Academical Topics

7/29/2019 Academical Topics

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SunOf all of the astronomical objects, the Sun is the most important to human beings. Sincethe dawn of civilization, knowing the daily and annual behavior of the Sun has meant thedifference between life and death for people learning when to plant crops and when toharvest. Ancient mythologies preserved this knowledge in story form. These were oftenpicturesque descriptions of the Sun's behaviorfor example, the Chinese interpretation

of a solar eclipse as a dragon chasing and eating the Sun. Sometimes the storiesincluded precise enough details for predicting solar behaviorfor instance, in the versionfrom India, the dragon is sliced into two invisible halves. When the position in the sky ofone of these halves is lined up with the Sun and the Moon, an eclipse occurs.

Solar EclipsesOver centuries of observations and study, a scientific understanding of the Sun hasgrown out of these myths. The invisible dragon halves were a way of describing theserendipitous arrangement of the relative locations and sizes ofEarth, the Moon, and theSun. In order for a solar eclipse to happen, the Moon not only has to be in new phase(between the Sun and Earth) but also has to line up exactly with the disk of the Sun.Since the Moon's orbit around Earth is tilted with respect to Earth's orbit around the Sun,this happens about twice a year instead of once a month. Solar eclipses are not visibleall over Earth, but only under the moving shadow of the Moon. In areas not completelycovered by the Moon's shadow, observers see a "partial eclipse," which looks like a bitehas been taken out of the Sun. Or, if the Moon is in the far reaches of its orbit it mightnot be quite big enough to cover the Sun's disk. Then observers would see the Sunshining in a thin, bright ring around the Moon in what is known as an "annular eclipse,"even if they are perfectly lined up. Total eclipses of the Sun are rarely seen, because thetiming and geometry have to be just right to position a large enough Moon-shadow rightover a particular location. When this happens, observers in that location have an

opportunity to observe parts of the Sun that are usually impossible to see.

Solar CoronaIt is when the Sun is totally eclipsed that the solar corona is visible. "Corona" means"crown," and indeed the outer atmosphere of the Sun appears to encircle its blacked-outdisk in an extended pearly crown. Ordinarily, the corona is so much dimmer than thebright disk of the Sun that it cannot be seeneven during a partial or annular eclipse.There is another way to see the corona, however, even without an eclipse. Although thepart of the Sun seen with the naked eye normally outshines it, the corona is actually thebrightest part of the Sun when observed with an X-ray telescope. The Sun emits light ata wide range offrequencies, or colors. Most of the light it emits is in the range visible

to human eyesthe colors that make up a rainbow. Human eyes have actually adaptedto be sensitive to the frequencies at which the majority of the sunlight shines. X rays arelight emitted at much higher frequencies than humans can see, in the same way as adog whistle blows at a frequency that is beyond the sensitivity of the human ear. An X-ray telescope filters out all the light from the Sun except X rays, and what is left ismostly the solar corona.Because the corona shines in X rays we know it is very hot. This is strange. It means thatalthough the temperature of the Sun decreases from its center out to its surface (fromseveral million degrees Celsius down to several thousand), it increases again in thecorona (up again to several million degrees). How and why the corona gets heated is oneof the big mysteries of solar physics. It probably has to do with the energy that comesfrom magnetic fields generated inside the Sun, which is dumped into the corona, heatingit up.
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Sunspots and Magnetic FieldsBesides the more obvious daily and annual variations of the Sun, an approximatelyeleven-year cycle was discovered once people started observing with telescopes. Thiswas first seen by counting the number of sunspots on the Sun. Sunspots are darkregions on the solar surface that are fairly infrequent during the minimum phase of theeleven-year solar cycle, but that become more and more common during the maximum

phase. They are dark because they are cooler than their surroundings, and they are coolbecause they are regions of very strong magnetic field where less heat escapes the solarsurface.

Sunspots are not the only solar features that are most abundant at solar cyclemaximum. Explosive flashes known as "solar flares," and massive eruptions of materialout from the Sun known as coronal mass ejections also become more and morefrequent. The material that is hurled outward in a coronal mass ejection can affect ushere on Earth, damaging satellites and even power stations, and potentially causingblackouts or disrupting satellite TV or cell phone transmissions. Like sunspots, flares andcoronal mass ejections are related to solar magnetic fields. In general, magnetic activity

increases at solar cycle maximum.Magnetic fields are an important part of almost everything that is observed about theSun. So where do they come from? The motions of sunspots provide a clue. Like Earth,the Sun is spinning so it has its own north pole, south pole, and equator. As they movearound as the Sun spins, sunspots near the solar equator return to their starting point inabout twenty-five days. Sunspots near the north and south pole of the Sun, however,take about thirty-five days to spin all the way around. The reason for this difference isthat the Sun is not solid like a baseball, but fluidmore like a water balloon. Just belowthe surface this fluid is vigorously boiling and churning around, and this motion causesdifferent parts of the Sun to spin around at different speeds. Furthermore, all this

churning and spinning creates a magnetic field that is pointing one way near the northpole of the Sun and the opposite way near the south pole, like a giant bar magnet. Everyeleven years, this magnet flips upside down so that in twenty-two years it has flippedover twice and is back where it started. Solar minimum happens when the magnet ispointing either due north or due south, and solar maximum occurs while it is in theprocess of flipping over.

Inside the SunWhen we look at the Sun, we see only the outside; how do we know what is happeningbelow the surface? It turns out we can use techniques that are similar to those used instudying earthquakes. The surface of the Sun is continuously vibrating like a never-

ending earthquake or a bell that is constantly being rung. By looking at the pattern ofthese vibrations and their frequency (like the tone of the bell), we can figure out whatthe inside of the Sun must be like. Thanks in part to these vibrations, we can confidentlysay that the churning motions below the surface not only create magnetic fields andmake the Sun spin at different speeds, but they also move heat from the center of theSun to the surface, where it is radiated away as light.

Near the center of the Sun the churning motions stop and the fluid becomes very denseand hot. Hydrogen atoms fly around at incredible speeds and when they collide they canstick together, creating helium atoms. This process, which is called fusion, provides theenergy that causes stars to shine. In some stars, fusion can convert hydrogen and

helium into heavier elements, such as carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, which can in turnbe combined to make still heavier elements, such as iron, lead, and even gold! In fact,


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everything on Earthair, water, dirt, rocks, buildings, cars, trees, dogs, and even peopleis made of elements that were created in stars by fusion.

The Evolution of the SunAs exciting as it is, the Sun is often referred to as an "ordinary" star. This means that theinformation gained from the vast array of solar observations can be applied to

understanding many of the stars in the sky. Furthermore by studying similar stars atvarious stages of their lifetimes, astronomers can tell how the Sun formed and how it willeventually die.

The Sun and the solar system began as a huge clump of gas in space, mostly made ofhydrogen with some helium and only a relatively small amount of everything else(carbon, oxygen, iron, etc.). This clump slowly condensed and heated up due to gravity,and eventually it became dense and hot enough that fusion began and it started toshine. Not all of the gas fell into the young Sun; some of it stayed behind and wasflattened into a pancake-like disk because it was spinning (just as a skilled pizza cookcan flatten a clump of dough by tossing and spinning it). This disk then broke up into

smaller clumps, which eventually became Earth and the other planets. Meanwhile, theSun settled down to a quieter life, slowly converting hydrogen into helium by fusion andshining the energy away into space. That was about 5 billion years ago and the Sun isstill going strong.

The Sun's FutureBut that is not the end of the story. Eventually, there will not be any hydrogen left in thecenter of the Sun to make helium. Gravity will then cause the center part of the Sun tocollapse in on itself, and the energy given off by this implosion will cause the outer partto inflate. So, while the inner part of the Sun shrinks, the outer part will expand, and itwill become so big that it will envelop Mercury, Venus, and even Earth.

The Sun will then continue its life as a red giant star, but not for long. As its lasthydrogen is used up, the center of the Sun will heat up and start to convert helium intoother elements in a last-ditch effort to keep fusion going and to keep shining. Theavailable helium will be used up relatively quickly, however, and before long all fusion inthe center will stop. The outer part of the Sun will then slowly expand and dissipate intospace while the inner part will become a white dwarf, a relatively small, inactive lump ofmatter, which will slowly cool down as it radiates all its remaining energy into space. Lifeon Earth would not survive these eventsbut as this terrible fate is not due to happenfor another 5 billion years, we have plenty more time to study the Sun in all its splendor!

