Abdm4064 week 07 08 measurement part 1

Research Design : Research Design : Part 1 : MeasurementPart 1 : MeasurementResearch Design : Research Design :

Part 1 : MeasurementPart 1 : Measurement

ABDM4064 BUSINESS RESEARCHABDM4064 BUSINESS RESEARCH

byStephen Ong

Principal Lecturer (Specialist)Visiting Professor, Shenzhen University

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Design in the Research ProcessDesign in the Research Process

Measurement ConceptsMeasurement Concepts

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LEARNING OUTCOMESLEARNING OUTCOMESLEARNING OUTCOMESLEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Determine what needs to be measured to address a research question or hypothesis

2. Distinguish levels of scale measurement

3. Know how to form an index or composite measure

4. List the three criteria for good measurement

5. Perform a basic assessment of scale reliability and validity

After studying this chapter, you should be able to

6. Describe how business researchers think of attitudes

7. Identify basic approaches to measuring attitudes

8. Discuss the use of rating scales for measuring attitudes

9. Represent a latent construct by constructing a summated scale

10. Summarize ways to measure attitudes with ranking and sorting techniques

11. Discuss major issues involved in the selection of a measurement scale

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LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING OUTCOMES (cont’d)(cont’d)

LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING OUTCOMES (cont’d)(cont’d)

12. Explain the significance of decisions about questionnaire design and wording

13. Define alternatives for wording open-ended and fixed-alternative questions

14. Summarize guidelines for questions that avoid mistakes in questionnaire design

15. Describe how the proper sequence of questions may improve a questionnaire

16. Discuss how to design a questionnaire layout

17. Describe criteria for pretesting and revising a questionnaire and for adapting it to global markets

LEARNING OUTCOMES (cont’d)LEARNING OUTCOMES (cont’d)LEARNING OUTCOMES (cont’d)LEARNING OUTCOMES (cont’d)

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From From Investigative Investigative

to to Measurement Measurement

QuestionsQuestions

WHAT DO I MEASURE?WHAT DO I MEASURE? Before the measurement process can be defined,

researchers have to decide exactly what it is that needs to be produced.

The decision statement, corresponding research questions and research hypotheses can be used to decide what concepts need to be measured.

Measurement is the process of describing some property of a phenomenon of interest usually by assigning numbers in a reliable and valid way.

When numbers are used, the researcher must have a rule for assigning a number to an observation in a way that provides an accurate description.

All measurement, particularly in the social sciences, contains error.

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WHAT DO I MEASURE? WHAT DO I MEASURE? (cont’d)(cont’d)

ConceptsA researcher has to know what to measure before knowing how to measure something.A concept is a generalized idea that represents something of meaning.Concepts such as age, sex, education and number of children are relatively concrete properties and present few problems in either definition or measurement.Concepts such as brand loyalty, corporate culture, and so on are more abstract and are more difficult to both define and measure.

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Operational DefinitionsResearchers measure concepts through a process known as operationalization, which is a process that involves identifying scales that correspond to variance in the concept.Scales provide a range of values that correspond to different values in the concept being measured.Scales provide correspondence rules that indicate that a certain value on a scale corresponds to some true value of a concept, hopefully in a truthful way.

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WHAT DO I MEASURE? (cont’d)WHAT DO I MEASURE? (cont’d)

Operational Definitions (cont’d)Variables

Researchers use variance in concepts to make diagnoses.

Variables capture different concept values. Scales capture variance in concepts and as

such, the scales provide the researcher’s variables.

For practical purposes, once a research project is underway, there is little difference between a concept and a variable.


Operational Definitions (cont’d)Constructs

Sometimes a single variable cannot capture a concept alone.

Using multiple variables to measure one concept can often provide a more complete account of some concept than could any single variable.

A construct is a term used for concepts that are measured with multiple variables.

Can be very helpful in operationlizing a concept.

