A Liberal Republican Cato

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http://www.jstor.org A Liberal Republican "Cato" Author(s): Annie Mitchell Source: American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 48, No. 3, (Jul., 2004), pp. 588-603 Published by: Midwest Political Science Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519918 Accessed: 20/05/2008 02:36 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=mpsa. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We enable the scholarly community to preserve their work and the materials they rely upon, and to build a common research platform that promotes the discovery and use of these resources. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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Transcript of A Liberal Republican Cato

http://www.jstor.orgA Liberal Republican "Cato"Author(s): Annie MitchellSource: American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 48, No. 3, (Jul., 2004), pp. 588-603Published by: Midwest Political Science AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519918Accessed: 20/05/2008 02:36Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unlessyou have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and youmay use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained athttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=mpsa.Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printedpage of such transmission.JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We enable thescholarly community to preserve their work and the materials they rely upon, and to build a common research platform thatpromotes the discovery and use of these resources. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected] L i b e r a lRe pub l i ca n" C a t o "A nni e Mi t che l lInr e ce ntye a r st hepo l a r i ze d de b a t esur r o undi ng t her e l a t i vei nfl ue nce o f t he l i b e r a l a nd cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca nt r a di t i o nso nt hepo l i t i ca l t ho ught o f t heFo undi ng Fa t he r sha sa b a t e dso me wha t .Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do n's C a t o 'sL e t t e r s,ho we ve r ,se e npr e do mi na nt l y a sa cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca nt e xt , co nt i nue st o b emi sr e a d, r e sul t i ng i nami si nt e r pr e t a t i o n o f t hewa y i nwhi ch i tma yha ve b e e nr e a d b y t heRe vo l ut i o na r y e r age ne r a t i o n. Thi sa r t i cl epr e se nt s, e va l ua t e s, a nd sub se que nt l yr e je ct st hea r gume nt si nfa vo r o f vi e wi ng t he wo r k o f Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do nwi t hi nt he fr a me wo r ko f e i t he r a cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca no r ane o -r o ma nt r a di t i o n.Ita r gue si nst e a dt ha t t hea ut ho r sfa l l squa r e l y wi t hi na l i b e r a lr e pub l i ca nt r a di t i o n, e mb r a ci ng L o cke , Ma nde vi l l e ,Hume , a nd Smi t ha nd sugge st st ha t i t wa si nt hi sve i nt ha tt he y we r e r e a d b y t heFo undi ng Fa t he r s. a t o 'sL e t t e r sha sl o ng b e e nr e ga r de d a s ake yno t et e xt i nunde r st a ndi ng t hei de o l o gi ca lfo unda t i o nso ft he A me r i ca nRe vo l ut i o na r yge ne r a t i o n. TheL e t t e r s,a se r i e so f e ssa yso npo l i t i ca la nd r e l i gi o ussub je ct swr i t t e n unde r t hesi gna t ur eo f " C a t o ,"fi r sta ppe a r e d i nThe L o ndo nJo ur na l i nNo ve mb e r1720, co nt i nui ng i n TheBr i t i shJo ur na lunt i lJul y 1723, a ndwe r e l a t e r co l l e ct e di nb o o kfo r m.lThea ut ho r s,Jo hnTr e