Planet

planet [Gr.,=wanderer], a large nonluminous ball of rock or gas that orbits a star. Theterm, once limited to any of the eight solid, nonluminous bodies (major planets) thatrevolve around the sun, has been extended to include similar bodies discoveredrevolving around other stars. The term is sometimes used to include dwarf planets andasteroids (or minor planets) but excludes the other members of the solar system:comets and meteoroids (see meteor; see also planetary science and planetary system,as well as the table entitled Major Planets of the Solar System).

Classification of the Major Planets

The major planets are classified either as inferior, with an orbit between the sun and theorbit of Earth (Mercury and Venus), or as superior, with an orbit beyond that of Earth


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(Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, Neptune. Pluto, long regarded after its discovery in1930 as the ninth planet, was gradually recognized as a Kuiper belt, or Trans Neptunian,object (see comet), and in 2006 was reclassified by astronomers as a dwarf planet. Anydwarf planet beyond the orbit of Neptune is now classified as a plutoid.

Terrestrial planet is the earth or a planet that resembles the earth in its physical

characteristics. The terrestrial planets in the solar system are the earth, Mercury, Venus,and Mars. These planets are approximately the same size, with the earth the largest.They are considerably denser than the Jovian planets, ranging from a specific gravity of4 for Mars to 5.5 for the earth. Because they spin less rapidly than the Jovian planets,the terrestrial planets are less flattened at their poles.

StarA star is a hot, roughly spherical ball of gas that shines as a result of nuclear fusionreactions in its core. Stars are one of the fundamental objects in the universe. Starsand indeed the entire universeare made mostly of hydrogen, the simplest and lightestelement. By contrast, our bodies are composed of many complex elements, such ascarbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron. These elements are created in the cores of stars,and the final act in the lives of many stars is a massive explosion that distributes theelements it has created into the galaxy. Eventually these elements may form anotherstar, or a planet, or life on that planet.

Star birthStars are born in the interstellar medium, the region of space between stars. Driftingthrough this region are vast, dark clouds of gas and dust. Certain celestial events, likethe nearby explosion of a massive star at the end of its life (supernova), cause theseclouds to begin to contract. After a supernova, a shock wave sweeps through the

interstellar medium. When it slams into the cloud, the gas and dust is violentlycompressed by the shock. As the particles are squeezed together, their mutualgravitational attraction grows and a blob of gas forms, giving off energy.

As the temperature in a contracting blob of gas becomes higher, the gas exerts apressure that counteracts the inward force of gravity. At this point, perhaps millions ofyears after the shock wave slammed into the dark cloud, the contraction stops. If theblob of gas has become hot enough at its center to begin thermonuclear fusion ofhydrogen into helium, it has become a star. It will remain in this stable state for millionsor billions of years.

An interstellar cloud does not always have to be disturbed by a shock wave to formstars, however. Sometimes a cloud may be hot and dense enough to break up andcontract spontaneously under its own gravity. Large clouds can break up into numerouscloudlets this way, and this process leads to the formation of star clustersgroups ofstars close to each other in space. Often, two stars will form very close to one another,orbiting around a common center of gravity. This two-star system is called a binary star.Both star clusters and binary stars are more common than single stars.

Until recently, astronomers thought the collision of two stars forming a new staroccurred very rarely in the universe. By the beginning of the twenty-first century,however, they had gathered enough observational

Words to Know


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Binary star: Double-star system in which two stars orbit each other around a centralpoint of gravity.

Black hole: Remains of a massive star that has burned out its nuclear fuel and collapsedunder tremendous gravitational force into a single point of infinite mass and gravity.

Core: The central region of a star, where thermonuclear fusion reactions take place thatproduce the energy necessary for the star to support itself against its own gravity.

Interstellar medium: Space between the stars, consisting mainly of empty space with avery small concentration of gas atoms and tiny solid particles.

Nebula: Cloud of interstellar gas and dust.

Neutron star: Extremely dense, compact, neutron-filled remains of a star following asupernova.

Nuclear fusion: Merging of two or more hydrogen nuclei into one helium nucleus,accompanied by a tremendous release of energy.

Pulsar: Rapidly spinning, blinking neutron star.

Red giant: Stage in which an average-sized star spends the final 10 percent of itslifetime; its surface temperature drops and its diameter expands to 10 to 1,000 timesthat of the Sun.

Star cluster: Groups of stars close to each other in space that appear to have roughly

similar characteristics and, therefore, a common origin.

Supernova: Explosion of a massive star at the end of is lifetime, causing it to shine morebrightly than the rest of the stars in the galaxy put together.

White dwarf: Cooling, shrunken core remaining after an average-sized star ceases toburn.

information to know that such collisions are not uncommon within dense clusters ofstars. These new stars, called "blue stars," contain more hydrogen than smaller stars,but burn hotter and burn out more quickly. They result from the collision of two (or even

three) small, old stars in globular clusters (a tight cluster of tens of thousands to onemillion very old stars). Astronomers estimate that several hundred such collisions occurevery hour. With 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe and each galaxycontaining an average of 30 globular clusters, most of the collisions occur far away fromthe Earth. Over the lifetime (about 10 billion years) of our home galaxy, the Milky Way,astronomers believe there have been at least 1 million collisions within its globularclusters, or about 1 every 10,000 years.

Internal structure of a starStars generate energy in their cores, their central and hottest part. The Sun's core has atemperature of about 27,000,000F (15,000,000C), and this is hot enough forthermonuclear fusion reactions to take place. Accompanying the transformation ofhydrogen to helium is an enormous release of energy, which streams out from the star's


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core and supplies the energy needed to heat the star's gas. The Sun converts about 600million tons of hydrogen into helium every second, yet it is so massive that it has

been maintaining this rate of fuel consumption for five billion yearsand will continue todo so for another five billion years.

In the majority of stars, the energy created at the core is carried close to the surface byslow-moving gas currents. As these currents or cells reach the surface atmosphere, theyrelease this energy, which is radiated into space as visible light and other forms ofradiation of the electromagnetic spectrum. Once cooled, the currents fall back towardthe core where they become heated and rise once again. This organized churning iscalled convection.

A star's mass (the total amount of matter in contains) directly influences its size,temperature, and luminosity, or rate of energy output (brightness). The more massive astar is, the stronger its gravity. Mass therefore determines how strong the gravitationalforce is at every point within the star. This in turn dictates how fast the star has toconsume its fuel to keep its gas hot enough to maintain stability everywhere inside it.This controls the temperature structure of the star and the methods by which energy istransported from the core to the surface. It even controls the star's lifetime, since therate of fuel consumption determines lifetime.

The smallest stars are about 0.08 times the mass of the Sun. If a ball of gas is anysmaller than that, its internal temperature will not be high enough to ignite thenecessary fusion reactions in its core. It would instead be a brown dwarf, a small, dark,cool ball of dust and gas that never quite becomes a star. The largest stars are about 50times more massive than the Sun. A star more massive than that would shine so

intensely that its radiation would start to overcome gravity; the star would shed massfrom its surface so quickly that it could never be stable.

Star deathsAll stars eventually exhaust their hydrogen fuel. At this point, the gas pressure withinthe star goes down and the star begins to contract under its own gravity. The fateawaiting a star at this point is determined by its mass.

An average-sized star like the Sun will spend the final 10 percent of its life as a red giant.In this phase of a star's evolution, the star's surface temperature drops to between 3,140and 6,741F (1,727 and 3,727C) and its diameter expands to 10 to 1,000 times that of

the Sun. The star takes on a reddish color, which is what gives it its name.

Buried deep inside the star is a hot, dense core, about the size of Earth. Helium leftburning at the core eventually ejects the star's atmosphere, which floats off into spaceas a planetary nebula (a cloud of gas and dust). The remaining glowing core is called awhite dwarf. Like a dying ember in a campfire, it will gradually cool off and fade intoblackness. Space is littered with such dead suns.

A star up to three times the mass of the Sun explodes in a supernova, shedding much ofits mass. Any remaining matter of such a star ends up as a densely packed neutron staror pulsar, a rapidly rotating neutron star that emits varying radio waves at preciseintervals.


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A star more than three times the mass of the Sun will also explode in a supernova. Itsremaining mass becomes so concentrated that it shrinks to an indefinitely small size andits gravity becomes completely over-powering. This single point in space where pressureand density are infinite is called a black hole.

Decorative Arts

The distinction between the fine arts and the "decorative" is mostly arbitrary. It was notmade until eighteenth-century Europeans decided to do so, allowing fine art to gain anaura of associated mystique. Today the distinction is a familiar one, if not a clear one.The decorative arts are viewed as more craft based, serving or alluding to a function.While the categories of decorative arts are vast, fine craftsmanship seems to be thesingle unifier. Craftsmanship is more than technical virtuosity. It demands a profoundunderstanding of materials and of the tools with which those materials are fashioned.

