BROTHER WOLF, BROTHER RAVEN, page 4

STRATEGIES FOR SOUTHWEST WOLF RECOVERY, page 7

A PUBL ICAT ION OF THE INTERNATIONAL WOLF CENTERFALL 2006

NEW 2006–2007

RETAIL CATALOGINSIDE!

2 As a Matter of Fact

3 From the Executive Director

10 International Wolf Center Notes From Home

13 Tracking the Pack

14 Wolves of the World

18 Personal Encounter

20 Wolf Tracks

23 Wild Kids

24 A Look Beyond

Features

THE QUARTERLY PUBLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL WOLF CENTER VOLUME 16, NO. 3 FALL 2006

On The CoverHuichol Mexican Wolf MaskPhotographed by Bryan Winget, Richard Scales AdvertisingRead more about the mask on page 17.

Departments

Stev

e Lo

kker

Jacq

uely

n Fa

llon

Wolf Recovery in the Southwestern United States:

How Science Can Help Craft Long-Term Strategies for SuccessWolf reintroduction in the southwestern United States hasfaced a number of challenges. Experience with endangeredspecies reintroductions suggests that several smaller areasin the Southwest, if they can be recolonized and thenlinked by dispersing wolves, might together provide a moresecure future for wolves there than could any one reintro-duction site. Recent research helps lay the groundwork for such a plan, by using computer models to evaluate wolf habitat throughout the region, to identify threats torecovery, and to predict which additional reintroductionsites are the most promising.

C a r l o s C a r r o l l

Brother Wolf, Brother Raven: A Bird and Mammal

Might Have CoevolvedAmong the most fascinating relationships in theworld of the wolf is the one it has with the raven.The author explores the many aspects of this rela-tionship, from these species’ playful interactions tothose surrounding food.

S t e v e G r o o m s

7

4“I

f You

Wat

ch th

e Ra

vens

for

Aw

hile

. . .

” M

ary

Robe

rson

, ww

w.m

aryr

ober

son.

com

Publications DirectorMary Ortiz

Magazine CoordinatorTerri Ellman

Consulting EditorMary Keirstead

Technical Editor L. David Mech

Graphic DesignerTricia Austin

International Wolf (1089-683X) is publishedquarterly and copyrighted, 2006, by theInternational Wolf Center, 12615 Co.Road 9,Minneapolis, MN 55441, USA. e-mail: mplspack@wolf.org. All rightsreserved.

Publications agreement no. 1536338

Membership in the International WolfCenter includes a subscription toInternational Wolf magazine, free admissionto the Center, and discounts on programsand merchandise. • Lone Wolf membershipsare U.S. $35 • Wolf Pack $60 • WolfAssociate $125 • Wolf Sponsor $500 • Alpha Wolf $1000. Canada and othercountries, add U.S. $15 per year for airmailpostage, $7 for surface postage. Contact theInternational Wolf Center, 1396 Highway169, Ely, MN 55731-8129, USA; e-mail:mplspack@wolf.org; phone: 1-800-ELY-WOLF

International Wolf is a forum for airingfacts, ideas and attitudes about wolf-relatedissues. Articles and materials printed inInternational Wolf do not necessarily reflectthe viewpoint of the International WolfCenter or its board of directors.

International Wolf welcomes submissions ofpersonal adventures with wolves and wolfphotographs. Prior to submission of othertypes of manuscripts, address queries toMary Ortiz, publications director.

International Wolf is printed entirely withsoy ink on recycled and recyclable paper (text pages contain 20% post-consumerwaste, cover paper contains 10% post-consumer waste). We encourage you to recycle this magazine.

PHOTOS: Unless otherwise noted, or obvious from the caption or article text,photos are of captive wolves.

2 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

Answer: The most recent technical book published aboutwolves is Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation edited by L. David Mech and Luigi Boitani, published in 2003 by theUniversity of Chicago Press and soon available in paperback. �

Question: What is the most recent technical bookpublished aboutwolves?

What is the intermediatehost of the wolf tapewormEchinococcus granulosus?

New Question

West Gate

Of Generations and Pendulum Swings

While the persecution of the wolf in America had gone on decade after

decade, it was a generation early in the 20th century that truly left its

mark. Official government policy endorsed the idea that the only good wolf

was a dead wolf, and a brutally effective campaign of poisoning, trapping and shooting

took care of the rest.

The pendulum swings to the right.

A new generation began in the 1970s that would flip government policy on its

head and bring the scant remaining population of wolves in the lower

48 states under the mantle of the Endangered Species Act. Its protections

coupled with recovery programs by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

and with the remarkable resiliency of the wolf itself brought the wolf

back to some slices of its former range.

The pendulum swings to the left.

Another generation will soon begin as the shift from federal protection

to state management looms around the corner. This generation will likely

not be a quiet one, as the individual state management plans become

reality and the knowns and relative comfort levels of federal protections

become the unknowns, discomforts and distrust of what will really happen under

state jurisdictions. This next generation of time will require profound adjustments

to what we currently think about how wolves are managed. The flashpoint may center

on the establishment of sustainable hunting/trapping regulations similar to those for

other species.

The pendulum swings to the middle.

Just what is the right balance in our relationship to wolves? We know beyond a

doubt that we can destroy wolves. And we know we can restore them. We also know

that living with wolves will never be without some measure of controversy.

What remains to be seen is how we will live with wolves in the future as human

impacts on the earth intensify. The next generation will answer that question and

determine where the pendulum swings.

This makes our jobs today so critically important and causes us to reaffirm the

commitment to our mission: The International Wolf Center advances the survival of

wolf populations by teaching about wolves, their relationship to wild lands and the

human role in their future.

There’s no time to rest. �

From the Executive DirectorINTERNATIONAL

WOLF CENTER

BOARD OF DIRECTORSNancy jo Tubbs

Chair

Dr. L. David MechVice Chair

Dr. Rolf O. PetersonSecretary

Paul B. AndersonTreasurer

Dr. Larry D. Anderson

Thomas T. Dwight

Nancy Gibson

Hélène Grimaud

Cree Bradley

Cornelia Hutt

Dean Johnson

Mike Phillips

Deborah Reynolds

Jerry Sanders

Paul Schurke

Ted Spaulding

Teri Williams

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

Walter M. Medwid

MISSION

The International WolfCenter advances the survival

of wolf populations byteaching about wolves, their

relationship to wild lands andthe human role in their future.

Educational services and informational resources

are available at:

1396 Highway 169Ely, MN 55731-8129, USA

1-800-ELY-WOLF1-218-365-4695

e-mail address:mplspack@wolf.org

Web site: http://www.wolf.org

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 3

Walter Medwid

4 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

“Mid

nigh

t Dre

ary”

Kar

la M

orre

ira, w

ww

. wha

lebo

new

ater

colo

rs.c

om

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 5

To understand an animal likethe wolf, we need to see it notas an isolated species but as an

animal intimately and complexlyconnected to all the species in itsworld. To me, the most fascinatingrelationship in the world of the wolfis the one it has with the raven.

Wolves and ravens share a greatdeal of range. The raven is consideredthe most widespread bird species inthe northern hemisphere. The wolfhistorically had the same kind ofrange before persecution and habitatdestruction reduced it. Wolves andravens currently cohabit vast stretchesof northern forested lands in Eurasiaand North America.

Wolves and ravens have much incommon. Both are highly social, withcomplex social structures and many dif-ferent vocalizations. The wolf and theraven are also some of the most intel-ligent species in their shared habitat.