ncha r d a ndTho ma sGo r do n, ha de a r l i e r co l l a b o r a t e do n TheInde pe nde ntWhi g, awe e kl ypa pe rno t e dfo r i t s a nt i cl e r i ca lt o ne .Bo t h pub l i ca t i o ns pr o ve de xt r e me l ypo pul a ri n A me r i ca .Indi - vi dua l numb e r s o ft hepa pe r so r e xt r a ct s we r er e pr i nt e d a ndci r cul a t e d wi de l y a nd quo t a t i o ns a ppe a r e d i ne ve r y ne wspa pe rfr o mBo st o n t o Sa va nna h (se eC o o k 1912, 81). Bo und co pi e so ft he L e t t e r sa ndTheInde pe nde ntWhi g we r e a l so t o b e fo undi n A me r i ca nco l l e gea ndsub - scr i pt i o nl i b r a r i e sdur i ng t he 1760s a nd1770s a nd pr i - va t el i b r a r i e s, i ncl udi ngt ha t o fTho ma sJe ffe r so n, a l sofr e que nt l y i ncl ude dt he wo r ko fTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n. In t he wo r ds o ft he A me r i ca nhi st o r i a n C l i nt o nRo ssi t e r , " no o ne ca nspe nda ny t i me i n t hene wspa pe r s,l i b r a r y i nve nt o r i e s, a nd pa mphl e t so fco l o ni a l A me r i ca wi t h- o utr e a l i zi ngt ha t C a t o 'sL e t t e r sr a t he r t ha n L o cke 's C i vi lGo ve r nme ntwa s t he mo stpo pul a r ,quo t a b l e , e st e e me d so ur ce o f po l i t i ca li de a s i n t he co l o ni a lpe r i o d" (Ro ssi t e r1953,141). In t he mi d1950st he wo r ko fTr e ncha r da ndGo r do nwa s r e di sco ve r e da nd i ni t i a l l y t he a ut ho r so fC a t o 'sL e t t e r swe r e se e n a spa r to fA me r i ca 'sl i b e r t a r i a nhe r i t a ge(se eJa co b so n1965a ndRo b b i ns1959,115-25). Wi t ht he a d- ve nt o f r e pub l i ca nr e vi si o ni sm,ho we ve r , Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do nwe r e r e ca st a s cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ns. Fo r r e vi si o n- i st s t he t r a di t i o n o fci vi c vi r t ue wa sr e ga r de d a sha vi ng pr o vi de d t heva l ue s, a spi r a t i o ns, a ndr he t o r i co fA me r i ca nRe vo l ut i o na r yi de o l o gy. A ndi n r e vi si o ni sthi st o r i o gr a - phy C a t o 'sL e t t e r sb e ca me se e n a sr e pr e se nt i ng o ne o ft hemo sti mpo r t a ntve hi cl e sfo r t he t r a nsmi ssi o no ft hi st r a di - t i o n t opr e -Re vo l ut i o na r y A me r i ca .Eve nt ho se hi st o r i a nswhocha l l e nge d t he r e vi si o ni stt he si s, ma i nt a i ni ng t ha tA me r i ca 'si de o l o gi ca l o r i gi nswe r ee sse nt i a l l y L o cke a na nd l i b e r a l , t e nde dt oa cce pti t sr e a di ng o fC a t o 'sL e t t e r sa s a ne mb l e ma t i c cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca nt e xt .2 In r e ce ntye a r sso me t hi nga ppr o a chi ng a t r uce se e mst o ha ve b e e n de cl a r e d b e t we e nt ho se o no ppo si ng si de s o f t hi s de b a t e .Inpl a ceo ft hel i b e r a l -r e pub l i ca npo l a r i za t i o nt ha t cha r a ct e r i ze dt he 1980s ade gr e eo fco nse nsus no wA nni e Mi t che l l e a r ne dhe r Ph.D.i nhi st o r y o f po l i t i ca l t ho ughtfr o m Uni ve r si t yC o l l e geL o ndo na ndi scur r e nt l ywo r ki nga sa ni nde pe nde ntscho l a r(a nni e cmi t che l l @ya ho o .co .uk). The a ut ho rt ha nksa no nymo usr e vi e we r sfo r use ful co mme nt so n a ne a r l i e r dr a fto ft hi s a r t i cl e .'Thepse udo nym " C a t o " wa sa do pt e d t o ho no r C a t o o fUt i ca(95-46BC ) t heunb e ndi nga dve r sa r yo fJul i usC a e sa r a nd cha mpi o no f r e pub l i ca nl i b e r t y. It wo ul db e ami st a ke ,ho we ve r ,t o a ssume t ha t t he na me ha d e xcl usi ve l y" C o unt r y"o rTo r y co nno t a t i o ns. Dur i ngt hefi r stha l fo ft hee i ght e e nt hce nt ur y i t b e ca met he no mdepl umeo fwr i t e r so fb o t h pa r t i e swho wi she dt osugge stt ha tt he yt o o , l i ke C a t o o f Ut i ca , spo kefr o maspi r i to fdi si nt e r e st e d pa t r i o t i sm. Se eBr o wni ng(1982, 6-8). 