ALTERNATIVE FUELS IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR · PDF fileWP3: ALTERNATIVE FUELS....

Better Accessible Transport to Encourage Robust Intermodal Enterprise

ALTERNATIVE FUELS IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR

SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS

WP3: ALTERNATIVE FUELS. ENVIRONMENTAL&SAFETY ASPECTS of 42

BATTERIE Introduction

BATTERIE is an EU Atlantic Area project established in January 2012. Its purpose is to improve the cooperation and links between various transport services within the Atlantic Area region and to promote the application of smart technologies and usage of alternative fuels.

The BATTERIE (Better Accessible Transport to Encourage Robust Intermodal Enterprise) project was created as a response to the EU Atlantic Area priorities. As part of the priority 3.1 “Improve accessibility and internal links – Promote interoperability and continuity of existing transport networks, and sea/road/rail/air intermodality” it focuses on transportation and aims to improve the coordination of and interconnectivity between transport services supplied by various operators. It also recognises and gives due regard to National and EU transport, energy and related economic policies, with particular reference to the objectives set out in the Lisbon and Gothenburg Agendas.

The BATTERIE project started on 1st January 2012 and will run for three years. It is held in cooperation with twelve other full partners and two associate partners of the Atlantic Area Region, i.e. the UK, Ireland, Scotland, France, Spain and Portugal.

The main objective of BATTERIE is to establish the impact of applied smart technologies (e.g. E-Journey Planning) and alternative fuels and to design scenarios and models of changes to policy, behaviour and transnational strategies in order to help optimise transnational trips for passengers.

Other activities include screening and modelling the availability, future development, costs and environmental impact of using smart technologies and alternative fuels and establishing pilot networks and demonstration of best practice in this sector.

The BATTERIE project started on 1st January 2012 and will run for three years.It is held in cooperation with eleven full partners and two associate partnersof the Atlantic Area Region, i.e. the UK, Ireland, Scotland, France, Spain andPortugal.

WP3: ALTERNATIVE FUELS. ENVIRONMENTAL&SAFETY ASPECTS Page 2 of 42

BATTERIE Introduction

BATTERIE is an EU Atlantic Area project established in January 2012. Its purpose is to improve the cooperation and links between various transport services within the Atlantic Area region and to promote the application of smart technologies and usage of alternative fuels.

The BATTERIE (Better Accessible Transport to Encourage Robust Intermodal Enterprise) project was created as a response to the EU Atlantic Area priorities. As part of the priority 3.1 “Improve accessibility and internal links – Promote interoperability and continuity of existing transport networks, and sea/road/rail/air intermodality” it focuses on transportation and aims to improve the coordination of and interconnectivity between transport services supplied by various operators. It also recognises and gives due regard to National and EU transport, energy and related economic policies, with particular reference to the objectives set out in the Lisbon and Gothenburg Agendas.

The BATTERIE project started on 1st January 2012 and will run for three years. It is held in cooperation with twelve other full partners and two associate partners of the Atlantic Area Region, i.e. the UK, Ireland, Scotland, France, Spain and Portugal.

The main objective of BATTERIE is to establish the impact of applied smart technologies (e.g. E-Journey Planning) and alternative fuels and to design scenarios and models of changes to policy, behaviour and transnational strategies in order to help optimise transnational trips for passengers.

Other activities include screening and modelling the availability, future development, costs and environmental impact of using smart technologies and alternative fuels and establishing pilot networks and demonstration of best practice in this sector.


Executive Summary

EU transport and energy policy promotes the use of alternative fuels to address the increasing

demand for transport and its dependency on conventional fuels. In that sense, the overall objective of

the Sustainable Development Strategy, regarding sustainable transport is “to ensure that our

transport systems meet society’s economic, social and environmental needs whilst minimising their

undesirable impacts on the economy, society and the environment”. The related operational

objectives are:

Achieving sustainable levels of transport energy use and reducing transport greenhouse gas

emissions;

Reducing pollutant emissions from transport to levels that minimise effects on human health

and/or the environment;

Reducing transport noise both at source and through mitigation measures to ensure overall

exposure levels minimise impacts on health.

However the White Paper on Transport “Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a

Competitive and Resource Efficient Transport System” found that without the significant uptake of

alternative fuels, it will not be able to achieve the targets of the Europe 2020 strategy and the climate

goals for 2050. There are a number of obstacles to increase the use of alternative fuels. Some of

theses are related to environmental and safety aspects. In this document, some obstacles and

potential solutions are identified.

In the case of biofuels there is a big difference between first and second generation in terms of

environmental and safety aspects. Regarding second generation, they can be produced in most cases

from the whole plant or agricultural and forestry residues, reducing considerably the overall life cycle

emissions and especially emissions related to feedstock production. First generation biofuels do not

mitigate high GHG emissions, and in some cases they even have higher emissions than the reference

fossil fuels. Positive impacts are possible, like restoration of degraded lands, although negative are

when natural landscapes are converted into energy-crop plantations or peat lands are drained.

About hydrogen, liquid hydrogen storage on vehicles is much less common than high-pressure

compressed hydrogen storage, because liquid hydrogen is stored at very low temperatures. Because

of that these fuel lines should be securely mounted to the vehicle and routed away from heat

sources. Environmental aspects in the production of hydrogen depend on the source used.

Accelerating the development of advanced biofuels and the progressive build-up of electricity and

hydrogen supply networks to provide area wide coverage for road transport are basic for rapid

market development, always taking into account the environmental aspects.


Contents

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 6 2. Definitions and general aspects ..................................................................................................... 8

2.1 Biofuels ........................................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Hydrogen ........................................................................................................................................ 9 2.3 LP Gas and Natural Gas ................................................................................................................. 10 2.4 Electricity ...................................................................................................................................... 10

3. Biofuels: Production, Transport and use. ..................................................................................... 11 3.1 Production .................................................................................................................................... 11

3.1.1 Second-Generation Biofuels production ............................................................................... 12 3.1.2 Impact on soil, water and biodiversity .................................................................................. 12 3.1.3 Impact on soil ........................................................................................................................ 14 3.1.4 Impact on water .................................................................................................................... 14 3.1.5 Impact on biodiversity ........................................................................................................... 14

3.2 Infrastructure ................................................................................................................................ 14 3.3 Vehicles ......................................................................................................................................... 15

4. Hydrogen: Production, Transport and use. ................................................................................... 18 4.1 Production .................................................................................................................................... 18 4.2 Infrastructure ................................................................................................................................ 19 4.3 Vehicles ......................................................................................................................................... 21

5. LP Gas and Natural Gas: Production, Transport and use. .............................................................. 23 5.1 Production .................................................................................................................................... 23 5.2 Infrastructure ................................................................................................................................ 24 5.3 Vehicles ......................................................................................................................................... 25

6. Electricity: Production, Transport and use. ................................................................................... 28 6.1 Production .................................................................................................................................... 28 6.2 Infrastructure ................................................................................................................................ 29 6.3 Vehicles ......................................................................................................................................... 33

7. Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................. 36


Glossary

AESC: Automotive Energy Supply Corporation BEV: Battery Electric Vehicle BTL: Biomass to Liquids CBM: Coal Bed Methane CNG: Compressed Natural Gas CTL: Coal to Liquids DC: Direct current DPF: Diesel Particle Filter EPA: Environmental Protection Agency EV: Electric Vehicle FCV: Fuel Cell Vehicle GHG: greenhouse gas GTL: Gas to Liquids GWh: gigawatt-hour ICE: Internal Combustion Engine ICEV: Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle IEA: International Energy Agency Intermodality: integrates two or more transport modes on the same journey. Interoperability: ability of a system to work with or use the parts of another system by exchanging or making use of information. JCS: Johnson Controls – Saft JRC: Joint Research Centre LNG: Liquefied natural gas LPG: Liquefied Petroleum Gas PHEV: Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle PM: Particulate Matter PV: Photovoltaic RED: Renewable Energy Directive SBL: SB Limotive company SNG: Syntetic Natural Gas toe: Tone of Oil Equivalent UNECE: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe US: United States V2G: Vehicle-to-grid Wh/kg: Watt-hours per kilogram Wh/l: Watt-hours per litre

This report was created by:

Fundación Asturiana de la Energía


1. Introduction

The EU transport sector is 96% dependent on oil. Transport is also the principal consumer of imported

oil at a cost of €1 billion per day. Increasing demand and extraction costs will affect the future level

and volatility of oil price. As is written in the Communication on Alternative Fuel Strategy, elaborated

by the DG Mobility and Transport, Europe’s energy security will be enhanced by diversifying away

from a dependence on oil supplies coming increasingly from unstable parts of the world. This will also

address the 60% greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction target established by the White Paper on Transport

"Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a Competitive and Resource Efficient

Transport System".