In tests, ravens show remarkableability to solve challenges, use toolsand even to modify objects to makethem function better as tools. Ravenshave learned to put heavy nuts instreets, where passing cars will smashthem open. In Scandinavia, a manfishing with an unattended linebegan to experience thefts of his fish.The thief turned out to be a raven

that would pull the line in, using itsbeak and foot, and steal the fish.

Wolves are similarly intelligent.There is even a story of wolvesstealing fish from set lines just like the raven story above. Wolves havedemonstrated great ingenuity infinding ways of escaping enclosures.Observers have watched wolves solveproblems using intelligence andanalytical powers (see InternationalWolf, Winter 2002, “A Pack Solves a Problem”).

Wolves and ravens also have incommon the fact that they areplayful. Wolves play all sorts ofgames with each other, such as tagand keep-away. Ravens perform aerialmaneuvers that seem playful, andthey do such things as roll downhills, apparently for the fun of it.

There are many observations ofwolves and ravens playing with eachother. Ravens tease wolves, dive-bombing them, pecking them andlanding on their backs. Wolves oftenthreaten and snap at ravens, andthere is one record of a wolf feigningdeath in order to lure a raven closeenough to grab it. While it all lookslike a game, now and then a ravengoofs by getting too close, and then itpays with its life. However, ravens areadept at staying just out of reach.

The time of the most intenseinteraction is when both species areattempting to feed at a kill site. Theseinteractions vary. At times wolvesand ravens share a kill while payinglittle attention to each other. At othertimes wolves drive ravens away, atleast until the wolves have gorgedthemselves.

Ravens use wolves to find food. Astudy in Yellowstone proved thatravens often failed to discoverrandomly placed carcasses but alwayswere on the scene after wolves madea kill, suggesting that ravens criticallycount upon wolves as a food source.Ravens also use wolves as a way ofconfirming that an animal is trulydead and thus safe to approach.Many observers have witnessedravens following wolf packs, waitingfor them to make a kill. There is onereport—often cited but not neces-sarily true—of ravens flying ahead ofa wolf pack, leading wolves topossible prey.

It might work the other wayaround, too. Wolves can locate carrionby moving toward the ruckus ravensmake around a carcass. It is somewhateasier to show that ravens find foodwith the help of wolves than the otherway around, but some observers feelthe benefit works both ways.

Wolves and ravens travel togetherso much that a standard way oflocating wolves is to look underravens. Biologists can often find wolfkills and even spot wolves by snow-shoeing into areas where ravens arefeeding with their typical raucous din.

Wolves and ravens also share tablemanners. Wolves are known to“wolf” their food, gobbling downlarge quantities of food before curlingup to sleep in a condition NativeAmericans called being “meat drunk.”Ravens are downright “ravenous” as

A Bird and MammalMight Have Coevolvedb y S T E V E G R O O M S

6 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

killing a moose on eleven occasions.The most effective and efficientkilling team would be a pair ofwolves, not a pack of 16.

Hunting in packs seemed like alosing strategy until researchersfactored in the impact of ravenflocks. Moose are large prey. A single wolf or pair of wolves couldonly eat a small portion of a mooseand then would need to sleep offthe meal before resuming feeding.Ravens would use that time to stripthe carcass if there were not morewolves working on the carcass.

According to calculations from theIsle Royale study, a pair of wolvesmight lose 37 percent of a moose killto ravens, whereas a pack of sixwolves would lose only 17 percent.Living and hunting in large packsdoesn’t make sense unless the wolf-

raven relationship isconsidered, but inthat context it is clearthat wolves can makethe most efficient use of their prey if they hunt and eatin groups.

This is just anotherexample of the intricate and fasci-nating relationship between the wolfand the raven. Because there is in-creasing evidence that wolves andravens may have coevolved, their com-plex symbiotic relationship may yieldmore surprises for us in the future. �

Steve Grooms has recently rewritten hisbest-selling book, The Return of the Wolf.

For further study, read Bernd Heinrich’sThe Mind of the Raven.

For details on the study of the impact ofravens on wolf pack size, see “Ravenscavenging favours group foraging inwolves,” by John Vucetich, Rolf Petersonand Thomas Waite at http://www.isleroyalewolf.org/pdf_files/V%20et%20al%202004%20raven.pdf.

they eat. A single raven can gather up to five pounds of food from a killin a day, which is astonishing.Ravens and wolves both cache foodat times.

Ravens steal food from wolves.Wolves could afford to lose a fewpounds of meat from a moose to asingle raven, but ravens always cometo a kill, and theycome in bunches. Akill typically attractssix to twenty-fiveravens, and there isdocumentation ofgroups as large as ahundred ravens. Theimpact of so manyravenous ravens addsup. Ravens once con-sumed half of a 600-pound moose in asingle day.

Recently resear-chers have suggestedthat the presence ofravens might explainone of the oldestmys te r i e s aboutwolves, namely whythey hunt in packs.Large carnivores typi-cally hunt alone.Given the scarcity ofprey, hunting in large packs mightseem counterproductive for indi-vidual wolves, for the food must beshared with many pack members.

People previously explained packsize by hypothesizing that it is usefulto have many hunters to help takedown dangerous prey. This specula-tion was encouraged by the fact that wolf packs that rely on big anddangerous prey, like moose, are larger than packs that mainly feed on deer. And wolves in desert regionsthat feed on smaller prey have thesmallest pack sizes of all.

One problem with this explana-tion is that it just isn’t true. Evenwhen wolves hunt in large packs,most of the killing is usually done by a few expert hunters in the pack.And in a recent study on Isle Royale,researchers observed a single wolf

“The

Rav

ens

and

the

Wol

ves

are

Partn

ers”

Mar

y Ro

bers

on, w

ww

.mar

yrob

erso

n.co

m

Ravens tease wolves, dive-bombing them,pecking them and landing on their backs.

Wolves often threaten and snap at ravens, and there is one record of

a wolf feigning death in order to lure a raven

close enough to grab it.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 7

wolves, might together provide a moresecure future for wolves there thancould any one reintroduction site.

The recent research described here(Carroll et al. 2005; Carroll et al.2006) helps lay the groundwork forsuch a plan, by using computermodels to evaluate wolf habitatthroughout the region, to identifythreats to recovery, and to predictwhich additional reintroduction sitesare the most promising. The two char-acteristics of an area that make it suit-able for wolves are security fromkilling by humans (that is, placesdistant from roads, towns and live-stock) and abundance of prey. Toassess these factors, my colleagues andI collected a variety of data across thesouthwestern United States andnorthern Mexico such as the numberand distribution of humans, roads andlivestock, as well as satellite images

that mapped vegetation. We thencompared this information withhistorical data on the distribution ofMexican wolves and with field studiesof habitat use by wolves in other partsof North America. For example,previous studies have estimated thenumber of wolves that can persist inan area at a certain level of prey abun-dance, and have recorded thresholdsin the number of roads beyond whichwolf mortality from humans increases.All these data were then input into amodel, PATCH, that simulates howwolf populations persist on the land-scape by filling suitable habitat withwolf home ranges and then tallyingthe births and deaths in each pack andwhere dispersing animals move toestablish new packs.

Many parts of the West are experi-encing rapid human populationgrowth. Increasingly, this growthoccurs in rural areas near public landswith opportunities for outdoor recre-

b y C A R L O S C A R R O L L

Wolf Recovery in the Southwestern United States:

Today, a decade after wolf rein-troduction, about 1,000 wolvesroam the Northern Rocky

Mountains. In contrast, seven yearsafter the Mexican wolf was reintro-duced to the Blue Range in Arizonaand New Mexico, less than 50 animalsoccur in the wild. Wolf reintroductionin the southwestern United Statesfaced a number of challenges from thestart. Since no wild population ofMexican wolves remained, the reintro-duction had to use inexperiencedcaptive-born animals. Prey is scarcerand of more patchy distribution in thesemiarid landscapes of the Southwest,and there are no areas of secure habitatas large as found in Yellowstone andcentral Idaho. But experience withendangered species reintroductionssuggests that several smaller areas inthe Southwest, if they can be recolo-nized and then linked by dispersing

Jacq

uely

n Fa

llon

Recent genetic studiessuggest that tens of thou-

sands of wolves roamedthe Southwest beforeEuropean settlement.