2Fo re xa mpl e , A ppl e b y(1984, 17) a ndKr a mni ck (1982,630-31).But e l se whe r e Kr a mni cka l soa ckno wl e dge st he L o cke a ncha r a ct e r o f C a t o 'sL e t t e r s(se e 1968, 249). No t a b l ee xce pt i o nst o t ho se hi st o r i a nswho vi e wC a t o 'sL e t t e r sa sa cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca nt e xt i ncl udeHa mo wy (1990), McMa ho n(1990),a nd, pa r t i cul a r l y va l ua b l e ,Zucke r t(1994,e spe ci a l l y298-319). Fo r a nua nce de xa mi na t i o no fTr e ncha r da nd Go r do n'sa ppr o a ch t o ci vi cvi r t ue se e a l so Bur t t(1992). A me r i ca nJo ur na lo f Po l i t i ca l Sci e nce ,Vo l .48, No .3, Jul y 2004,Pp. 588-603 ?2004 b y t he Mi dwe st Po l i t i ca l Sci e nce A sso ci a t i o nISSN0092-5853 588 A L IBERA L REPUBL IC A N " C A TO"a ppe a r st or e i gn, wi t h a cce pt a nceo n e a chsi de t ha t b o t h po l i t i ca lt r a di t i o nshe l pe dsha pet hepo l i t i ca lb e l i e fs a nd i de a l s o ft heFo undi ng Fa t he r s.The a chi e ve me nt o ft hi sco nse nsus must ha ve co me a s a r e l i e ft oma ny. The de b a t eha db e co mei ncr e a si ngl y vi t r i o l i cdur i ng t he1980s,a nd, a s Gi b so npo i nt so ut i n a r e ce ntr e t r o spe ct i ve e ssa y, ma ny scho l a r s ha d b e gunt o fi ndi t" st e r i l e , unpr o duct i vea nd e ve nna use a t i ng"(2000,261). Tho sescho l a r s,ho we ve r , who ha ve co nt i nue dt oe xpl o r et he i nt e l l e ct ua lo r i gi nso f t he A me r i ca nFo undi ng, Gi b so ncl a i ms, ha ve fo r me daco nse nsus " t ha t t hepo l i t i ca lt ho ughto ft he Fo unde r s i sb e st unde r st o o da s a na ma l ga m o f l i b e r a l i sm, r e pub l i ca n- i sm, a nd pe r ha pso t he r t r a di t i o ns o f po l i t i ca l t ho ught "(2000, 261-62). Whe r e t he se scho l a r s di ffe r i s i n t hee mpha si s t he y pl a ceo n t he va r i o us e l e me nt s wi t hi n t hi sa ppr o a ch. Oneo ft he " a l t e r na t i veco nce pt i o ns"o ft he" mul t i pl et r a di - t i o ns" scho o l o f t ho ughti s t he " Ne o -L o cke a nSynt he si s."It spr o po ne nt s, Gi b so ne xpl a i ns, ha ve" e mpha si ze d t hepr e se nceo fb o t h r e pub l i ca ni sm a ndl i b e r a l i smwi t hi n t hepo l i t i ca l t ho ughto ft he Fo unde r s" b ut a t t he sa me t i met he y ha ve a l soa r gue d t ha t " t hi sdi ve r si t y ca ni t se l fb e e m- b r a ce dwi t hi n a b r o a de r co nse nsus o fl i b e r a l i sm"(2000, 266).The y ha ve r e i nfo r ce da nunde r st a ndi ng o fL o cke a nl i b e r a l i sm" a s t he co r e o ft hepo l i t i ca l t ho ughto ft heA me r i ca nFo undi ng"(2000,267), whi l esi mul t a ne o usl y sho wi ngho w o t he rspe ci e so f po l i t i ca l t ho ughtwe r e a s- si mi l a t e di nt o i t . A no t he ri nt e r pr e t a t i vest r a t e gy t o uche d o nb y Gi b so ni s l i b e r a lr e pub l i ca ni sm. It spr o po ne nt sr e c- o gni ze , Gi b so nsa ys, t ha t l i b e r a l i sma nd r e pub l i ca ni sm we r e b o t h pr e se nta nd i mpo r t a nti nt he A me r i ca nFo und- i ng.The y di ffe r fr o m Ne o -L o cke a ns,ho we ve r , i nco nt e nd- i ng t ha te i ght e e nt h-ce nt ur y A me r i ca ns " st i l l unde r st o o d r e pub l i ca ni sm a s a se t o fb e l i e fs a b o ut t hei mpo r t a nceo f pub l i cl i b e r t y, vi r t ue a ndt hepub l i cgo o d" (2000,275). " Insho r t ,"hee xpl a i ns, " b e ca use t hi sgr o upi