Alternative fuels have to take part in the transport fuel mix in a higher percentage. A cost reduction of

the fuels and transport application technologies are required to achieve the goals fixed.

The Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC (RED), the Fuel Quality Directive 2009/30/EC, the Clean

Vehicle Directive 2009/33/EC, and the Regulations setting CO2 standards for passenger cars

(Regulation (No) 443/2009) and light commercial vehicles (Regulation (No) 510/2011) are currently

key pieces of EU legislation regarding the promotion of sustainable, low-carbon fuels and low CO2

emission vehicles. Another relevant document is the European Strategy on Clean and Efficient

Vehicles.

All of these policy initiatives try to increase the use of alternative fuels because of the benefits

obtained. One important point is improving the security of energy supply because the EU has to

import a significant percentage of oil. Also it is necessary to remark that the creation of jobs and the

benefits for the EU economy. The commission estimates that investment in alternative fuels could

bring savings of €4.2 billion per year by 2020.

Besides the Staff Working Document accompanying the Proposal for a Directive on the deployment of

alternative fuels infrastructure, include different scenarios depending if nothing is done to improve

the use of this kind of fuels (option 1) or some actions are taken into account (option 2, 3 and 4,

increasing requirements and targets). As it’s shown in the following figure, environmental impacts are

calculated in comparison with no policy change scenario.


However, the market of alternative transport fuels is insufficient and slow so far. Some problems are

the following:

Alternative fuels and/or vehicles using them are generally more costly than their petroleum-

based counterparts.

Lack of public awareness of the alternative fuel technologies.

For some alternative fuels, there is insufficient availability of charging/fuelling infrastructure

to support the deployment of alternative vehicles.

Apart from this, it is important to take into account some problems related to safety and

environmental aspects. If the goal is to encourage the use of alternative fuels, these questions have to

be analysed and solved.

In most cases the problems are the same when considered with conventional fuels. However in other

cases there are specific problems (e.g. first generation of biofuels, infrastructure …).

In this document, the most common alternative fuels are analysed with regards to these aspects,

including production, infrastructure needed and specific vehicles.


2. Definitions and general aspects

In this chapter there have been included information regarding the different alternative fuels, some definitions, main classifications, general aspects about technical characteristics and how these fuels are obtained and used. 2.1 Biofuels

Biofuels are usually liquid fuels which have been derived from other materials such as waste plants

and animal matter. There are two main commercial types of biofuels – bioethanol and biodiesel

Bioethanol is used as a replacement for gasoline

Biodiesel is used as a replacement for diesel.

Biofuels represent an immense growth area around the world and have an important role to play in

displacing the types of fuels the world has used in the past, which are finite fossil fuels. It is important

to move towards more renewable and sustainable fuels, as transport is the third largest emitter of

greenhouse gases and biofuels can significantly reduce transport’s carbon footprint.

Biofuels are usually classified as follows:

First-generation biofuels are directly related to a biomass that is generally edible.

Second-generation biofuels are defined as fuels produced from a wide array of different

feedstock, ranging from lignocellulosic feedstocks to municipal solid wastes.

Third-generation biofuels are, at this point, related to algal biomass but could to a certain

extent be linked to utilisation of CO2 as feedstock.

First-generation biofuels include ethanol and biodiesel and are directly related to a biomass that is

more than often edible. Only a few different feedstocks, mostly sugarcane or corn, are actually used

for the production of first-generation bioethanol. Algal biomass is also considered as a source of lipids

for production of biodiesel, although it is generally related to third-generation biofuels.

Second-generation biofuels are defined as fuels produced from a wide array of different feedstocks,

especially but not limited to non-edible lignocellulosic biomass.

For the production of second generation biofuels one can choose from three options. The first is

biochemistry and consists of extracting the sugars from cellulose, the second option involves the

gasification of the raw material with a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide and then this

mixture is transformed into a liquid fuel. The third option is to obtain a liquid fuel by pyrolysis or


liquefaction process. Although presented at different development stages, none of these technologies

have reached commercial status to make second generation biofuels efficient in terms of trade.

Biofuels are being developed in the European Union, Brazil and North America, but are also produced

in many other countries. The main reasons for bioproducts development are environmental quality,

less dependence on imported petroleum products and rural economic development.

About 5.7% of global grain production (3.7% after netting out byproducts) and 10% of global

vegetable oil production is now used to make 85 billion and 15 billion litres of ethanol and biodiesel,

respectively. The global production of bioproducts is about $1-2 billion per year and the potential for

growth is huge.

2.2 Hydrogen

Mostly used for chemical applications, hydrogen has taken centre stage on the energy scene. Used in

association with fuel cells, it could replace the conventional duo formed by hydrocarbons and

combustion systems (engines, turbines, etc.).

The benefits of such a breakthrough would be to:

Decrease pollution in urban areas

Sharply reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

Increase the energy independence of oil consuming countries.

But hydrogen cannot be compared directly with fossil energies, because it is only an energy vector

and not an energy source. As such, it simply makes it possible to transmit a given quantity of energy

from the place of production to the place of consumption.

Hydrogen is being considered as a potential energy vector in two sectors, transport and electricity

generation. In the electricity generation section, the first application of the hydrogen system + fuel cell

may be to replace batteries in computers, cell phones and other mobile electronic devices to boost

their power reserve. In the transport sector, hydrogen has one advantage over conventional motor

fuels in that it combines readily with oxygen in the air to yield energy and, under the most favourable

conditions, only one by-product: water. There is little advantage to using hydrogen in an internal

combustion engine from the perspective of energy consumption or polluting emissions (nitrogen

oxide emissions continue to be a problem). Things look different when considering hydrogen fuel cell

applications. As a matter of fact, the future of hydrogen in the transport sector appears to be closely

related to that of the fuel cells.


The most important barriers to the development of these alternatives today, besides cost, are the

absence of production infrastructure and distribution networks, as well as the difficulties encountered

in developing on-board hydrogen storage technologies.

2.3 LP Gas and Natural Gas

Motor Fuel Propane, otherwise known as Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), is produced as part of

natural gas processing and crude oil refining. In natural gas processing, the heavier hydrocarbons that

naturally accompany natural gas, such as LPG, butane, ethane, and pentane, are removed prior to the

natural gas entering the pipeline distribution system. In crude oil refining, LPG is the first product that

results at the start of the refining process and is therefore always produced when crude oil is refined.

Propane is a gas that can be turned into a liquid at a moderate pressure, 160 pounds per square inch

(psi), and is stored in pressure tanks at about 200 psi at 100 degrees Fahrenheit. When propane is

drawn from a tank, it changes to a gas before it is burned in an engine. Propane has been used as a

transportation fuel since 1912. More than four million vehicles fuelled by propane are in use around

the world in light-, medium-, and heavy-duty applications. Propane holds approximately 86 percent of

the energy of gasoline and so requires more storage volume to drive a range equivalent to gasoline,

but it is price-competitive on a cents-per-mile-driven basis.

2.4 Electricity

The electric car seems to be a suitable instrument and a sustaining measure towards a more

sustainable mobility future since it is four times more energy efficient compared to ICEV.

Efficiency of electric cars reaches its peak when electricity is provided by very efficient power plants

and infrastructure, best with renewable energy production.

Energy efficiency of an FCV propelled with hydrogen is only slightly lower compared to BEV; however,

a lot of energy is lost during production and provision of compressed H2 even in the case of water

electrolysis powered with renewable electricity.

However, charging the electric car with renewable electricity (30 g CO2/kWh) improves its

performance significantly.

During an e-conversion of a used car, as shown with the Smart, life cycle CO2 emissions can be

reduced by more than 80% compared to that known from ICEV. These estimations are under

optimistic assumptions, e.g. battery lifetime.


3. Biofuels: Production, Transport and use.

In this chapter the different and most commons biofuels used in transport are analysed within three points of view (production, infrastructures needed and use). 3.1 Production

Production for biofuel feedstocks will have environmental effects beyond their impacts on

greenhouse gas emissions, but similar to those already associated with agricultural production. The

key limiting factor for biofuel feedstock production is water, about 70 percent of freshwater

withdrawn worldwide is needed for agricultural purposes.