8 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

ment; the national park itself, likeYellowstone, excludes livestock andfirearms; and sufficient prey inhabitthe less arid portions of the area, suchas the Kaibab plateau. The GrandCanyon forms a key link in a“Southwest Crescent” of habitatstretching across Utah and Arizonafrom the Wasatch Range to the BlueRange, and southward to the SierraMadre of Mexico. Reintroduction therewould thus be a key step towardfulfilling the goal of reestablishing aconnected population of wolves fromCanada to Mexico. To achieve thisbroader goal, however, it is also impor-tant to focus conservation efforts onkey linkage areas such as the U.S.-Mexico border region.

The Mexican wolf recoveryprogram has never set a formalrecovery goal, but the initial plansuggested establishment of a popula-tion of 100 wolves at a single site. Aquarter century later, we realize thatsuch a small and isolated populationwould have too low a chance of long-

term survival to be considered recov-ered. In addition, recent geneticstudies suggest that tens of thousandsof wolves roamed the Southwestbefore European settlement, a figurevastly larger than 100 wolves. Currentregulations, however, are still based on this goal and thus, unlike inYellowstone, require that wolves dis-persing outside of the Blue Range berecaptured. In contrast, our resultssuggest that to achieve long-term re-covery of wolves in the Southwest, weshould first establish strong sourcepopulations through several well-distributed reintroductions and thenallow wolves to disperse naturally andestablish peripheral populations inpoorer habitat and link the initial rein-troduction sites. Reestablishing a con-nected metapopulation by allowing

more wolves in more places would notonly increase the population’s chancesof persistence but would also begin torestore the ecological role wolves onceplayed as a keystone species in theSouthwest through predation on wildungulates. The Endangered Species Act(ESA) recognized the importance ofsuch ecosystem influences and calledfor the restoration of endangered speciesacross large portions of historic range.

This year the Mexican wolf recoveryoversight committee completed areview of the program and recom-mended several modifications, in partbased on our studies. The reviewsuggests allowing wolves to dispersebeyond the current Blue Range WolfRecovery Area to facilitate establish-ment of a metapopulation. However, itsuggests coupling this with an expan-sion of the “experimental non-essentialpopulation area,” where wolves aremanaged under rules that allow morefrequent removal and lethal control.Once the wolf population in this largerarea reached 125 animals, wolves could

be killed in a wide variety of situations(livestock depredation, attacks on pets,desire to increase game herds) wherenonlethal means are currently beingused. As southwestern wolf popula-tions grow, it makes sense for protec-tions to be decreased. However,especially if the experimental popula-tion area is expanded to encompass alarge portion of Arizona and NewMexico, the population goal of 125 isfar too low to trigger an increase inlethal control. This recommendation isthus inconsistent with conservationbiology principles regarding threats tosmall populations and with the resultsof our study that highlight the vulnera-bility of southwestern wolf populationsdue to fragmented habitat.

Although more managementresponsibility should shift to the

ation. To assess the effect of develop-ment on wolf recovery, we comparedour predictions based on currenthabitat with “future” scenarios thatprojected trends from census dataforward to 2025, and assumed a 1percent increase per year in roaddensity. Based on initial model predic-tions, we identified four potential rein-troduction sites in the southwesternUnited States: the Grand Canyon andMogollon Rim in Arizona, Colorado’sSan Juan Mountains, and the CarsonNational Forest in northern NewMexico. The Blue Range site on theArizona–New Mexico border was alsoincluded to allow us to comparepredictions with current recoveryprogram results.

We found that southwesternwolves were vulnerable to futuredevelopment. PATCH predicted a 40percent decline regionally in carryingcapacity by 2025, with two-thirds ofthis due to development on privatelands. Habitat in New Mexico andColorado was most vulnerable, due tohabitat fragmentation and rapidhuman population growth. Otherareas had threat levels similar tothe Northern Rockies, about a 25percent decline in carryingcapacity over 25 years. Ratherthan foretelling failure for south-western wolf recovery, these find-ings can help land managers andconservation groups target restorationand protection (for example, efforts byland trusts) toward areas that cansecure wolf habitat from development.

Although all four candidate U.S.sites have high enough potential to beincluded in further wolf recovery plan-ning, the vulnerability of the MogollonRim and San Juan Mountains to land-scape change and the relative isolationof the Carson National Forest from the bulk of wolf habitat in the regionsuggest pairing any of these with asecond site to ensure the establishmentof a well-distributed, viable popula-tion. The Grand Canyon site hashigher potential, similar to that of theBlue Range. This is because northernArizona and southern Utah hold largeareas with a low threat of develop-

The two characteristics of an area that make it suitable for wolves are security from killing

by humans (that is, places distant from roadstowns and livestock) and abundance of prey

,.

U T A H

W Y O M I N G

C O L O R A D O

N E W M E X I C O

A R I Z O N A

Denver

Albuquerque

Phoenix

San Juan Mtns

MogollonRim

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 9

states as wolf populations grow, therole of federal or multistate coordina-tion may remain larger for wolvesthan for less mobile ESA species.Federal oversight under the ESA isoften seen as an “emergency room”stage, followed by additional recoveryand conservation efforts by the statesfollowing delisting. However, theantipathy of some influential westerninterest groups toward large carni-vores such as wolves and grizzly bearsmay turn this assumption on its head,as post-delisting management bystates seeks to reduce populationsback to minimal recovery goals. Theexperience with wolf recovery in

Minnesota suggests instead that,given time and sufficient habitat, wolfpopulations can grow to levels whereappropriate state-level managementdoes not conflict with recovery. �

Carlos Carroll is Conservation ScienceAdvisor to the Wilburforce Foundation(Seattle) and director of the KlamathCenter for Conservation Research(Orleans, California). He received hisPh.D. in Forest Science from OregonState University in 2000. His researchfocuses on the use of habitat models toaid conservation planning for carnivoresand other threatened speciesthroughout North America.

References:

Carroll, C., M. K. Phillips, and C. A. Lopez-Gonzalez. 2005. Spatial analysis of restora-tion potential and population viability of thewolf (Canis lupus) in the southwestern UnitedStates and northern Mexico. Klamath Centerfor Conservation Research, Orleans, CA(available at www.klamathconservation.org).

Carroll, C., M. K. Phillips, C. A. Lopez-Gonzalez, and N. H. Schumaker. 2006.Defining recovery goals and strategies forendangered species: The wolf as a case study.Bioscience 56: 25–37.

Grand Canyon

San Juan Mountains in Colorado

Carson National Forest in northern New Mexico

Seven years after the Mexican wolf was reintroducedto the Blue Range in Arizona and New Mexico, less than 50 animals occur in the wild.

Mogollon Rimin ArizonaKi

m C

runb

o

Kim

Cru

nbo

Phil

Gav

enda

Mik

e Ph

illip

sJo

hn O

akle

af

Computer modelingidentified fourpotential reintro-duction sites in the southwesternUnited States.

Challengessuch as habitatd e s t r u c t i o n ,wolves killinglivestock andwolves inter-breeding withcoyotes are illustrated through mountsof wolf specimens from across NorthAmerica accompanied by panels withpictures, maps and text.

