Alternative Fuels Manual

8/3/2019 Alternative Fuels Manual

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Contract number: EIE/04/195/S07.38471

Alternative fuels and vehicles -

Training manual

With the support of:


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THE E-ATOMIUM PROJECT

e-Atomium is a training project funded through the STEER programme which is part of the European

Commissions Intelligent Energy Europe programme and will be implemented in Belgium, France, Ireland,Italy, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom. The aim of e-Atomium is to strengthen the knowledge of

local / regional managing agencies in the transport field and to accelerate the take up of EU research

results in the field of local and regional transport. The beneficiaries of the project are managing (energy)

agencies and local actors who want to play a bigger role in the transport field.

The following compendium contains results of EU research-projects and complementary results of

national research-projects. The authors especially thank the partners and collaborators of the Treatise and

Competence projects.

A complete list of the studied projects, involved consortia, and cited literature is given at the end of the

material. All materials can be downloaded from the project website: www.e-atomium.org

Project partnersThe project core consortium members are:

Mobiel21 vzw, formely known asLangzaam Verkeer vzw

Project co-ordinatorVital Decosterstraat 67a - BE-3000 LeuvenContact: Ms Elke Bossaert & Ms. Sara van DyckPhone: +32 16 31 77 06 - Fax: +32 16 29 02 10www.mobiel21.be

DTV Consultants b.v.

Teteringsedijk 3 - Postbus 3559 - NL-4800 DN BredaContact: Mr Johan Janse & Mr Allard Visser

Phone: +31 76 513 66 31 & +31 76 513 66 21 - Fax: +31 76 51366 06. www.dtvconsultants.nl

Energie-Cits

The association of European local authorities promoting a localsustainable energy policySecretariat: 2, chemin de Palente - FR-25000 BesanonContact: Mr Jean-Pierre VallarPhone: +33 3 81 65 36 80 - Fax: +33 3 81 50 73 51www.energie-cites.org

Sustainable Energy Action Ltd - SEA

42 Braganza Street - London GB-SE17 3RJContact: Mr Larry ParkerPhone: +44 20 7820 3158 - Fax: +44 20 7582 4888www.sustainable-energy.org.uk

Euromobility

Piazza Cola di Rienzo, 80/a - IT-00192 RomaContact: Ms Karin FischerPhone: +39 06 68603570 - Fax: +39 06 68603571www.euromobility.org

The other full partners are:

POLIS Promoting Operational Links withIntegrated Services

Rue du Trne 98 - BE-1050 BrusselsContact: Ms Karen VancluysenPhone: + 32 2 500 56 75 - Fax: +32 2 500 56 80www.polis-online.org

Association of the Bulgarian EnergyAgencies - ABEA

44 Oborishte str. - BG-1505 SofiaContact: Mr Ivan ShishkovPhone: +35 929 434 909 - Fax: +35 929 434 401www.sofena.com

Agenzia Napoletana Energia e Ambiente -ANEA

Via Toledo 317 - IT-80132 NapoliContact: Mr Michele Macaluso & Mr. Paolo FicaraPhone: +39 081 409 459 - Fax: +39 081 409 957www.anea.connect.it

Fdration Nationale des AgencesLocales de Matrise de lEnergie FLAME

Represented by ADUHME14 rue Buffon - FR-63100 Clermont-FerrandContact: Mr Sbastien ContaminePhone: + 33 473 927 822 & +33 437 482 242 - Fax: 33 473 927821www.aduhme.org

Delfts Energie Agentschap DEA

Mijnbouwplein 11 - NL-2628 RT DelftContact: Mr Zeno WinkelsPhone: +31 15 185 28 60 & +31 76 513 66 21 - Fax: +31 15 18528 61www.delftenergy.nl


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................12. TRAINING CONTEXT, GOALS AND STRUCTURE...........................................................................2

2.1 Training context.........................................................................................................................22.2 Training Goals...........................................................................................................................32.3 Training Structure......................................................................................................................4

3. CONVENTIONALLY FUELLED VEHICLES .......................................................................................53.1 Downsizing................................................................................................................................53.2 Additional electrical equipment .................................................................................................53.3 Increases in engine efficiency...................................................................................................53.4 Recent improvements in diesel engines ...................................................................................63.5 Low sulphur fuel ........................................................................................................................63.6 Case Study 1: BOC. An improvement in fleet efficiency...........................................................7

4. EXHAUST AFTER-TREATMENT .......................................................................................................94.1 Catalytic converters...................................................................................................................9

5. ALTERNATIVE FUELS .....................................................................................................................115.1 Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)...............................................................................................115.2 Case Study 2: Southwark Councils fleet, London, UK...........................................................125.3 Natural Gas.............................................................................................................................135.4 Case Study 3: Sainsburys, UK...............................................................................................165.5 Biofuels....................................................................................................................................165.6 Biodiesel..................................................................................................................................185.7

Case Study 4: Biodiesel Bus fleet of the Public Transportation System of Graz, Austria ......19

5.8 Bioethanol ...............................................................................................................................215.9 Case Study 5: Introducing bioethanol to the UK - Somerset Biofuel Project..........................245.10 Biogas .....................................................................................................................................245.11 Case Study 6: Biogas in Linkping, Sweden .........................................................................255.12 Hydrogen.................................................................................................................................265.13 Case Study 7: Malm CNG/Hydrogen filling station and hythane bus project .......................27

6. ALTERNATIVE VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES....................................................................................306.1 Hybrid Vehicles .......................................................................................................................306.2 Case Study 8: Hybrid bus trials- Uppsalabuss, Sweden & Bolzano, Italy ..............................326.3 Battery Electric Vehicles .........................................................................................................336.4 Types of Battery ......................................................................................................................346.5 Environmental performance....................................................................................................356.6 Economics...............................................................................................................................356.7 Market Penetration..................................................................................................................356.8 Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs).......................................................................................................376.9 Case Study 10: London fuel cell buses CUTE........................................................................40

7. EUROPEAN LEGISLATION..............................................................................................................427.1 Air Quality legislation...............................................................................................................42

8. EXERCISES......................................................................................................................................459. RECOMMENDATIONS AND RESOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION......................................4810. GLOSSARY.......................................................................................................................................4911. APPENDIX 1: THE PROS AND CONS OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS...............................................53


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1. INTRODUCTION

Most European local authorities are confronted with increasing problems of congestion and pollution due

to the steady growth of urban motorised traffic. People moving out of the cities due to bad environmental

conditions, increasing car ownership, and faster travel have given rise to dispersed urban structures,

leading in turn to greater volumes of motorised traffic. But transport is also a challenge in terms of climate

protection: By 2010, transport will be the largest single contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.

To turn around these trends, reduce these problems efficiently and thus raise standards of living in our

cities, it is necessary to:

carry out a true modal shift from private motorised traffic towards more sustainable modes of transport

like walking, cycling, public transport;

implement urban planning strategies based on principles like urban density, improved mixed use of

space and limited new urban developments to areas served by public transport; develop the concept of responsible car use and introduce less polluting and quieter vehicles;

At the same time, specific organisation methods and innovative technologies in terms of energy saving

and the environment protection must be introduced. It is moreover crucial to raise awareness among

citizens about the effect of their choice of transport mode on the quality of urban environment.

The training activities within e-Atomium will address all the mentioned goals by explaining the following

themes:

Mobility Management

School Travel Plans Company & Administration Travel Plans

Tourism Travel Plans

Awareness raising and communication

Campaigns

Target group dedicated communication

Eco-driving

Topic related communication

Organisation of an awareness raising event

Alternative fuels & vehicles

Biofuels (incl. pure vegetal oils) Comparative analysis of all alternative fuels &

vehicles

Environment appraisal of

community/municipal vehicle fleets

Demand Management

Road pricing schemes

Access management

Car free cities & town planning

Vehicle restrictions

This document is mainly addressing the theme Alternative fuels & vehicles.

The big problem that urban authorities will have to resolve, sooner than might be thought, is that of traffic

management, and in particular the role of the private car in large urban centres. The lack of an

integrated policy approach to town planning and transport is allowing the private car an almost total

monopoly.

White Paper on European Transport Policy:

European transport policy for 2010: time to decide, COM(2001) 370.


