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Review

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A Review: Natural Fiber Composites Selectionin View of Mechanical, Light Weight, andEconomic Properties

Furqan Ahmad, Heung Soap Choi, Myung Kyun Park*

In this study, the properties and application of natural fiber composites in automobile industriesare discussed. Natural fibers are replacing the synthetic fibers in the various parts of automobilesdue to their lightweight, low-cost, and environmental aspects. For centuries, natural fibers havebeen used for making baskets, clothing, and ropes. Now the trend is changing and natural fibers
such as: jute, hemp, flax, andsisal fibers are making theirways especially into thecomponents of automobiles.Comparisons of material in-dices for beam and panelstructures were made toinvestigate the possibilityof using natural fiber com-posites instead of conven-tional and non-conventionalmaterials.
F. Ahmad, M. K. ParkDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, MYongin, KoreaE-mail: [email protected]. S. ChoiDepartment of Mechanical and Design EngUniversity, Sejong, KoreaF. AhmadDepartment of Civil and Environmental EnDaejeon, Korea

� 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, WeinMacromol. Mater. Eng. 2015, 300, 10–24

1. Introduction

Over the last decade, natural fiber reinforced polymer

composites have been embraced by European automobile

makers especially in themanufacturing of door panels, seat

backs, headliners, package trays, dashboards, and trunk

liners.Nowthe trendhas reached tootherparts of theworld

like the United States and Asian countries, particularly in

Japan. Thenumberof automobiles thathavebeenproduced

yongji University,

ineering, Hongik

gineering, KAIST,

heim wileyonlinelib

in the last century has rapidly increased due to the

modernizationof the transportation systemsandeconomic

development inAsia, Europe, andUnited State. Automotive

industries throughout the world are continuously trying

to optimize cost over quality in order to remain competitive

in the market. The application of natural fiber composites

is rapidly increasing in the automobile sector[1�6] at an

annual growth rate of above 20% because of its low

density, reasonably acceptable strength and day-by-day

lowering cost, non-abrasiveness and safe handling, ease of

separation, enhanced energy recovery, CO2 neutrality,

biodegradability, recyclable properties, etc. Furthermore,

these fiber based composites have the potential of

contributing greatly to the automotive manufacturer’s

final goal constituting 30% weight reduction and a cost

reduction of 20%.[7�12]

Recyclability or bio-degradability of natural fiber com-

posite products after a useful life make them more

important and enforce the automotive manufacturers to

increase the application of natural fibers. If biodegradable

DOI: 10.1002/mame.201400089rary.com

A Review: Natural Fiber Composites Selection . . .

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fibers were chosen to substitute many of the existing

composite parts, one may reduce great difficulties of

disposing of these products.[13] According to Directive

2000/53/EC, the European Community requires member

countries to reuse and recover at least 95% by 2015 for all

end-of-life vehicles.[14] Lucintel’s report[15] forecasts that

the natural fiber composite materials market will grow to

531.3 million dollars in 2016.

Demand from automotive companies for materials with

noise abatement capabilities as well as increased fuel

efficiency by reducing the weight has increased[16] due to

the fact that natural fiber composites possess excellent

sound-absorbingcapabilities, aremoreshatter resistantand

have more efficient energy management characteristics

than glass and the demand for natural fiber composites has

increased in the market.[17] Demand for natural fibers in

plastic composites are forecast to grow at a 15�20% in

automobile application and 50% or more in selected

building application.[18] Natural fiber-based automobile

parts such as various panels, trim parts, and brake shoes

are attractive to the automotive industry because theyhave

reduced the weight of parts by more than 10% and have

also brought the cost down by as much as 5%.[19�20]

Natural fibers such as flax, hemp, and jute can be used as

reinforcement for thermoset or thermoplastic polymers

instead of synthetic fibers. Thermoplasticmaterial current-

ly dominates as matrixes for natural fibers are polypropyl-

ene and polyethylene, while thermosets, such as phenolic

and polyesters, are common matrixes. Both thermosets

and thermoplastics are attractive as matrix materials for

composites as a result of large numbers of components

being involved such as base resin, curing agents, catalysts,

flowing agents, and hardeners that make the formulation

complicated in thermoset composites. The composite

materials are thermo-chemically cured to a highly cross-

linked, three-dimensional network structure. These cross-

linked structures are highly solvent resistant, tough, and

creep resistant. Generally, thermoplastics offer many

advantages over thermoset polymers. One advantage is

their low processing cost. Another is design flexibility, ease

ofmolding complex parts, and recyclability. Thermoplastic

compositesareflexible, tough, andexhibit goodmechanical

properties.[21�23]

Although there are many benefits, natural fiber compo-

sites also have several drawbacks, which effect their

utilization in the automobile industry such as higher

moisture absorption, low temperature limitations, microbe

infection, inferiorfireresistance, lowermechanicalproperties

and durability, variation in quality, and pricefluctuationdue

to seasonal harvest conditions, and the difficulty of using

established manufacturing practices when compared to

synthetic composites.[24�26] Many researchers are working

on these issues and paying special attention to improve the

quality of natural fibers by surface treatments for enhanced

Macromol. Mater. Eng

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fiber/matrix interface bonding properties.[27,28] In addition,

natural fiber composites have a positive economic and

environmental outlook, and their ability to uniquely meet

human needs worldwide, natural composites are showing a

good potential for use in the automobile industry.

Natural fiber composites have acceptable mechanical

properties such as elongation, ultimate breaking force,

flexural properties, impact strength, acoustic absorption,

suitability for processing, and crash behavior, which also

increases its demand for automobile components. Eastern

Germany’s Trabant (1950�1990)was the first production car

built fromnaturalfibers. Itwasequippedwithachassismade

of cotton embedded in a polyester matrix. BMW has been

using renewablenatural fibermaterials since the early1990s

in the3, 5, and7Seriesmodelswithupto24kg. In2001,BMW

used 4000 metric tons of natural fibers in the 3 series alone

with a blend of 80% flax and 20% sisal for increased strength

and impact resistance. Themainapplication is in the interior

door linings and paneling. Wood fibers are also used to

enclose the rear side of seat backrests and cotton fibers are

utilized as a sound-proofing material.