Fuel ethanol produced from corn has 1.6 times more combustible energy than is used for its

manufacture, including corn production and transport. This ratio could increase to 2.3 by 2015.

Some plants are implementing creative ways to reduce water usage including use of “grey” municipal

wastewater, return of water to farmers for crop irrigation… In many areas, ethanol plants must

purchase water rights from other users in order to achieve a net-zero increase in water demand.

The crops currently used for biofuel production would be best suited to high-rainfall tropical areas.

Using new irrigated lands is limited by infrastructural requirements, and most potential for expansion

is limited to Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa.

Biodiesel and ethanol production results in contaminated wastewater if released untreated, but

existing wastewater treatment technologies can deal effectively with organic pollutants and wastes.

Nutrient demand and the extent of land preparation required depend on different feedstocks. This

produces different soil impacts. For example, impact of sugar cane on soils is generally less than that

of rapeseed, maize and other cereals.

Cultivation practices must be appropriate to reduce soil erosion, and conservation tillage, crop

rotations and other improved management practices can reduce adverse impacts or even improve

environmental quality. This is possible in conjunction with increased biofuel feedstock production.

The production of soybean for biodiesel requires much less fertiliser and pesticide per unit of energy

produced than maize, although these two need good quality land.

Positive impacts are possible, like restoration of degraded lands, although negative when natural

landscapes are converted into energy-crop plantations or peat lands are drained.


In the early 1990s it was estimated that approximately 500 million hectares of degraded land were

available for cultivation in the world, 100 million hectares of which were located in Latin America, 100

million hectares in Asia, and 300 million hectares in Africa. In Indonesia alone, 27 million hectares of

degraded and “unproductive” forestlands have been identified for palm oil plantations.

In general, wild biodiversity is threatened by loss of habitat when the area under crop production is

expanded, whereas agricultural biodiversity is vulnerable in the case of large-scale monocropping.

The second major pathway is loss of agrobiodiversity, as most biofuel feedstock plantations are based

on a single species. Moreover, with respect to second-generation feedstocks, some of the promoted

species are classified as invasive species, so new concerns must be found to avoid unintended

consequences.

3.1.1 Second-Generation Biofuels production The sustainability of first-generation biofuels has been increasingly questioned as they are produced

primarily from food crops. Most first-generation biofuels, with the exception of sugar cane ethanol,

will likely have a limited role in the future transport fuel mix.

Second-generation biofuels consume waste residues and make use of abandoned land. These new

fuels could offer considerable potential to promote rural development and improve economic

conditions in emerging and developing regions. Sustainability of second-generation biofuels will

depend on whether producers comply with criteria like minimum lifecycle GHG reductions. Second-

generation biofuels are not yet produced commercially, but a considerable number of pilot and

demonstration plants have been announced or set up in recent years, with research activities taking

place mainly in North America, Europe and a few emerging countries. Biofuel policies have recently

been adopted in the European Union, with 10% renewable energy in the transport sector by 2020.

3.1.2 Impact on soil, water and biodiversity

Feedstock plantations for second-generation biofuels are usually perennial tree or grass species. The

positive impacts are:

• Increase in water retention capacity of the soil.

• Reduce of the erosion impact of water and wind.

• Increase of soil carbon stock


The negative impacts are:

• Potentially invasive crop species, when biomass demand for second-generation biofuel

production increases.

• Non-native species can become a severe threat for local biodiversity.

The use of primary residues could lead to nutrient extraction that has to be balanced with synthetic

fertilisers to avoid decreasing productivity, but using secondary residues as feedstock is expected to

have only little negative impact on the environment, since these residues are usually not returned to

the field.

Feedstock sources like agricultural and forestry residues that do not require irrigation should be given

priority, and water requirements during the biofuel production process need to be considered

carefully.

BTL-diesel and lignocellulosic ethanol are the most discussed second-generation biofuel options. Both

fuels can be blended with conventional diesel and gasoline, or used pure. Another important second-

generation biofuel is bio-SNG, a synthetic gas similar to natural gas that can de be used as transport

fuel in modified vehicles.

Second-generation biofuels produced from agricultural or forestry residues do not require cultivation

of additional land, so these may reduce competition on the level of land use.

Fertile land and water resources could be dedicated to food production while the remainder of the

available land could be used for dedicated energy crop plantations, but due to the large amounts of

lignocellulosic feedstock required for commercial production of second-generation biofuels, it is

currently not possible to integrate biomass production into existing food production.

But although these areas might in fact be unsuitable to food production, they still provide other

functions, as it is the only source of income for some local farmers and pastoralists, or much of this

land is of low quality as a result of soil degradation and climatic conditions.

Since second-generation biofuels can be produced from the whole plant or agricultural and forestry

residues, they can help considerably reduce overall life cycle emissions and especially emissions

related to feedstock production. Current biofuel options do not promise high GHG mitigation, and in

some cases they even have higher emissions than do reference fossil fuels.

Second-generation biofuels have the potential to significantly mitigate GHG, but these results have

been calculated for theoretical biofuel production concepts that are only just at the

pilot/demonstration stage.


3.1.3 Impact on soil

The removal of agricultural residues may reduce the input of organic matter to soil, which can reduce

soil fertility and nutrient loss, if it is not replaced through fertilisers. However, since residues are often

burned after harvest, biomass removal may not change carbon inputs significantly in these systems

and the major input to soil carbon are fine roots and leaf litter. In general, the effects of second-

generation biofuel production from woody biomass on soil nutrient levels are strongly dependent on

site-specific factors, such as the forest management system.

3.1.4 Impact on water

Biofuel production can have significant impact on water quality and availability, these can be caused

by freshwater consumption for feedstock cultivation, the use of agro-chemicals in intensive

production systems, the use of fertilisers and the consumption of water for processing and

evaporative cooling in biofuel production.

It is assumed that the industrial conversion of biomass to second-generation biofuels water

requirements will require slightly above the current water requirement of first-generation biofuels

due to additional conversion steps, in particular for lignocellulosic ethanol.

Modern ethanol plants have sophisticated water treatment techniques to enable the recycling of

water, so water consumption will decrease in the future.

3.1.5 Impact on biodiversity

Some typical species for wood energy production systems, like pinus and eucalyptus, are considered

invasive species in many countries and their plantation may cause proliferation and threaten local

ecosystems. The use of agricultural and/or forestry residues for second-generation biofuel production

is expected to have a lower impact on biodiversity. Other impacts on biodiversity may arise as indirect

impacts from the changes in the hydrologic balance and soil characteristics. The use of forestry

residues for second-generation biofuel production would reduce the amount of decaying wood and

could reduce niche habitats and disturb wildlife due to increased forest access.

3.2 Infrastructure

The blended biofuels use the same distribution infrastructure as the petroleum based fuels, as is

currently the case in the EU. The distribution concept for the other types of liquid biofuels would also

remain the same and would not require large infrastructure investments. However, blends such as

E10, require new outlets and parallel infrastructure to be developed.


3.3 Vehicles

Reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are very variable depending on the biofuel selected, i.e.

second-generation biofuels can reduce emissions to 90%.

Biodiesel and ethanol are currently being used in small blended ratios with diesel and gasoline

respectively ensuring proper engine and vehicle operation without need for engine modifications. For

ethanol, the recommended limit use in spark ignition engines are currently set up to a maximum

share of ethanol of 10% in gasoline which is commonly known as E10 mixture.

Vehicles which have been specifically designed can use higher blends, as the flexible-fuel (dual fuel)

vehicles which are able to use all possible ethanol mixtures like E85. Flexi-Fuel Vehicles (FFV´s) bear

specific differences compared to normal spark ignition engine vehicles, several fuel system parts are

different including the rubber parts and modifications in the operation of the fuel pump.

Biodiesel has recommended blends up to 5-20%, higher blended biodiesel ratios are not

recommended for the existing diesel internal combustion engines, unless the vehicles are specially

designed. Mixtures of biodiesel are denoted with the “B” followed by the percentage of biodiesel in

the mixture, for example, B20 stands for 20% biodiesel and 80% diesel, which is one of the most

common and commercial blends of biodiesel.

The European diesel fuel standards EN 590:2009 recommends diesel blends with up to 7% biodiesel.

In the near future will be required to reach mixtures up to 10%, although some companies already

support B20 blend as a fuel.