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2. TRAINING CONTEXT, GOALS AND STRUCTURE

2.1 Training context

Transport accounts for about almost a quarter of all EU oil consumption of which the majority is

attributable to road vehicles. Modern society is driven by its dependence on oil to fuel its transport needs,

in fact it is predicted that by 2020 the EU will depend upon imports for 93% of its oil. The use of oil for road

transport also makes it one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. Every European

country has a legally binding target under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

For instance in the UK the target is to reduce the reductions by 12.5% below 1990 levels over the period

20082012. In addition, the UK Governments Climate Change Programme has set a goal to cut UK CO 2

emissions by 20% below 1990 levels by 2010. Tackling the CO2 emissions from road transport will

therefore be critical to reducing total transports emissions and hence meeting climate changecommitments.

In the Green Paper on Energy Efficiency is stated the EU could save 20% of its current energy use in a

cost effective manner. Around half of these savings could result from the full application of existing

measures. Limiting the fuel consumption of vehicles is one of these measures. Savings of 25% or more in

average fuel consumption are seen as realistic. Nevertheless there is still a huge need to invest in the

development of electric vehicles, alternative fuels such as natural gas, as well as in advancing longer-term

prospects for technologies such as fuel cells and hydrogen. In total the potential savings in the transport

field in Europe are between 45 to 90 Mtoe, which is more than the potentials in other areas like buildings

and industry.

Road transport is also the main source of air pollution. The main air pollutants from road vehicles include

carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), benzene and particulate matter (PM). The European

Commission has set limits for these polluting gasses in several Daughter Directives, which are now in

force in the different European countries. All countries have transposed the 1st daughter directive into

their national legislation. So has the UK Government published its National Air Quality Strategy for

England, Wales and Northern Ireland in 2000, setting objectives for air quality improvements. In the

Netherlands the Besluit Luchtkwaliteit came into action leading to a complete revival of environmental

issues and even court trials urging the regional and local government to reduce the air pollution from road

transport.

An overwhelming majority of all passenger trips in Europe are made by car. New car sales have increased

over the last twenty years. In the year 2000 14.8 million cars where produced in the EU-15 countries. On

average 480 persons per 1000 own a car and 70% of households in the EU have regular use of a car.

Together all car users in the EU-15 travel some 3.735 billion kilometres.

Despite fuel price protests, the risks to health, road congestion, and road accidents and deaths, few

people will sacrifice the convenience and mobility that personal transport affords, in favour of driving less

or resorting to public transport. Only a few motorists are willing to use public transport to get to work if

travel-to-work costs were halved. More and more freight is moved by road, adding to emission problems,

noise nuisance and road congestion.


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The management of demand and increasing the efficiency of mobility have major roles to play in this area;

however, goods still need to be moved, services carried out and people will still wish to travel by their own

private vehicles. To minimise the impact of this continued demand for road transport, alternative fuels and

vehicles are needed, where road movements are inevitable. There are several ways of achieving

reductions in emissions from a road vehicle:

Increasing vehicle efficiency

Using exhaust after-treatment

Using alternative fuels

All of these possibilities will be explained in this document.

2.2 Training Goals

The aim of this module is to provide Energy Agencies, Energy Efficiency Advice Centres (EEACs) and

other local energy actors with the information and knowledge that they will need when giving advice in this

area. It will also enable effective decision-making regarding projects that may or may not be of value in

terms of reducing the impact of road transport in their area.

By the end of the training, the recipient should be able to:

1. Differentiate between the main types of alternative fuels;

2. Understand the benefits and complications of exhaust after-treatment;

3. Be able to advise the public, business and governments as to the appropriateness of various

alternative fuels;

4. Be aware of the legislation relating to emissions from road vehicles and alternative fuels;

5. In the case of energy agencies, be able to apply their knowledge in the pursuit of funding for transport

projects.


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2.3 Training Structure

The training manual for the e-Atomium New Technology module consists of the following sections relatedto specific types of fuels and vehicles:

Conventionally fuelled vehicles

Exhaust after-treatment

Alternative fuels

Alternative vehicle technologies

EU legislation

The information is complemented by a number of relevant case studies from the European Union. This

manual is also accompanied by a spreadsheet that is designed to help compare the various alternative

fuels and vehicle technologies, and select appropriate types for a given situation.


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3. CONVENTIONALLY FUELLED VEHICLES

Modern petrol vehicles are far cleaner than their counterparts of only a few years ago. In fact, from an air

quality perspective, there is now little difference between modern petrol vehicles and their gas powered

equivalents. Diesels have also become far cleaner in recent years, although most still produce significant

levels of harmful NOx and PM emissions unless they have Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF) fitted. Diesels,

however, have an inherent CO2 advantage, so in many situations a diesel with a DPF and with an

appropriate strategy to reduce NOx is a good solution from an environmental perspective.

3.1 Downsizing

In recent years most European car markets have seen a limited amount of down-sizing, (people choosing

smaller cars), but this remains an area where major improvements could be made. Unfortunately, deep

seated cultural preferences and associations, such as cars as status symbols and reflections ofpersonalities, lead to many people still choosing cars that are far larger and more powerful, and therefore

less efficient, than they require. Manufacturers advertising has traditionally reinforced the situation since

large and powerful cars generally sell at a premium and bring greater profit margins.

There have, however, been encouraging examples in recent years of some vehicle manufacturers heavily

promoting their environmental products and credentials. Encouraging people to choose smaller, less

powerful, more efficient cars when appropriate remains an area with the potential for considerable

environmental gains. Some manufacturers use aluminium, light-weight alloys or composite materials to

reduce vehicle weight but in most cases any weight savings achieved through lighter materials have been

more than off-set by additional features, in particular safety features such as air-bags and side-impact

reinforcing bars.

3.2 Additional electrical equipment

Additional electrical equipment increases fuel consumption because the alternator that recharges a

vehicles battery takes its power from the vehicles engine. Air conditioning also adds significantly to fuel

consumption due to the additional mechanical and electrical demand that it imposes. Research published

by ADEME in 2003 indicates that using air conditioning on a high setting adds around 25% to a vehicles

fuel consumption and that typical mixed use over a year adds around 5%. Some systems with climate

control will run their air conditioning compressors all the time on automatic mode and should be set to

economy to avoid this.

3.3 Increases in engine efficiency

Conventional fuelled vehicles have also benefited from increases in engine efficiency in recent years.

These benefits have accrued particularly to diesel engines and this, along with the relatively low price of

diesel in many countries, has contributed to the growing popularity of diesel cars across most of Europe

during the last decade.


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3.4 Recent improvements in diesel engines

Turbocharging

Since the early 1990s almost all diesels have been turbocharged, which greatly improves their efficiency

as well as the power output.

Direct injection (DI)

Direct injection has also become increasingly commonplace on diesel vehicles since the late 1990s. With

DI the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, rather than into a pre-chamber. Direct injection

engines are more efficient than indirect injection and therefore save fuel and reduce CO2 emissions, but

they produce more PM and tend to be noisier. Some direct injection petrol engines have also been

introduced in the last 3 years, though these remain relatively unusual.

Common rail

Common rail direct injection refers to engines that have a single very high pressure fuel line supplying all

of their cylinders. The high pressure of the line facilitates better fuel atomisation, which leads to more

efficient combustion. Solenoids located at each cylinder very accurately control the quantity and timing of

fuel injection, further adding to overall engine efficiency.

3.5 Low sulphur fuel

Over the last 7 years the sulphur content of petrol and diesel sold for road use within the EU has been

reduced from around 500ppm (parts per million) to an EU wide legislated limit of no more than 50ppm. EC

legislation is also in place to reduce the legal maximum level to 10ppm by 2009. Fuels with less than

10ppm are sometimes referred to as sulphur free. This reduction in fuel sulphur content has brought

large air quality benefits in reducing SO2 and PM emissions although the process to remove the sulphur

does itself use energy and therefore adds slightly to fuel production CO2 emissions. Furthermore, since

sulphur in fuel reduces the effectiveness of exhaust after-treatments, the use of low sulphur fuels also

reduces emissions of CO, HC and NOx.


