the learners’ immediate needs to use the learners’ immediate needs to use English language to achieve some English language to achieve some communicative purposes.communicative purposes.

- Beginners, or less competent - Beginners, or less competent people or learners attempt to speak people or learners attempt to speak English language for their living English language for their living survivals and communication.survivals and communication.


Ex. One student sent his message to Ex. One student sent his message to his lecturer for his late submission of his lecturer for his late submission of his assignment:his assignment:

““Thanks, lecturer for your Thanks, lecturer for your apologyapology. I . I submit my assignment late.” submit my assignment late.”

This learner got the wrong lexical This learner got the wrong lexical choice of choice of apology apology for for forgiveness forgiveness or or just just permission. permission.


Another major problem is caused by Another major problem is caused by teaching.teaching.

- Materials available in Cambodia for - Materials available in Cambodia for English language teaching and learning.English language teaching and learning.

- American English-made materials- American English-made materials

- British English-made materials- British English-made materials

- Other English-made materials: - Other English-made materials: writers writers in Singapore, Philippines, in Singapore, Philippines, Indian.Indian.


IntelligibilityIntelligibility

- - An An American teacher, who has been teacher, who has been teaching English for 4 years in teaching English for 4 years in Cambodia, found it hard to Cambodia, found it hard to understand Cambodian people, esp. understand Cambodian people, esp. his students’ English language his students’ English language because the dropping of ending because the dropping of ending sounds of words.sounds of words.


- An Australian teacher, who has An Australian teacher, who has stayed in Cambodia or five months, stayed in Cambodia or five months, noticed that English spoken in noticed that English spoken in Cambodia is similar to English in Cambodia is similar to English in other Southeast Asia countries. She other Southeast Asia countries. She added that Cambodian people do added that Cambodian people do attempt to communicate, to speak attempt to communicate, to speak English. She could understand it English. She could understand it quite well.quite well.


- - Another Australian teacher had Another Australian teacher had problem with the sounds – it’s difficult problem with the sounds – it’s difficult to distinguish between to distinguish between thing, sing, etc.thing, sing, etc.

- - A Singaporean teacher, working as a A Singaporean teacher, working as a teacher in the Teacher Attachment teacher in the Teacher Attachment Program, found a bit difficult at the Program, found a bit difficult at the beginning to understand each other in beginning to understand each other in the classes. It took him one or two the classes. It took him one or two sessions.sessions.


- An advisor to English language - An advisor to English language learning and teaching, a Swedish learning and teaching, a Swedish professor, spent quite a long time to professor, spent quite a long time to understand her students’ essays. She understand her students’ essays. She pointed out that Khmer students pointed out that Khmer students used ‘on the other hand’ to add more used ‘on the other hand’ to add more ideas, rather than to contrast their ideas, rather than to contrast their previous arguments.previous arguments.


DiscussionDiscussion In terms of intelligibility, Smith In terms of intelligibility, Smith

(1997) suggest that people who (1997) suggest that people who involve in communication in the involve in communication in the target language should try to make target language should try to make themselves intelligible, themselves intelligible, comprehensible, and interpretable to comprehensible, and interpretable to their interlocutors. their interlocutors.


Communicative strategies should be Communicative strategies should be used to foster communication and/or used to foster communication and/or refresh communication breakdown. refresh communication breakdown.

Learners should have been exposed Learners should have been exposed to such communicative strategies and to such communicative strategies and English language varieties, esp. English language varieties, esp. Englishes in Southeast Asian countries Englishes in Southeast Asian countries to reduce miscommunication in the to reduce miscommunication in the target language. target language.


More studies should be done in Cambodia More studies should be done in Cambodia in order to explore in-depth features of in order to explore in-depth features of English language (interlanguage) adopted English language (interlanguage) adopted by Cambodian learners and people.by Cambodian learners and people.

Another research should also look into how Another research should also look into how much intelligible and comprehensible much intelligible and comprehensible Cambodian learners’ English language is, Cambodian learners’ English language is, ane when communication breaks up, how ane when communication breaks up, how Cambodian speakers refresh it to bring Cambodian speakers refresh it to bring success in communication. success in communication.


The observation and investigation The observation and investigation into teachers and learners’ attitude into teachers and learners’ attitude to English language variety in to English language variety in Cambodia should be conducted so Cambodia should be conducted so that any attention and measure that any attention and measure should be developed to strengthen should be developed to strengthen the quality of and redirect ways of the quality of and redirect ways of English language teaching and English language teaching and learning.learning.

ReferenceReference

1.1. Adgar, M. 1997. Adgar, M. 1997. Language and Culture. The Biculture in Language and Culture. The Biculture in Bilingual. Bilingual. Coupland, N. and A. Jaworski, eds. Coupland, N. and A. Jaworski, eds. Sociolinguistic. A Sociolinguistic. A Reader and CoursebookReader and Coursebook. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.

2.2. Cook, G. 2003. Cook, G. 2003. Applied Linguistics. Applied Linguistics. Oxford Introduction to Oxford Introduction to Language Study. Oxford.Language Study. Oxford.

3.3. Crystal, David. 1997. Crystal, David. 1997. English as a Global Language. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: CUPCambridge: CUP

4.4. Gumperz, J., J. 1997. Gumperz, J., J. 1997. Interactional Sociolinguistics Interethnic Interactional Sociolinguistics Interethnic Communication. Communication. Coupland, N. and A. Jaworski, eds. Coupland, N. and A. Jaworski, eds. Sociolinguistic. A Reader and CoursebookSociolinguistic. A Reader and Coursebook. London: Macmillan . London: Macmillan Press Ltd.Press Ltd.

5.5. Kachru, Braj, ed. 1992. Kachru, Braj, ed. 1992. The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures. The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures. Illinois: University of Illinois Press.Illinois: University of Illinois Press.

6.6. Littlewood, W., T. 1994. Littlewood, W., T. 1994. Foreign and Second Language Learning. Foreign and Second Language Learning. Language-acquisition research and its implications for the Language-acquisition research and its implications for the classroom. Cambridge University Press.classroom. Cambridge University Press.

Thank you!Thank you!

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