Up until recently, car manufacturers have been being

used thermoplastics reinforced by mineral products or

fiberglass. So nowadays, many companies are making

various parts of automobiles from various kinds of natural

fiber composites.[29] Volvo has started to use soya-based

foam linings in its C70 and V70models for their seats with

natural fibers. To improve the quality of noise reduction

they have also produced a cellulose-based cargo floor tray.

In Western Europe, the yearly production of cars is up to

16 million vehicles that equate to an including usage of

80 000�160000 tons of natural fibers per year. German

automobile companies like Daimler-Chrysler are continu-

ing to lead the way, having a global natural fiber initiative

programthat benefits thirdnationsbydevelopingproducts

made from natural fibers. One of the recent developments

within the automotive industry has been the release of the

Lotus Eco Elise. Another development was announced in

2008 at the EcoInnovAsia 2008 event held in Bangkok,

Thailand, related to the Mazda 5. In this application, the

manufacturer is using polylactic acid (PLA) in the interior

consoles along with kenaf and PLA in the seat covers.[30]

In this paper, an attempthas beenmade to explain about

the natural fibers and their application in automobile

industry. Natural fiber types and their corresponding

properties are also summarized and discussed.

2. Natural Fibers

Natural fibers are continuous filaments or discrete elongat-

ed pieces, similar to pieces of thread and they can be

spun into filaments, thread, or rope. They can be used as a

componentof compositematerials. Theycanalsobematted

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bH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 11

Figure 1. Source of natural fibers.

www.mme-journal.de

F. Ahmad, H. S. Choi, A. Ullah, M. K. Park

12

into sheets tomake products such as paper or felt. There are

of two types of fiber: natural fiber and man-made or

synthetic fiber. All fibers, which come from the nature are

mainly divided into three main sources; animals, vegeta-

bles, andminerals. And they are classed as natural fibers as

shown in Figure 1. Some of the natural fibers like vegetable

fibers are obtained from the various parts of vegetable

plants and theyareprovidedbynature in ready-made form.

It includes protein fibers such as wool and silk, cellulose

fibers such as cotton and linen, and mineral fiber

asbestos.[31�34] Some of the important natural fibers used

as reinforcement in composites are listedwith their species

and origins in Table 1.

2.1. Chemical Composition

Plant fibers are composed of cellulose, lignin, or similar

compounds and animal fibers are composed of protein.

Table 1. List of important natural fibers.

Fiber source Species Origin

Abaca Musa textiles Leaf

Bamboo (>1 250 species) Grass

Banana Musa indica Leaf

Coir Cocos nucifera Fruit

Cotton Gossypium sp. Seed

Curau�a Ananas erectifolius Leaf

Flax Linum usitatissimum Stem

Hemp Cannabis sativa Stem

Henequen Agave fourcroydes Leaf

Jute Corchorus capsularis Stem

Kenaf Hibiscus cannabinus Stem

Oil Elaeis guineensis Fruit

Pineapple Ananus comosus Leaf

Ramie Boehmeria nivea Stem

Sisal Agave sisilana Leaf

Wood (>10 000 species) Stem

Macromol. Mater. Eng.

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Pectin is a collective name for heteropolysaccharides and

they provide flexibility to plants. Waxes make up the last

part of fibers and they consist of different types of alcohols.

Table 2presents the chemical composition of some selected

natural fibers.[35�37]

2.2. Chemical Treatments

Natural fibers are not totally free of problems even though

they have the comparative advantage of low cost and low

density over otherfibers. Asnatural fibershave strongpolar

characteristics, which may cause a problem of incompati-

bility inbondingwithmostof thepolymermatrices, surface

chemical treatment processes increase the cost of natural

fibers but can enhance the property of interface adhesion

between the fiber and matrix, and also decrease the water

absorption of fibers. Therefore, chemical treatments can be

considered as modifying the properties of natural fibers.

Someof the chemical treatments fornaturalfibers are listed

below:[38�46]

1

2015

H &

Alkaline treatment.

2
Silane treatment.
3
Acetylation of natural fibers.
4
Benzoylation treatment.
5
Acrylation and acrylonitrile grafting.
6
Maleated coupling agents.
7
Permanganate treatment.
8
Peroxide treatment.
9
Isocyanate treatment.
10
Etherification of natural fibers.
11
Acrylation,maleic anhydride, and titanate treatmentof
natural fibers.

12
Plasma treatment.
13
Sodium chlorite treatment of natural fibers.
2.3. Physical and Mechanical Properties

Tensile strength and Young’s modulus of fibers increase by

increasing cellulose.[47] The micro-fibrillar angle deter-

mines thestiffnessof thefibers. Plantfibersaremoreductile

if themicro-fibrils have a spiral orientation to the fiber axis.

If the micro-fibrils are printed parallel to the fiber axis,

the fibers will be rigid, inflexible, and have high tensile

strength. Table 3 presents the important physical and

mechanical properties of natural and synthetic fibers,

which have been adapted from several sources.[48�54]

2.4. Manufacturing Processes

For automobile manufacturers, it is commonly accepted

that the natural fiber molding process consumes less

energy than that of fiber-glass and induces less wear and

tear damage onmachinery, cutting production costs by up

, 300, 10–24

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Table 2. Chemical composition of selected natural fibers.

Fiber

name

Cellulose

[wt%]

Lignin

[wt%]

Hemi-cellulose

[wt%]

Pectin

[wt%]

Wax

[wt%]

Moisture

[wt%]

Ash

[wt%]

Micro-fibrillar

angle [8] Refs.