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3.6 Case Study 1: BOC. An improvement in fleet efficiency

Context

BOC is a global company based in the UK but with many manufacturing facilities in 60 countries around

the world where it employs 43,000 people. Its main business is the supply of gases to around 2 million

customers in 15 major market sectors, many in the automotive, chemicals, petroleum, electronics and

semiconductor manufacturing sectors

Objectives

With 'state-of-the-art' vehicles and expert drivers, BOC might have thought that its fleet's efficiency could

not be improved. However, with the rising price of diesel and its influence on the fleet total running costs,

BOC Senior Managers decided to set fuel saving targets for the Bulk Gas Delivery Fleet. The BOC Board

set the fleet a target of fuel savings worth 495,000 (340,000), which represented about 3% of their fuel

costs. BOC initially planned to establish fuel consumption benchmarks for specific vehicles and routes.

The Company calculated each individual vehicle's fuel consumption, using data taken from its onboard

engine management system, and compared it with data generated by the BOC fuel dispenser equipment.

The data from the fuel dispensers matched that from the onboard engine management systems with a

variation of just 0.1 mpg. Once BOC was satisfied that it could monitor fuel consumption accurately, it

turned its attention to setting achievable benchmarks for each vehicle and route.

Process

At the start of the project, the only information on fuel consumption that was readily available was that

provided by the accounts department based on the fuel suppliers' invoices. Even this basic informationhighlighted a seasonal effect on fuel efficiency, ranging from 7.5 mpg during the summer months to almost

7 mpg in the winter. The reasons for the seasonal effect on fuel consumption are not always immediately

obvious nor within the control of the driver or management. However, seasonal changes in the fuel

specification appear to be a significant factor. Petroleum companies tend to commence the delivery of

'winter grade' diesel in late September and to switch to the 'summer grade' in late March. The winter grade

fuel has a cold filter plugging point1

of -15C, as opposed to the summer grade's -12C, and this increases

the fuel consumption. As a result of reliable and real time fuel consumption measurements, it has become

possible to produce a benchmark for specific routes by BOC branch/depot and by time of year.

Results

By managing the fuel consumption data effectively, BOC recognised that there was a tendency for somedrivers' fuel efficiency performance to improve after training but then gradually drift back to their former

driving pattern. This trend highlighted the potential benefits of regular on-the-job refresher training.

Downloaded daily, weekly and monthly reports were a positive aid to the depot managers in identifying

which drivers would benefit from training. By publishing a weekly depot league table, BOC introduced an

element of friendly competition among depots and a means for depot managers to gauge their team's

performance against others.

The overall saving for the whole fleet as a result of driver training at the end of the first year was

334,000 litres of diesel worth 350,000 ( 240,000) during the period covered.

1The temperature at which a fuel will cause a fuel filter to plug due to fuel components which have begun to crystallize or gel.


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It was concluded that the best driving practice for fuel efficiency is to keep the Cummins engines' rpm

below the 1,700 'sweet spot' limit. The sweet spot is the optimal (minimum) specific fuel consumption for a

given engine power and speed. Above this sweet spot, which was at the top of the green band, 'was like

turning up the fuel tap'. With the benchmarks in place, one can quickly identify exceptions or changes that

could lead to further fuel savings. For example: It was noticed that two new vehicles were struggling to

meet their fuel consumption targets. An inspection discovered that they were fitted with wide single tyres

on the steer axle. By reverting to standard width tyres, fuel consumption was improved by an average of

0.51 mpg or 3.6%. Both vehicles have now bettered their route targets, and are providing an annual fuel

saving of 2,750 (1,900) per year.

Torque[Nm]

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Motordiagra

(benzine)Bron: TNO

Automotive


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4. EXHAUST AFTER-TREATMENT

Exhaust after-treatment technologies are designed to reduce tailpipe emissions. There are several types.

4.1 Catalytic converters

The single most important technological development that has contributed to the reductions in vehicle

tailpipe emissions over the last 15 years was the introduction of catalytic converters. These were

effectively mandated on cars sold in the EU by the introduction of the Euro II standards in 1996. Catalytic

converters, or catalysts, are located between vehicle engines and exhausts. They are ceramic honey-

comb structures coated with catalysts, usually platinum, rhodium and/or palladium. Their honey-comb

structure is designed to have a very high surface area to volume ratio since reactions with the catalysts

only take place on the surface.

Petrol engines (spark ignition) have 3-way catalysts, so called because they reduce emissions of 3

pollutants: CO, HC and NOx. A 3-way catalyst in fact consists of two different parts: a reduction catalyst

separates harmful NO into benign N2 and O2 [2NO > N2 + O2], an oxidation catalyst then oxidises harmful

CO and HC into CO2 and H2O.

Reduction catalysts can only operate if an engine is running close to stoichiometric conditions, which is

when the ratio of air to fuel entering the cylinders is exactly that required to give full combustion with no

surplus air or fuel. To ensure a petrol engines runs stoichiometrically, an oxygen sensor is located

immediately downstream (away from the engine) of the catalyst. This sensor feeds in to the electronic

control unit which then regulates the amount of fuel injected in to the cylinders. Diesel engines are

designed to run lean, which means they run with more air than the stoichiometric ratio. Reduction

catalysts cannot operate in lean conditions so diesel engines only have oxidation catalysts. Oxidation

catalysts are effective at reducing CO and HC and also reduce some of the particulate matter (PM) but do

not reduce NO. This is why diesel engines have much higher NOx emissions than petrol engines.


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Exhaust gas recirculation

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a technique to reduce vehicle NOx emissions. To understand EGR it is

important to remember that NOx forms when very high flame temperatures cause the oxygen and nitrogenin the atmosphere to combine and that the higher the temperature the more NO x formation occurs.

Engines with EGR divert some of their exhaust gases, which have low oxygen content since most of this

has already been burned, back in to their engine intakes. By doing so EGR reduces peak engine

temperatures as there is less oxygen present to react with the fuel. This reduction in peak temperature

reduces the formation of NOx. EGR was first used in petrol cars in the US in the 70s before the fitting of 3-

way catalysts made this unnecessary since 3-way catalysts are very effective at removing NOx. In Europe

EGR has been fitted to almost all diesel cars and vans sold since the Euro II limits came in to effect in

1996. EGR slightly increases fuel consumption so manufacturers have been reluctant to fit the systems to

heavy duty vehicles (HDVs) as HDV operators put a great emphasis on minimising fuel consumption.

However, in order to comply with the 2005 Euro IV standard some HDVs will now be fitted with EGR.

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) is an even more effective technology to reduce diesel NOx emissions.

SCR is an after-treatment that removes NOx from exhaust emissions, as opposed to EGR, which reduces

the formation of NOx. Ammonia (NH3) or urea is injected in to the exhaust gases upstream of the SCR

catalyst. The NH3 then reacts with NO and NO2 to give (benign) N2 and H2O. [4NO + 4NH3 +O2 = 4N2 +

6H2O]. SCR is already a commercial technology for large stationary diesel engines (where size and weight

penalties are less important) and has been fitted to some diesel HDVs. SCR is likely to become

widespread from 2006 in order to meet the stringent Euro IV and V diesel HDV NOx limits.

Diesel particulate filters (DPFs)

Diesel particulate filters (DPFs) remove particulate matter (PM) from diesel vehicle exhausts by filtration.

They are very effective and often remove in excess of 90% of PM. The particles are collected as soot,

which is then removed by thermal regeneration to prevent loss of function of the filter i.e. it is burnt-off to

prevent the filter blocking up.


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5. ALTERNATIVE FUELS

5.1 Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is a mixture of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10). The proportions of the

two gases vary between countries but propane usually comprises 80-95% of the total. LPG is a fossil fuel

obtained from two sources: as a crude oil distillate at oil refineries and as a by-product extracted from gas

fields along with natural gas.

LPG vehicles are similar to their petrol equivalents but with different fuel storage and delivery systems.

Most drivers would not even notice the difference between a vehicle running on petrol and on LPG. LPG is

a gas at normal atmospheric pressure but liquefies at only modest pressure (approximately 20 bar). It is

therefore stored onboard vehicles as a liquid at around 25 bar but is delivered into engine cylinders as agas.