The exhibit made its debut at theScience Museum of Minnesota in St. Paul in March and moved to theCenter’s flagship educational facility inEly, Minnesota, in late April for a summerdisplay. It is now available for rent tomuseums, zoos, nature centers and othereducational organizations, allowing newaudiences to be reached with this impor-tant information. For rental information,contact Strauss at 800-ELY-WOLF, ext.31, or edudir@wolf.org. �

The International Wolf Center’s new-est exhibit was created through a

shared effort to provide current informa-tion about the status of wolves acrossNorth America. Wolves and Wild Lands inthe 21st Century was developed and pro-duced by the Center in collaborationwith the Science Museum of Minnesotathrough the Community PartnershipsServing Science project. The exhibit ex-plores the uncertain future of wolves in aworld increasingly dominated by humans.

“People restored wolves to many areas of the lower 48 states, but it is not a foregone conclusion that they willstill be here 20, 50 or 100 years fromnow,” says Andrea Lorek Strauss,National Information and EducationDirector at the Center. “Wolves and WildLands in the 21st Century explores thechallenges we must face if wolves are to survive not only tomorrow and nextyear, but forever.”

10 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

INTERNATIONAL WOLF CENTER

Notes From Home

Group Effort Creates Exciting New Exhibit

The exhibit Wolves and Wild Lands in the 21st Century made its debut at the Science Museum ofMinnesota in St. Paul in March.

Stev

e Lo

kker

Gone But NotForgotten

On July 11, 2006, Lucas, one

of the International Wolf

Center’s ambassador wolves, was

euthanized at the Center in Ely,

Minnesota. After several days of

observation and consultation by

wolf care staff and area veterinar-

ians, it was determined Lucas would

not recover from a chronic, degen-

erative spinal condition and other

age-related issues.

“We are saddened by Lucas’

death, but it was very apparent by

the amount of pain he was in that

it was his time to go,” said Wolf

Curator Lori Schmidt.

Born in the Center’s opening year

of 1993, Lucas educated and enter-

tained 600,000 visitors during his

life. Lucas was a calm wolf known

for his relatively non-aggressive

behavior.

L U C A S1 9 9 3 - 2 0 0 6

Sher

ry J

okin

en

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 11

Camp can make a big difference in yourson’s life. We place him in an idealwilderness setting, teach him, help himmake friends and grow. Since 1951, our philosophy has evolved into a solidprogram that emphasizes fair play, fun, fitness and REAL CAMPING.

TRADITIONAL SUMMER CAMP FOR BOYS 10-17WILDERNESS CANOE & BACKPACK TRIPS

Alpha Legacy Profile

Susan Johnson’s home in Montana puts her right in themiddle of wolf controversies. Given what she has seen,

Susan wants to en-sure that education about wolves con-tinues, in the hope that the minds of people who come fromgenerations of wolf haters will slowly change. So she hasincluded the International Wolf Center in her will.

Susan has seenthe entrenched“wolf haters” first-hand. She heardthem when shetestified at the wolfre in t roduc t ionhearings, and shesees them daily,wearing T-shirtswith the saying,“The only goodwolf is a deadwolf.” Susan says,“This is the type ofperson that theInternational Wolf Center’s work will affect in time. Itdoesn’t do any good to fight with them. Education is the keyto turning attitudes around, and the International WolfCenter provides that education.”

As a current and Alpha Legacy member, Susan supportsthe Center’s work now and in the future. “As the U.S. popu-lation grows and develops our wild lands, we are going toneed more education about how people and wolves cancoexist. The Center’s work through the Ely interpretivecenter and distance learning [see the Summer 2006 issue ofInternational Wolf ] is the key to reaching those who have the potential to embrace new ways of addressing prob-lems—the young people,” she says. “I know that by inclu-ding the International Wolf Center in my will, I’ve at leastbeen able to make a contribution. Truly, I don’t think I can do enough.” �

Susan Johnson (left) and friend Eileen Fitzgerald

Cou

rtesy

of S

usan

Joh

nson

12 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

INTERNATIONAL WOLF CENTER

Contributors MARCH–MAY 2006

ThankYou

MajorDonorsToxie Beavers

John Cain & Tanya Reiss Cain

Robert Carlson

Jolie Chermey

Lammot Copeland Jr.

Cynthia Pet-Dante &Peter Dante

Michael & Doreen Deutsch

Dolores Gaska

Marilyn & Ansel Gower

Neil Hutt

Jayne Kalk

Jeanie & Murray Kilgour

Kay Latona

Seamus Metress

Patricia Meyer

Dorothy Donnelly Moller

Sarah Morris

Patricia Pettis

Robert & Janice Roseman

Jerry Sanders

Lori Schmidt

Bob Schroeder &Karen Brooks

Tobin Sobaski & Kari Koehler

Ted & BarbaraSpaulding

Fran Stofflet

Amber Tamblyn

John & Donna Virr

Kathryn Vizas

Keith & Kathleen Williams

Margaret Wyllie

Dr. James Zins & Dr. CynthiaKavouksorian

RoyaltiesDave Mech and theMinnesota ForestryAssociation

Rykodisc, Inc.

In-KindDonationsTricia Austin

Nancy Gibson

Google

Neil Hutt

ReDirect Guide

TravelhostNorthland/Duluth

Nancy jo Tubbs

Honorary

In honor of April Bender:

Matthew Snelling

In honor of Jodee Chizever:

Jennifer Engstler

In honor of Breiana Strand:

Terry Kelly

In honor of Dana Wilson:

The Peel Family

Memorials

In Memory of Ken:

Renee Chester

In Memory ofLeonard Buell Tubbs:

John & E. AnnConzemius

Jerry & Joann Hale

David & GertrudeJuncker

Mike & Anne Schulte

Marnie Sims

In Memory ofNyssa:

Terri McClure

In Memory of Mrs.Eva Mae Gear:

Jean V. Ruth

In Memory of Ryan Rocheleau:

Hilary & Jeffrey Hatch

S. D. IrelandBrothers Corp.

In Memory ofMarian Sanders:

Nancy Gibson

Neil Hutt

Dean Johnson

L. David Mech

Nancy jo Tubbs

Walter Medwid

In Memory of Gene Schuler:

Norm & MarciaMcKalvey

MatchingGifts &FoundationsWayne Cadden and the CorningIncorporatedFoundation MatchingGifts Program

Michael Carpenterand the CommunitySolutions Fund

Henry Crosby andthe Terra et EducareFoundation

A. Dorene Eklundand the GeneralMills Foundation GiftMatching Program

Judith K. Fech andthe Wells FargoCommunity SupportCampaign

Jewish CommunityFederation ofCleveland

Daniel Kiefer andthe Midland NationalLife InsuranceCompany

Kari Koehler and the Red Wing ShoeCompany MatchingGift Program

Richard Krueger andthe General MillsFoundation GiftMatching Program

Kirsten Langohr andthe General MillsFoundation GiftMatching Program

Lois Nichols and thePfizer FoundationMatching GiftsProgram

Piragis NorthwoodCompany, Inc.

Deborah Reynoldsand the MayDepartment StoresCompany Foundation

Corey Roeder and the PrudentialFoundation MatchingGifts Program

R. D. Salz and theIBM Matching GiftsProgram

TCF Foundation

Leslye Teuber andthe REI WorkplaceGiving Campaign

Debra Thurlo andthe May DepartmentStores CompanyFoundation

Cristina Uribe andthe BenevolinkFoundation

J. T. Wallace and theIBM Matching GiftsProgram

Cynthia Wong andthe Gerson BakarFoundation

Mon

ty S

loan

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 13

behavior. If you visit a tradi-tional zoo, you may seewolves hide from visitors orpace in an expression ofanxiety about humans. Atthe Center, this behavior iscalmed some by socializa-tion. A socialized wolf israised with humans from theyoung age of 12 to 14 days to expose them to the sights,sounds and smells of ahuman-dominated captiveworld, but even a socializedwolf is timid about newsights and sounds and wouldrather retreat than fight.