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EXHIBIT 13.EXHIBIT 13.33 Susceptibility to Interpersonal Influence: An Operational DefinitionSusceptibility to Interpersonal Influence: An Operational Definition

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MeasurementMeasurement

SelectSelectmeasurable phenomenameasurable phenomena

Develop a set of Develop a set of mapping rulesmapping rules

Apply the mapping ruleApply the mapping ruleto each phenomenonto each phenomenon

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Characteristics of MeasurementCharacteristics of Measurement

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Types of ScalesTypes of Scales

OrdinalOrdinal

intervalinterval

NominalNominal

RatioRatio

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Levels of MeasurementLevels of Measurement

OrdinalOrdinal

intervalinterval

RatioRatio

NominalNominalNominalNominal ClassificationClassification

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Nominal ScalesNominal Scales

Mutually exclusive Mutually exclusive andandCollectively exhaustiveCollectively exhaustivecategoriescategoriesExhibits only Exhibits only classificationclassification

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OrdinalOrdinalOrdinalOrdinal

intervalinterval

RatioRatio

NominalNominal ClassificationClassification

OrderOrderClassificationClassification

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Ordinal ScalesOrdinal Scales

• Characteristics of Characteristics of nominal scale nominal scale

• OrderOrder• Implies greater than Implies greater than

or less thanor less than

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OrdinalOrdinal

IntervalIntervalIntervalInterval

RatioRatio



OrderOrderClassificationClassification DistanceDistance

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Interval ScalesInterval Scales

Characteristics of Characteristics of nominal and ordinal nominal and ordinal scales scales

Equality of interval. Equality of interval. Equal distance Equal distance between numbersbetween numbers

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OrdinalOrdinal

intervalinterval

RatioRatioRatioRatio




Natural OriginNatural Origin


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Ratio ScalesRatio Scales

Characteristics of Characteristics of nominal, ordinal, nominal, ordinal, interval scalesinterval scales

Absolute zeroAbsolute zero

Levels of Scale MeasurementLevels of Scale Measurement

The level of scale measurement is important because it determines the mathematical comparisons that are allowed.

The four levels of scale measurement are:

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Levels of Scale Measurement Levels of Scale Measurement (cont’d)(cont’d)

Nominal Assigns a value to an object for

identification or classification purposes. Most elementary level of measurement.

Ordinal Ranking scales allowing things to be

arranged based on how much of some concept they possible.

Have nominal properties.

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Levels of Scale Measurement Levels of Scale Measurement (cont’d)(cont’d)

Interval Capture information about differences in

quantities of a concept. Have both nominal and ordinal properties.

Ratio Highest form of measurement. Have all the properties of interval scales with

the additional attribute of representing absolute quantities.

Absolute zero.

EXHIBIT 13.EXHIBIT 13.44 Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Scales Provide Different Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Scales Provide Different InformationInformation

EXHIBIT 13.EXHIBIT 13.55 Facts About the Four Levels of ScalesFacts About the Four Levels of Scales

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Measurements are RelativeMeasurements are Relative

“Any measurement must take into account the position of the observer. There is no such thing as measurement absolute, there is only measurement relative.”

Jeanette Wintersonjournalist and author

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The Scaling ProcessThe Scaling Process

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Nature of AttitudesNature of Attitudes

CognitiveI think oatmeal is healthier

than corn flakes for breakfast.

Affective

Behavioural

I hate corn flakes.

I intend to eat more oatmealfor breakfast.

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Improving PredictabilityImproving Predictability

Reference groups

Reference groups

Multiple measuresMultiple measures

FactorsFactors

StrongStrong

Specific

Basis

DirectDirect

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Measurement ScalesMeasurement Scales

“All survey questions must be actionable if you want results.”

Frank Schmidt, senior scientistThe Gallup Organization

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Selecting a Selecting a Measurement ScaleMeasurement Scale

Research objectives Response types

Data propertiesNumber of dimensions

Forced or unforcedchoices

Balanced or unbalanced

Rater errorsNumber of scale points

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Response TypesResponse Types

Rating scaleRating scale

Ranking scaleRanking scale

CategorizationCategorization

SortingSorting

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Number of DimensionsNumber of Dimensions

Unidimensional

Multi-dimensional

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Balanced or UnbalancedBalanced or Unbalanced

Very badVery badBadBadNeither good nor Neither good nor badbadGoodGoodVery goodVery good

PoorPoor

FairFair

GoodGood

Very goodVery good

ExcellentExcellent

How good an actress is Angelina Jolie?