Bi-fuel and dual fuel

The majority of LPG vehicles in Europe are bi-fuel: they have LPG tanks and petrol tanks and can change

from one fuel to the other at the flick of a switch, therefore removing the danger of being stranded without

fuel in an area with poor LPG infrastructure. However, many LPG specialists claim that dedicated (mono-

fuel) LPG engines can deliver lower fuel consumption and produce lower emissions. LPG vehicles

performance and power are similar to their petrol equivalents and in driving there is little discernible

difference between the two. An LPG vehicle will typically use 20-25% more fuel than a petrol equivalent

and perhaps 30-40% more than a diesel.

LPG vehicles' performance and power are similar to their petrol equivalents and in driving there is

little discernible difference between the two.

Storage

Most LPG tanks are cylinder shaped and are located in the boot of a car or in the main body of a van,

which has the disadvantage of compromising load space. An alternative is a torroidal (doughnut) shaped

tank designed to fit into a cars spare-wheel well, although in this case the spare wheel is usually carried

loose in the boot, so boot space is still compromised. In some countries, however, it is legal to carry a self-inflating emergency repair canister instead. Typically tanks fitted to cars are between 15 and 25 litres and

those fitted to vans are often up to 40 litres. LPG buses usually have much larger tanks built into their

roofs.

Conversions

Most petrol vehicles can be converted to LPG but it is generally not practical to convert diesels due to the

cost and complications of introducing spark plugs, changing compression ratios etc. Each after-market

conversion should be supplied with an additional warranty to cover any aspects of the manufacturers

original warranty that may be invalidated by the conversion. Whilst all LPG vehicles bought from

manufacturers have to meet high standards, the quality and safety of after-market conversions varies

greatly. A good LPG vehicle will have many safety features including an LPG tank fitted securely enough

to withstand the pressures of a high impact crash; a pressure release valve that releases LPG from the

tank in controlled bursts in the event of over-heating; fuel pipes made from appropriate materials and


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secured to the vehicle a safe distance from the exhaust; and a gas tight box enclosing tank valves and

venting below the vehicle. Customers seeking to have a vehicle converted to LPG in the UK should chose

a company approved by the LPG Association2

as this will ensure the company follows appropriate vehicle

safety guidelines.

Emissions performance

It is difficult to generalise about the relative emissions benefits of different fuels since it depends on the

specific models of vehicle and equipment concerned. However, compared to its petrol equivalent, a clean

LPG vehicle will typically produce 5-10% less CO2, and slightly lower HC and NOx. Compared to a diesel

equivalent, an LPG vehicle will typically produce approximately the same CO2, but much less particulate

matter (PM) and NOx, unless the diesel has a particulate filter fitted. LPG vehicles environmental

advantage over petrol and diesel vehicles have decreased in recent years as conventional-fuel vehicles

have become much cleaner.

Market PenetrationIn 2000 there were 2.6 million registered LPG vehicles in Europe driven mainly by tax incentives, the

marketed has now grown to over 3 million with most of these primarily in Italy and the Netherlands where

6% of cars run on LPG.

Economics

Good LPG vehicles typically cost around 2,175 (1,500) more than their petrol equivalents and good

LPG conversions costs around the same. LPG costs just over half the price of petrol or diesel per litre but

LPG vehicles deliver lower fuel efficiency so overall fuel costs are likely to be approximately the same or

slightly less than diesel and approximately 20% less than petrol. However, as the environmental

advantage of LPG vehicles has decreased and as policies are increasingly focused on CO2 reduction,

vehicle policies throughout Europe have begun to change.

5.2 Case Study 2: Southwark Councils fleet, London, UK

Context

Southwark is a borough in South London with a

population of 250,000. Southwark Council itself

employs around 6,000 people, and is one of the

busiest metropolitan authorities in the UK. In order to

deliver the required services, the council has around

310 company cars and 300 other fleet vehicles, ranging from small car-derived vans to refuse collection

vehicles. The Mayor of Londons Air Quality Strategy notes that Londons air quality is the worst in the UK

and among the worst in the European Union. Each year, up to twenty-four thousand people die

prematurely in Britain from the effects of air pollution. Reducing local emissions is therefore an essential

responsibility of any local authority.

Process

Southwarks green fleet strategy was developed in 1997 and through its implementation the fleet

services department were successful in winning the first public sector green fleet award in 1999. The

green fleet strategy developed by Southwark has a number of individual elements, each of these arecovered in further detail below.

2www.lpga.co.uk


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Fuel Policy

The Southwark fuel policy ensures that the best practical environmental option is always chosen. This

policy was agreed and adopted by the council in November 2004. Under this policy the councils existing

petrol fleet (e.g. car derived vans) is being replaced over time with similar vehicles that have beenconverted to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). This fuel was chosen in order to reduce the impact of

vehicle use on local air quality. Through its use of LPG the council has already seen fuel cost savings on

account of its lower initial fuel cost and the fact that LPG fuelled vehicles are exempt from the London

congestion charge.

Fuel monitoring

Although most of the Southwark petrol fleet is now being run on LPG, it was recognised that some drivers

were predominantly refuelling with petrol. Therefore the benefits of switching to LPG were not being fully

realised. To rectify this situation, the fleet manager implemented a fuel monitoring and analysis system to

allow the effective tracking and management of fuel use. This simple excel spreadsheet, provided through

the TransportEnergy BestPractice fleet management tool kit, allowed the fleet manager to undertake amonthly fuel usage review. This improved management of the fuel records, coupled with feedback to the

drivers, has resulted in an increased use of LPG of around 65% by the end of 2004/05, with an associated

improvement in local air quality. The following graph shows more clearly the predicted fuel use trends.

Prospects

Southwark Council is ensuring the longevity of its green fleet strategy by insisting that all new tenders for

vehicle procurement will include the latest emission control technologies and best practical environmental

fuel option.

5.3 Natural Gas

Natural gas is predominantly methane (CH4) and is the same as the mains gas that most people are

familiar with for domestic cooking and heating purposes. More accurately it is usually comprised of 70-

90% methane with ethane, propane and butane forming all but a fraction of the remainder. Natural gas is

a fossil fuel extracted from vast underground chambers, such as those in the North Sea or the Caspian

Sea. Biogas, which is derived from the anaerobic digestion of organic materials, is also predominantly

methane. More information on biogas can be found in the Biofuels section of this report.

Natural gas vehicles (NGVs)

Natural Gas Vehicles have spark-ignition internal combustion engines (apart from dual fuel models see

below) and are broadly similar to petrol vehicles but with different fuel storage and delivery mechanisms.

Since natural gas does not liquefy under modest compression, it must either be stored onboard vehicles

as very high pressure compressed natural gas (CNG), usually at 200 bar, or as cryogenic liquefied natural

gas (LNG) below -160C. CNG is the more popular of the two options because of the cost and energy

required to produce LNG and because of inherent problems of boil-off during the distribution and use of

LNG. CNG fuel tanks have to be strong to withstand very high pressure (in excess of 200 bar), so they are

usually made out of thick, heavy steel. LNG tanks are much lighter, acting as large thermos flasks, but

have to be bulky to contain sufficient insulation to prevent LNG from warming and boiling. NGV fuel tanks

are therefore either large or heavy, which means natural gas is best suited for larger vehicles such as

trucks, buses or vans.


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NGV fuel tanks are therefore either large or heavy, which means natural gas is best suited for larger

vehicles such as trucks, buses or vans.

Natural Gas Systems and Technologies

There are three fuel options for natural gas vehicles: Dedicated NGVs which run only on natural gas; bi-

fuel NGVs which can switch between natural gas and petrol; and dual-fuel NGVs which run on a mixture

of natural gas and diesel, with the relative proportions of the two fuels changing according to an engines

speed and load. There are advantages and disadvantages in all three options:

Dedicated

Dedicated NGVs can be optimised to run on natural gas by using higher compression ratios, which

generally leads to higher engine efficiencies. This is possible because natural gas has a higher octane

number than either petrol or diesel, which means the compression ratios can be increased without

inducing knocking. Dedicated NGVs can also be fitted with catalytic converters specially designed to

capture methane more effectively than normal petrol or diesel catalysts, resulting in lower methane

emissions. Most but not all NGVs sold by manufacturers in Europe are dedicated to run on natural gas.

Bi-fuel

In countries where light duty NGVs are popular, such as Italy and Germany, the vehicles usually have bi-

fuel engines to eliminate the danger of running out of fuel and being unable to find a NG refuelling station.