Biodiesel is also predicted to reduce fuel economy by 1-2 percent for a 20% volume percent biodiesel

blend. Aggregate toxics are predicted to be reduced, but the impacts differ from one toxic compound

to another. When used as a vehicle fuel, biodiesel offers some tailpipe and considerable greenhouse

gas emissions benefits over conventional gasoline and diesel. The GHG emissions benefits of biodiesel

are especially significant, because carbon dioxide (CO2) released during fuel combustion is offset by

the CO2 captured by the plants from which biodiesel is produced.

Using B100 blend, that’s 100% Biodiesel and 0% common diesel, it´s been found there is an increase

in oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission, in the 2% to 3% range.

When comparing fuels, a life cycle analysis may focus on particular portions of a fuel's life cycle, such

as from extraction-to-use or well-to-wheels, to determine the advantages or problems associated

with each fuel.


Greenhouse gas emissions for 100% biodiesel (B100) could be more than 52% lower than those from

petroleum diesel. The use of petroleum can be reduced by more than 88% throughout its life cycle,

using Biodiesel.

Bioethanol can offer some emissions benefits over gasoline, when blended with gasoline for use as a

vehicle fuel. The use and storage of ethanol blends can result in emissions of regulated pollutants,

toxic chemicals, and greenhouse gases (GHGs), as with conventional fuels, but these emissions result

in very low levels when high-level ethanol blends, such as E85 are used, in comparison with gasoline.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) released when ethanol is used in vehicles is offset by the CO2 captured when

crops used to make the ethanol are grown. As a result, FFVs running on ethanol produce less net CO2

than conventional vehicles per kilometre traveled, ethanol has measurable GHG emissions benefits

compared with using gasoline. Life cycle GHG emissions are reduced by 19% to 52%, when using corn-

based ethanol instead of gasoline. Using cellulosic ethanol provides an even greater benefit—

reducing GHG emissions by up to 86%.

The Ethanol Energy Balance is currently assessing an additional variable—indirect land use—and the

effect it will have on the overall GHG emissions from corn-based ethanol.

Evaporative emissions depends on temperature, vehicle activity, and vehicle system materials. The

majority of these emissions occur when the car is sitting or refuelling. Evaporative emissions depend

on the level of ethanol blend. Low levels of ethanol can cause gasoline to evaporate more easily, so

there is an increase in evaporative emissions in vehicles. E85—a high-level, gasoline-ethanol blend—is

less volatile than gasoline and low-level ethanol blends, and results in lower evaporative emissions.

Emissions of primary concern include hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO),

air toxics, and CO2. It has been found that ethanol reduces emissions of CO2, as well as the emissions

of many harmful toxics, such as benzene.


Table 1. Liquid bio-fuels

Source: Study on Clean Transport Systems Project 2010 n. 419-1-Unit Move B4Multiple Framework Services Contract with reopened competition for Technical Assistance


4. Hydrogen: Production, Transport and use.

In this chapter hydrogen used in an internal combustion engine or in a fuel cell is investigated. Aspects regarding the production, infrastructures needed and use of this alternative fuel are also included.

4.1 Production

Hydrogen is only present in liquid form at temperatures below -250C (20 Kelvin). Liquefied hydrogen

is a colourless liquid. Hydrogen vapours are colourless, odourless, tasteless, and highly flammable.

However, because of liquefied hydrogens extremely cold temperature, equipment must be designed

and manufactured of a material that is suitable for extremely low temperature operation. The wide

flammability range, 4% to 74% in air, and the small amount of energy required for ignition necessitate

special handling to prevent the inadvertent mixing of hydrogen with air.

Hydrogen is best thought of as an energy vector and not an energy source. Hydrogen can be produced

from many different sources, from any hydrocarbon fuel because by definition these fuels contain

hydrogen, from various biological materials and from water.

The “water-splitting” process is called electrolysis, and it is one of the oldest known electrochemical

processes, but is most typically produced through the steam reformation of natural gas because of it´s

high efficiency and competitive cost. There are also alternative processes based on dissociation of

ammonia. Steam methane reforming produces hydrogen and carbon dioxide. When starting with

natural gas, a 72 % conversion efficiency can be reached, and low heat is needed. This process can

also be done with other methane streams, like biogas or landfill gas. The efficiency can be somewhat

lower with sources of methane that include sulphur or other impurities that require a pre-treatment

cleanup step to remove the impurities upstream of the SMR (Steam-Methane-Reforming) process.

Hydrogen can also be produced from a range of hydrocarbon fuels, including coal, heavy residual oils,

and other low-value refinery products. Hydrocarbon fuel is reacted with oxygen, in a partial oxidation

(POX) process known as gasification, to obtain carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

An electrolyser is a device that can split water (H2O) directly into hydrogen and oxygen molecules

using electricity. The electrolysis reaction produces pure oxygen as a by-product along with pure

hydrogen. There are two common types of electrolysers, Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) and

alkaline. PEM, electrolysis is the electrolysis of water in a cell equipped with a Solid Polymer

Electrolyte (SPE) that is responsible for the conduction of protons, separation of product gases, and

electrical insulation of the electrodes. It has fast dynamic response times, large operational ranges,

high efficiencies, and delivers very high gas purities (99.999%)


Alkaline electrolysers use a potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide electrolyte, a substance

containing free ions which are the carriers of electric current in the electrolyte. If the ions are not

mobile, as in a solid salt then electrolysis cannot occur.

Hydrogen can be produced via electrolysis of water from any electrical source, including utility grid

power, solar photovoltaic (PV), wind power, hydropower, or nuclear power. Electrolysis is currently

carried out at a wide range of scales, from a few watts to up to 2,000 kW per electrolyser.

Hydrogen can also be produced from Biomass using two conversion technologies, namely thermo-

chemical and bio-mechanical. Thermo-chemical processes tend to be less expensive because higher

reaction rates can be obtained. They involve either gasification or pyrolysis to produce a hydrogen-

rich stream of gas known as “syngas” (a blend of hydrogen and carbon monoxide). Many different

kinds of biomass can be used.

Biochemical “digester”, enzyme-based type processes, is at present mainly limited to wet, sugar-

based feed stocks but could include cellulosic feed stocks in the future with continued improvements

in process techniques and systems. Large production scales coupled with pipeline delivery can be

reduced by up to 3 times the production and delivered costs per hydrogen kg.

Finally, there is another production option, pyrolysis of biomass, which also offers potentially low

costs of delivered hydrogen, with factory bulk costs potentially low with large-scale production and

pipeline delivery in the longer term. But pyrolysis requires large-scale production to approach those

costs, and that this has not yet been realised on a commercial scale.

Also, depending on application, there are potential additional cleanup costs that may need to be

added to these bulk estimates of hydrogen produced from biomass for the provision of high-purity

hydrogen and of course hydrogen transport costs.

4.2 Infrastructure Hydrogen-specific design elements will be developed, as well as operating procedures which are likely

to vary significantly in their details, while adhering to the same over-all safety principles. Physical and

chemical properties of hydrogen are the most important requirements to design hydrogen fuelling

facilities.


Compressed Hydrogen Fuelling

A compressed hydrogen fuel dispenser is very similar to a compressed natural gas fuel dispenser.

Both need a high-pressure compressor station to raise the pressure of the gas to fuel the vehicles.

But there are also differences, for example, natural gas fuel stations are supplied with gas from a

utility pipeline, but hydrogen is transported to a fuelling site from a hydrogen production facility in a

tube trailer that stores the hydrogen at high pressure, and vehicles can be fuelled directly from these

tubes.

Liquid hydrogen can also be delivered by truck to the fuel station and stored, but a large cryogenic

liquid hydrogen tank known as a Dewar tank is needed. A vaporiser must also be installed, which is a

specialist heat exchanger to safely convert liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, which is then

compressed into tanks to fuel vehicles directly.

Hydrogen can also be produced on-site, at a refuelling station, by reforming natural gas or

electrolysing water. Natural gas is supplied by a utility pipeline in the same way natural gas refuelling

stations are supplied. When hydrogen is produced by electrolysing water, a renewable source of

energy such as wind turbine or solar photovoltaics can generate the necessary electricity to produce

‘green’ hydrogen.

Hydrogen dispensers look very similar to gasoline or diesel dispensers, but as with natural gas or LPG,

the refuelling nozzle is different. It is likely to include a data connection to establish communication

between the fuel station controller and the vehicle system controller, as well as a bonding path to

electrically bond the vehicle to the fuel station so that static electricity cannot build up and cause a

spark while refuelling.