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Forced or Unforced ChoicesForced or Unforced Choices

Very badVery bad

BadBad

Neither good nor badNeither good nor bad

GoodGood

Very goodVery good

Very badVery bad

BadBad


GoodGood

Very goodVery good

No opinionNo opinion

Don’t knowDon’t know


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Number of Scale PointsNumber of Scale Points

Very badVery bad

BadBad

Neither good nor Neither good nor badbad

GoodGood

Very goodVery good

Very badVery bad

Somewhat badSomewhat bad

A little badA little bad


A little goodA little good

Somewhat goodSomewhat good

Very goodVery good


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Rater ErrorsRater Errors

Error of central tendency

Error of leniency

•Adjust strength of descriptive adjectives

•Space intermediate descriptive phrases farther apart

•Provide smaller differences in meaning between terms near the ends of the scale

•Use more scale points

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Primacy EffectRecency Effect

Reverse order of alternatives periodically or randomly

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Halo Effect

• Rate one trait at a time

• Reveal one trait per page

• Reverse anchors periodically

ATTITUDES AS HYPOTHETICAL ATTITUDES AS HYPOTHETICAL CONSTRUCTS CONSTRUCTS

Attitude An enduring disposition to consistently

respond in a given manner to various aspects of the world.

Components of attitudes: Affective Component

The feelings or emotions toward an object Cognitive Component

Knowledge and beliefs about an object Behavioural Component

Predisposition to action Intentions Behavioural expectations

Techniques for Measuring Techniques for Measuring AttitudesAttitudes

Ranking Requiring the respondent to rank order

objects in overall performance on the basis of a characteristic or stimulus.

Rating Asking the respondent to estimate the

magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses by indicating on a scale where he or she would rate an object.

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Techniques for Measuring Techniques for Measuring Attitudes (cont’d)Attitudes (cont’d)

Sorting Presenting the respondent with several

concepts typed on cards and requiring the respondent to arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts.

Choice Asking a respondent to choose one alternative

from among several alternatives; it is assumed that the chosen alternative is preferred over the others.

Attitude Rating ScalesAttitude Rating Scales

Simple Attitude Scale Requires that an individual agree/disagree

with a statement or respond to a single question.

This type of self-rating scale classifies respondents into one of two categories (e.g., yes or no).

Example:THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION_______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE

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Simple Category ScaleSimple Category Scale

I plan to purchase a MindWriter laptop in the 12 months.

Yes No

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d)Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Category Scale

A more sensitive measure than a simple scale in that it can have more than two response categories.

Question construction is an extremely important factor in increasing the usefulness of these scales.

Example:How important were the following in your decision to visit San Diego? (check one for each item)

VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO

IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANTCLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________EDUCATIONAL/HISTORICAL ASPECTS___________ ___________ ___________FAMILIARITY WITH AREA ___________ ___________ ___________

EXHIBIT 14.EXHIBIT 14.11 Selected Category ScalesSelected Category Scales

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Multiple-Choice, Multiple-Choice, Single-Response ScaleSingle-Response Scale

What newspaper do you read most often for financial news? East City Gazette West City Tribune Regional newspaper National newspaper Other (specify:_____________)

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Multiple-Choice, Multiple-Choice, Multiple-Response ScaleMultiple-Response Scale

What sources did you use when designing your new home? Please check all that apply.

Online planning services Magazines Independent contractor/builder Designer Architect Other (specify:_____________)

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Likert ScaleLikert Scale

The Internet is superior to traditional libraries forcomprehensive searches.

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d)Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Likert Scale

A popular means for measuring attitudes.

Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements.

Typical response alternatives: “strongly agree,” “agree,” “uncertain,” “disagree,” and “strongly disagree.”

Example:It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match than to play an easy one.

___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

EXHIBIT 14.EXHIBIT 14.22 Likert Scale Items for Measuring Attitudes toward Patients’ Likert Scale Items for Measuring Attitudes toward Patients’ Interaction with a Physician’s Service StaffInteraction with a Physician’s Service Staff

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Semantic DifferentialSemantic Differential

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Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d)Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Semantic Differential

A series of seven-point rating scales with bipolar adjectives, such as “good” and “bad,” anchoring the ends (or poles) of the scale.

A weight is assigned to each position on the scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.