Tracking the Pack

Captive versus Wild: The Natureversus Nurture Discussionb y L o r i S c h m i d t , W o l f C u r a t o r ,I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f C e n t e r

Stay tuned for the nextissue of International Wolf,where I will discuss thedifferences between captiveand wild wolves related tobreeding status , packdynamics, dispersal andold-age mortality. �

Below: A captive life for wolves,with nutritional supplements, para-site control and food brought in ona wheelbarrow, results in theirweighing on average 10 poundsmore than wild wolves. This wildwolf has a leaner body than theCenter’s ambassador wolves.

When visitors arrive atthe International Wolf

Center’s captive wolf obser-vation windows, they arethrilled to get a close look at the ambassador wolvesthat serve as representatives of their wild counterparts.But how representative isa captive wolf pack of a free-ranging pack formed in awild habitat?

Physical body structure:Wolves born in captivityhave the same geneticmakeup as their wild coun-terparts. The body size, coatcondition and physicalcondition of captive wolvesmay be affected by nutri-tional supplements andparasite control. At theCenter, the wolves are fed a daily multivitamin and amonthly heartworm pre-ventative and are treated for tapeworm, hookwormand roundworm as needed.This type of care during apup’s growing years canresult in a larger body. AtMaya’s 2005 medical exam,she weighed 75 pounds,while the average femalewolf radio-collared in a U.S.Geological Survey (USGS)study weighed approxi-mately 65 pounds. Whereasthe males in the Center’sExhibit Pack all top 85pounds, the average malewolf radio-collared by theUSGS weighed about 75

pounds. Some of this differ-ence could be caused by thefact that the Center’s ambas-sador wolves are membersof a larger strain of wolvesthan lives in Minnesota.However, a captive life, wherefood is brought in on awheelbarrow, versus a wildlife, where food is broughtdown by the strength of thepaws and the grip of theteeth, can result in quite adifference in weight.

Behavior: When you aska local resident to describetypical wolf behavior in thewild lands surrounding Ely, Minnesota, the usualresponse is “elusive.” A wolfis there one minute and gonethe next, unless, of course, itis a human-habituatedwolf, or people arefeeding deer anddrawing in wolves.The elusive behaviordescribed is represen-tative of fear-avoid-ance behavior or theflight-versus-fightresponse. In captivity,wolves display thisbehavior at a veryyoung age. Grizzerdisplayed this beha-vior at 13 days of age,when he startled at aloud noise, tucked histail and ran (as best asyou can at 13 days ofage). Wolves in cap-tivity do have fear-avoidance

Most wild wolves avoid humans, and even captive, socialized wolveswould rather retreat than fight.

Lori

Schm

idt

Lori

Schm

idt

14 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

Numerous lakes, bogs and marshesdot this wild region. The southernpart of Belarus is characterized by alandscape of broadleaf forests andrivers with vast waterlogged flood-plains containing important bird andmammal species.

Belarus has suffered terrible hard-ships since a nuclear reactor atChernobyl in Ukraine exploded in1986, spreading radiation (Belarusreceived 70 percent of the fallout)and leaving many areas too contami-nated for human habitation. The ex-clusion zone, established in the

chaotic aftermathof the accident, issupposed to beo f f - l imi t s to

people. Although a few residentshave returned to their homes, theabsence of humans has allowedwildlife, including wolves, moose,roe deer and wild boars, to flourish.The northern and central regions ofBelarus are home to perhaps 1,500 to 1,800 wolves. However, recentstudies in neighboring Russian andPoland show that wolf populationsregularly cross back and forth acrossnational borders. That phenomenoncombined with a lack of data makepopulation estimates unreliable.

Wolves in Belarus prey on largeungulates (elk and deer) and on wild boars. Wolves occasionally kill livestock on farms in areas wherewild prey species are scarce, as theywere from 1990 to 1996, according to a study by zoologist Dr. VadimSidorovich. During the years between1997 and 2000, however, ungulatesbegan to recover, and the frequencyof predation on domestic animalswas reduced.

W O LV E S I N B E L A R U S

Researchers Begin Study of Wolves in Remote Countryb y J o h n G r i f f i t h s

Above: Dr. Vadim Sidorovich was fortunate towitness the denning behavior of the breedingfemale of a wolf pack in Rossony. She dug herdens in hills of sand or peat.

Right: Dr. Vadim Sidorovich entered one of the dens very briefly to check the number

and sexes of the pups remaining inside. He counted three females and four males.

John

Grif

fiths

John

Grif

fiths

Sandwiched between Poland to the west, Latvia and Lithuania to the north, Russia to the east

and Ukraine to the south, the little-known former Soviet republic ofBelarus is a small country, about thesize of the United Kingdom. Despiteits size, Belarus is rich in wildlife andlandscape diversity. The northernportion, known as the Lake District,is dominated by almost continuousconiferous forests running along the border with Russia. The roughterrain is crisscrossed by a densenetwork of rivers and streams.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 15

Nevertheless, as in other countriesaround the world, wolves in Belarushave long been persecuted because offear and misunderstanding. The wolfin Belarus is largely unprotected exceptin nature reserves. It is designated agame species, and bounties rangingbetween 60 and 70 Euros are paid to hunters for each wolf killed. This is big money in a country where theaverage monthly wage is 230 Euros.

In 2005, Sidorovich assigned aresearch group made up of a smallnumber of his Ph.D. students to carryout a wolf population study in threeareas of the country. The main studyareas are in Rossony and Poozerre,forested areas along the border withRussia. Although still in its infancy,the main purpose of the study is tocompare the movements and numbersof wolves in these border areas tothose of two stable packs located in Naliboki Forest in the center of the country.

As part of this work, Sidorovichplans to carry out an annual wolfpopulation census, which will beginin November and continue periodi-cally throughout the winter months,ending in late spring. In earlysummer, the research group willobserve the movements of wolves as well as their hunting behavior and pack dynamics.

While working on data collec-tion, Sidorovich was fortunate to wit-ness the denning behavior of the

breeding female of a wolf pack inRossony. She used not one den butseveral, up to a kilometer apart. Deepin the forest and close to water, shedug her dens in hills of sand or peat.Sidorovich observed that she oftenmoved the pups one by one betweenthe den sites. Whether or not thewolf knew she was being observedremains a mystery, but it couldexplain her behavior.

During one of the wolf’s regularoutings to move the pups, Sidorovichentered one of the dens very briefly to check the number and sexes of thepups remaining inside. He counted atotal of three females and four males.After taking photographs of the pupsand the inside of the den, Sidorovichquickly retreated to a safe distance.Upon her return, the female checkedthe area around the den and continuedher routine of moving the pups.

Sidorovich will continue his workfor as long as funds will allow, hopingto establish links with other scientistsin the world of wolf research. His goalis to establish a wolf management andeducation program promoting protec-tion of the wolf and its habitats and toteach the people of Belarus about therole it plays in the natural world. �

John Griffiths has worked with wolfscientists at the Central Forest BiosphereReserve in Russia for the past ten years.He recently worked in Belarus with Dr. Vadim Sidorovich. He lives inLiverpool, England.

W O LV E S I N I N D I A

Desert Wolves of Indiab y C o r n e l i a H u t t

I wish everyone could see the

good side of the wolf like Rudyard

Kipling did in The Jungle Book.