Liquid Hydrogen Fuelling

Liquid hydrogen is stored in cryogenic tanks, this type of refuelling stations usually have more than

one tank and dispenser. First, heat must be added to the tank to get liquid hydrogen to flow, as some

liquid hydrogen vaporises and pushes out liquid and gas. The fuel nozzles used with liquid hydrogen

look something like compressed hydrogen nozzles, but are more complicated.

Operation and Maintenance

As some refuelling couplings used with liquid hydrogen require heating and rinsing to separate the

two parts and to disconnect them from the vehicle after fuelling, newer designs have improved the

safety and speed of fuelling operations through the use of a special coaxial “cold withdrawal

coupling.” This allows the operator to disconnect immediately from the vehicle after refuelling has

completed and to rapidly refuel multiple vehicles without waiting for the coupling to warm between

refuelling operations.


As liquid hydrogen is stored at extremely low temperature, spills can cause serious frostbite to

exposed skin. Fuelling attendants should wear safety clothes, like glasses and a full face shield, loose

fitting insulated or leather gloves, leather boots ankle height or higher, a long-sleeved shirt, and long

trousers without cuffs. Nonetheless, ice and frost may occasionally form on the nozzle.

Before connecting to the vehicle, the attendant should check the mating surfaces on both the

dispenser nozzle and the vehicle fuel receptacle to ensure they are free of solid particles. If necessary,

the attendant can use the high-pressure air, nitrogen, or helium at the dispenser to remove ice and

frost from the nozzle before connecting.

4.3 Vehicles Care should be taken to eliminate sources of ignition, such as sparks from electrical equipment, static

electricity sparks, open flames, or any extremely hot objects. Hydrogen and air mixtures within the

flammable range can explode and may burn with a pale blue, almost invisible flame. Hydrogen gas is

odourless and nontoxic but may cause suffocation by diluting the concentration of oxygen in air

below levels necessary to support life. Hydrogen accidents can result from different hazards, e.g.

asphyxiation, frostbite by liquefied hydrogen, thermal hazards from jet fire, pressure effects from

deflagrations and detonations, etc.

Risks associated with hydrogen-fuelled vehicles require to be the same or below those associated

with today’s vehicles using fossil fuels. This has not been yet been achieved throughout the whole

range of hydrogen and fuel cell systems. Consequences of hydrogen powered car fires are more

"costly" compared to consequences of fossil fuel vehicle fires at a current level of fire resistance of

hydrogen on board storage and design of pressure relief devices and the probability of external to

vehicle fire, at vehicle parking garages will be the same independent of a vehicle type.

Commercial vehicles powered by hydrogen will be quite similar to those powered by diesel fuel, but

the propulsion system and some hydrogen-specific elements will be significantly different.

Gaseous Hydrogen Systems

The most common method of storing hydrogen fuel on a vehicle is storage as a high-pressure gas, at

pressures of 5,000–10,000 psi. This has to be shown on the exterior of the vehicle with a mark

consisting of a diamond-shaped label that says “Compressed Hydrogen”.

Hydrogen is consumed from the onboard storage system at a low pressure relative to the storage

pressure. Therefore two pressure regulators are needed, to reduce pressure in stages from storage to

fuel cells or hydrogen ICE. This results in a three stage pressure system comprising of the following:


• The fuel storage system at up to 10,000 psi,

• The motive pressure circuit at up to approximately 175 psi, and

• The low pressure circuit at approximately 15 psi.

Storage cylinders used to hold compressed hydrogen gas must be tested and certified over a 15-year

life, as well as certain extreme events such as a vehicle crash.

All hydrogen fuel lines should be securely mounted to the vehicle and routed away from heat sources.

Joints are the most likely parts of fuel line to leak, so they should be minimised. Fuel cell stacks will

be installed in their own enclosure, as they can develop internal leaks, and will have forced ventilation

to flush any leak. Automatic shutdown must be offered by the vehicle control system if a leak, crash

or other fault is detected.

Liquid Hydrogen Systems

Liquid hydrogen storage on vehicles is much less common than high-pressure compressed hydrogen

storage. For each tank design, this includes a 3-meter and a 9-meter drop test of a full tank to ensure

that the tank will not leak even if subjected to a severe crash. Another test for a liquid hydrogen tank

is a 20-minute flame test to ensure that the tank will not immediately vent even if impacted by a fire.

As temperatures are very low for liquid hydrogen, all components of the fuel system must be well

insulated, labelled, and be located to prevent casual contact by vehicle operators or maintenance

personnel.


5. LP Gas and Natural Gas: Production, Transport and use.

5.1 Production LPG is a mixture of propane and butane, which can vary slightly. LPG can be extracted from the light

ends of the atmospheric distillation unit, the light ends of cracking processes, the light ends of the

visbreaker or a coker, as byproduct from the catalytic reformer/platformer, and as by-product from

the benzene removal downstream the catalytic reformer/platformer being used to elevate the octane

number of naphtha.

On the other hand, CNG from shale gas is not considered a good case for natural gas extraction in

terms of energy and materials input and corresponding environmental impacts. Shale gas is one

option of the so-called ‘non-conventional natural gas sources’. Non-conventional natural gas sources

comprise coal bed methane (CBM) and shale gas in porous shale layers. Main processes to explore

shale gas extraction include drilling, fracturing of the rock via injection of a mixture of water and

chemicals, stripping off the gas, and final disposal of the fluid.

In Europe, shale gas can be found in Germany, Poland and the UK. Beginning in 2010, seven projects

have been initiated in Europe, thereof one project in Germany. Shale gas is produced in the U.S. and

transported to Germany as LNG. CNG (bio-methane) from upgraded biogas. Biogas mainly consists of

50 to 75% methane and 25 to 50% CO2. Biogas can be upgraded to almost pure (>0.96%) methane via

pressurised water scrubbing, pressure swing adsorption scrubbing with amines and membrane

separation. Today, mainly pressurised water scrubbing is used to remove the CO2 from the biogas.

Bio-methane is distributed to the CNG refuelling stations via the natural gas grid.

For biogas generation a mixture of energy crops and manure have been assumed anticipating no land

use change. Bio-methane is injected into the local natural gas grid and distributed to the CNG

refuelling stations. There is still a potential for biogas from organic residues which offer low overall

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the supply of the feedstock. But biogas plants using organic

residues as feedstock generally are smaller plants and are rather used for electricity generation than

for the generation of bio-methane as transportation fuel.

If bio-methane is produced additional investments for the upgrading plant are required. On the other

hand no investment for the gas engine is required if only pure methane is generated and the heat is

supplied by a boiler.


Figure 1. Existing LNG terminals and L-CNG fuelling stations in the EU (July 2012).

Source: DG MOVE.TENtec information system

In order to promote the use of alternative fuels, some actions have been developed in the last years.

Subsidies, regulations and tax reductions are the most common ones.

5.2 Infrastructure The storage of large amounts of LPG at depots generally is carried out at cryogenic conditions (<-

42°C). Further on, it has been assumed that the LPG is distributed via truck over an average distance

to the refuelling stations. Onboard the truck the LPG is stored at elevated pressure to keep the LPG

liquid.

In the EU there is an existing distribution infrastructure for LPG. LPG and natural gas serves residential

and industrial purposes as well as transport. There are about 25,000 LPG refuelling stations in the EU

the majority of which can be found in Poland, Germany, Italy, United Kingdom and Bulgaria. As is the

case for natural gas, further development of the refuelling infrastructure will be necessary for an

increase in LPG share in transportation. Due to the supply limitations, LPG will remain a supporting

fuel.


5.3 Vehicles Gasoline and diesel have been the principal fuels used in mainstream road transport for over a

century. But due to unhealthy air, climate change, increasing costs of production and potential for

disruptions to supply, new and alternative fuels have been developed, producing lower polluting

energy sources for motor vehicles.

Motor vehicle use has been closely associated with public health. The severe incidence of respiratory

and heart related illnesses attributable to smog led to the introduction of regulated limits for

pollutant emissions.

These limited emissions are applied to new cars and periodic checks on used cars to ensure that they

were being properly maintained.