Abaca 56�63 7�9 20�25 � 3 � � 20�25 [8]

Bamboo 26�43 1�31 30 � � 9.16 � � [40]

Banana 83 5 � � � 10.71 � 11�12 [40]

Coir 37 42 � � � 11.36 � 30.45 [37]

Cotton 82.7�91 � 3 � 0.6 7.85�8.5 � � [37]

Curau�a 73.6 7.5 9.9 � � � � � [40]

Flax 64.1�71.9 2�2.2 64.1�71.9 1.8�2.3 1.7 8�1.2 � 5�10 [36]

Hemp 70.2�74.4 3.7�5.7 17.9�22.4 0.9 0.8 6.2�1.2 0.8 2�6.2 [40]

Jute 61�71.5 12�13 17.9�22.4 0.2 0.5 12.5�13.7 0.5�2 8 [12]

Kenaf 45�57 21.5 8�13 0.6 0.8 6.2�12 2�5 2�6.2 [37]

Rachis 42.75 26 � � � � � 28�37 [40]

Ramie 68.6�91 0.4�0.7 5�14.7 1.9 � � � 69�83 [37]

Rice husk 38�45 � 12�20 � � � 20 � [40]

Sea grass 57 5 38 10 � � � � [40]

Sisal 78 8 10 � 2 11 1 � [37]

Table 3. Physical and mechanical properties of selected natural and synthetic fibers.

Fiber

name

Density

[g cm�3]

Diameter

[mm]

Tensile

strength

[MPa]

Specific

strength

[S/r]

Tensile

modulus

[GPa]

Specific

modulus

[E/r]

Elongation

at break

[%] Refs.

Abaca 1.5 � 400 267 12 8 3�10 [8]

Bamboo 1.1 240�330 500 454 35.91 32.6 1.40 [40]

Banana 1.35 50�250 600 444 17.85 13.2 3.36 [8,37]

Coconut 1.15 100�450 500 435 2.5 2.17 20 [40]

Coir 1.2 � 175 146 4�6 3.3�5 30 [37]

Cotton 1.6 � 287�597 179�373 5.5�12.6 3.44�7.9 7�8 [37]

Curau�a 1.4 170 158�729 113�521 � � 5 [40]

Flax 1.5 � 800�1 500 535�1 000 27.6�80 18.4�53 1.2�3.2 [12,36]

Hemp 1.48 � 550�900 372�608 70 47.3 2�4 [36,37]

Jute 1.46 40�350 393�800 269�548 10-30 6.85-20.6 1.5�1.8 [36,37]

Kenaf 1.45 70�250 930 641 53 36.55 1.6 [37]

Ramie 1.5 50 220�938 147�625 44�128 29.3�85 2�3.8 [37]

Sisal 1.45 50�300 530�640 366�441 9.4�22 6.5�15.2 3�7 [37]

Softwood 1.5 � 1 000 667 40 26.67 4.4 [40]

Man-made fibers (for comparison)

E-glass 2.55 <17 3 400 1 333 73 28.63 3.4 [8,36]

S-glass 2.5 � 4 580 1 832 85 34 4.6 [40]

Aramid 1.44 11.9 3 000 1916.67 124 86.11 2.5 [8,9]

HS carbon 1.82 8.2 2 550 1 401 200 109.9 1.3 [36]


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Macromol. Mater. Eng. 2015, 300, 10–24

� 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 13www.MaterialsViews.com

Figure 2. Cost per weight comparison between natural fibers and synthetic fibers.

www.mme-journal.de


14

to 30%. Manufacturing techniques

designed and used for other fiber-rein-

forced polymer composites are also used

to fabricate natural fiber composites.

Even though manufacturing techniques

like compression molding, injection

molding, pressmolding, pultrusion, resin

transfer molding, and sheet molding

compound (SMC) are already well devel-

oped, it is still not clear whether that

these techniques are suitable for the

fabrication of natural fiber composites

with a desirable quality because of some

ambiguity of weather-dependent me-

chanical, thermal, and structural proper-

ties of the natural fibers. One of the

reasons is that natural fiber needs

chemical treatment, which is used to compensate its

incompatible bonding effect at the interface between fiber

and matrix.[55�58]

Figure 3. Tensile modulus versus cost per volume (rCm) fornatural fiber, synthetic fiber, natural fiber composite, andsynthetic fiber composite.

3. A Comparison of Natural Fibers withSynthetic Fibers

Due to the high degree of variability inherent in natural

fibers and their testing, various values of Young’s modulus

and tensile strength properties of natural fibers are

available in literature, so the maximum values of these

propertieswere taken for the purpose of comparison.[59�65]

Bast fibers have the best mechanical properties for

automobile applications; of those, flax offers the best

potential combination of low cost, light weight, and high

strength and stiffness as compared to other bast fibers. The

most commonly used natural fiber is jute, but it is not as

strong or stiff as flax fibers. Kim et al.[66] found that natural

fibers in thermoset composites dissipate energy at lower

levels of stress and higher strain than glass-reinforced

composites. In the case of thermoplasticmatrices, the effect

on energy dissipation of natural fibers is highly dependent

on resin properties.

Fibers like flax, kenaf, jute, and hemp have less density

andgoodmechanical properties, so theyarewell suitable as

reinforcement for polymer composites, which are used as

tensile loadbearingproperties. A comparisonof the cost per

weight (Cm, $ kg�1) between natural fibers and glass fiber is

shown in Figure 2. The values of the cost per weight were

obtained from literature[67�69] and theprice rangeoffiber is

shown in Figure 2. As compared to glass fiber, the natural

fibers are generally cheaper in cost. The cost of glass fiber is

found to be lower than other synthetic fibers (carbon,

graphite, aramid, boron, etc.) andhigher thannaturalfibers.

As compared to natural fibers, the glass fiber is fairly heavy

fiber due to its high density of 2.5�2.6 g cm�3 and is not as



environmental friendly as natural fibers.[67�69] The cost per

volume (rCm, $ m�3) versus tensile modulus and tensile

strength graphs for natural fibers, synthetic fibers, natural

fiber composites, and synthetic fiber composites are shown

in Figure 3 and 4, respectively.

Figure 5 shows the range of Young’s modulus (E) anddensity (r) for some well-known natural fibers, synthetic

fibers, natural fiber composites, and synthetic fiber

composites. Data for members of a particular family

(natural fibers, synthetic fibers, natural fiber composites,

and natural fiber composites) of material cluster together

and are enclosed by an envelope of different colors. Natural

fibers have a lower density compared to synthetic fibers

and good tensile modulus. Natural fiber composites also

havea lowerdensity compared to synthetic fiber composite

and metallic materials. Tensile strength versus density

graph for natural fibers, synthetic fibers, natural fiber

2015, 300, 10–24

H & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.MaterialsViews.com

Figure 4. Tensile strength versus cost per volume (rCm) fornatural fiber, synthetic fiber, natural fiber composite, andsynthetic fiber composite.