—Dr. Yadvendradev Jhala

If asked to identify a major pre-dator in India, most people wouldprobably name the tiger. We think

of Shere Khan, the menacing junglecat in Kipling’s mythical story about a child raised by a wolf family. In fact,wolves are also major predators thatlive in several regions of India, butthey are often viewed as dangerous to people. For this reason andbecause of economic competition,coexistence between wolves andhumans is difficult.

Dr. Yadvendradev Jhala, a memberof the World Conservation Union(IUCN) Wolf Specialist Group, hasdevoted 15 years to studying wolvesin India. In the beautifully filmed and eloquently narrated BBC docu-mentary Desert Wolves of India, Dr. Jhala takes the viewer with himand his research assistant, KartikeyaSingh Chauhan, as they search forsigns of an ancient race of wolf whose home is the arid region ofwestern India near the border ofPakistan. Little wild prey exist in thisvirtual desert. Therefore, wolves aresustained by feeding on domesticanimals, thus fueling deep-rootedhatred among the local people.

In addition to supporting wildanimals such as wolves, jackals,hyenas and honey badgers, westernIndia is home to the Ribari, a pastoral

P O L A N DB e l a r u s

L A T V I A

R U S S I A

L I T H U A N I A

LidaMinsk

I n d i a

DelhiP A

KI S

T AN

C H I N A

N E P A L

16 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

Therefore, wolf packsoften have two or threealternative dens, and theadults typically move theirpups when the Ribari cometoo close. But the wolves are nomatch for poison-laced carcasses,which can wipe out an entire packincluding the nursing pups if themother dies.

One of the several strengths of thisdocumentary film is its respectfuldepiction of the Ribari people despitetheir declared war on the wolf. As Dr.Jhala points out, it is ironic that theRibari’s traditional way of life is botha threat to the wolf and the reason itsurvives in this harsh and unfor-giving land where droughts can lastfor years. When rain does come, itbrings an explosion of wildlife along

with a flood of Ribari families toexploit the lush grass for theirgrazing livestock. More humans withsheep and goats mean more food forthe wolves, but along with the foodsource comes more pressure fromcompetition with people.

Dr. Jhala concludes his narrationof the film on a note of determinationthat is consistent with the WorldConservation Union (IUCN) WolfSpecialist Group’s “Manifesto onWolf Conservation,” which statesthat wolves, like all other wildlife,“have a right to coexist with man as apart of natural ecosystems.”

“There must be,” Dr. Jhala says, “away we can live alongside thesewonderful animals without killingthem. I hope to convince my fellowcountrymen that, like the elephantand the tiger, the wolf is just asworthy of respect.”

Desert Wolves of IndiaA 2004 BBC production – Natural World Series; produced for the BBC by Mike Birkhead Associates

Neil Hutt is an educator andInternational Wolf Center board memberwho lives in Purcellville, Virginia.

people whose only wealth is theirlivestock. Day and night, shep-herds stay close to the treasuredsheep, goats and cattle that are the Ribari’s currency. Dogs wearingspiked protective collars also guardthe domestic animals. Despite con-stant vigilance, however, wolvesregularly prey on the Ribari’s preciouslivestock.

The Ribari find it hard to under-stand why anyone would want tostudy the wolf, let alone respect it asDr. Jhala does. Since these nomadicpeople use little modern technology,they have only sticks and their guarddogs to ward off wolves that attacksheep and goats. Thus, the Ribari’smain tactic against the wolf is tolocate a den and kill the pups whilethey are still young and vulnerable.

Wolves live in several regions of India including the arid western region near the border of Pakistan.

Yadv

endr

adev

Jha

la

Huichol Mexican Wolf Maskwith thousands of multicolored seedbeads, each one “glued” to the sur-face with beeswax to produce symbolsof sacred elements. On the foreheadof the wolf mask is a Huichol sacredpeyote symbolizing the universe andlife without beginning or end. Peyoteis chewed in traditional rituals totransport the Huichol’s mind to thechaman’s world, where reality isdifferent from ours, and to receiveknowledge that can be applied in this world. Art is the physical transla-tion of images visualized in a state of wide consciousness induced by the sacred peyote. Art is a tangiblemanifestation of experiences in thegods’ kingdom.

Huicholes have magical healers,wolf chamanes, which are able totake virtues from the wolves to healpeople’s souls. Huicholes recognizewolves’ qualities as solidarity, groupwork, loyalty, family life and espe-cially intelligence and cleverness.These are the qualities Mech hasdisplayed in his intense life as scientist and enthusiastic student of wolves. A Huichol chaman wouldsay: Dave Mech was a wolf in anotherlife; now, as human, his spirit is partwolf, teaching humans to respectnature and making it possible for his brother wolves to return foreverto the forests. �

Jorge Servín (servinj@ujed.mx) is aresearcher for the Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango (UJED), Mexico.He has been involved with the MexicanWolf Conservation Program since 1983and represents Mexico as a member ofthe Wolf Specialist Group of the WorldConservation Union, and for the MexicanWolf Species Survival Plan. Currently, heis advisor to the Mexican government inthe selection of the appropriate areas toreintroduce wolves in Mexico.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 17

b y J o r g e S e r v í n

At the international meeting “Frontiers of Wolf Recovery” in

October 2005 in Colorado Springs,Colorado, I presented Dave Mech witha special present, a Huichol wolf mask, handcrafted by Huicholes, whoinhabit small, remote communities in the mountains of the western SierraMadre in the Mexican states of Jalisco,Zacatecas, Nayarit and Durango.

Huicholes have great knowledgeof, and a strong relationship with,nature. They nurture an inner visionof the place occupied by Huicholes in the natural and magical world oftheir gods. This world is expressedartistically, and the sacred animals,jaguars (Panthera onca) and wolves(Canis lupus), have masks crafted inwood and/or paper maché.

Mech’s mask is made out of papermaché and beautifully ornamented

18 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

This article originally appeared in the SaltLake Tribune.

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

The wolves were gone. But weknew they had been there. Blood-

soaked snow surrounded by ravensrevealed a recent kill.

Even Yellowstone AssociationInstitute instructor George Bumannand a plethora of veteran, scope-wielding wolf watchers could notspot one of the newest stars ofYellowstone’s wildlife galaxy.

There were times when the grayand black rocks on snow-coveredhills seemed to move. Distant bisonand elk caught our attention.Bumann spotted what he affection-ately called wolf rocks—wolf-shapedboulders wildlife watchers desper-ately wished were the real thing.

Still, we scanned, listened andwaited on a quiet and clear Januaryafternoon.

There are an estimated 118 wolvesinside Yellowstone, Bumann explained.Their average age is 3.8 years.

Jerry Myra, a houndsman fromOregon, sleeps in the back of hisancient pickup in Cooke City eachnight so he can drive this road, theonly one in the park open to cars inthe winter.

“I like to watch wildlife,” he said.“Anything four-legged is fun... I aminterested in wolves. They may bebringing them back into Oregon. Youwant to know as much as you can.”

Lois Lyman moved to theYellowstone area from SouthernCalifornia, where she taught school.She says a bit of wildness lives ineveryone and the wolf represents that feeling she has inside.

Walking on the Wild Side with Wolvesb y T o m W h a r t o n

Mon

ty S

loan

/Wol

fPho

togr

aphy

.com

At times gray and black objects on snow-covered hills are wolves, as in this photo, butsometimes they are “wolf rocks,” wolf-shapedboulders that wildlife watchers desperatelywish were the real thing.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 19

itself. With five of the animals infront and another in back, the wolvesstalked a huge, six-point bull elk. Igasped, not knowing whether towatch what appeared to be a sure kill. The elk resisted and the wolves,perhaps wary of being kicked, quicklygave up and faded into the trees.