The rapid increase in the popularity of diesel powered vehicles, particularly in Europe and Asia, has

focused a great deal of attention on the adverse health impacts of fine particulate matter (PM), which

is emitted from diesel engines at much higher rates than from gasoline or gaseous fuelled engines,

and which are specially dangerous because of their extremely small size, which can penetrate into the

deepest and most sensitive parts of the lung, even passing through the lung tissue directly into the

bloodstream.

These fine particles have been designated by the US EPA as a cancer causing pollutant. For these

reasons, the monetary health impact attached to particulate matter is typically around 20 to 30 times

higher per kilogram than for VOCs or NOx, and over 100 times higher than for CO.

The most broadly implemented standards (generally referred to as the Euro regulations) are those

developed through the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), which are

uniformly applied across the whole of the European Union and have also been adopted in many other

regions.

The European Commission proposes and adopts first the Euro regulations in the European Union, and

then those regulations are translated into UNECE regulations.

LP Gas (often called Autogas when used as an automotive fuel) is the most widely available and

accepted alternative fuel for road transport. Over 13 million LP Gas fuelled vehicles are now in use

around the world, consuming over 20 million tonnes of fuel annually. As well as being practical and

clean, the attractiveness of LP Gas in many countries is enhanced through fuel taxation policies which

make it a much lower cost alternative to gasoline or diesel for both light and heavy duty vehicles. In

many instances, LP Gas fuel systems are fitted to vehicles as an aftermarket conversion, though in

some markets, factory-built LP Gas vehicles represent a large and growing proportion of new vehicles.

A number of heavy duty LP Gas engines are now available from several of the larger engine

manufacturers. These engines are being used in buses and mid-size trucks, mainly in the USA and

South Korea, but increasingly in other regions around the world.


The very low gaseous and particulate emissions from LP Gas engines make them ideally suited for

buses and delivery vehicles operating in urban areas. Focusing on the pollution damage created by

buses, on a cents per kilometre basis, this work takes account of Australia’s human and vehicle

population densities, city size and morbidity/mortality values, as well as local vehicle emissions

performance. The results of this analysis are summarised in the chart below.

Passenger Cars

Two passengers car operates on gasoline, diesel and LP gas. Diesel cars pre-2005 don’t fit a particles

filter. Current technology (Euro 5) cars, the diesel versions of which are almost universally equipped

with a diesel particle filter which reduces tailpipe PM emissions sufficiently to meet the stringent Euro

5 limits.

Data from this project is particularly relevant because it tested the diesel, gasoline and LP Gas variants

of seven different Euro 3 certified cars, enabling direct comparisons to be made of their emissions

performance on each fuel. Looking ahead to future regulations, the program also included testing of a

diesel fuelled variant equipped with a diesel particle filter (DPF).

Figure 1. Application: Passenger Cars and Derivatives.

Source: LP Gas: Healthy energy for a changing world. World LP Gas Association

Heavy Duty Trucks and Buses

Based on the anticipated increased stringency of progressively introduced Euro regulations, the data

has been factored to provide emission factors for future years through to Euro 5. Given the high


degree of consistency and coherency in the underlying database, these emission factors have been

used as the basis for heavy duty and bus emission rates.

Only two fuels are included for heavy duty vehicles: Diesel and LP Gas. Gasoline fuelled heavy vehicles

are available, but represent only a tiny proportion of the total population, so have been omitted.

CNG, although not explicitly included, is taken to have similar emission characteristics to LP Gas for

the pollutants under consideration.


6. Electricity: Production, Transport and use.

6.1 Production Electric vehicles do not emit pollutants from the exhaust pipe. In fact, they don't even have an

exhaust pipe. This makes them particularly attractive from an environmental point of view in

congested urban areas where the poor quality of the air often causes health problems.

A complete analysis of the environmental benefits of electric vehicles should, however, consider the

emissions associated with the production, supply and distribution of the electricity used to recharge

the vehicles. In many countries, it is easy to calculate the carbon dioxide (CO2 attributable to the

propulsion of electric vehicles), since figures mean the amount of CO2 that is generated to produce a

kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity is available.

In the United Kingdom, for example, that value is 430 grams of CO2 per delivered kilowatt-hour (g

CO2kWh). In the case of small electric cars or delivery vans, such as the Peugeot 106 and Citroen

Berlingo, the previous value translates into approximately 80-90 grams of CO2 per kilometre travelled

(g CO2km), a figure comparable to the emissions of a two-seat Honda Insight hybrid, and considerably

lower than the figure of any conventional vehicle diesel or gasoline vehicle. In France, where much of

the electricity is produced by nuclear power stations, or in Switzerland, where most of the electricity

is produced in plants that are either nuclear or hydraulic, CO2 emissions per kilometre travel could be

quite minor. On the other hand, batteries can have a high environmental impact because of the

energy required to manufacture them.

It is also necessary to take into account the risk of end-of life batteries to pollute the subsoil or

seabed. However, the most commonly used batteries for electric vehicles (the lead-acid and the

niquel-hidruros of metal, or Ni-MH) are fully recyclable. In addition, the European directive on end of

life vehicles (200053EC) requires that all batteries used in automobiles are recycled.


6.2 Infrastructure

Electric vehicle charging has a significant impact both on the distribution and the transmission grid,

depending on the amount of Electric Vehicles and their charging characteristics. If a high number of

EVs attempt to charge simultaneously it will add stress to network.

Therefore, implementation of smart charging infrastructures will be essential, and protocols that

prevent transformer blow-outs due to overload will be required.

If the charging takes place overnight, the transformers or power lines will not be effected. But fast

charging can cause bottlenecks in weak infrastructures at distribution level. If high peak loads appear,

system efficiency can be reduced and prices can increase.

Overnight charging, with a limited number of EVs can result in no increase in peak load. Moreover,

electric vehicles could be integrated into the electricity grid to act as grid stabilisers. Overnight, when

large-scale wind systems would be producing large amounts of electricity that do not have ready-

made demand, electric vehicles connected to the grid could serve as storage for this electricity.

This type of charging does not affect electricity infrastructures, and can also help with peak load

demands, releasing electricity again into the grid in time of peak demand.

Vehicles are stationary most of the time, not only BEV, also IEC. This BEV can be integrated in the grid

to use their storage capacity in a virtual power plant with fluctuating renewable energies. However,

the actual storage capacity of EVs will be extremely limited until their market penetration has

increased significantly. One million EVs represent approximately 10 GWh of stored electricity.

But there is a negative impact due to frequent charging and de-charging in battery lifetime, and the

limited control over the battery of the owner.

These factors could be reduced with the integration on V2G technology and the user participation.

Necessary changes to the grid infrastructure have to be implemented. In addition, larger transmission

cooperation regions, such as the current Central Western Europe/Nordic market coupling, or even

larger load balancing co-operations, can help spread peak demand and ease the pressure on

transmission grids, however not on the distribution side.


The network for the provision of electricity is currently insufficient compared to a network that would

be necessary to enable market take up of these fuels and is not likely to become available in the near

future.

Currently, while a large part of the infrastructure needed for the deployment of electric vehicles

exists, the charging points for vehicles remain to be developed.

As shown on the Table 2, the number of dedicated e-mobility installations, including those

commissioned in 2012, can be estimated to be around 26,080 (5,830 existing and 20,250

commissioned in 2012) private and 29,800 (10,400 existing and 19,390 commissioned in 2012) public

Alternative Current (AC) connectors.

Country AC connector

Installed Commissioned in 2012

Private Public Private Public

Austria Type 2 50 100 - - Czech Republic Type 2 5 20 - 61

Denmark Type 2 01 280 - - Germany Type 2 385 1,750 - 97

Spain Type 2 0 30 0 60 France Type 3 3,500 4,000 10,500 10,000 Ireland Type 2 358 202 750 1,000

Italy Type 2 233 120 8,000 2,000 Netherlands Type 2 >1,300 3,130 >1,000 >1,500

Portugal Type 2 0 525 - 675 United Kingdom Type 2 0 250 - 4,000

Table 2: Indicative number of installations per country for the AC connector. Source: EURELECTRIC, March 2012, Facilitating e-mobility: EURELECTRIC views on charging infrastructure

Based on the announcements of public authorities, the current network of private and public charging

points is expected to increase significantly only in France with 4,400,000 points by 2020. In the rest of

EU, only 600,000 points are expected to be deployed by 2020, further aggravating the already existing

imbalance among Member States.