Probably the single most important factor in the creation of the decorative arts is themaker's genuine pride in the process of production, the need to make things as well asthey can be made. At a purely utilitarian level, this drive to achieve perfection mightseem excessive, but it is very human. However, it may well disappear in the face ofconsumer demand. Often, consumer goods are not made as well as they could be, nordo they last as long as they could be made to last, but these are careful adaptations tothe economics of the market. Few if any machine-made products are designed to lastforever, allowing for new and improved products to be designed and built with the samepurpose but a different look.

Early Colonial StyleDuring the early colonial period, America imported its consumer products and craftsmenfrom Europe, resulting in the same pieces on both sides of the Atlantic. Any products

made in the colonies had very similar designs to those found in the maker's originatingculture. As local manufacturers became more prominent, slight modifications on theoriginal designs began to appear. As the wealth of the colonies increased, initially in theSouth, so did the demand for quality furniture. A variety of indigenous soft andhardwoods, such as pine, birch, maple, oak, hickory, and later walnut, were readilyavailable to colonial furniture craftsmen. With each ship new furniture forms arrived,including cane-back, slat-back, and leather-back chairs, as well as the upholstered chairsbetter known as easy chairs. Three styles came from England: William and Mary (c.17001725) is an adaptation of the Baroque; Queen Anne (c. 17251760) is a refinedBaroque with a greater awareness

of technique; and Chippendale (c. 17601790) is a high English variant of French Rococo.

PotteryWith the arrival of the Europeans came the potter's wheel and many types of ceramicvessels. By 1635, Philip Drinker, an English potter, had started working in Charlestown,Massachusetts, and before 1655, Dirck Claesen, a Dutch "pottmaker," was working inManhattan. By the very nature of local needs, most British colonial pottery productionwas utilitarian ware called redware, modeled on English and German storage jars, jugs,bowls, and plates. It was needed and produced in quantity, formed of the same red clayfrom which bricks were made. When fired, the clay remained porous. The glazing andornamentation were basic. Redware (fired at 900 C1040 C) was usually given aclear lead glaze (using a highly toxic sulfide or oxide of lead), that emphasized the clay'sred tones. Adding metal oxides such as copper, iron, or manganese produced


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various bright colors that enhanced the surface of redware.

Most potters were either immigrants or only a generation or two removed from Europeanor English craftsman traditions. As the immigrants began to see themselves asAmericans and heirs to a continent, they sought more intellectual diversity and distancefrom contemporary European sources, while continuing to buy European products. By

1800, the Adamesque Neo-Classicism of Britain had pervaded domestic manufacturingdesign, and those ancient Greek and Roman shapes took root to varying degrees indifferent art forms and regions of America. Across the newly expanding country theFederal Style (c. 17851815) was followed by the Empire Style (c. 18151830). Bothstyles were versions of the Robert Adaminspired Classical Revival in England and thevariant Biedermeier style in Austria and Germany.

Chairs, Ceramics, and SilverWhile the Shakers, a branch of the English Quakers, were rejecting the world aboutthem, they made ladder-back chairs and sat as other Americans sat. While rockers werenot a Shaker inventionthe earliest-known citation is from 17411742 by SolomonFussell, a Philadelphia furniture makertheir popularity may owe much to theinventiveness of the Shaker chair makers and to their readiness to accommodate to newstyles.

In ceramics, the venerable English firm of Josiah Wedgwood was the leader in pottery.Wedgwood's invention of basalt ware in 1768, followed within a decade by hisexquisitely modeled jasper ware, inspired ceramists everywhere. In the early nineteenthcentury the Wedgwood potteries did not produce porcelain, but the Worcester, Derby,and Coalport factories did, and those who sought fashionable dishes either got themfrom those factories or, starting about 1825, found suitable reproductions made by some

twenty skilled craftsmen from England and France employed to make porcelain for theJersey Porcelain and Earthenware Company in Jersey City, New Jersey. Other venturesfollowed in Philadelphia.

At the same time, and serving many of the same customers, silversmiths were bothmanufacturers and retailers, their shops often doubling as a workroom and a showroom.This practice continued until about 1840, when the discovery of the technique ofelectroplating led to the rise of large companies that produced and sold silver plate instores. While not eliminating individual silversmiths, it did reduce their importance.Ultimately large corporations such as the Gorham Manufacturing Company andInternational Silver Company largely depersonalized the industry. Those individual shops

that survived specialized more in repair, chasing, and engraving than in creatingproducts.

Industrialization and Decorative StyleThe American ambivalence about industrialization helps explain the inherent ideologicalcontradictions in the decorative arts between 1850 and 1900. Laminating rose-wood, forexample, required a large number of technologically sophisticated pieces of shopequipment, and it is ironic that such technical and mechanized operations producedforms that were emotional cues to the antithesis of mechanization. Besides the variousEuropean-derived revival styles, the Rococo Revival became an important stylistic forceamong wealthy Americans by 1850. The most influential sources for designers were thenatural world, the past, and the exotic. Immensely popular in America were chinapatterns produced in England such as the transfer image "Ontario Lake Scenery." Mass-produced of cheap materials, the scene shows a castle, Niagara Falls, and tepees


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against a mountainous background. The newly powerful merchants, industrialists, andtheir managers bought this ware and anything else they saw at a reasonable price. Themass market was born, as was the separation of design from material reality in populardecorative arts.

Oriental Style

While China and Japan had been very important design sources for the decorative arts ofelite culture before 1800, the American middle class discovered the Orient at the 1876Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition. Everyday objects such as the inro, netsuke, and fansbecame decorative materials for homes or prized collections. "Oriental" was also adecorating, ceramics, and furniture style; at its extreme, oriental pieces were cast orcarved to resemble bamboo, ebonized, or lacquered; paper parasols were popular, aswere paper lanterns, fans, and kimonos. By the end of the century, artisans weremanufacturing large numbers of items in the Oriental style expressly for use in America.By 1900 most "Made in Japan" furniture resembled forms from China. Design hadsuccumbed to the marketplace.

But the Oriental influence also took another direction in the ceramic glazes and shapesdeveloped by such potters as William Henry Grueby, who set up the Grueby FaienceCompany of Boston in 1894. Working with George Prentiss Kendrick, an establisheddesigner in brass and silverware, the shop created outstanding European-Japaneseinspired shapes and a range of delicious semi-matt glazes: blues, yellows, browns, grays,and an ivory-white crackle. His most sought-after and imitated glaze was a semi-mattgreen. Grueby green became an industry standard.

Grueby was an instant success at the Society of Arts & Crafts Exhibit in Boston in 1897.While already represented

by Siegfried Bing (18381905), founder of the Gallery of Art Nouveau and Tiffany'sEuropean outlet, in 1900, Grueby was awarded one silver and two gold medals in Paris.In 1900 the pottery won a gold medal at St. Petersburg and in 1901 the Highest Awardat the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, at which Grueby contributed to roomsdesigned by Gustav Stickley, a pioneer of Arts & Craftsstyle furniture in America. TheHighest Award followed in Turin in 1902 and the Grand Prize in St. Louis in 1904.

Art Deco StyleWhile the Art Deco style actually budded between 1908 and 1912, it did not bloom untilafter World War I. The style draws on a host of diverse and often conflicting influences

Cubism, Russian Constructivism, Italian Futurism, abstraction, distortion, andsimplification. Art Deco's tenet that form must follow function remained unchallenged byall succeeding schools of design. However, its accompanying dictum that the pieceshould also be unique or, at most, a limited edition proved elitist in an age ruled byModernism. The Modernists argued that the new age demanded excellent design foreveryone and that quality and mass production were not mutually exclusive. The

future of the decorative arts did not rest with the rich; rather, an object's greatestbeauty lay in its perfect adaptation to its usage. For the first time, the straight linebecame a source of beauty. In the late 1920s a moderated Modernism was all thefashion.

French Art Deco styling produced by Steuben (1903) and Libbey Glass Compay (1892)revived the American glass industry somewhat; it had suffered a decline after Art


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Nouveau flourished under Louis Comfort Tiffany. Steuben produced expensive, limitededitions of art glass designed by its founder, the Englishman Frederick Carder (18631963). The Libbey Glass Company was in the vanguard of 1930s American commercialglass design. The tradition-bound American home of the 1930s was jolted by theConsolidated Lamp and Glass Company of Coraopolis, Pennsylvania, when it designed aCubist line of glassware called Ruba Rombic, which was offered in pale hues such as

gray, topaz, and amber.