I returned to the area the nextmorning with Bumann and others.

The Yellowstone sky at dawn was “ice cream colored,” as onecompanion described it. A large bullelk lounged in the snow, its antlerscovered with frost. Bison, their hugebrown bodies dusted with snow,woke and began searching for food.

In the distance, the distinct soundof a howling wolf pierced the morningsilence. Coyotes joined in the chorus,offering a more high-pitched yip to a symphony of wildness.

“My friend has a theory,” saidBumann. “The coyotes start howlingat dawn and the sound goes all theway across the country.”

Wolves remain a controversialaddition to Yellowstone and sur-rounding areas where the animalshave migrated. Elk numbers aredown, making more than a fewhunters unhappy. Ranchers watchthe big predators nervously. Therestoration of a predator eliminatedin the early 1900s has changed the dynamics of life for wild creaturesand humans.

Yet, the sighting of the SloughCreek Pack and the howling of wolvesand coyotes gave me the sense thatYellowstone remains wild and whole.A Yellowstone ecosystem missingwolves would be like a Beethovensymphony without violins.

Tom Wharton has worked for the SaltLake Tribune since 1970, coveringsports, the outdoors and travel, andwriting columns. He is past president of the Outdoor Writers Association ofAmerica and has co-authored numerousbooks on Utah subjects.

Bumann, an artist and a naturalist,talks fondly of Wolf No. 21. He hassculpted the charismatic animal—now dead—of the original RoseCreek pack introduced in 1995, a wolf believed to be the father of Druid Peak Wolf 253 that has ventured into northern Utah’s Cache Valley.

The sun was getting low in thesky. No one spotted a wolf.

Then, following a gut instinct,Bumann took us back to a spot wherewe spent time earlier in the day. I expected to see more Canis miner-alis. Instead, the naturalist spotted a single black wolf, appearing anddisappearing like a ghost.

Soon, as if on cue, we saw fiveother members of the Slough Creekwolf pack, one light gray. My heart pounded as I watched them in the scope—another of my life’sgoals now a reality.

There was more drama to come. The wolf pack suddenly organized

Mon

ty S

loan

/Wol

fPho

togr

aphy

.com

Packs in Yellowstone make frequent kills.

20 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

tried to stand again but could only getup on her hind legs. A bison butted theelk’s rear end and knocked her down,and the bison herd surrounded the elkagain and kept the wolves away. Eachtime a wolf approached, a bison wouldchase it 15–30 meters. After a fewminutes the wolves headed away up ahill and bedded (09:36).

The elk, while surrounded by bison,kept raising her head and trying toget up. ...The bison remained tightlyaround the elk from about 09:39 on.By about 11:35, the elk’s head wasno longer up and her body lay flat; she seemed dead. Ravens landed on ornext to her, although the bison stillsurrounded her closely. Bison licked orsniffed the carcass intermittently forseveral minutes.

The wolves had returned at 09:55and hung around 15–60 meters fromthe bison herd, and at . . . times. . . triedto reach the downed elk. Each time, oneor more bison would skirmish withthem and try to drive them off.

Buffalo Bullies in Yellowstoneb y J a y H u t c h i n s o n

Observations of bison behavior in YellowstoneNational Park during the past decade show apeculiar in-your-face aggressiveness not onlytoward their arch predator the gray wolf, butalso toward elk.

Kath

ie L

ynch

The old joke that goes “Wheredoes a 400-pound gorillasleep? —“Anywhere he wants

to!” could likely be applied to thatmajestic icon of the American West,the bison, which is imposing not only in size and weight but also in its herding instincts. Observations of bison behavior in YellowstoneNational Park during the past decadeshow a peculiar in-your-face aggres-siveness not only toward their archpredator the gray wolf, reintroducedto the ecosystem in 1995 and 1996,but also toward elk, which haveshared Yellowstone range with bisonfor many years.

The most commonly observedaggressive actions of bison have beentoward wolves that are attacking orfeeding on elk carcasses the wolveshave downed. Three times in thepast five years bison were seenchasing wolves from a kill. Here isone observer’s graphic description of the action:

At 09:31 11 wolves [of the samepack] targeted a single cow elk andpulled her down. A herd of 39 bisonrushed to the downed elk, chasedthe wolves off, and surrounded theelk tightly (09:33). Suddenly the elkleaped up. Two wolves approached theelk and nipped at it. The elk ranthrough the bison herd, and the twowolves pursued it. After about 30meters the elk fell. The wolves were onit again for about 30 seconds when thebison chased them off again (09:36).Later the elk arose a third time, ran ashort distance and collapsed. She later

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 21

About 12:53, the bison startedmoving away. . . and by 13:05 wolvesmoved in. Several times, the bisonquickly returned and ran the wolvesoff. . . . Eventually, however, the bisonall grouped east of the elk, and the11 wolves began to feed. The bison thencharged the wolves and ran themoff . . . . [Later] the wolves returnedand chased the bison away. . . . Therewere two additional standoffs at thecarcass, and both times the bisonchased the wolves away.

Such skirmishes continued [forawhile]. . . but gradually the bisonbegan to [leave]. . . and the wolves be-came bolder. By 13:13, the wolvescontrolled the carcass. . .and fed, whilethe bison drifted off. . . . By 13:50 mostof the wolves were done feeding andslept on a hill above the carcass. . . .

But the bison were not yetthrough harassing this wolf pack.Two days later they rousted thewolves from their sleep:

At 09:09 6 bison leading a largerherd [probably including the same39 seen there two days earlier]approached . . . the wolves. . . . [They]arose, moved 100 meters, and laydown again. Two minutes later, thebison approached . . . to within 3 meters,and the wolves again moved off 100meters and lay down. At 09:18, abison approached one of the wolves. . . .[The wolf] confronted it; the otherwolves joined in harassing the bisonfor 30 seconds.

The wolves then left at 9:20 andmoved .. .a few hundred meters and laydown on a rocky ridge. . . .Several moretimes the bison followed the wolvesand rousted them out of their beds.

Even more unusual than bisonharassing a possible predator wereobservations of bison attacking anewborn elk calf and a wounded elk calf.

Newborn elk calf: The newborngot separated from its mother andmixed up in the middle of a bison

herd, where a bison knocked it downand repeatedly butted it to theground. Several bison licked andsniffed it. As it got up and tried towalk off, several bison chased it, and one butted the calf in the sideand knocked it down. Twelve morecame over to sniff it. The calf got upand ran off but was again chased and knocked down by the bison.

As long as the calf stayed down orstood still, the bison just sniffed and licked it, but whenever it ran,they chased and knocked it down.This sequence happened at least four times. A cow bison later buttedthe calf several times as it lay on the ground. The herd then walked

Researchers have concluded that bison areaggressive toward various intruders, includingwolves trying to feed on carcasses near thebison herd.

Mon

ty S

loan

/Wol

fPho

togr

aphy

.com

22 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

After 4 hours, the bison driftedaway from the wounded and beddedcalf. Five coyotes killed the calf as it weakened.

These unusual observations haveled researchers to wonder why bisonwould be so aggressive toward non-attacking wolves and toward elk. Thecommon element in most of theseobservations was a weakened ordowned elk and the butting, sniffingand mobbing of it. When the elk in-cidents also involved wolves, perhapsthe predators’ presence was only incidental, which made the aggres-siveness of the bison seem to bedirected at keeping wolves away fromthe carcasses or injured animals.