It must be noted that the uncertainties related to projections on the development of alternative fuels

infrastructure and of the number of vehicles are very large. There are many factors influencing the

projections, such as technology developments (learning rates, possible technology breakthroughs),

the price and availability of oil, abrupt changes in national policies, in the strategies of vehicle,

manufacturers etc. The minimum necessary network for electric vehicles is here defined as an


infrastructure network that is not only capable of servicing the existing fleet of vehicles, but ensures

that alternative fuel infrastructure is available in line with:

1. The critical mass of production needed for vehicle manufacturers to achieve reasonable

economies of scale in the initial phases of deployment of a new technology. The

International Energy Agency (IEA) considers this critical mass to be in the range of

50,000 to 100,000 vehicles per year and per model, in terms of global production.

Car manufacturer Announced/reported production/sales targets

Battery manufactures

Daimler 10,000 in 2013 Johnson Controls – Saft (JCS), Sanyo, SK Innovation, Li-Tec Battery

Fisker 50,000 in 2013 85,000 in 2014-2015

A 123 Systems

Ford 10,800 in 2012 21,000 in 2013-2015

LG Chem, JCS, MAGNA E-Car Systems, Toshiba, Sanyo

General Motors 120,000 in 2012-2015 LG Chem, JCS Mitsubishi 40,000 in 2012

5% in 2015 20% in 2020

GS Yuasa Corporation, Lithium Energy Japan, Toshiba

Nissan 50,000 in 2010 in Japan 150,000 in 2012 in United States 50,000 in 2013 in United Kingdom

AESC

PSA 40,000 in 2014 Lithium Energy Japan, GS Yuasa, JCS Renault 250,000 in 2013 AESC, LG Chem, SB Limotive (SBL) Tesla 10,000 in 2013

20,000 in 2014-2015 Panasonic Energy Company

Th!nk 10,000 in 2013 20,000 in 2014-2015

A123 Systems, Enerdel, FZ Sonick

Volkswagen 3% in 2018 Sanyo, Toshiba, SBL, Varta Microbattery

Table 3: Overview of global industry targets for electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Source: Reproduced and updated based on Table 5A in IEA, 2011, Technology Roadmap, Electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.

2. The research findings, which centre around the projected deployment of electric vehicles

(EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) of approximately 6-8% of new vehicle

sales in 2020 (900,000 to 1,200,000 units).

In order to determine the minimum number of charging points required in each Member State,

motorisation and urbanisation rates can be used as described in Table 4. The level of car ownership

also serves as a proxy for income per capita, while the share of population residing in densely


populated areas shows the potential for deployment of EVs, which will have limited operating range

(< 200km) in the near-future.

Table 4: Minimum number of charging points in each Member State, in thousands. Source: Data on the existing stock of passenger cars and share of urban population in each Member State is sourced from Eurostat.


6.3 Vehicles The main components of an electric car's battery are shown in the following figure and basically are:

batteries, electric motor, mechanical connection between the electric motor and the transmission

system, controller of the electric motor, potentiometer, switch, switch of safety, main fuse, wiring

connection device, load and transformer or voltage of DC to DC converter.

Figure 2. Components of an electric car.

Source: http://www.evadc.org/ev_faq.html The ideal battery for an electric vehicle should have a high specific energy per unit weight (Watt-

hours per kilogram, or Wh/kg), a high energy density per unit volume (Watt-hours per litre, or Wh/l),

a high specific power per unit weight (W/kg), a long life cycle and a short recharge time. It should also

be safe, recyclable and economical. However, there is currently no battery that offers all of these

features. The most common battery types are lead-acid, nickel-cadmium metal niquel-hidruros and

lithium-ion.

Thanks to the high torque of electric motors push, electric vehicles are easy to drive both in urban

areas and road. In contrast, purely electric vehicles may have limited autonomy, and the capacity of

the battery in cold weather conditions is usually much smaller. Electric vehicles driving characteristics

tend to be, therefore very good. Vehicles have good acceleration and power and in relation to the

comfort with the absence of many of the noise and vibration typical of internal combustion engines.

On the other hand, modern electrical systems require practically no maintenance, even though the

batteries should be checked from time to time and the cooling system cleaned regularly.


WEAKNESSES THREATS STRENGTHS OPPORTUNITIES Electricity is not a source of energy but a vector energy, and as such have to generate it and transport it. During its production and transport one certain (more energy is consumed or less depending on the process and the place of generation of electricity) Absence of supply infrastructures of electricity on the roads Need to improve and lower batteries Reduced autonomy of the vehicle High price of vehicles

Hybrids, especially those of the plug-in type, almost have all the strengths of the electric vehicles and not present practically disadvantages The price of electricity is very dependent from the price of natural gas or oil

The use of electricity in vehicles not It produces local emissions or GHG greenhouse or other contaminants from the air The electric motor is very efficient at low loads Electricity can be produced from multiple sources, including energy sources local and sustainable

Reduction of local emissions in the cities Boost to the development of an optimized system production and distribution of electricity to starting from renewable sources Development of fast charging systems

Table 5. SWOT Analysis.

Source: Nuevos combustibles. IDAE The popularisation of electric vehicles is limited until it reaches a higher degree of development of the

batteries. Although shown in the table above a degree of development of the "low" infrastructure, it

should be recalled that some electric vehicles can be recharged by connecting directly to the mains,

which eliminates the need for specific infrastructure.

Hybrid vehicles are being developed by the majority of automobile brands. These vehicles use

conventional fuel supply infrastructure.

EV Typology

Hybrid (HEV), has both and internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor for increase fuel

economy. There are three types of hybrid vehicles, and all of them are driven exactly like a traditional

car.


Hybrids may be classified as the following:

Mild hybrid – uses the electric motor and battery as an assist to the internal combustion

engine

Full hybrid– the two propulsion systems (electric motor and internal combustion engine) can

work independently or in conjunction with each other

Plug-in hybrid– it´s the same as full hybrid, but has a larger battery and more electric range,

as it can be recharged by connecting a plug to an external electric power source.

All of them have limited electric range, but no limit range when combustion engine is working.


7. Conclusions and recommendations

In the frame of the Strategic Transport Technology Plan, specific technology roadmaps for alternative

fuels will be developped. A new Joint Technology Initiative on the bio-economy has driven

development for the European Green Cars initiative, Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, Clean

Sky, and SESAR.

New alliances should support technology development and accelerate market introduction, such as

the Smart Cities & Communities initiative. The Commission will facilitate information transfer and

coordinated regional action across the EU with the European Electromobility Observatory.

The European Industrial Bioenergy Initiative originated in November 2010 in the framework of the

Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan), objects at large scale commercial availability of advanced

bioenergy, including resource-efficient biomethane production, by 2020. Dedicated financing

instruments and market impulses will support the construction of production plants for aviation and

other advanced biofuels, with the aim of getting two million tonnes of sustainable biofuels by 2020

for civil aviation in the Union.

New research facilities for Electric Vehicle / Smart Grid Interoperability in the Joint Research Centre

(JRC) will assist EVs and smart grids.

Manufacturing batteries and fuel cells, including hydrogen production from renewables and on-board

storage should be given assistance to regain and strengthen European competitiveness in this field.

Union funded projects address LNG infrastructure and deployment needs. Promotion of research is

needed on dedicated engines and after-treatment for CNG and LNG powertrains and light-weight fuel

tanks.

The comprehensive mix of alternative transport fuels presented in this communication can break

transport's dependency on oil and the increasing demand for energy for transport. Accelerating the

development of advanced biofuels and the progressive build-up of electricity and hydrogen supply

networks to provide area wide coverage for road transport are basic requirements for rapid market

development. At the same time, research and development of critical components for electric

propulsion such as batteries, should achieve a competitive market offer by significantly improved

range, performance, durability and reduced costs.

The policy measures on the development of alternative fuels will be completed by the EU, from

research to market penetration, by ensuring availability of the fuels in the market.

No public spending is required for the build-up of alternative transport fuel infrastructure if the

Member States use the measures available to mobilise private investment cost-efficiently. Union

support will be available from TEN-T funds, Cohesion and Structural Funds together with the

European Investment Bank lending.


The Commission will continue to support the Member States, propose any necessary changes, review

progress and adjustments taking into account technological and market developments.

Biofuels:

Biofuels are one of the most frequently used alternative fuels, with many countries having a mix of

biofuels in much of their diesel and petrol supply. Biofuels can take the form of gas or liquid and there

are also two variations on how they are produced: first and second generation.