Figure 6. Tensile strength versus density diagram for naturalfibers, synthetic fibers, natural fiber composites, and syntheticfiber composites.


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composites, and synthetic fiber composites is shown in

Figure 6. Flax/PP and Hemp/PP composites have high

tensile moduli and tensile strengths as compared to glass

fiber composite. The material indices E1/2/r and E1/3/r are

plotted (dashed lines) in Figure 5. These lines are referred to

as material selection guidelines on which all materials

satisfy an objective function, which is to be maximized or

minimized by the higher value of material index for

selectedmaterials.[120] All thematerials that lie on adashed

line of constant E1/2/r perform equally well as a light, stiff

beam; those above the line are better, those below, worse.

The increasing directions of material indices S1/2/r and

Figure 5. Tensile modulus versus density diagram for naturalfiber, synthetic fiber, natural fiber composite, and syntheticfiber composite.



S2/3/r are plotted in Figure 6. All the materials on the same

guideline having the same material index can meet the

requirements of materials to be optimized as a light and

strong beam or a panel under bending load.

4. Materials Selection

Comparisons were made between natural fiber/PP compo-

sites and other materials for the selection of suitable

material for beam and panel structures of automobiles.

For this purpose, materials were compared using their

material index or performance index. Natalia et al.[70]

present some results for material selection for beam

combined with structural design and optimization.

They made comparisons of the material index of natural

fiber/PP composite (Vf¼ 40%) with other materials for

beam structure by using Young’s moduli of materials. In

this study, Young’s moduli and tensile strength were used

for the material index of natural fiber/PP composite

(Vf¼ 30%) and othermaterials to investigate the possibility

of using natural fiber composites for beam and panel

structures of automobile components, which can replace

some conventional metal and synthetic fiber composite

structures. The mechanical properties and cost data of

the materials were obtained from literature.[16,71�74]

The material index is E1/2/r or S2/3/r for a light and stiff

or light and strong beam under bending load, E1/2/(rCm)or S2/3/(rCm) for a stiff and cheap or strong and cheap

beam under bending load, E1/3/r or S1/2/r for a light

and stiff or light and strong panel under bending load, and

E1/3/(rCm) or S1/2/(rCm) for a stiff and cheap or strong

and cheap panel, where Cm is cost per unit weight ($ kg�1)

. 2015, 300, 10–24


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16

of the material. For rCm, it has a unit of cost per volume

($m�3). Figure 7 and 8 show a comparison of the stiffness

limited design based material index and the strength

limited design based material index of natural fiber/PP

composite andother syntheticmaterials forbeamstructure

under bending load. The larger the stiffness and strength

with lower density and cost, the better the material to be

used as the light, stiff and strong, or stiff, strong and cheap

beam. Through a comparison of stiffness and strength

material index for a light, stiff, and strong beam (Figure 7) a

carbon/epoxy fiber composite as the best material for the

desired beam structure. Wrought magnesium alloy and

wrought aluminum alloy are the next candidates for light

and stiff beam and wrought magnesium alloy and carbon

steel for light and strong beam structure. From natural

fiber/PP composites, hemp fiber/PP composite is more

suitable for lightandstiff or lightandstrongbeamstructure

as compared to glass fiber/PP composite.

If the cost ofmaterial is included for considerationvia the

material index for a stiff and cheap or strong and cheap

beamstructureunder abending load (Figure8), then carbon

Figure 7. Material index for a light and stiff (left) or light and strong (rbending load.

Figure 8. Material index for a stiff and cheap (left) or strong and chunder bending load.



steel is the best choice as a material for beam structural

components. However, as the next candidates, non-

conventional natural fiber composites can be considered:

composites/PP reinforced with flax, hemp, and kenaf

fibers are recommended for the location where the stiff

and cheap beam structure is required. While for the

location where the strong and cheap beam structures are

required, the hemp/PP and flax/PP composites are recom-

mended as compared to the carbon/epoxy and glass fiber/

PP composite. Comparisons of stiffness and strength

material indices for panel structure of natural fiber/PP

composite with those materials are shown in Figure 9

and 10. Carbon/epoxy composite has the highest value in

the comparison of stiffness and strength material indices

for a light and stiff or light and strong panel structures are

shown in Figure 9. The next candidates for those material

indices are wrought magnesium alloy and hemp fiber/PP

composite. Material indices including cost of the materials

for stiff and cheap or strong and cheap panel are shown in

Figure 10. For a stiff panel with minimum cost, the natural

fiber/PP composites are more suitable than other candi-

ight) beam under

eap (right) beam

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H & Co. KGaA, Weinhe

dates while for strong panel with mini-

mum cost carbon steel is the best choice

and thenext candidates arenatural fiber/

PP composites instead of the glass fiber/

PP or carbon/epoxy composite.

This case study shows that natural

fiber composites have superior price

competitiveness with performance opti-

mizations. If the cost and weight of the

materials are considered, then the natu-

ral fiber composites aremore suitable for

applications in automobile components

than glass fiber composites. Natural fiber

composites have yet greater potential to

replace competing conventional materi-

als such as glass fiber composites in the

automobile industry.

5. Challenges

Currently, glass fibers take globally more

than95%of themarket for reinforcement

fibers in the composites industry while

natural fiber composites are limited

in applications to the interior parts of

automobiles due to their relatively lower

mechanical properties andweak interface

characteristics between fiber and matrix,

but these properties are being improved

through new coming technology for

surface treatment, additives, and coat-

ings.Naturalfibershavesomeadvantages

im www.MaterialsViews.com

Figure 9. Material index for a light and stiff (left) or light and strong (right) panel underbending load.

Figure 10. Material index for a stiff and cheap (left) or strong and cheap (right) panelunder bending load.