Example:Exciting Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Calm___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Calm

InterestingInteresting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___

DullDull

SimpleSimple ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___

ComplexComplex

PassivePassive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

EXHIBIT 14.EXHIBIT 14.33 Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring Attitudes Toward Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring Attitudes Toward SupermarketsSupermarkets

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Adapting SD ScalesAdapting SD Scales

Convenience of Reaching the Store from Your LocationNearby ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Distant

Short time required to reach store ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Long time required to reach store

Difficult drive ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Easy Drive

Difficult to find parking place ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Easy to find parking place

Convenient to other stores I shop ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Inconvenient to other stores I shop

Products offeredWide selection of different

kinds of products ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___:Limited selection of different

kinds of products

Fully stocked ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Understocked

Undependable products ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Dependable products

High quality ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Low quality

Numerous brands ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Few brands

Unknown brands ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: Well-known brands

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SD Scale for Analyzing Actor SD Scale for Analyzing Actor CandidatesCandidates

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Graphic of SD AnalysisGraphic of SD Analysis

Other Scale Types (cont’d)Other Scale Types (cont’d)

Image Profile A graphic representation of semantic

differential data for competing brands, products, or stores to highlight comparisons.

Because the data are assumed to be interval, either the arithmetic mean or the median will be used to compare the profile of one product, brand, or store with that of a competing product, brand, or store.

EXHIBIT 14.EXHIBIT 14.44 Image Profiles of Commuter Airlines versus Major AirlinesImage Profiles of Commuter Airlines versus Major Airlines

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Numerical ScaleNumerical Scale

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d)Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Numerical Scales

Scales that have numbers as response options, rather than “semantic space” or verbal descriptions, to identify categories (response positions).

In practice, researchers have found that a scale with numerical labels for intermediate points on the scale is as effective a measure as the true semantic differential.

Example: Now that you’ve had your automobile for about

one year, please tell us how satisfied you are with your Ford Taurus.Extremely Dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extremely Satisfied

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Multiple Rating List ScalesMultiple Rating List Scales

“Please indicate how important or unimportant each service characteristic is:”

IMPORTANT UNIMPORTANTFast, reliable repair 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Service at my location 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Maintenance by manufacturer 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Knowledgeable technicians 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Notification of upgrades 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Service contract after warranty 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Stapel ScalesStapel Scales

Other Scale Types (cont’d)Other Scale Types (cont’d) Stapel Scale

Uses a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.

Tends to be easier to conduct and administer than a semantic differential scale.

EXHIBIT 14.EXHIBIT 14.55 A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s ImageA Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image

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Constant-Sum ScalesConstant-Sum Scales


Constant-Sum Scale Respondents are asked to divide a constant sum

to indicate the relative importance of attributes. Respondents often sort cards, but the task may also be

a rating task (e.g., indicating brand preference).

Example: Divide 100 points among each of the following

brands according to your preference for the brand:

Brand A _________ Brand B _________ Brand C _________

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Graphic Rating ScalesGraphic Rating Scales

EXHIBIT 14.EXHIBIT 14.77 A Ladder ScaleA Ladder Scale

EXHIBIT 14.EXHIBIT 14.88 Graphic Rating Scale with Picture Response Graphic Rating Scale with Picture Response Categories Stressing Visual CommunicationCategories Stressing Visual Communication


Graphic Rating Scale A measure of attitude that allows

respondents to rate an object by choosing any point along a graphic continuum.

Advantage: Allows the researcher to choose any interval

desired for scoring purposes. Disadvantage:

There are no standard answers.

EXHIBIT 14.EXHIBIT 14.66 Graphic Rating ScaleGraphic Rating Scale

EXHIBIT 14.EXHIBIT 14.99 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Rating ScalesSummary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Rating Scales

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Ranking ScalesRanking Scales

Paired-comparison scale

Forced ranking scale

Comparative scale

Further ReadingFurther Reading COOPER, D.R. AND SCHINDLER, P.S. (2011)

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS, 11TH EDN, MCGRAW HILL

ZIKMUND, W.G., BABIN, B.J., CARR, J.C. AND GRIFFIN, M. (2010) BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS, 8TH EDN, SOUTH-WESTERN

SAUNDERS, M., LEWIS, P. AND THORNHILL, A. (2012) RESEARCH METHODS FOR BUSINESS STUDENTS, 6TH EDN, PRENTICE HALL.

SAUNDERS, M. AND LEWIS, P. (2012) DOING RESEARCH IN BUSINESS & MANAGEMENT, FT PRENTICE HALL.

Abdm4064 week 07 08 measurement part 1

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