First generation biofuels are those created from grains like wheat or soy. An estimated 5.7% of global

grain production and 10% of global vegetable oil production is used to make 85 billion and 15 billion

litres of ethanol and biodiesel respectively. Second-generation biofuels are produced from

agricultural or forestry by-products. These are not yet produced commercially but there are a vast

number of ongoing research projects taking place.

Most first generation fuels have no real place in post 2020 transport trends because of their

disruption to food growth and biodiversity (from a lack of crop rotation in their production). Some

studies suggest that the emissions associated with cropping processing and marketing may negate

estimated climatic benefits. Second-generation biofuels also have some issues, to do with the fact

that some of the feedstocks are considered invasive species, creating some biodiversity issues.

However in many cases the extra plantations will be good for the water and carbon retention of soil in

areas that would sometimes not be used.

Although it is not the case for all biofuels, for many, the current fossil fuel refuelling infrastructure

and combustion engine vehicle is suitable. This is what has set it apart from hydrogen or electricity in

the early stages of alternative fuel conversion. Many countries have percentages of biofuels already

mixed with their petrol and diesel, although at the moment this comes from first generation sources.

Second generation biofuels have the potential to significantly mitigate emissions but are not yet

scalable.


Hydrogen:

Hydrogen technology is probably the most anticipated of all of the alternative fuels because of its

complete lack of emissions and its lack of distance limitation or inefficiency compared to other

options. There are a variety of ways to use hydrogen, from liquid to fuel cells and there are also a

number of ways of producing it for transport use such as electrolysis and through the reforming of

natural gas. The problem with hydrogen at the current time is that it is still, in terms of a substantial

commercial roll-out, a concept fuel. Only around 120 fuelling stations exist across Europe and very

few cars, not involved in research, are in public use. Vehicles are beginning to appear on the market

from Nissan and other manufacturers but they are still in the early stages of design and pricing. By

2025 it is expected that hydrogen cars will be available at a competitive price so the infrastructure will

have to receive investment now, in order to be prepared. Vehicles will be safe because of the

stringent safety checks on the tanks or fuel cells, however extra care will have to be taken when

refuelling.

LPG Gas and Natural Gas:

LPG or Autogas, is the most widely used alternative fuel for road transport with over 13 million

vehicles consuming 20 million tonnes of the fuel annually. With regard to public health it is by far the

best widely used alternative fuel, although would be beaten by electric or hydrogen vehicles should

they also become mass-market. The particulate matter is very low but carbon dioxide emissions are

still substantial. This also applies to CNG.

While the mix varies, two main components of Autogas are propane and butane. CNG has come into

question because of the controversy over fracking and it is as yet unclear whether the environmental

benefits from using the gas would outweigh the damage of extracting it. The infrastructure is already

quite mainstream with around 25,000 filling stations offering Autogas, but further investment will be

needed if any further significant uptake was to occur. LPG systems can be fitted to vehicles as after-

market conversions although a growing number of manufacturers are selling them inbuilt to new cars.

LPG and CNG are two of the few fuels that will be efficient to use in heavy duty vehicles or freight.


Electricity:

Electric transport technology is reasonably advanced across the Atlantic Area, with virtually every

region having at least a basic infrastructure along the major roadways and slowly increasing use of

electric vans and cars. Electricity is still produced largely from fossil fuel power plants however,

meaning the fuel, at the moment, is still a large emitter. Using wind energy produced at night for the

purpose of recharging the cars has been suggested. Emissions of 30g/kWh can be reached when the

vehicles are charged using renewable energy.

There is a substantial infrastructure of electric charge points across the Atlantic area, although there

is still a large issue with member states working together on electrical networks and charge point

connectors. However, vehicles are now relatively mass market and costs are being driven down

towards the price of a normal internal combustion-fuelled vehicle. Issues surrounding the pollutants

from manufacturing and disposing of the batteries in electric vehicles have not been sufficiently

addressed in many member states to date, but should be before any meaningful transition by the

public.


8. Bibliography

Políticas europeas sobre vehiculos y combustibles alternativos. Salón vehÍculos y

combustibles alternativos. Valladolid, 5 October 2012. Carlos Garcia Barquero. European Commission DG MOVE

European Commission, Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport. Study on Clean Transport Systems Submitted by: November 2011 Project 2010 n. 419-1-Unit Move B4 Multiple Framework Services Contract with reopened competition for Technical Assistance TREN/R1/350-2008-Lot3-COWI

Electric cars: technical characteristics and environmental impacts. Eckard Helmers and

Patrick Marx. http://www.enveurope.com/content/24/1/14

Alternative fuel news. The official publication of the Clean Cities and the Alternatives Fuels

Data Center. Vol 2 - nº1.

Draft supplemental environmental impact statement (DSEIS). Finger Lakes LPG Storage LC, LPG Storage Facility. Lead Agency: New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

Region 8, 6274 Avon-Lima Rd. (Rtes. 5 and 20) Avon, NY 14414-9516

Análisis de Ciclo de Vida de Combustibles alternativos para el Transporte. Fase II. Análisis de Ciclo de Vida Comparativo del Biodiésel y del Diésel. Energía y Cambio Climático. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.

Environmental Impact of Ethanol Production. A Publication of Ethanol Across America. Technical writers: Douglas Durante, Todd Sneller and Dave Buchholz Editing, Design & Production Coordination: David & Associates, Hastings, NE (www.teamdavid.com)

The Social and Environmental Impacts of Biofuel Feedstock Cultivation: Evidence from Multi-Site Research in the Forest Frontier. Guest Editorial, part of a Special Feature on Local, Social, and Environmental Impacts of Biofuels. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol16/iss3/art24/

The local social and environmental impacts of biofuel feedstock expansion. A synthesis of case studies from Asia, Africa and Latin America. No. 34, December 2010. www.cifor.cgiar.org ; www.ForestsClimateChange.org

An Overview of Hydrogen Production and Storage Systems with Renewable Hydrogen Case Studies. May 2011, Prepared by: Timothy Lipman, Oakland, California [email protected]

The Victorian Electric Vehicle Trial. Environmental Impacts of Electric Vehicles in Victoria, November 2012. State Government of Victoria

Module 6: fuel cell engine safety. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Engines and Related Technologies: Rev

0, December 2001


What are the Effects of Biofuels and Bioproducts on the Environment, Crop and Food Prices and World Hunger? KD Communications (Karen Daynard) and Terry Daynard, April 2011.

Safety issues regarding fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fueled vehicles. The International

Consortium for Fire Safety, Health & The Environment

www.clean-and-safety.org

Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I and Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety

Engineering II. Vladimir Molcov.

GUIDELINES FOR USE OF HYDROGEN FUEL IN COMMERCIAL VEHICLES. November 2007. U.S.

Department of Transportation. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration

SUMMARY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT LPG PIPELINE PROJECT IN INDIA. May 1997

Environmental Impacts of Production of Biodiesel and Its Use in Transportation Sector. Sippy K Chauhan and Anuradha Shukla. Traffic Planning & Environment Division, Central Road Research Institute (CSIR), New Delhi, India

Environmental aspects of ethanol derived from no-tilled corn grain: non renewable energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Seungdo Kim, Bruce E. Dale. Department of Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, Michigan State University, Room 2527, Engineering Building, East Lansing, MI 48824-1226, USA.

Cng and lpg for transport in germany environmental performance and potentials for ghg emission reductions until 2020 an expertise for erdgas mobil, OMV, and SVGW. Christoph Stiller, Patrick Schmidt, Werner Weindorf, Zsolt Mátra, Munich/Ottobrunn, Germany. 21 September 2010

http://www.lbst.de/

Why LPG? SHV Gas. www.shvgas.com/whylpg

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). Demand, Supply and Future Perspectives for Sudan. Synthesis report of a workshop held in Khartoum, 12-13 December 2010. UNEP

A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions. Draft Technical Report. United States Environmental Protection Agency. October 2002

http://www.airproducts.com/~/media/Files/PDF/company/safetygram-9.pdf

Impacts of Electric Vehicles - Deliverable 3. Assessment of the future electricity sector. Ecologic,ICF

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BATTERIE is Co-financed with the support of the European Union ERDF Atlantic Area Programme. BATTERIE is also Co-financed by the Department of the Environment and the Department for Regional Development in Northern Ireland. BATTERIE is funded by Atlantic Area, and part funded by the Department for the Environment and the Department for Regional Development in Northern Ireland.

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