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over glass fiber in some aspects: production of natural fiber

has a lower impact on the environment as compared to

glass fiber production; fiber content in natural fiber

composites are generally higher than that of glass fiber

composite for equivalent performance, natural fiber

composite are environmentally friendly and reduce more

pollutingbasedpolymer content; light-weightnatural fiber

composites improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions

when used for automobile components and end of life

incineration of natural fibers results in recovered energy

and carbon credits.[75,76] Besides all these advantages,

natural fibers are still facing some challenges to improve

their properties in moisture absorption, fiber modification,

fire resistance, durability, and variability in quality which

depend upon their locational weather conditions. These

challenging areas are considered as follows.

5.1. Moisture Absorption

Generally, all natural fibers are hydrophilic in nature and

they tend to absorb water even from the air. On the other

Macromol. Mater. Eng. 2015, 300, 10–24

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hand, glass fibers are hydrophobic in

nature and they are moisture resistant.

Such a hydrophilic nature of natural

fibers can be a drawback, which makes

them less competitive compared to glass

fibers. When in wet conditions natural

fiber composites absorb moisture from

a moist atmosphere resulting in fiber

swelling or interface disbands that make

the natural fiber composite limited to

interior parts of the automobile.[77] Singh

and Gupta[78] found that the strength of

a sisal/polyester composite was 13�31%

lower when fully immersed than at 95%

RH. Dhakal et al.[79] studied the effects of

water absorption on the mechanical

properties of hemp fiber reinforced un-

saturated polyester composites and

they compared the tensile and flexural

properties of water immersed hemp

composite specimens with dry hemp

specimens. They found that the tensile

and flexural properties of hemp fiber

composite specimens decreased with an

increase of percentage uptake moisture

content.

Singh et al.[80] studied the effects of

hydrothermal and weathering condi-

tions on the physical and mechanical

properties of the jute fiber composite.

They found some dimensional change

of jute composites as a function of

exposure time under the different hu-

midity conditions. Increasing humidity levels, theweight

and thickness increased by the swelling of jute fibers.

Giridhar et al.[81] compared the moisture absorption

behaviors of sisal and jute fiber composites with epoxy

matrix under water immersion conditions and found

that sisal fibers exhibited higher moisture absorption

levels in their composite form compared with jute fiber

composites. Fibers with high cellulose content tend to

have a higher fiber volume fraction, which increased the

percentage of moisture uptake. Improving the poor

environmental and dimensional stability of natural fiber

is an effective way to enhance the mechanical properties

of these fibers.

5.2. Fiber Modification

Fiber modification is required to reduce the moisture

absorption capability of natural fibers. The most common

methods for reducing moisture absorption capability are

alkali treatment and acetylation of natural fibers. Alkaline

treatment ormercerization is one of the best used chemical

eim 17

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18

treatments for natural fibers. Alkali treatment is usually

donewithKOH, LiOH, orNaOH,which reduce the hydrogen

bondingof celluloseand increase theamountofamorphous

cellulose at the expense of crystalline cellulose. Alkali

solution not only affects cellulosic components inside the

plant fiber but also affect the non-cellulosic components

such as hemicellulose, lignin, and pectin. Hemicellulose is

the most hydrophilic part of natural fiber structures so

alkali treatmentwithNaOH, reduces theabilityof thefibers

to absorb moisture.[82,83] The chemical reaction formula,

which taking place during this treatment is shown below

Fiber� OHþNaOH ! fiber� O�NaþH2O

Acetylation of natural fibers is a well-known esterifica-

tion method, which can reduce the hygroscopic nature of

natural fibers and increase the dimensional stability of

natural composites. Acetylation is generally used in

surface treatments of fiber for use in fiber-reinforced

composites.[84,85] Bledzki et al. modified the surface of

flax fiber by the acetylation method and noted that due

to acetylation, the flax fiber surface morphology, and

moisture resistance properties improved. Tensile and

flexural strengths of composites were found to increase

with increasing acetylation degree up to 18% and then

decreased.[86] The chemical reaction formula of acetic

anhydride with fiber is shown as.

Fiber� OHþ CH3 � Cð¼ OÞ � O� Cð¼ OÞ � CH3

! fiber� OCOCH3 þ CH3COOH

Some negative aspects of the alkali treatment process

may include the high pH values, high surfactant content,

polluted wastewater, and the chemo-mechanical degrada-

tion of cellulose fibers. Alkali-treated fibers are more

effective in lowering moisture absorption; the enzyme-

treated fibers produce less polluted wastewater. Fiber

modification enhances the commercial value of natural

fibers.

5.3. Fire Resistance

Generally,naturalfibercompositeshavepoorfireresistance,

which is a major drawback of natural fiber composites for

certain automobile and other industrial applicationswhere

inflammability and safety are considered to be important

factors. This drawback of poor fire resistance poses new

challenges for natural fibers to compete with synthetic

fibers. Natural fibers are non-thermoplastic and they have a

lower decomposition temperature compared to their glass

transition and/or melting temperatures.

Natural fibers are composed primarily of cellulose,

hemicellulose, lignin, waxes, and inorganic, nonflammable

substances as shown in Table 3. A high content of cellulose



increases the flammability of natural fiber. The cellulose

decomposes at a temperature range of 260�350 8C, while

hemicellulose decomposes at a lower temperature range

between 200 and 260 8C and forms more noncombustible

gases and less tar than cellulose. Lignin starts decomposing

from about 160 8C and continues to decompose until about

400 8C. Lignin contributes more to char formation than

either cellulose or hemicellulose. Manfredi et al.[87] showed

the importance of lignin in the thermal decomposition of

flax, jute, and sisal fiber and found that the thermal

degradation behavior of jute fiber and sisal fiber were

similar because they have almost the same weight

percentage of lignin, whereas the flax has less percentage

of lignin and it degrades at higher temperature. Lower

lignincontent inflaxcontributed toahigherdecomposition

temperature but resulted in a lower oxidation resistance.

Differences in chemical compositions of the natural fibers

cause thevariations in their characteristics inflammability.