The Great Depression struck a fatal blow to luxury items, and in America the Art Decostyle was only reluctantly adapted to jewelry design. To accommodate the trend, Tiffanyof New York created traditional objects in the new style, but without the crisp angularityfound in Paris. C. D. Peacock and Spaulding-Gorham Inc. in Chicago produced jewelry inthe new idiom, but again without the panache of their French counterparts. Onegenuinely new form appeared in American jewelry at the time: the stepped outline,which coincided with the emergence of the stepback skyscraper, the most beautifulexamples of which are the Chrysler Building and the Empire State Building in New YorkCity.

ModernismWhen the American skyscraper boom of the mid-1920s started, America did not have itsown Modernist style. The country was still decorating tall buildings in a Gothic stylederived from the pens of Cass Gilbert or Hood and Howells' Chicago Tribune Tower. As intraditional buildings, Modernist decoration served as a transitional device to alert theviewer to a change in contour. It was often not designed by the architect but purchaseddirectly from companies such as Northwestern Terra Cotta in Chicago. A sumptuouscombination of stone, brick, terracotta, and metal often transformed an otherwise blandstructure into a source of great civic pride.

Since 1945 the decorative arts in America have served as a template for the culture ofconsumerism, with its attendant design functions. By the 1960s commercial television,various other advertising media, consumer magazines, and city sign systems bothcommercial and practical emerged as challenging and exciting new disciplines andvenues in the ongoing interface between consumer and product: promising, seducing,fueling, and directing. The cultural role of the decorative arts and design was extendedwell beyond the need for harmony between form and function. The artisan and designerbecame a communicator, giving form to products not in the abstract but within a cultureand for a marketplace. Never before had there been such an intensive dialogue betweenthe "fine" and the "decorative" arts. By the 1970s Pop artists were devising their own set

of rules, an antithesis to Modernism ideology yet not antagonistic. Pop was about beingModern in a different though not exclusive sense. It was the Modern of fashionable, high-impact design; a never-mind-about-tomorrow, brash, superficial Modern. All the while,decorative arts changed rapidly, embracing both functional and fully nonfunctional, boththe beautiful and the ugly, limited only by the inventiveness of the craftsperson.

GlassGlass is created by fusing silica (sand, quartz, or flints) with alkaline fluxes (soda ash orpotash) in a crucible, a fireclay pot, within a furnace. Fuel for heating is usually based onlocal availability. Two basic techniques dominate glassmaking: molding and blowing. Allglass must also be annealed, slowly cooled to become less brittle.

Color has been an important component of the appeal of glass since the beginnings ofglassmaking. Color demands a sophisticated and specialized knowledge. Some of the


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most popular oxide additives to molten glass are cobalt, which produces a wide range ofblues; gold, the most romanticized of the additives, which produces a range of reds;antimony, which produces an opaque yellow; iron, which produces a range of colors fromyellow to green to blue; copper, which produces a wide range of blues, greens, and reds,and even a glittering metal in suspension; and manganese, which can produce anamethyst color. Surface color can be quickly achieved by exposing the glass to various

chemicals or gasses, thus causing iridescence similar to that found in long-buried Romanglass. Louis Comfort Tiffany became the acknowledged master of manufacturediridescence.

Early Glassmaking and IndustrializationWhen Jamestown Virginia was founded in 1607, glass-blowers were among the settlers.Like the colony, their glassmaking venture, America's first industry, failed. Otherglassmakers followed in New Amsterdam (later New York), Salem, Boston, andPhiladelphia. All were short-lived ventures. But demand for glass was great in colonialAmerica. In 1739, in the face of a British ban on manufacturing glass, a Germanglassmaker, Caspar Wistar, established a factory in southern New Jersey thatsuccessfully produced window glass, bottles, and tableware. Free-blown glass was alsopopular. Many glassmakers, mostly German, followed Wistar's example, but despiteabundant fuel and sand, most failed. But failure did not deter the industry, and everydecade of the eighteenth century saw production increase as the demand grew forbottles, windows, and free-blown vessels. While blowing glass into a mold was efficient,the development of mechanical glass-pressing machines in the 1820s actuallyindustrialized the industry. American glass of seemingly ever-new colors could now bepressed into a myriad of shapes. This sudden speedup in production, the first in almost2,000 years, was America's first great contribution to the glass industry.

For the first time identical pairs or interchangeable sets were possible. Home decoratingchanged forever. The New England Glass Company in East Cambridge, Massachusetts(18181888), became one of the glassmaking giants of the century and produced anenormous variety of wares of international importance. The Boston and Sandwich GlassCompany, in Sandwich, Massachusetts (18251889), was a significant competitor.Others followed.

After about 1845, Bohemian-style glass, blown, cut, wheel-engraved, or machine-pressed, became the rage. Soon fine line cutting and panel cuts, deep reds and blues,marble or agate glass, and cased, flashed, and stained ware were common sights inbetter American homes. In 1864, William Leighton of Hobbs, Brockunier, and Company in

Wheeling, West Virginia, developed a soda lime glass that looked like expensive leadglass but was much cheaper to produce. It changed the industry, especially that ofluxury glass. The Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876 led the campaign for glassthat was deeply cut, more elaborate, and handmade. Instantly popular, it

is now referred to as "brilliant," or Victorian, glass, and its production continued untilabout 1915. Libbey Glass Company in Toledo, Ohio, became a leader in this type ofAmerican glass.

Art Glass and Modern StylesParalleling brilliant glass was the very popular new taste for art glass, anothercontinuation of Americans' desire for excess that spawned novel glass colors, finishes,and shapes, mostly for the production of decorative objects. Louis Comfort Tiffany wasthe uncontested master. His development of Favril glass in the late 1870s, based on


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existing German technologies and ideas developed by John La Farge, ushered in a newstyle of glass, which in 1895 was called "art nouveau." Exhibited at the 1893 ChicagoWorld's Columbian Exhibition, Tiffany glass was immediately purchased by severalEuropean museums, internationally acclaimed, and copied. Endlessly adapting Roman,medieval, and Muslim shapes and surfaces, Tiffany's genius sprang forth in colors,patterns, and marketing. Along with "brilliant" cut glass, Tiffany glass dominated until

about 1915. Brilliant cut slipped into stuffy obscurity, and Tiffany's glass was maligned,neglected, and forgotten until the early 1970s, but since then Tiffany glass has becomeonce again the most sought-after of all glass.

The 1920s ushered in severe changes in style. Out went ornamental, in came functional.This change proved difficult for the glass industry and its designers. The great designerFrederick Carder employed elegantly simplified forms that helped make the work ofSteuben Glass Works in Corning, New York, broadly popular. In 19391940 Libbey GlassCompany turned new streamlined designs by Edwin W. Fuerst into a line called "ModernAmerican." American glass of the 1950s, made by such firms as Blenko Glass Companyin West Virginia, was broadly popular, and by the early 1990s American glass of the1950s had become much sought-after by collectors. Art galleries specializing in modernand 1950s glass sprang up to meet the demand.

Studio GlassArguably the most influential change in modern glass-making occurred in 1962, whenthe Toledo Museum of Art organized a hands-on glass working seminar. Led by the glasstechnician Dominick Labino and the ceramist and glass designer Harvey K. Littleton,both of the University of Wisconsin, the seminar's emphasis on uniting the traditionalfunctions of craftsman and designer (separated since the early eighteenth century) leddirectly to a renaissance in contemporary hand-worked glass seen as a sculptural

medium.

The studio-glass phenomenon attracted new glass artists who migrated from othermaterials and who used not only traditional hot glass methods such as blowing andcasting but also warm techniques such as fusing, slumping, and enameling, as well ascold techniques such as cutting, polishing, etching, sandblasting, painting, and joiningwith new acrylic adhesives to achieve their designs. Glass, like other materials, becamethe embodiment of an "artistic gesture."

Starting in the late 1960s, Dale Chihuly, Richard Marquis, James Carpenter, MichaelNourot, William Prindle, and others (Robert Willson had been there first, in 1958) had all

spent time in Murano, Italy, studying ancient glassblowing traditions with mastercraftsmen. In 1971, Chihuly founded Pilchuck Glass Center outside Seattle, Washington,and began to work in his signature technique based on centuries-old Venetian glasstraditions, without the constraint of fifteenth-and sixteenth-century technology. Thesame decade saw the founding of the Penland School in North Carolina and the HaystackMountain School in Maine. Publications such as Craft Horizons and New Glass Review,and regular exhibitions, became significant supports. The American Crafts Council hashad its own museum in New York since 1987, the same year the Corning Museum inupstate New York placed part of its modern glass collection on permanent display. Sincethese ambitious moves, the creativity and diversity of glass artists has found appealamong countless collectors, making glass the most collected of all contemporary artmedia.