This is more likely to be a problem with light-duty vehicles since they have more varied and less

predictable patterns of use than trucks or buses and because cars in particular are not able to

accommodate large fuel tanks. However, bi-fuel NGVs cannot be optimised to operate on natural gas andtherefore do not show full potential for reducing tailpipe emissions.

Dual-fuel

These engines take advantage of diesel engines inherently higher efficiencies at low loads, which are

attributable largely to the lower throttling losses associated with compression ignition engines. The diesel

ignites under compression and acts as a pilot to ignite the natural gas. At low loads (e.g. when an engine

is idling) duel fuel engines run predominantly or even entirely on diesel, but at higher loads they use a

mixture of the two fuels, perhaps as much as 80-90% natural gas at high load.

Environmental performance

Natural gas vehicles are generally very clean in terms of their local emissions i.e. those that affect human

health such as particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NO x) and the

carcinogenic hydrocarbons (HC). Their near-zero PM emissions is a particular advantage when an NGV

displaces a diesel, which is usually the case with heavy-duty NGVs. Methane itself is of course a

hydrocarbon, but is usually treated differently from the other HCs since, it is not harmful to human health

but it is a powerful greenhouse gas. In relation to emissions from NGVs, therefore, people often refer to

non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) rather than simply to HCs.

As discussed above, dedicated NGVs usually have methane catalysts designed specifically to capture and

remove the relatively high levels of methane that their engines often emit. Methane catalysts cannot be

fitted to bi-fuel and dual-fuel NGVs, however, so methane emissions may contribute significantly to these

vehicles overall global warming potential. An NGV operating at reasonably high loads will typically

produce CO2 savings of perhaps 20% compared to its petrol equivalent and 5-10% compared to a diesel

equivalent. In many urban conditions, however, the diesel engines inherent efficiency advantage at low


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loads negates this advantage and NGVs and their diesel equivalents generally produce similar levels of

CO2.

With regard to the relative CO2 emissions of NGVs and diesels there are in fact two countering effects:

diesel engines are more efficient but burning natural gas produces less CO 2 per unit of energy released

due to the lower ratio of carbon to hydrogen within its molecular structure. It is unfortunate that dual-fuel

NGVs revert to predominantly diesel operation in urban areas, which is precisely where the air quality

advantage of a dedicated NGV would be most important. Care must therefore be taken in assessing a

dual fuel vehicles air quality advantage.

With regard to the relative CO2 emissions of NGVs and diesels there are in fact two countering

effects: diesel engines are more efficient but burning natural gas produces less CO2 per unit of

energy released due to the lower ratio of carbon to hydrogen within its molecular structure.

Economics

As with other alternative fuel vehicles, NGVs are characterised by higher capital costs but lower fuel costs.

Furthermore NGV refuelling stations are expensive, much more so than LPG stations, and are only

commercially viable if they refuel a relatively large number of vehicles. This means the introduction of

NGVs suffers from the classic problem that fuel suppliers are reluctant to construct refuelling stations until

there are sufficient numbers of NGVs and operators are unwilling to purchase the vehicles until there are

sufficient refuelling stations.

Market Penetration

According to the International Association of Natural Gas Vehicles there are nearly 4 million NGVs in use

worldwide, of which 1.4 million are in Argentina and 1 million in Brazil. Italys fleet of 420,000 NGV is by far

the biggest in Europe, followed by Germany with 27,000 and Ireland with 10,000. More than 500 public

sector NGVs operate in Madrid, including buses and refuge collection vehicles. Natural gas vehicles are

available from many manufacturers including Cummins, ERF, Ford, General Motors, Iveco, Volkswagen

and Volvo.


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5.4 Case Study 3: Sainsburys, UK

NB There are more examples on gas powered vehicles under the biogas section.

Context

Sainsburys is a national supermarket chain in the UK. It therefore needs to supply food and other items to

all its stores, requiring a large amount of deliveries through the road infrastructure. It also is a fuel retailer

in the UK and has service stations on its forecourts.

Objectives

Sainsburys has recognised the need to reduce their transport impacts on air quality and global warming,

focusing on improving the efficiency of the supply chain to reduce emissions such as CO2. They aim to

achieve this by reducing the number of kilometres travelled per product sold, increasing the vehicle fill and

reducing the emissions per kilometre through engine efficiency, and the introduction of alternative fuels

and alternative modes of transport.

Process

In order to address these issues, Sainsburys investigated the use of natural gas-powered vehicles. Aside

from the environmental benefits such as reduced NOx, SO2 and CO2 emissions, the fuels could also help

the business to be more effective. To minimise the risk of disturbance to neighbours, Sainsburys lorries

can currently only make deliveries during specific times of the day. A large number of lorries are therefore

transporting goods across the UK to stores during this short window of time. Gas-powered vehicles could

help spread out delivery times simply because they are much quieter. Current delivery restrictions could

be relaxed enabling Sainsburys to use fewer vehicles over a longer time period. This would be beneficial

in a number of ways: reducing emissions, congestion on the roads and disturbance.

Results & Prospects

Unfortunately, Sainsburys found that the CNG vehicles they trialled could not be operated reliably and

had too much down-time. Sainsburys have therefore asked manufacturers and fleet providers to meet this

reliability challenge.

5.5 Biofuels

Biofuels are fuels made from a variety of biomass sources. They can be made from plant materials,

certain types of crops and from recycled or waste vegetable oils. When used as fuels for road vehicles,

biofuels offer the prospect of low carbon transport, and to a large extent they are renewable and

sustainable. By contrast, the conventional transport fuels petrol and diesel, and the road fuel gases such

as liquefied petroleum gas and compressed natural gas, are all fossil fuels and have a finite supply.

Transport biofuels have risen to prominence in recent years. The main reasons for promoting biofuels are:

To contribute to the security of energy supply

To contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

To promote a greater use of renewable energy

To diversify agricultural economies into new markets

Based on these considerations, the European Commission issued a Biofuels Directive in 2003, which

requires Member States to set indicative targets for biofuels sales in 2005 and 2010. The Directive


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included reference values for Member States to take into account in setting their own targets: 2% of all

road fuel sales to be biofuel by 2005 and 5.75% by 2010. The main biofuels are biodiesel, bioethanol and

biogas. Biodiesel is a diesel alternative, whilst bioethanol is a petrol additive or substitute.

The EU Strategy for Biofuels

The EU is supporting biofuels with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, boosting the

decarbonisation of transport fuels, diversifying fuel supply sources, offering new income

opportunities in rural areas and developing long-term replacements for fossil fuel.

Climate change, rising oil prices and a concern for future supplies, have led to a growing interest in the

potential of using biomass for energy purposes. In December 2005 the European Commission adopted an

Action Plan designed to increase the use of energy from forestry, agriculture and waste materials.

The European Commission is now focusing on transport, which is responsible for around 21% of the EU'sharmful greenhouse gas emissions.

A wide range of actions is already being taken. Vehicle manufacturers are developing new models that are

cleaner and more fuel efficient. Efforts are being made to improve public transport and rationalise the

transportation of goods.

Biofuels can also make a contribution. Processed from biomass, a renewable resource, biofuels are a

direct substitute for traditional petrol and diesel and can readily be integrated into fuel supply systems.

Biofuels could also help prepare the way for other advanced transport fuel alternatives.

Although most biofuels are still more costly to produce than fossil fuels, their use is increasing in countries

around the world. Encouraged by policy measures, global production of biofuels is now estimated to beover 35 million litres.

In 2003 the Biofuels Directive on the promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for

transport, set out indicative targets for Member States. To help meet the 2010 target a 5.75% market

share for biofuels in the overall transport fuel supply the European Commission has adopted an EU

Strategy for Biofuels, along seven policy axes:

Stimulating demand for biofuels

Capturing environmental benefits

Developing the production and distribution of biofuels

Expanding feedstock supplies

Enhancing trade opportunities

Supporting developing countries

Supporting research and development

Follow-up work in 2006 will include a review of the Biofuels Directive, and its possible revision; a proposal

for the revision of the Fuel Quality Directive; and a review of the implementation of the energy crop

premium introduced by the 2003 CAP reform.