Researchers concluded that bisonmight show two types of “hyper-aggressive” behavior: (1) a generalantipredator aggressiveness towardvarious intruders, regardless of species;and (2) continued aggressivenesstoward intruders that do not flee,such as wounded animals or animals

seeking refuge in the bison herd. Thisincludes wolves trying to feed oncarcasses near the bison herd. Bisonare so large and powerful that when a herd acts aggressively, it can charge and attack both wolves andgrizzly bears with impunity, so it isperhaps advantageous for bison toadvertise this ability by persistentlyharassing intruders of any kind, eventhe weak ones. �

Jay Hutchinson is a writer and editor,retired from the U.S. Forest Service’sNorth Central Research Station, in St. Paul, Minnesota. Between travels, he enjoys writing about various naturalhistory subjects, including wolves.

Reference

Mech, L. D., R. T. McIntyre, and D. W.Smith. 2004. Unusual behavior by bison,Bison bison, toward elk, Cervus elaphus,and wolves, Canis lupus. Canadian FieldNaturalist 118: 115–18.

away as the calf lay motionless on the ground, possibly dead from allthe butting.

Wounded elk calf: Several coyoteswere spotted near a 9-month-old elkcalf that had blood on its neck. Thebison herd gathered near the calf andover a 4-hour period, sniffed, licked,chased and butted the young one as ittried to seek refuge from the coyotesby running into the bison herd.During 40 minutes of videotaping bythe observer, the bison butted the calf 21 times, usually in the rear orside, and once knocked it into the air.At times the calf was bedded or lyingon its side when the bison butted it.

The elk’s abdomen was obviouslywounded, and an organ was pro-truding. Apparently a bison chargedthe calf at full speed and hit it hard in the side. The bison herd thenblocked the view while the calf stayeddown for 20 minutes. When it arose,its abdomen had been ripped open.

The bison is imposing not only in size andweight but also in its herding instincts.

Mon

ty S

loan

/Wol

fPho

togr

aphy

.com

You can read more about thereintroduction of wolves inYellowstone and the amazingimpact it has had on the ecosystemat http://www.nps.gov/yell/nature/animals/wolf/wolfrest.html. �

Kirsten Galloway writes articles andshort stories for kids and grown-upsfrom her home in Corcoran, Minnesota.

Source:

Nicholas Thompson, “Wolves’ ReturnRestores Balance to Yellowstone National Park,” Duluth News Tribune, 5 October 2003.

Homecomings Mean Big Changes in YellowstoneWolves Mean More Willows, and More WillowsMean More Wildlife!

b y K i r s t e n G a l l o w a y

Willows make agood meal forbeavers, whichbuild dams nearby,creating pools ofwater that serve ashabitat for otters,muskrats and birdspecies—and asplaces for wolvesto swim.

Sher

ry J

okin

en

Do you know what wolves and willows have in common?

In Yellowstone National Park,some scientists think that wolves and willows are the reason moreanimal species are returning toAmerica’s oldest national park afteryears of being gone.

In 1995, wolves were reintroducedto Yellowstone. Since then, biologistsand wolf watchers have noticed some big changes. Before the wolvesreturned, giant elk hung out in thelow-lying streambeds, munching awayon tasty willow plants. But now theelk are heading to the rockier hillside,leaving the willows for other species,like beavers and birds. This may bebecause the elk are anxious to be un-observed by the watchful eyes of thehunting wolf. Or it could be becauseof other changing factors like less snow,which allows elk to frequent the slopes.

Willows make a good meal forbeavers, which build their dams close by. The dams create pools ofwater that serve as habitat for otters,muskrats and bird species. Willowsare also wonderful places for birdslike yellow warblers and willowflycatchers to nest.

While there is still much un-known about the results of reintro-duction of wolves to the area, theimpact on wildlife may be very posi-tive. Scientists continue to watchcarefully the changes taking placeand hope to see balance returned tothis beautiful wildlife setting.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o l f F a l l 2 0 0 6 23

Field Journal Activity

An ecosystem is a community

of animals and plants interacting

with one another and their physical

environment. Yellowstone National

Park is an incredible example of an

ecosystem that has been brought

into better balance because of

wolves being returned to the area.

This can be called “ecological

restoration.”Here’s an activity that will give

you a chance to observe an eco-

system of your own.

First, choose a place you can

observe. It can be your backyard,

a park, a schoolyard or any

outdoor setting.

Next, record what you see with

words or pictures. Here are some

questions to get you started:

� What’s living? What makes

something a living thing?

� What do the living things need

to stay alive?

� Are there threats to the living

things? What are they?

� How do you think this outdoor

setting changes with the seasons?

With day and night? In different

weather conditions?

� What’s the impact of humans

on the living things in this area?

Finally, revisit the area in a

few days or weeks. How has it

changed? How has it stayed

the same?

24 F a l l 2 0 0 6 w w w . w o l f . o r g

male can accomplish the genetic goalwithout disrupting pair bonds.

Now that the techniques havebeen modified to work in both redwolves and Mexican gray wolves, thebreeding recommendations formu-lated each year for the captive popu-lations can include AI as an optionwhen moving individual animals maybe difficult or when geneticallyimportant pairs prove incompatible.Our first successful AI with aMexican wolf was with a female whohad refused several potential matesbefore finally bonding with an oldermale of declining fertility. However,other males were better geneticmatches. Thus, we used semen fromthose males to produce puppies, withparentage confirmed by DNA, sinceshe remained with the only male she had ever accepted.

Gene banking and AI may beas important for reintroducedwolves as for their captivecousins, since they toohave geneticallyrestricted popu-lations. We antic-ipate situationsin which it will be s imple r tointroduce new genesinto free-ranging pop-ulations via AI than tointroduce new animals.Especially in populationswhere occasional captures areneeded for management reasons,timing those captures to occur in

the breeding season offers oppor-tunities to bank semen from malesfor future use and to expand thepopulation’s gene pool through AI.Semen collections from free-rangingmales also allows moving genes back into the captive population,which can be critical to its long-termviability. Small or fragmented popula-tions remain at risk of extinction, andinfusion of new genes via AI is one ofthe tools available to us to maintainthese populations. �

Dr. Cheryl Asa is Director of Research atthe Saint Louis Zoo.

Recovery of both Mexican graywolves (Canis lupus baileyi)and red wolves (C. rufus) has

been possible because of captivebreeding programs. But captivebreeding is not as simple as justputting males and females togetherand waiting for the appearance ofpups. Modern zoos carefully managereproduction to maintain the genetichealth of these small populations.Sophisticated “computer datingsystems” recommend which animalsshould be paired based on how closelyrelated they are to each other, toprevent inbreeding; and how relatedthey are to others in the population, toequalize the genes from founderanimals throughout the population.Artificial insemination (AI) usingfrozen semen from a gene bank canhelp achieve these genetic goals.

An obvious reason to have a genebank is to preserve genes from animalsbeyond their natural life spans. Buteven within an animal’s lifetime,recommended pairings that wouldotherwise require shipment of thewolves around the country or, in the case of Mexican wolves, betweenthe United States and Mexico can beaccomplished by shipping semen. AIis also an answer to the problem ofindividual animals that don’t agreewith these “arranged marriages” and refuse to accept a mate. A problemalso results when a compatible pair istoo prolific, swamping the populationwith their puppies (i.e., packages oftheir genes). The recommended solu-tion may be to split up the pair to mixtheir genes with others, but wolves’pair bonds can be very strong, so sepa-ration may be stressful. Again, AI withthe semen of the genetically preferred

Artificial Insemination and Wolf Recoveryb y C h e r y l A s a

Jacq

uely

n Fa

llon