Natural fibers with high cellulose content are more

flammable than those natural fibers which have low

cellulose and high hemicelluloses contents and char

formation is generally better with higher lignin con-

tent.[88�91] Besides the chemical composition, fine fiber

structure and orientation of natural fibers also play major

roles in the flammability of natural fibers. Horrocks

compared the effects of heat and flame on the physical

andchemical behaviorofnaturalfiberswithotherfibers.[92]

Fire resistance of natural fiber composites has received

less attention and only a small number of studies are

available in literature on fire performance of natural fiber

composites. It is still a challenge for researchers to find

other ways or methods to enhance the fire resistance of

natural fibers. Natural fibers with high lignin content, low

crystallinity, and high orientation angle generally have a

high fire resistance. Plant and protein base fibers are

another option for reducing the flammability of fiber

reinforcement. There are, however, other factors such as

mechanical properties to consider when selecting natural

fibers as the reinforcement of composite materials.[93,94]

Thermal degradation and flame resistance of natural fiber

composites and glass fiber composites with a modar and

polyester matrix are shown in Figure 11.

Three natural fibers (flax, jute and sisal) show different

behavior against fire. The natural fiber composites con-

taining flax and sisal fibers cause a slow growing fire for a

longer duration and jute fiber composite causes a quickly

growing fire for a short duration. The glass fiber composite

shows a minor fire risk as expected. With the change of

matrix, the behavior against fire changed.

5.4. Durability

Durability of the natural fiber composite under various

humidity, hygrothermal, and weathering conditions and

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Figure 11. Fire risk of the natural fiber composites and glass fibercomposites.[89] (Reproduced with proper authorization andcopyright permission from the M. Wladyka-Przybylak).


www.mme-journal.de

their effects on physical andmechanical properties are also

one of the major concerns. Durability of natural fibers is

closely related to the resistance of fiber to external and

internal effects, which cause the reduction in strength and

life of natural fiber. Unfortunately, data related to the

durability of natural fibers is limited, which needs to be

addressed.

Flexural and tensile properties of the natural fibers

changewith environmental conditions, such as the change

inhumidityandtimeexposure.[95�100] Singhetal.[80] found

that the tensile strength of jute fiber composite was

decreased between 23 and 52% and flexural strength

up to 11�57% at 95% RH compared to fresh jute fiber

composite. Tensile and flexural strengths were found to

have decreased more at 95% RH, 50 8C than 95% RH,

room temperature. Some black spot and white patches,

which are fungal hyphae were also found on jute fiber

composite under a microscope. Fungus was developed on

the surface of flax fibers just after 3 d of exposure to

moisture environment.[26] The use of proper coatings and

certain types of fiber modification seemed to delay the

effects of weathering.

5.5. Variability

The variability of natural fiber causes variation in

mechanical properties of fiber, which creates problems in

the design or quality assurance aspect of the natural fiber

reinforced composite. Due to the typical large variation in

measured mechanical properties of flax fibers, they are

often used only for low-grade composite applications.

Various cross-sectional diameters of fibers may lead to a



variation in the mechanical properties of natural

fibers.[101,102]

There are many factors, which cause variation in the

quality and size of natural fiber: geometric location of

field, crop variety, harvest seed quality and density, soil

quality, fertilizer used, harvesting time, and climate

and weather conditions. Some other variations like

extraction processing methods, damage cured during

handling and processing, and the differences in drying

processes can induce further variation in the end-use

product. Variation in price is also found along with

variability in the quality of natural fibers of the plants at

the time of their harvest. The best way to overcome these

drawbacks is to grow many types of fibers in different

regions to avoid local shortfalls.

6. The Application of NFC in Automobiles

Recently, natural fibers like jute, hemp, flax, and sisal have

been a part of high-tech development and began to remove

their negligence. Automobile industries as listed in Table 4

have got interested in new biomaterials, which can be

partially decomposable or recyclable for the current global

trendsof theenvironmentalprotectionanddevelopmentof

sustainable technology. The application of natural fiber

composites has increased and is gaining preference over

glass fiber and carbon fiber due to their low-cost and low-

weight characteristics. European-based natural fiber com-

posite molders such as Dr€axlmaier Group and Faurecia

supply automobile interior parts such as headliners, side

and back walls, seat backs, and rear deck trays to GM,

Audi, and Volvo.[103,104] Figure 12 shows several parts,

which can be fabricated using natural fiber composites.

The life cycle assessment (LCA) of a fiber is an important

tool, which is used to evaluate the environmental impact

associated with that fiber for its entire life cycle. It is

used to compare the two or more fibers and evaluate

which one is more durable and preferable under certain

environmental conditions. Vaidyanathan et al.[105] pre-

sented a scheme for the construction of a hybrid natural

fiber polymeric composite (H-NFPC) sandwich molding

system thatwould form the basic technology of composite

molded automobile body panels and skins. The proposed

sandwich construction has a central core covered with

two outer skins. The price of automobile body panels

can be further reduced by replacing metal parts with

synthetic fibers but these fibers do not deal with the

problem of pollution from the sustainable environment

friendly material concept, which the automobile industry

is facing. Natural fibers deal with both problems and can

reduce both the price and pollution.

W€otzel et al.[106] evaluated the LCA of automobile side

panels fabricated from hemp fibers reinforced composite

. 2015, 300, 10–24


Table 4. Applications of NFC in automobile.

Manufacturer Model Application of NFC Refs.