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5.6 Biodiesel

Production of Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a general name for methyl esters from biomass feedstock. Biodiesel can be made from a wide

range of vegetable oils, including rapeseed3, sunflower, palm oil and soy. It can be derived from waste

cooking oil, animal fats, grease and tallow, but rapeseed is one of the main oilseed crops grown in

Europe, and is the most common feedstock used for biodiesel production. When produced from recycled

or waste cooking oils, it provides a useful outlet for these oils that may otherwise have to be disposed in

an environmentally acceptable manner. The oil undergoes a chemical process (esterification) with a small

quantity of methanol in the presence of a catalyst to make a methyl ester which has similar fuel

specifications compared to fossil diesel. The technology to produce biodiesel from vegetable oils is proven

and has been commercially available for several years. There is a European biodiesel standard,

EN14214, to ensure that biodiesel, regardless of its source, will meet an approved standard making it

suitable for use in modern, high-performance diesel engines.

Europe is the largest biodiesel producer worldwide. The total European production in 2004 was estimated

at over 1.5 million tonnes, with Germany and France being the largest EU producers. Italy, Czech

Republic and Austria are also active in the production of biodiesel.

Blends & Engine Warranties

Biodiesel can replace conventional diesel entirely or it can be blended in different proportions for use in

compression ignition (diesel) engines. Blending is common in many countries, with 5% blend the most

common ie 5% biodiesel to 95% conventional diesel. The physical and chemical properties of biodiesel

are very similar to fossil diesel and conventional engines require no modification to use 5% blends. Most

modern diesel engines could in fact run on much higher blends however use of blends of more than 5%

may invalidate many manufacturers warranties. This must be checked with the individual manufacturer,

and can vary depending on country and whether used for private of fleet operations. For any warranty that

is approved by the manufacturer, it is essential that the biodiesel is of high enough quality, meeting the

EN14214 in order to convince manufacturers that no risk is involved in using the fuel4.

Most modern diesel engines could in fact run on much higher blends, however use of blends of

more than 5% may invalidate many manifacturers' warranties.

Economics & Availability

Producing biodiesel from oil seeds currently costs about twice as much as diesel from crude oil. The

actual costs depend on the relative costs of the biodiesel feedstock and the crude oil. With full fuel duty,

biodiesel is expensive to buy and a reduction in the duty rate is needed to make it competitive at the fuel

pumps. Such duty reductions are common in Europe, and are used as a means of encouraging fuel

suppliers to develop biofuel products and to stimulate the market. Biodiesel production is now underway in

many European countries. Biodiesel produced from waste vegetable oil benefits from relatively low

feedstock prices and this makes it economic to manufacture with the current duty rate incentives.

However, limited supplies of waste vegetable oils and fuel quality issues may limit the contribution that this

type of biodiesel can make.

3Biodiesel from rapeseed is also known as rape methyl ester (RME).

4EN 590, the European standard for fossil diesel allows up to 5% biodiesel.


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Environmental Performance

The main advantage of using biodiesel as a transport fuel is that it can reduce net greenhouse gas

emissions compared to use of fossil diesel. Use of 100% biodiesel would typically reduce net CO2

emissions from 50% anything up to 100%, depending on the type of feedstock and its the emissionsresulting from its production. These calculations are based on the complete life-cycle of the biodiesel,

covering the crop cultivation, biofuel production and use of the biodiesel in a vehicle.

Although its main advantage is in helping to meet the European targets for alleviating climate change,

biodiesel can also reduce tailpipe emissions from road vehicles. The exact performance of biodiesel can

vary depending on the type of diesel vehicle and specification of fuel, but generally it is better than diesel

for all local emissions except NOx, being particularly good at reducing PM and carcinogens. It is also

safely and easily biodegradable, which is of particular benefit for certain uses such as powering boats in

ecologically sensitive inland waterways.

5.7 Case Study 4: Biodiesel Bus fleet of the Public Transportation System of

Graz, Austria

Context

Graz is the second largest city in Austria with a population of around 250,000, about 120km south of

Vienna. In 1994 the public transportation system of the City of Graz, Grazer Verkehrsbetriebe (GVB) was

contacted by several research institutions to allow a field test with a fuel, made from used cooking oil,which was to be used in diesel engines within the bus fleet of the GVB.

Process

In November 1994 the first field test started, with 2 public buses running on biodiesel produced from used

cooking oil. Before the start of this field-test the engines were retrofitted for the use of biodiesel, replacing

the rubber and plastic parts of the engine which are in contact with the fuel, such as the fuel hose, gauge

glasses, hose connection, with biodiesel-resistant material. It is essential to ensure that all additional

equipment which uses biodiesel, such as an additional heating system and the injection pump system of

the diesel engine, are approved for biodiesel use by the manufacturer5.

5Modern vehicles are automatically biodiesel proof, but only became the case in the last decade.


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Depending on the type of bus, each retrofit cost between between ATS 15.000 and ATS 20.000 which

was met by the city government of Graz.

The 3 year field test was carried out in co-operation with the Institute of Internal Combustion Engines and

Thermodydnamics (University of Technology Graz), the Institute of Organic Chemistry (University of Graz)

and the Austrian Biodiesel Institute. The City buses were regularly checked by these institutes, monitoring

the exhaust gas emissions, the drive-ability, the effects on engine power and fuel consumption, any

changes in the quality of the motor oil, and finally the wear and deposit in the engine.

Results

Before the start of this research programme the engine of a MAN bus was completely checked and

overhauled. After a total mileage 270,000 km with biodiesel, the engine was completely dismantled and

thoroughly examined. The result was that no additional, abnormal wear in comparison to the use of

mineral oil diesel was found.

The consistency of the motor oil was examined at designated intervals during the project. In contrary to

earlier technical reports, where a dilution of the motor oil was reported when using Biodiesel, these

observations could not be verified during this test. The changes of the motor oil were within the normal

range, showing that the use of a special and biodiesel-approved motor oil is not needed. Therefore GVB

was able to continue using the same motor oil for the whole bus fleet (diesel and biodiesel engines), in

addition, the intervals for the change of motor oil were reduced by 25% to every 40,000km in the case of

the engines using biodiesel.

The only disadvantage observed during the use of biodiesel was a 6% increase in fuel consumption

compared to normal diesel6. This is caused by the lower heating value of biodiesel compared to mineral oil

diesel, which is a function of the content of 10% oxygen in Biodiesel. The GVB considered this slightdisadvantage was by far outweighed by the positive benefits.

The positive results of the field test encouraged GVB to continue using biodiesel after the end of the field

test. In 1997 eight additional buses were changed to biodiesel. In 1999, after 2 more years of successful,

unproblematic running on biodiesel, 10 more city buses were converted. A fleet of Mercedes-Benz

CITARO buses equipped with a 353 HP Diesel engine have been purchased, for which Mercedes has

given full biodiesel warranties. Six years on, GVB now runs its entire bus fleet on biodiesel.

All the biodiesel now used in GVBs bus fleet is made from waste oil. This has the advantage of reducing

the demands on the sewage system and the waste water treatment plant, whilst transforming waste into a

valuable raw material and renewable fuel. The emissions savings resulting from the use of biodiesel in

2002 were calculated as:

2,500 tonnes of CO2

2.9 tonnes of CO

1.0 t particulate matter

2.7 tonnes of SO2

3.0 tonnes of non methane hydrocarbons

6This is not always the general case when using biodiesel.


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5.8 Bioethanol

Bioethanol is manufactured by fermentation of sugar, starch or cellulose feedstocks using yeast. The

choice of feedstock depends on cost, technical and economic considerations, such as whether the

technologies for manufacturing bioethanol are commercially available. Brazil and the USA are currently

the worlds largest producers of bioethanol as a transport fuel, with sugarcane and corn as the respective

feedstock materials. In Europe, it is mainly produced from sugar beet or wheat. Spain, Poland and France

dominate the European sector with a combined production of over 500,000 tonnes in 2004, although

Sweden, Austria and Germany are also becoming active in bioethanol production. The feedstocks used

for production are normal farm crops which can be grown using conventional farming techniques in many

parts of Europe.

Cellulosic materials such as agricultural and wood wastes and separated domestic wastes are additional

options as future feedstocks. However, these materials have to be hydrolysed before they can be

fermented, using more complex processes than for cereals. Cellulosic materials are seen as long-termpotential sources of sugars for ethanol production and their use may offer greater CO2 reduction. The

technologies for bioethanol manufacture from these materials are immature, however, and will probably

take at least 5-10 years to reach commercial production.