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shock has many meanings in common usage. Most often it refers to a sudden mental oremotional experience ranging from a trivial unpleasant surprise to the deep disturbanceof personal disaster or bereavement; shell-shock refers to distress and disturbedbehavior in the aftermath of battle. When the media report someone as suffering fromshock this may vaguely imply only shock, without physical injury, whereas a clinicianwill use the term for a potentially dangerous condition with quite specific physical

features. This last will be the main topic under this heading.

In medical terms, shock occurs when the blood supply to the tissues is inadequate tomeet the requirements of the body. It is a sudden, or acute, failure of the circulation.

Topographic anatomy

In this, the body is studied by regions rather than by organs. This is of importance to thesurgeon who exposes different planes after the skin incision and who, of course, must beperfectly familiar with structures as he explores the limbs and body cavities. Once thesole preserve of the surgeon, this field has acquired immense significance today for theradiologist (see below). In this respect cross-sectional topographic anatomy has comeinto its own.

Endoscopic anatomy

With the development of fibreoptic instruments, the body's tubes and cavities are nowbeing explored in life. The detailed anatomy, for example, of the bronchial tree as seenthrough the bronchoscope is now of great importance. The introduction of laparoscopicand thoracoscopic instruments to explore and operate in the abdomen and thoraxrespectively has also opened new vistas as surgeons require to learn their anatomical

landmarks through these approaches.

Surface (living) anatomy

From the practical point of view, every medical practitioner needs to know the detailedstructure of the tissues beneath the skin of his patient. This forms an important part ofthe teaching of medical students, who can practise on themselves the identification ofbones, landmarks, muscles, and arterial pulses; the palpation of normal structuresthrough the intact skin; and the range of movement of the joints.

Radiological and imaging anatomy

The discovery by Rntgen of X-rays a century ago opened new vistas of anatomicalstudy. This was enhanced by the development of radiological techniques to outlineviscera, for example by injecting radio-opaque solutions into blood vessels (angiography)or by swallowing barium paste in order to demonstrate the oesophagus and stomach.More recently, other imaging techniques, which include ultrasonography, computerizedtomography, and, in particular, magnetic resonance imaging, have provided unrivalledinformation of three-dimensional anatomy in the living body. Indeed, today, theradiologist must possess a detailed knowledge of anatomy that certainly rivals that of hissurgical colleagues.

Embryological anatomy


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The complex changes in the growing fetus are studied because much of adult anatomycan only be understood by appreciating its prenatal development. More and more hasbeen learned about the underlying causes of the numerous congenital abnormalitiesthat may arise as aberrations of normal development.

Microscopic anatomy is of fundamental importance in the understanding of pathological

changes, and has advanced with the introduction of electron microscopy, which enablesthe finest details of the cells to be studied at an ultramicroscopic magnification ofseveral thousands.Kinesiology,the study of joint and limb movement, has developed into a subject of immenseimportance, together with biomechanics and orthotics (the study and use of artificiallimbs). Here, research has an immediate application in orthopaedic practice, for thestudy of joint prostheses, the measurement of forces acting on the skeleton, andchoosing the strength of materials utilized in reconstructive surgery; also for the analysisof the causes of failures of artificial joint implants, or of the materials used in internalfixation of fractures.Neuroanatomy,the study of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, forms an important part of the battery ofapproaches needed for neurobiological exploration, which today is complemented byphysiology, pharmacology, molecular biology, and dynamic whole brain imaging.

All these topics are of obvious importance in the various expanding fields of medicine,but anatomy also impinges on other sciences. Examples are comparative anatomy thecomparison of structures in different animals and species; palaeoanatomy the studyof ancient remains mainly, of course, of bones; and physical anthropology the studyof the different human races.

A recent development has been the appearance of a complete, sectioned human bodyappearing on the World Wide Web. The Visible Human Project presents transverse CT,MRI and cryosection images of two complete human cadavers, one male and onefemale, at an average of 1 mm intervals. These allow three-dimensional constructions tobe visualized from any angle on the computer screen.

Anatomy is thus a subject which encompasses a great variety of endeavorscharacterized by the study of the organization of the human body, and which impingeson many other sciences. In teaching anatomy to medical students, dissection of thecadaver remains fundamental, but the student also studies living, imaging, microscopic,

and embryological anatomy. Anatomy forms an essential part of the scientific basis ofmedicine. All those concerned with disorders of the human body must start from abackground of knowledge of its normal macroscopic and microscopic structure.

BirdsBirds are warm-blooded vertebrate (having a backbone) animals whose bodies arecovered with feathers and whose forelimbs are modified into wings. Most can fly. Birdsare in the class Aves, which contains over 9,500 species divided among 31 living orders.One order, the Passeriformes or perching birds, accounts for more than one-half of allliving species of birds.

Most scientists believe that birds evolved from saurischian dinosaurs about 145 millionyears ago. The first truly birdlike animal, they point out, was Archaeopteryxlithographica, which lived during the Jurassic period. Fossils from this animal were found


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in Germany in the nineteenth century. This 3-foot (1-meter) long animal is considered tobe an evolutionary link between the birds and the dinosaurs. It had teeth and otherdinosaurian characteristics, but it also had a feathered body and could fly.

A fossil discovery by scientists in 2000, however, threw into doubt the theory of birds'evolution. The fossils in question were excavated in 1969 in Kyrgyzstan, a former Soviet

republic, but were not correctly identified until some thirty years later. The animal,Longisquama insignis, lived in Central Asia 220 million years ago, not long after the timeof the first dinosaurs. From impressions left in stone, it had four legs and what appearedto be feathers on its body. Scientists who analyzed the fossils said the animal had awishbone virtually identical to Archaeopteryx and similar to modern birds. It was a smallreptile that probably glided among the trees 75 million years before the earliest knownbird. Some scientists believe this challenges the widely held theory that birds evolvedfrom dinosaurs.

Modern characteristicsThe bodies of birds are covered with specialized structures known as feathers that growout of the skin. No other animal has them. Feathers act as a barrier against water andheat loss, are light but very strong, and provide a smooth, flat surface for pushingagainst the air during flight. The feathers of most species have color, often bright andbeautifully patterned, that serves as camouflage and is used in courtship displays bymales.

The modified forelimbs, or wings, of birds are used for flying or gliding. The hind limbsare used for walking, perching, or swimming. Swimming birds typically have webbed feetthat aid them in moving through water. The bones of the flying birds are structured forflight. They are very light and have many hollow regions. The wing bones are connected

by strong muscles to the keeled, or ridged, breastbone, and the pelvic bones are fusedso that they are rigid in flight.

The jaws of birds are modified into a horny beak, or bill, that has no teeth and that isshaped according to the eating habits of each species. Like mammals, birds have a four-chambered heart that pumps blood to the lungs to receive oxygen and then to the bodytissues to distribute that oxygen. Fertilization occurs internally, and the female layshard-shelled eggsusually in some type of nestthat have a distinct yolk. One orsometimes both parents sit on the eggs until they hatch, and the young of almost allspecies are cared for by both parents.

Words to KnowBarb: The branches of a feather that grow out of the quill and are held together bybarbules in flying birds.

Barbules: Hooks that hold the barbs of a feather together in flying birds.

Bill: The jaws of a bird and their horny covering.

Feathers: Light outgrowths of the skin of birds that cover and protect the body, providecoloration, and aid in flight.

Keel: The ridge on the breastbone of a flying bird to which the flying muscles areattached.


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Quill: The hollow central shaft of a feather from which the barbs grow.

The keen eyesight and sensitive hearing of birds aid them in locating food. This isimportant because their high level of activity requires that they eat often. Birds are alsovery vocal, using various calls to warn of danger, defend their territory, andcommunicate with others of their species. Songbirds are any birds that sing musically.

Usually, only the male of the species sings. The frequency and intensity of their song isgreatest during the breeding season, when the male is establishing a territory and tryingto attract a mate.

Birds are found the world over in many different habitats. They range in size from thesmallest hummingbird, at less than 2 inches (6 centimeters), to the largest ostrich,which may reach a height of 8 feet (2.4 meters) and weigh as much as 400 pounds (182kilograms). Many species of birds migrate hundreds or even thousands of miles southevery autumn to feed in warmer climates, returning north in the spring.

Flightless birdsFlightless birds lack the keel (high ridge) on the breastbone to which the flight musclesof flying birds are attached. Instead, the breastbone is shaped like a turtle's shell. It hasalso been described as a raft, giving this group of birds its name, Ratitae (from the Latinratis, meaning "raft"). Ratites have heavy, solid bones and include the largest livingbirds, such as the ostriches of Africa and the emus of Australia. Kiwis, another type offlightless bird, live in New Zealand and are about the size of chickens. The penguins ofAntarctica are also flightless but are not regarded as ratites. Their powerful flightmuscles are used for swimming instead of flying.