Audi A2,A3, A4, A4,

Avant, A6, A6

Seat backs, side and back door panel, boot lining,

hat rack, and spare tire lining

[111]

Avant, A8, Roadster,

Coupe

BMW 3, 5, and 7 series

and others

Door panels, headliner panel, boot lining, seat backs,

noise insulation panels molded foot, and well linings

[111,115]

Citroen C5 Interior door paneling [111]

Daimler/Chrysler A, C, E, and S-Class,

EvoBus (exterior)

Door panels, windshield, dashboard, business table,

and pillar cover panel

[111,112]

Ford Mondeo CD 162, Focus Door panels, B-pillar, and boot liner [111]

Lotus Eco Elise Body panels, spoiler, seats, and interior carpets [111,116]

Mercedes-Benz Trucks Internal engine cover, engine insulation, sun visor,

interior insulation, bumper, wheel box, and roof cover

[111�114]

Opel GM Astra, Vectra, Zafira Headliner panel, door panels, pillar cover panel,

and instrument panel

[111]

Peugeot New model 406 Seat backs and parcel shelf [111]

Renault Clio, Twingo Rear parcel shelf [111]

Rover Rover 2000 and others Insulation and rear storage shelf/panel [111]

Saab � Door panels and seat backs [111]

SEAT � Body panels, Spoiler, Seats, Interior carp, etc. [111]

TOYOTA Brevis, Harrier,

Celsior, RAUM

Door panels, seat backs, and spare tire cover [111,117]

Volkswagen Golf, Passat, Variant,

Bora, Fox, Polo

Door panel, seat back, boot lid finish panel,

and boot liner

[111]

Volvo C70, V70 Seat padding, natural foams, and cargo floor tray [111]

www.mme-journal.de


20

and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) composite

materials. The weight of the automobile side panel was

820 g resulting in weight reduction of up to 27% as

compared to ABS fiber composites of 1 125 g due to high

volume fraction and lower density of hemp fibers. W€otzel’s

study clearly supports the justification for the substitution

Figure 12. Applications of NFC in automobile.



of ABS with hemp fiber composite for automobile side

panels. Schmidt and Beyer[107] also evaluated the LCA and

recommended the substitution of the glass fibers with

hemp fibers for automobile insulation panels. A weight

reduction of 26% was obtained by replacing glass fiber

insulation panels (3 100 g) with hemp fiber insulation

panels (2 600 g). Joshia et al.[75] reviewed and the studies

by W€otzel et al. and Schmidt et al. and showed that the

natural fiber composites were more environmentally

friendly than glass fiber composite as a candidate for

automobile applications. As natural fibers during their

growth period absorb CO2 and their specific volume is

higher than that of glass fiber, which increased the

volume fractions of natural fiber and reduced the cost of

polymers and due to their light weight, natural fiber

composites can reduce the weight of automobile parts

with an environmentally friendly image.[108�110]

The most structural applications of natural fiber

composites are the load floors of sport utility vehicles,

2015, 300, 10–24



www.mme-journal.de

Volkswagen Touareg, Porsche Cayenne, and were recently

introduced in the Audi Q7. These parts consist of sandwich

construction of expanded polypropylene foam covered on

each side with natural fiber/polypropylene composites

skins with an area density of 1 400 gm�2 and topped with

PET carpet. Each load floor weighing 3.5 kg and measuring

950mm by 870mm is produced in a single molding

fabrication cycle.

Flax/polypropylene underbody composite components

have replaced theglassfiber reinforcedplastic components

in Mercedes-Benz A-Class, where almost 20.8 kg of natural

fiber are used in A-Class for more than 20 components as

shown in Figure 13a. Under floor protection trim of A-Class

made from banana fiber reinforced composites a biopoly-

mer isbeingused for thefirst time in large-scale production

atMercedes-Benz in theengine coveron thenewMercedes-

BenzA-Class (petrol engineM270). The floor of the luggage

compartment consists ofa cardboardhoneycombstructure

and wood serves as the base for door paneling. The textile

seat covers consist of 25% pure sheep’s wool. In the new

Mercedes-Benz B-Class, the natural fibers largely comprise

coconut and wood fibers as well as honeycomb cardboard,

Figure 13. a) NFC in Mercedes-Benz A-Class,[112,113] b) NFC in Mercedes-Bc) Eco Elise with interior parts,[116] d) Toyota RAUM spare tire cover,[117]

i-MiEV door panel.[118] (using with copyright permission from the co



which are used in combination with various polymer

materials for series production. By using the natural fiber,

21 componentswith a total weight of 19.8 kg are produced

for B-Class. The cardboard honeycomb structure is used

for the floor of the luggage compartment and charcoal

coke serves as an activated charcoal filter for fuel tank

ventilation. Mercedes-Benz C-Class was equipped with a

sisal-reinforced rear panel shelf. The wood and cotton

fibers in combination with various polymers are being

predominantly used in the production of the new C-Class.

By combining sisal and cotton, the share of natural

fibers in the component increased to more than 70% by

weight. 17 kg of natural fiber were used in C-Class for the

manufacturing of 27 components as shown in Figure 13b.

Natural fiber is also used in fuel tanks for ventilation and

olive coke serves as an activated charcoal filter. This open-

pored material absorbs hydrocarbon emissions, and the

filter self-regenerates during vehicle operation. Natural

fiber materials are also used for the production of fabric

seat upholstery of the new Mercedes-Benz C-Class, which

contains 15% pure sheep’s wool. Sheep’s wool has

significant comfort advantages over synthetic fibers and

enz C-Class,[112,113]

and e) Mitsubishimpanies).

. 2015, 300, 10–24

bH & Co. KGaA, Weinh

it not only has very good electrostatic

properties, but is also better at absorbing

moisture and has a positive effect on

climatic seating comfort at high

temperatures.

For the first time in 1994, Mercedes-

Benz introduced door panels using jute-

based natural fiber composites for the E-

Class car. Flax, hemp, sisal, wool, and

other natural fibers were used to make

components of the Mercedes-Benz E-

Class. For thenewE-Class, 44components

were made from natural fibers with an

overall weight of around 21 kg. By using

natural fibers, the overall weight of the

components has been reduced by 34%

comparedwith the precedingmodel. The

floor of the boot features a honeycomb

cardboard structure, and Mercedes engi-

neers have also used a rawmaterial from

nature to ventilate the fuel tank: olive

coke serves as anactivated charcoal filter.

This open-pored material absorbs hydro-

carbon emissions, and the filter is self-

regenerating during vehicle operation.

Naturalmaterials also play an important

part in the production of the fabric seat

upholstery for the new E-Class, which

contains 25% pure sheep’s wool. Wool

has significant comfort advantages over

synthetic fibers: it not only has very

good electrostatic properties, but is also

eim 21

www.mme-journal.de


22

better at absorbing moisture and has a positive effect on

climatic seating comfort in high temperatures.