Blends & Vehicle Warranties

Bioethanol can be used as a 5% blend with petrol under the European quality standard EN228 and at

such a blend no engine modifications are required. Vehicle owners running their cars on bioethanol blends

should adhere to the recommendations of the individual car manufacturers. Some vehicle manufacturers

specify that the maximum bioethanol blend in petrol should be no more than 5% bioethanol by volume,

whilst others specify a maximum bioethanol blend in petrol of 10% by volume. If the stated maximum

blend is exceeded a vehicles warranty will be invalidated. The 5% blend of bioethanol in petrol by volumeconverts into 3.4% by energy content because the energy content of bioethanol is only about two-thirds

that of petrol.

100% bioethanol can be used in modified, spark-ignition engines. Ford has recently introduced a FFV

Focus, a vehicle which can run on up to 85% ethanol, to several European markets including the UK.

Ford has recently introduced a FFV Focus, a vehicle which can run up to 85% ethanol, to several

European markets.

Modifications Required for Blends >5%

The octane number of a petrol fuel is defined as a measure of the resistance of the fuel to abnormal

combustion - known as knocking. The higher the fuel octane number, then the less likely it becomes that

the engine will be susceptible to knock. The knocking process is caused by the incomplete combustion

of the petrol fuel in the engine cylinder, which causes a sudden knock or blow to the piston, which over a

period of time will seriously damage the engine. By adding a 10% bioethanol blend to petrol, the octane

number of the petrol fuel is increased by two points. Therefore bio-ethanol is termed as an octane

enhancer. The air to fuel ratio that is required for petrol in order for complete combustion with no excess

air is about 14.6:1. This means that 14.6 kg of air is required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of petrol

fuel. A 10% bioethanol blend of fuel will normally have an oxygen content of about 3.5% and the oxygen inthe bioethanol affects the air:fuel ratio of engine operation. Therefore, it is usually necessary for engines to


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have the air:fuel ratio reduced in order to take into account the oxygen content that is present in the

bioethanol blend.

The engine management systems that are fitted in most modern motor vehicles will electronically sense

and change the air:fuel ratio in order to maintain the correct ratio when bioethanol fuels are added to the

engine. For some vehicles, the maximum oxygen content that can be compensated for is 3.5% oxygen (ie

a 10% bioethanol fuel blends). Older vehicles are usually not fitted with engine management systems,

instead they operate with a normal fuel carburettor system. Thus, the carburettor air fuel mixture must be

adjusted manually, in order to compensate for the increased oxygen content that is present in bioethanol

blended fuels.

It may be necessary to change a vehicles fuel filter more often because bioethanol blends can loosen

solid deposits that are present in vehicle fuel tanks and fuel lines. Bioethanol blends have a higher latent

heat of evaporation than 100% petrol and thus a poorer cold start ability in winter. Therefore some

vehicles have a small petrol tank fitted containing just petrol for starting the vehicle in cold weather.

Fuel Handling

A further issue is the water-attracting properties of bioethanol, which can cause problems with fuel

handling, storage and distribution. Bioethanol blended with petrol cannot be stored in conventional floating

roof storage tanks, and it is difficult to distribute through the existing pipeline infrastructure due to the

potential for contamination of jet fuel. As a consequence, blending tends to be done at the distribution

terminals. Problems with meeting fuel vapour pressure specifications when using bioethanol also creates

additional costs for the fuel producer.

Economics & Availability

Producing bioethanol costs about 2-3 times as much as petrol from crude oil depending on the relative

costs of the bioethanol feedstock and the crude oil. The production costs are also influenced by the high

capital cost of the production facilities for hydrolysis and fermentation. With full fuel duty, bioethanol is

expensive to buy and a reduction in the duty rate is needed to make it competitive at the fuel pumps. As

with biodiesel, such duty reductions are common in Europe, and are intended as a means of encouraging

fuel suppliers to develop bioethanol and to stimulate the market. Bioethanol production is now underway in

many European countries.

Introducing bioethanol into the transport fuels market requires the simultaneous installation of a fuel

supply infrastructure and the availability of bioethanol vehicles with local servicing capability. Neither the

filling stations nor the car industry can take the first step on their own. A substantial number of bioethanol

vehicles are required to generate a commercial rate of return from investments in dedicated ethanol fuel

pumps. A joint effort involving car manufacturers, fuel retailers and local stakeholders is required to initiate

market penetration. Experience from Sweden suggests that the introduction of fuel bioethanol becomes

fully self supporting when a market share of about 5% is achieved.

Environmental Benefits of Bioethanol

The main advantage of bioethanol is that it offers net greenhouse gas emission reductions. For 100%

bioethanol the reductions are typically 50-60% on a life-cycle basis compared with conventional fossil

fuels. In common with biodiesel, the climate change benefits will depend on the feedstock used for

ethanol production. The 50-60% greenhouse gas emissions savings on a life cycle basis are from

bioethanol made from both sugar beet and wheat. If cellulosic materials are used, then the netgreenhouse gas savings can be greater, perhaps as much as 75-80%. It is the low energy inputs to

cellulosic crop production and using more efficient and/or renewable based processes that are the key to


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reducing emissions. It is important to recognise that the bioethanol production process is itself energy

intensive and requires a significant input of energy.

Bioethanol can also reduce emissions of some tailpipe emissions from road vehicles, although the exact

performance of bioethanol can vary depending on the type of petrol vehicle and specification of fuel.

Generally it can be assumed that the use of oxygenates in petrol reduces the HC emissions by about 5%

and the CO tailpipe emissions by up to 10%, and hence reducing the ozone precursors.

Market Penetration

In Sweden, Ford has been selling Focus models powered by bioethanol since 2001, for around 200 more

than an equivalent petrol car. Since then, 80% of all Focus sales have been for the flexi-fuel rather than

petrol or diesel versions, amounting to 15,000 cars in total. Bioethanol is priced at around two-thirds of the

cost of petrol in Sweden, so this compensates for the fact that its 30% less efficient than petrol in terms of

kilometres per litre. The Swedish government has also provided further incentives for buyers to switch to

bioethanol by introducing 20% cuts in car insurance and company car tax, free parking and exemptionfrom Stockholms congestion charge. Such incentives mean that bioethanol cars cost buyers the same, or

less, to run than an equivalent petrol model.


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5.9 Case Study 5: Introducing bioethanol to the UK - Somerset Biofuel Project

Context & Objectives

As part of the UK Climate Change Programme, the UK Strategy for Biofuels aims to create a fiscal and

legislative framework to stimulate the development of a market for biofuels in the transport sector.

Somerset Biofuel Project partners are working with UK government departments to facilitate the

development of the Project and to provide a case study for assistance in implementation of the UK

Strategy for Biofuels.

Process

The Somerset Biofuel Project developed from a conference of local stakeholders hosted by Somerset

County Council and is now a partnership project in the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport (BEST).

The Somerset Biofuels project will establish a local fuel distribution network of 5 forecourt pumps for the

supply of E85, an 85% bioethanol to petrol mixture. Blending, storage and distribution of E85 fuel will be

managed for the project by Wessex Biofuels, a subsidiary company of Wessex Grain which is developing

simultaneous proposals for a bioethanol production plant in Somerset using grain grown in the South West

region.

Ford Motor Company will make available the Ford Focus Flexible Fuelled Vehicle (FFV), engineered to

run on any mixture from pure petrol up to 85% ethanol content. Local stakeholders Somerset County

Council, Avon and Somerset Constabulary, Wessex Water and Wessex Grain will kick-start a promotion

campaign to introduce the FFV by using the cars in their respective vehicle fleets.

A key deliverable from the project will be to establish monitoring and accreditation procedures for the

practical determination of carbon emissions offset from production and utilisation of bioethanol. A

mechanism will be outlined for fuel price support for a range of low carbon transport fuels based on carbon

emissions offset achieved.

5.10 Biogas

Biogas is produced from organic waste decomposed by micro-organisms, as in a heap of compost. But in

the case of biogas, decomposition is anaerobic, which means that it takes place in an oxygen-free

atmosphere. The digestion process of organic waste produces mainly methane and carbon dioxide.