Ratites are the oldest living birds and are descended from flying birds who lost the

ability to fly. The feathers of ratites differ in structure from those of flying birds. Theylack barbuleshooked structures that fasten the barbs of the quill together, providing anair-resistant surface during flight. Instead, the strands that grow from the quill separatesoftly, allowing air through. This softness makes the feathers of many ratites particularlydesirable. Ostrich plumes, for example, have long been used as decoration on helmetsand hats.

Human impact on birds

Humans have destroyed birds, both intentionally and unintentionally. Two hundred yearsago, birds were considered such an inexhaustible resource that wholesale slaughter of

then hardly raised a concern. The greatest impact humans have had on birds has beenbrought about through human expansion (farms, cities, roads, buildings) into theirnatural habitats. A by-product of industrial development has been widespreadenvironmental pollution. Pesticides, used on farms to rid fields of insects, haveaccumulated in many places frequented by birds and have been subsequently ingestedby them. Oil spills have also taken their toll on bird populations. It is not surprising, then,that many species have disappeared as a result of human activities and encroachmenton the natural environment. According to one scientific estimate, 85 species of birds,representing 27 families, have become extinct since 1600.

Dinosaur

Dinosaurs are a group of now-extinct, terrestrial reptiles in the order Dinosauria. Theylived during the Mesozoic Era, from about 225 million years ago to 66 million years ago.


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Species of dinosaurs ranged from chicken-sized creatures such as the 2-pound (1-kilogram) predator Compsognathus to colossal, herbivorous animals known as sauropodsweighing more than 80 tons (72 metric tons). The sauropods were larger than anyterrestrial animals that lived before or since.

Some dinosaurs were enormous, awesomely fierce predators, while others were mild-

mannered plant eaters. The word dinosaur is derived from two Greek words meaning"terrible lizard." The name comes from the fact that the remains of the earliest dinosaursdiscovered were very large and showed they had a lizardlike appearance.

Biology of the dinosaursThe dinosaurs shared some common physical characteristics, such as the presence oftwo openings on opposite sides of their skulls and 25 vertebrae. However, the dinosaursalso differed from each other in many important ways. They displayed an enormousrange of forms and functions, and they filled a wide array of ecological niches. Some ofthe dinosaurs were, in fact, quite bizarre in their shape and, undoubtedly, their behavior.

Most species of dinosaurs had a long tail and long neck, but this was not the case for allspecies. Most of the dinosaurs walked on their four legs, although some species werebipedal, using only their rear legs for locomotion. Their forelegs were greatly reduced insize and probably used only for grasping. The species that walked on four legs were allpeaceful herbivores. In contrast, many of the bipedal dinosaurs were fast-runningpredators.

The teeth of dinosaur species were highly diverse. Many species were exclusivelyherbivorous, and their teeth were correspondingly adapted for cutting and grindingvegetation. Other dinosaurs were fierce predators, and their teeth were shaped like

serrated (notched) knives. These teeth were undoubtedly used to seize and stab theirprey, cutting it into smaller pieces that could be swallowed whole.

Until recently, it was widely believed that dinosaurs were rather stupid, slow-moving,cold-blooded creatures. However, some scientists now believe that dinosaurs wereintelligent, social, quick-moving, and probably warm-blooded animals. This question isstill rather controversial. Scientists have not yet reached agreement as to whether atleast some of the dinosaurs were able to regulate their body temperature by producingheat through metabolic reactions.

Bipedal: Walking on two feet.

Carnivore (carnivorous): Meat-eating.Embryo: The earliest stage of animal development in the uterus before the animal isconsidered a fetus.Extinct: No longer alive on Earth.Fossil: Evidence of plant or animal life preserved in earth, usually in rocks.Herbivore (herbivorous): Plant-eating.Ornithischian dinosaurs: Dinosaurs with birdlike characteristics.Predator: An animal that eats other animals.Saurischian dinosaurs: Dinosaurs with reptilelike characteristics.Sauropods: A group of large saurischian herbivores.Terrestrial: Relating to the land.Thecodonts: Early reptiles regarded as ancestors of the dinosaurs.


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Nuclear physics Branch of physics concerned with the structure and properties of theatomic nucleus. The principal means of investigating the nucleus is the scatteringexperiment, carried out in particle accelerators, in which a nucleus is bombarded with abeam of high-energy elementary particles, and the resultant particles analyzed. Study ofthe nucleus has led to an understanding of the processes occurring inside stars and hasenabled the building of nuclear reactors.

MARKETINGMarketing pertains to the interactive process that requires developing, pricing, placing,and promoting goods, ideas, or services in order to facilitate exchanges betweencustomers and sellers to satisfy the needs and wants of consumers. Thus, at the verycenter of the marketing process is satisfying the needs and wants of customers.NEEDS AND WANTSNeeds are the basic items required for human survival. Human needs are an essentialconcept underlying the marketing process because needs are translated into consumerwants. Human needs are often described as a state of real or perceived deprivation.Basic human needs take one of three forms: physical, social, and individual. Physicalneeds are basic to survival and include food, clothing, warmth, and safety. Social needsrevolve around the desire for belonging and affection. Individual needs include longingsfor knowledge and self-expression, through items such as clothing choices.

Wants are needs that are shaped by both cultural influences and individual preferences.Wants are often described as goods, ideas, and services that fulfill the needs of anindividual consumer. The wants of individuals change as both society and technologychange. For example, when a computer is released, a consumer may want it simplybecause it is a new and improved technology. Therefore, the purpose of marketing is toconvert these generic needs into wants for specific goods, ideas, or services. Demand iscreated when wants are supported by an individual consumer's ability to purchase the

goods, ideas, or services in question.

Consumers buy products that will best meet their needs, as well as provide the mostfulfillment resulting from the exchange process. The first step in the exchange process isto provide a product. Products can take a number of forms such as goods, ideas, andservices. All products are produced to satisfy the needs, wants, and demands ofindividual buyers.

The second step in the satisfaction process is exchange. Exchange occurs when anindividual receives a product from a seller in return for something called consideration.Consideration usually takes the form of currency. For an exchange to take place, it must

meet a number of conditions:1. There must be at least two participants in the process.2. Each party must offer something of value to the other.3. Both parties must want to deal with each other.4. Both participants have the right to accept or to reject the offer.5. Both parties must have the ability to communicate and deliver on themutual agreement.Thus, the transaction process is a core component of marketing. Whenever there is atrade of values between two parties, a transaction has occurred. A transaction is oftenconsidered a unit of measurement in marketing. The earliest form of exchange was

known as barter.HISTORICAL ERAS OF MARKETING


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Modern marketing began in the early 1900s. The marketing process progressed throughfour distinct eras: production, sales, marketing, and relationship. In the 1920s, firmsoperated under the premise that production was a seller's market. Product choices werenearly nonexistent because firm managers believed that a superior product would sellitself. This philosophy was possible because the demand for products outlasted supply.During this era, firm success was measured totally in terms of production.

The second era of marketing, ushered in during 1950s, is known as the sales era. Duringthis era, product supply exceeded demand. Thus, firms assumed that consumers wouldresist buying goods and services deemed nonessential. To overcome this consumerresistance, sellers had to employ creative advertising and skillful personal selling inorder to get consumers to buy.

The marketing era emerged after firm managers realized that a better strategy wasneeded to attract and keep customers because allowing products to sell themselves wasnot effective. Rather, the marketing concept philosophy was adopted by many firms inan attempt to meet the specific needs of customers. Proponents of the marketingconcept argued that in order for firms to achieve their goals, they had to satisfy theneeds and wants of consumers.

The relationship era began in the 1990s and continues today. The thrust of therelationship era is to establish and foster long-term relationships with both customersand suppliers. These long-term relationships with both customers and suppliers addvalue to the marketing process that benefits all affiliated parties.

MARKETING IN THE OVERALL BUSINESSThere are four areas of operation within all firms: accounting, finance, management, andmarketing. Each of these four areas performs specific functions. The accountingdepartment is responsible for keeping track of income and expenditures. The primary

responsibility of the finance department is maintaining and tracking assets. Themanagement department is responsible for creating and implementing proceduralpolicies of the firm. The marketing department is responsible for generating revenuethrough the exchange process. As a means of generating revenue, marketing objectivesare established in alignment with the overall objectives of the firm.

Aligning the marketing activities with the objectives of the firm is completed through theprocess of marketing management. The marketing management process involvesdeveloping objectives that promote the long-term competitive advantage of a firm. Thefirst step in the marketing management process is to develop the firm's overall strategicplan. The second step is to establish marketing strategies that support the firm's overall

strategic objectives. Lastly, a marketing plan is developed for each product. Eachproduct plan contains an executive summary, an explanation of the current marketingsituation, a list of threats and opportunities, proposed sales objectives, possiblemarketing strategies, action programs, and budget proposals.