27 parts of Mercedes-Benz S-Class are made from

natural fiber composites. The S-Class has 43 kg of

natural fiber components: Door panels and pillar inners,

the head liner, rear cargo shelf, and trunk components

and thermal insulation. For fuel tank ventilation, the

olive coke is used, which serves as an activated charcoal

filter.

At first, natural fibers were used for standard exterior

components in the Mercedes-Benz Travego travel coach

and is equipped with flax reinforced engine and trans-

mission covers. Exterior components posed interesting

issues for the manufacturers, as in these applications

the components must function as a protective cover for

the important parts of the vehicle and as a result the

component must be able to resist a more aggressive

environment (as compared to the interior applications)

being exposed to both weathering effects and also

chipping caused by debris making contact with the

external surface. The benefits of this usage of natural

fiber for exterior parts are an approximately 10% weight

reduction and a cost reduction of about 5% for the engine

and transmission cover. A door panel from the new

Mercedes-Benz M-Class and R-Class platforms highlights

the mold ability characteristics of natural fiber. The back

side attachments shown in dark color are preloaded on the

tool and bonded to the natural fiber composite during

molding without resorting to adhesives, a key factor in

labor and material savings.

BMW has been using natural fiber composite since the

early1990s in its 3, 5, and7 seriesmodelswithup to24 kgof

renewable materials being utilized. BMW used 4000 tons

of natural fibers in the BMW M3 series alone in 2001. The

blend combination of 80% flax with 20% sisal is used for

increasing the strength and impact resistance. The main

application was interior door linings and paneling. Wood

fibers were also used to enclose the rear side of the seat

backrests and cotton fibers were utilized as a sound

proofing material. The natural fiber reinforced plastic

(NFRP) by a press molding process for the fabrication of

flax/PP composite was used for the inner board of the

door panel of a BMW M3 Series. Bast natural fibers

were used for the door panel of the BMW M5 Series. In

the BMW M7 Series, flax and sisal fibers are used for the

interior door linings and panels and cotton fibers were

incorporated in the soundproofing material, wool fibers in

the upholstery, and wood fibers were used to enclose the

rear side of the seat backrests.[115]

The Lotus ECO Elise body panels were made from hemp-

fiber-reinforced polyester composite replacing standard

glass/polyester composite. Hemp fibers visible in the bold,

unpainted bumper-to-spoiler stripe make a striking eco-

contrast to the silver metallic finish. The seats, door panels,



shifter boot, horn pad, and other interior surfaces were

upholstered with special undyed eco-wool and the carpet

was woven from sisal fiber as shown in Figure 13c.[116]

Toyota has been using increasingly more natural fibers

in their components since 1999, in the range of their

vehicles such as in the Celsior, Brevis, and Harrier. For

door trim, kenaf fibers along with polypropylene are

used and manufactured at Toyota’s Indonesian produc-

tion facility. Toyota has manufactured the first mass

produced 100% (by weight) natural automotive product

namely the RAUM spare tire cover.[117] Toyota RAUM

used kenaf fiber and polylatic acid (PLA) for the cover

board of the spare tire as shown in Figure 13d. Toyota is

also using natural fiber from kenaf plants in the door and

package tray trim base materials. Bamboo fiber and

polybuthylene succinate (PBS) composite was used for

the inner board of trunk door panel of Mitsubishi i-MiEV

as shown in Figure 13e.[118]

A NFRP board processed by press molding from flax

fiber and PP is used for the inner instrumental panel of

the Smart Fortwo Coupe. In 2000, Audi launched the A2

mid-range car, which was the first mass-produced vehicle

with an all-aluminum body. To supplement the weight

reduction afforded by the all-aluminum body, door trim

panels were made of polyurethane reinforced with a

mixed flax/sisal mat. This resulted in extremely low

density and the panels also exhibited high dimensional

stability. Natural fiber composites rear cargo area load

floor of the Porsche Cayenne is composed of structural

layers of natural fiber composites surrounding an

expanded polypropylene foam core and covered with

carpet cloth. All materials are co-molded in a single, low-

pressure press cycle. The natural fiber composite floors

are also used on the Volkswagen Touareg and new

Audi Q7 vehicles, built on the same platform. The door

panels of the Ford Mondeo were manufactured by kenaf

reinforced polypropylene composites.[119]

7. Conclusion

This study has shown the application of natural fiber and

replacement of synthetic fibers in the automobile industry.

In the last decade, the use of natural fibers has been

significantly increased for industrial applications especial-

ly in the automobile industry. Natural fiber composites are

replacing the conventional glass fiber composites in the

automobile industry because of their light weight and

lower cost. Natural fiber composites recently had a great

renewed interest for a variety of reasons in the automobile

industry for increased fuel efficiency, reduced the cost, ease

of production, lower density and weight, and an increased

awareness on the subject of recycling and the impact of

materials on the environment have also played a major

2015, 300, 10–24



www.mme-journal.de

role in the adoption of natural fiber composites. For a

good composite, it is required to have good interface

characteristics between fiber and matrix for the transfer

of the stress load through interfaces. With great benefits

natural fibers also have some problems, such as incompati-

bility with synthetic polymers, a lack of dimensional

stability, and problems with process and quality. Natural

fiber composites are used in a variety of interior and

exterior parts of automobiles. Current research for a

greater understanding of natural fiber composites will

also contribute to a greater interest and uptake in these

natural fiber-based composite systems by an industry that

will continue to lead to more and more products entering

the marketplace in the future. Comparisons of material

indices show that carbon steel is the best candidate for

the bending loaded beam and panel structures. For stiff

and cheap or strong and cheap beam and panel structures,

the hemp/PP and flax/PP composites are recommended

as compared to the carbon/epoxy and glass fiber/PP

composite.

Acknowledgements: I would like to thanks and appreciate Mr.Aleem Ullah for his valuable help to complete this article.

Received: March 11, 2014; Revised: May 28, 2014; Publishedonline: September 2, 2014; DOI: 10.1002/mame.201400089

Keywords: automobile industry; natural fiber composite

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