Several types of organic waste can be used to with a satisfactory result provided that the amounts of

nitrogen and carbon are sufficient. To be used as fuel in vehicles, upgrading biogas involves removing

CO2, which typically constitutes 30-45% of biogas (but less than 1% of natural gas), as well as other trace

gases and impurities such as H2S. When these conditions are complied with, one Nm of biogas equals to

around one litre of diesel oil or petrol.

Biogas is produced at more than 4000 sites in Europe, mainly landfill and sewage plants and is normally

used to power gas turbines to produce electricity.


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Biogas is effectively natural gas so vehicles fuelled by biogas produce similar tailpipe emissions to other

NGVs (see Section XXX). However, use of biogas brings additional major benefits in terms of greenhousegas emissions because it is a renewable fuel and as such the carbon dioxide released when it is burned

would only recently have been removed from the atmosphere. Furthermore, use of biogas ensures that

methane (a potent greenhouse gas) produced at landfill sites and sewage plants is captured rather than

being allowed to escape to atmosphere.

Market Penetration

Biogas has been used as a vehicle fuel in Sweden, where a national biogas fuel standard dictates that the

fuel must constitute a minimum of 95% methane, and more recently in Switzerland. However, numbers

remain low, with probably only a few thousand vehicles fuelled by biogas worldwide.

5.11 Case Study 6: Biogas in Linkping, Sweden

Context

Linkping is a city with approximately 132,000 inhabitants within its agglomeration, and is located to the

south-east of Stockholm. The converging point of the public transport network is located in the city centre

and is now too small for current traffic flow. The high number of buses passing through this area is

responsible for the high emissions and noise levels registered. The increase in private motorised traffic

and the subsequent rise in air pollution motivated local authority decision-makers to limit traffic flows in the

centre of the city and to make the development of public transport a top priority on the municipal agenda.

Air quality, however, remained poor in several city districts.


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Objectives

To improve these results, the municipality decided to experiment with biogas fuel on its fleet of urban

vehicles. From 1989 to 1993, five Scania buses were tested. As their introduction was successful, a total

of 20 units were integrated into the fleet. In 1998, the number of vehicles running on biogas fuel inLinkping amounted to 57 urban buses and 14 cars, including 4 taxis.

Process

As a general rule, a bus can take enough biogas fuel to travel 300-400 kilometres. As for cars running on

biogas, they are usually equipped with two tanks (a traditional petrol tank plus a gas tank) and can travel

200 kilometres with each of them.

Once cleaned, biogas is conveyed by pipeline at a pressure of 4 bars to the bus depot and then

compressed up to 200 bar. Bus refuelling is done automatically at night by means of slow-filling stations.

Forty five buses can be filled simultaneously. There is also a quick-filling station.

Results

In Linkping, each bus running on biogas fuel contributes to reducing nitrogen oxide emissions (NOx) by

1.2 tonnes and carbon dioxide emissions (CO2) by 90 tonnes per year.

The experience carried out in Linkping is economically viable for three reasons:

Any person who disposes of waste on a dumping ground or discharges waste water into a sewage

plant has to pay a tax

The price for biogas is comparable to the price of diesel, which makes it easy to sell

Manure produced (100,000 tonnes per annum) is sold

Prospects

If the demand for biogas fuel rises significantly, there are plans to build a second filling station which will

provide fuel for taxis, company vehicles, delivery vehicles and private cars.

5.12 Hydrogen

Hydrogen (H2) can be burned in internal combustion engines (ICE) that are very similar to petrol engines,

but which produce zero tailpipe emissions of CO2, CO and HC (except for very small quantities deriving

from engine lubricants).

Refuelling Options

Storing hydrogen is not an easy job as it is a gas in normal conditions with a low energy density. There are

different options for storing hydrogen onboard a vehicle. It can either be stored as a liquid at very low

temperatures (cryogenic), or as a compressed gas. H2 molecules attack materials, such as steel,

weakening the structure, so special materials are also required for fuel tanks and refuelling infrastructure,

increasing the costs of hydrogen as a fuel.


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Vehicles fuelled by hydrogen produce no tailpipe emissions other than water vapour, so have the potential

to bring great environmental benefits. Initially most of the H2 is likely to be derived from natural gas by aprocess that produces CO2 at the point of hydrogen production. With the possibility of carbon capture and

storage at the point of production, this could present an option for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions

from transport. In the long-term, H2 might be produced from water by electrolysis using renewably

generated electricity and distributed by pipeline to for transport and domestic use. This is a way of storing

renewable energy such as wind or solar in the form of hydrogen fuel, for when it is needed. This would

herald the arrival of the hydrogen economy with its promise of virtually CO2-free energy.

Using hydrogen in internal combustion engines brings some of the advantages of hydrogen fuel cell

vehicles (see section on Fuel Cell Vehicles, below) but in a technology that is already well proven and

accepted by consumers. Some vehicle manufactures believe using hydrogen in conventional vehicles will

help create demand for H2 as a fuel, thereby leading to the development of a H2 refuelling infrastructurethat will fuel the more efficient alternatives such as fuel cell vehicles in the longer term. BMW takes this a

stage further and believes that the long-term future lies in using H2 in conventional internal combustion

engines rather than FCVs.

5.13 Case Study 7: Malm CNG/Hydrogen filling station and hythane bus project

Context

Sydkraft is the largest private utility company in Sweden, with a head office in Malm and a reputation for

being at the forefront of technological development. Sydkraft and the Municipality of Malm have beenworking together since 1985 on the conversion of city buses from diesel to CNG. There are now more

than 330 buses, 80 trucks and about 1000 cars running on CNG and biogas in the Skne region. In 1995

both partners implemented use of Electric Vehicles in their fleets as a part of a large EV demonstration

project in the region. This quest for testing new alternative fuelled vehicles has continued and the latest

step is now to test hydrogen mixed together with natural gas for local city buses.

Objectives

The aims of the hydrogen and CNG bus project are:

To use a locally produced fuel

To improve the efficiency and the operation of the engines

To decrease CO2 and local emissions

Process

The hydrogen plant and the filling station is situated in Malm and owned and operated by Sydkraft Gas

AB. It started operation in September 2003. At the same site there are filling stations for CNG and

electrical vehicles. The hydrogen is produced by electrolysis of water in direct connection to the filling

station, while the electricity is produced in a nearby windpower plant and distributed to the hydrogen plant

via the electrical grid.


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The hydrogen dispenser was manufactured by FTI, Canada. It consists of two hoses, one for pure

hydrogen and the other for the mix of hydrogen and CNG. The mixing is prepared in the dispenser directly

while fuelling the vehicle fuel. The different fuelling options at the dispenser are:

Hydrogen 350 bars

The new standard often used for fuel cell vehicles. DaimlerChrysler Evobus has specified 350 bar as

onboard storage for the hydrogen fuel on their Citaro buses used in the CUTE and other similar projects. It

is also the standard for DaimlerChrysler FCell fuel cell cars and several other modern demonstration

vehicles using hydrogen as fuel.

Hydrogen 200 bars

The classic standard for delivery of bottled industrial hydrogen and several hydrogen demonstration

vehicles are using 200 bar as pressure in the fuel tank.

Hythane (CNG with a blend of 8% hydrogen)

This lean mixture of hydrogen into the CNG is considered as CNG according to the specification of natural

gas. The mixture can be used directly in the current CNG city buses without any modifications of the fuel

system or engine set points or hardware.

Hythane (CNG with a blend of 20% hydrogen)

This heavier mix of hydrogen into the CNG cannot be considered as natural gas. A modification of the

engine set points for ignition and fuel injection is required

The operation with the mixture of 8% volume hydrogen in the natural gas started in September 2003. Two

city buses have used the Hythane fuel with 8% hydrogen. This has been done without any modifications ofthe engines. The buses could then also use CNG as fuel if needed. The heavier mixture with 20%

hydrogen in the CNG has been used since the beginning of year 2005. This has required modifications of

the mapping of the engine both for ignition and the air/fuel ratio. Connecting a PC for adjustments of the

control system of the bus engine did the necessary modifications. There have not been any hardware

modifications done. A comprehensive study of all components regarding safety has been performed by

the engine manufacture.

Results

Two buses of the local fleets have tested CNG mixed with 8% of hydrogen as fuel without any

modifications of the lean-burn CNG engines, for more than one year. The Lund Inst

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