The marketing management process includes analyzing marketing opportunities,selecting target markets, developing the marketing mix, and managing the marketingeffort. In order to analyze marketing opportunities, firms scan current environmentalconditions in order to determine potential opportunities. The aim of the marketing effortis to satisfy the needs and wants of consumers. Thus, it is necessary for marketingmanagers to determine the particular needs and wants of potential customers. Various

quantitative and qualitative techniques of marketing research are used to collect dataabout potential customers, who are then segmented into markets.

MARKET SEGMENTATION


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In order to better manage the marketing effort and to satisfy the needs and wants ofcustomers, many firms place consumers into groups, a process called marketsegmentation. In this process, potential customers are categorized based on differentneeds, characteristics, or behaviors. Market segments are evaluated as to theirattractiveness or potential for generating revenue for the firm. Four factors are generallyreviewed to determine the potential of a particular market segment. Effective segments

are measurable, accessible, substantial, and actionable. Measurability is the degree towhich a market segment's size and purchasing power can be measured. Accessibilityrefers to the degree to which a market segment can be reached and served.Substantiality refers to the size of the segment in terms of profitability for the firm.Action ability refers to the degree to which a firm can design or develop a product toserve a particular market segment.

Consumer characteristics are used to segment markets into workable groups. Commoncharacteristics used for consumer categorizations include demographic, geographic,psychographic, and behavioral segmentation. Demographic segmentation categorizesconsumers based on such characteristics as age, ethnicity, gender, income level, and

occupation. It is one of the most popular methods of segmenting potential customersbecause it makes it relatively easy to identify potential customers.

Categorizing consumers according to their locations is called geographic segmentation.Consumers can be segmented geographically according to the nations, states, regions,cities, or neighborhoods in which they live, shop, and/or work. Psychographicsegmentation uses consumers' activities, interests, and opinions to sort them intogroups. Social class, lifestyle, or personality characteristics are psychographic variablesused to categorize consumers into different groups. In behavioral segmentation,marketers divide consumers into groups based on their knowledge, attitudes, uses, orresponses to a product.

Once the potential market has been segmented, firms need to station their productsrelative to similar products of other producers, a process called product positioning.Market positioning is the process of arranging a product so as to engage the minds oftarget consumers. Firm managers position their products in such a way as to distinguishthem from those of competitors in order to gain a competitive advantage in themarketplace. The position of a product in the marketplace must be clear, distinctive, anddesirable relative to those of its competitors in order for it to be effective.

COVERAGE STRATEGIESMarketing managers use three basic market-coverage strategies: undifferentiated,differentiated, and concentrated. An undifferentiated marketing strategy occurs when a

firm focuses on the common needs of consumers rather than their different needs. Whenusing this strategy, producers design products to appeal to the largest number ofpotential buyers. The benefit of an undifferentiated strategy is that it is cost-effectivebecause a narrow product focus results in lower production, inventory, andtransportation costs.

A firm using a differentiated strategy makes a conscious decision to divide and targetseveral different market segments, with a different product geared to each segment.Thus, a different marketing plan is needed for each segment in order to maximize salesand, as a result, increase firm profits. With a differentiated marketing strategy, firmscreate more total sales because of broader appeal across market segments and stronger

position within each segment.


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The last market coverage strategy is known as the concentrated marketing strategy. Theconcentrated strategy, which aims to serve a large share of one or a very few markets,is best suited for firms with limited resources. This approach allows firms to obtain amuch stronger position in the segments it targets because of the greater emphasis onthese targeted segments. This greater emphasis ultimately leads to a betterunderstanding of the needs of the targeted segments.

MARKETING MIXOnce a positioning strategy has been determined, marketing managers seek to controlthe four basic elements of the marketing mix: product, price, place, and promotion,known as the four Ps of marketing. Since these four variables are controllable, the bestmix of these elements is determined to reach the selected target market.

ProductThe first element in the marketing mix is the product. Products can be either tangible orintangible. Tangible products are products that can be touched; intangible products arethose that cannot be touched, such as services. There are three basic levels of aproduct: core, actual, and augmented. The core product is the most basic level, whatconsumers really buy in terms of benefits. For example, consumers do not buy foodprocessors, per se; rather, they buy the benefit of being able to process food quickly andefficiently.

The next level of the product is the actual productin the case of the previous example,food processors. Products are typically sorted according to the following fivecharacteristics: quality, features, styling, brand name, and packaging. Finally, theaugmented level of a product consists of all the elements that surround both the coreand the actual product. The augmented level provides purchasers with additionalservices and benefits. For example, follow-up technical assistance and warranties andguaranties are augmented product components. When planning new products, firmmanagers consider a number of issues including product quality, features, options,styles, brand name, packaging, size, service, warranties, and return policies, all in anattempt to meet the needs and wants of consumers.PricePrice is the cost of the product paid by consumers. This is the only element in themarketing mix that generates revenue for firms. In order to generate revenue, managersmust consider factors both internal and external to the organization. Internal factorstake the form of marketing objectives, the marketing-mix strategy, and production costs.External factors to consider are the target market, product demand, competition,economic conditions, and government regulations.

A number of pricing strategies are available to marketing managers: skimming,penetration, quantity, and psychological. With a price-skimming strategy, the price isinitially set high, allowing firms to generate maximum profits from customers willing topay the high price. Prices are then gradually lowered until maximum profit is receivedfrom each level of consumer.

Penetration pricing is used when firms set low prices in order to capture a large share ofa market quickly. A quantity-pricing strategy provides lower prices to consumers whopurchase larger quantities of a product. Psychological pricing tends to focus onconsumer perceptions. For example, odd pricing is a common psychological pricingstrategy. With odd pricing, the cost of the product may be a few cents lower than a full-

dollar value. Consumers tend to focus on the lower-value full-dollar cost even though it isreally priced closer to the next higher full-dollar amount. For example, if a good is pricedat $19.95, consumers will focus on $19 rather than $20.


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PlacePlace refers to where and how the products will be distributed to consumers. There aretwo basic issues involved in getting the products to consumers: channel managementand logistics management. Channel management involves the process of selecting andmotivating wholesalers and retailers, sometimes called middlemen, through the use ofincentives. Several factors are reviewed by firm management when determining where

to sell their products: distribution channels, market-coverage strategy, geographiclocations, inventory, and transportation methods. The process of moving products from amanufacturer to the final consumer is often called the channel of distribution.

PromotionThe last variable in the marketing mix is promotion. Various promotional tools are usedto communicate messages about products, ideas, or services from firms to theircustomers. The promotional tools available to managers are advertising, personalselling, sales promotion, and public relations. For the promotional program to beeffective, managers use a blend of the four promotional tools that best reaches potentialcustomers. This blending of promotional tools is sometimes referred to as the

promotional mix. The goal of this promotional mix is to communicate to potentialcustomers the features and benefits of goods, ideas, or services.

INTERNATIONAL MARKETINGInternational business has been practiced for thousands of years. In modern times,advances in technology have improved transportation and communication methods; as aresult, more and more firms have set up shop at various locations around the globe. Anatural component of international business is international marketing. Internationalmarketing occurs when firms plan and conduct transactions across international bordersin order to satisfy the objectives of both consumers and the firm.

International marketing is simply a strategy used by firms to improve both market shareand profits. While firm managers may try to employ the same basic marketing strategiesused in the domestic market when promoting products in international locations, thosestrategies may not be appropriate or effective. Firm managers must adapt theirstrategies to fit the unique characteristics of each international market. Uniqueenvironmental factors that need to be explored by firm managers before going globalinclude trade systems, economic conditions, political-legal systems, and culturalconditions.

The first factor to consider in the international marketplace is each country's tradingsystem. All countries have their own trade system regulations and restrictions. Commontrade system regulations and restrictions include tariffs, quotas, embargoes, exchange

controls, and nontariff trade barriers. The second factor to review is the economicenvironment. Two economic factors reflect how attractive a particular market is in aselected country: industrial structure and income distribution. Industrial structure refersto how well developed a country's infrastructure is, while income distribution refers tohow income is distributed among its citizens.

Political-legal environment is the third factor to investigate. For example, the individualand cultural attitudes regarding purchasing products from foreign countries, politicalstability, monetary regulations, and government bureaucracy all influence marketingpractices and opportunities. Finally, the last factor to be considered before entering aglobal market is the cultural environment. Since cultural values regarding particular

products will vary considerably from one country to another around the world, managersmust take into account these differences in the planning process.


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Just as with domestic markets, managers must establish their international marketingobjectives and policies before going overseas. For example, target countries will need tobe identified and evaluated in terms of their potential sales and profits. After selecting amarket and establishing marketing objectives, the mode of entry into the market mustbe determined. There are three major modes of entry into international markets:exporting, joint venture, and direct investment.

ExportingExporting is the simplest way to enter an international market. With exporting, firmsenter international markets by selling products internationally through the use ofmiddlemen. This use of these middlemen is sometimes called indirect exporting.

Joint VentureThe second way to enter an international market is by using the joint-venture approach.A joint venture takes place when firms join forces with companies from the internationalmarket to produce or market a product. Joint ventures differ from direct investment inthat an association is formed between firms and businesses in the international market.

The four types of joint venture are licensing, contract manufacturing, managementcontracting, and joint ownership. Under licensing, firms allow other businesses in theinternational market to produce products under an agreement called a license. Thelicensee has the right to use the manufacturing process, trademark, patent, trade secret,or other items of value for a fee or royalty. Firms also use contract manufacturing, whicharranges for the manufacture of products to enter international markets. In the thirdtype of joint venture, management contracting, the firms supply the capital to the localinternational firm in exchange for the management know-how.

The last category of joint venture is joint ownership. Firms join with local internationalinvestors to establish a local business. Both groups share joint ownership and control of

the newly established business.Direct InvestmentDirect investment is the last mode used by firms to enter international markets. Withdirect investment, a firm enters the market by establishing its own base in internationallocations. Direct investment is advantageous because labor and raw materials may becheaper in some countries. Firms can also improve their images in international marketsbecause of the employment opportunities they create.

MARKETING VIA THE INTERNETAdvances in digital technology have revolutionized the way companies satisfy the needsand wants of customers through marketing. The term e-commerce is used to describethe broad range of activities associated conducting business via telecommunicationnetworks. E-marketing is the term used to describe the activities associated with thefour Ps of marketing for goods and services sold via the Internet.E-marketing offers a number of advantages to consumers such as convenience,comparison pricing, and personalization. Buyers have the convenience of shopping atbusinesses located around the world at anytime. For instance, via the General MotorsWeb site (http://www.gm.com), potential buyers can build custom vehicles, print windowstickers, determine monthly payments, and search dealer inventories. Through e-marketing, shoppers can look for the lowest price for products they want to purchase. Atcertain Web sites, such as Price-Grabber.com (http://www.pricegrabber.com), buyers can

compare prices for the same product from many different sellers at the same time andin one location. Personalization is another important advantage of e-marketing. For
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example, American Airlines provides customers with personalized frequent-flier accountsummaries, as well as special airfare promotions via electronic mail.

E-marketing offers a number of advantages to sellers, including enhanced speed andefficiency, flexibility, and worldwide reach. Enhanced speed and efficiency is achievedfor sellers through the virtual link created with customers via the Internet. This virtuallink with buyers results in lower operating cost that can be passed along to customers.E-marketing's flexibility allows changes to be made to product offerings or promotionalactivities on short notice. Lastly, the worldwide reach of the Internet makes anyone inthe world with Internet access a potential customer. This access to a worldwidecustomer base levels the playing field for small businesses. For example, the VermontCountry Store, with two physical locations, in Rockingham and Weston, Vermont, is ableto sell its products to customers worldwide via e-marketing.

Market ShareFirms are always concerned with the size of the potential market for their products orservices and the proportion of that market they actually reachoften referred to as a

company's market share. Market share is the percentage of the total market (orindustry) sales made by one firm. As a formula, Market Share = Firm's Sales TotalMarket Sales. Share can be reflected as either percentage of sales dollars, percentage ofunits sold, or percentage of customers. Percentage of sales dollars is the most commonreference.Market share is one of the most commonly quoted measures of success in any industry.To correctly determine market share, one must clearly define the market. Having a smallshare of a large market can be as profitable as a large share of a small market. Aproducer of leather horse saddles must determine if his market is made up of saddlesales, equestrian sales, or all leather goods sales. Obviously, his market share in thesaddle industry is much larger than his share in the leather goods market.

There are two sources for measuring market share: competitors and consumers.Surveying competitors gives a more accurate and reliable picture of market share. It ispossible to interview 100 percent of competitors, but not all consumers. To get a reliablefigure from consumers, a large number of people would have to be interviewed. Formany industries, sales and market share figures may already be compiled bygovernment agencies, trade associations, or private research firms.

MARKET PLAYERSMarket share defines the roles played by various firms in an industry. The firm with thelargest market share is the market leader. The market leader usually has the highest

marketing expenditures, distribution, price changes, and new product innovations.Market challengers are the firms working to increase their market share. Firms in anindustry that are content with their share of the market or doing little to increase salesare considered the market followers. The market niche brand is the player that targetsits business toward serving smaller, overlooked segments that are often ignored by thelarger players. The niche marketer can be very profitable, opting for high margins overhigher volume.

MARKET STRATEGIESThe leader must constantly monitor the market because the challenger is constantlytrying to take away market share. The market leader has three options to keep its

market position: expand the total market, protect market share, or expand marketshare. Markets can be expanded by creating more usage, new uses, or new users.
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Leaders can protect market share by monitoring their position and rushing to remedyany weaknesses.

Continuous innovation is the best way to protect market share. Another way to protectmarket share is to remove competitors through acquisition or merger. This strategy hasbecome more and more popular among large firms, resulting in an increasing level ofcorporate consolidation since the mid-1990s.

Maintaining market share often requires constant innovation and change. When leadersbecome complacent with their products or services, it becomes easier for the challengerto make progress. A 2007 report indicated that both Coke and Pepsi were seeing theirdominant market shares slip as health-conscious consumers switched to vitamin-infusedenergy drinks and bottled water. In response, both companies announced new productsto chase that new trend. In large markets such as this, small increases or decreases inmarket share can translate into very large changes in sales; one point of market sharecan be worth hundreds of millions of dollars.

The market challenger must attempt to gain market share from the leader. The

challenger must have some sustainable competitive advantage to attack the leader'smarket share. The challenger can attack other competitors through a direct attack byaltering price, promotion, or distribution, or indirectly by diversifying or catering tounderserved segments. Followers must keep quality high and prices low to maintaintheir positions. As Armstrong and Kolter point out in Principles of Marketing, the marketfollower must find the right balance between following closely enough to win customersfrom the market leader but at enough of a distance to avoid retaliation.Niche marketers have many options available to them. The company must find a nichethat is safe and profitable. It must be large enough to sustain growth but small enoughthat it does not look attractive to the market's larger players. Targeting multiple nichesis an option that offers the niche marketer a higher chance of survival because the firmis not dependent on one segment.

Across segments, attempts to affect market share take place across the four P's of themarketing mix: product, price, place, and promotion. However, there are instances inwhich increasing market share is not necessarily desirable. The costs to increaseproduction or improve the product may not be covered by the incremental profits.Market share is easily understood by most managers, employees, and shareholders;therefore, it is often used as a primary measure of success. It is critical to understandmarket share, how it is used to identify market participants, and how the differentparticipants use it to determine their market strategy.

CLOCK AND WATCH INDUSTRY. The history of American clock-and watchmaking is amicrocosm of the early history of American manufacturing. It includes the story of atremendously talented line of artisans and of the training that passed from one to theother. Their ingenuity led to the spread of the "American system" of productionaforerunner of mass production. Finally, large-scale production of clocks and watchesdepended on the development of an elaborate system of distribution, through which theclocks and watches produced in such large quantities were distributed to urban and ruralAmericans.


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The first clockmaker of record in America was Thomas Nash, an early settler of NewHaven in 1638. Throughout the seventeenth century, eight-day striking clocks with brassmovements, similar to those made in England, were produced by craft methods inseveral towns and villages in Connecticut. The wooden clock was not made in Americauntil the eighteenth century, although it was known to exist in Europe in theseventeenth century, probably originating in Germany or Holland. By 1745 Benjamin

Cheney of East Hartford was producing wooden clocks, and there is some evidence thatthese clocks were being made as early as 1715 near New Haven. Cheney was not theonly maker of wooden clocks during the second half of the eighteenth century, but hewas the most successful. Benjamin Willard, founder of the Willard Clock dynasty ofMassachusetts, was apprenticed to Cheney.

The main line of descent of the American clock industry derives from Thomas Hatland,who emigrated from England in 1773 and opened a shop in Norwich, Connecticut. Aclock-and watchmaker employing traditional craft methods, he was the first prominentEuropean in that trade to settle in Connecticut. Hatland trained a substantial number oftalented clockmakers, the most famous of whom was Daniel Burnap, who established hisown business in East Windsor about 1780. Together Hat-land and Burnap

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