ncl ude sma ny o ft he scho l a r s whofo r me r l ye spo use d t he'r e pub l i ca nsynt he si s,'t he yt e ndt o st r e ss t hepe r si st e nceo fcl a ssi - ca lr e pub l i ca ni smco nce pt si n t he fa ce o ft he a dve nt o f mo de r ni t y"(2000,275).3 We l co me a s t hi s ne w fo undco nse nsusmi ghtb e i t i sdi ffi cul t no t t o se ei t , a t l e a st i npa r t , a s a n e xe r ci se i npa pe r i ngo ve r t he cr a cks.The" mul t i pl et r a di t i o nsa p- pr o a ch"na r r o ws t he di ffe r e nce s b e t we e n scho l a r s b utcl e a r l y i t do e s no t e l i mi na t e t he m.Thi sa ppr o a ch i s a l lve r y we l l b ut whe n o ne e xa mi ne s t hepo si t i o nst a ke nb y t he se scho l a r s o ne wo nde r sjustho w fa r fo r wa r dt he de - b a t e ha sa ct ua l l y a dva nce d. Unde ni a b l y scho l a r s o n e i - t he r si de o ft her e pub l i ca n-l i b e r a lde b a t e ha ve co nce de d 3The " l i b e r a lr e pub l i ca ni sm"o ut l i ne d b y Gi b so n sho ul dno t b eco nfuse d wi t ht he l i b e r a lr e pub l i ca nt r a di t i o ndi scusse db e l o w. so megr o und.The y co ul d sca r ce l y ha ve do ne o t he r wi se . C o mmo ngr o unda l wa yse xi st e db e t we e n t he t woca mpsb ut t hi s fa ct wa s l o stsi ghto fa s l i ne s b e ca me mo r ee nt r e nche d dur i ng t he 1980s.4Themul t i pl et r a di t i o nsa ppr o a cha ppe a r st o o ffe r a mi ddl ewa y b e t we e n r e vi - si o ni st a ndco unt e r -r e vi si o ni sti nt e r pr e t a t i o ns,r i ght ful l y di smi ssi ng cr udea l l -o r -no t hi ng di st i nct i o ns b e t we e nl i b - e r a l a ndcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca npo si t i o nsa nd a l l o wi ng b o t h apl a cei n A me r i ca nRe vo l ut i o na r y e r at ho ught . Ye twha tt he n r e ma i ns i s a na r gume nto ve r ho wl a r geapl a cee a ch o ccupi e d, a ndi t i s cl e a r t ha t fo r t he r e vi si o ni st co mmuni - t a r i a nvi si o n o f co nt e mpo r a r yso ci e t y i t i si mpo r t a ntt ha tA me r i ca 'scl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca n he r i t a gesho ul d o ccupy ace nt r a lpl a ce .5 It i s l e sscl e a r , ho we ve r , t ha t i t me r i t s such apl a ce . Inde e dwhi l e t he cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca n pa r a di gm ha spr o vi de d ane ce ssa r y co r r e ct i ve t o t he Ha r t zi a n a cco unto ft het r i umph o fL o cke a nl i b e r a l i smi nA me r i ca , i t ha sa l so ha dar e t r o gr a dea ffe ct o n hi st o r i a ns'unde r st a nd- i ng o ft he i de a s whi chi nfo r me dt hepo l i t i ca l t ho ughto f t heFo undi ng Fa t he r s.A s we l l a sca st i ng a n i l l umi na t - i ngl i ghto n so mea spe ct so ft he i rt ho ught ,i gno r e d o rdi sco unt e d b y t ho se who a dhe r e dt o a l i b e r a li nt e r pr e t a - t i o n o ft he na t i o n'sfo undi ng, t her e pub l i ca n pa r a di gm ha s ca st adi st o r t i ngl i ghto n o t he r s.In t he ca se o fC a t o 'sL e t t e r st hi s ha dl e dt o ami sr e a di ng o ft he t e xt a ndco n- se que nt l y ami si nt e r pr e t a t i o no ft hewa y i n whi chi tma y ha ve b e e n r e a d b y t heRe vo l ut i o na r y e r age ne r a t i o n. The r e i s l i t t l e e vi de nce t ha t t hi smi sr e a di ng ha s b e e n co r - r e ct e d b y t he ne wco nse nsus a r o undamul t i pl et r a di t i o nsa ppr o a ch. Mo sthi st o r i a ns, de spi t edi ffe r e nce s o f pe r spe ct i ve , ha ve t e nde dt or e ga r d C a t o 'sL e t t e r sa sr e pr e se nt a t i veo f wha t ha sb e e nt e r me da" C o unt r yi de o l o gy"a ndt he do m- i na nt a xi sa l o ng whi cht hepo l i t i ca l l a ndsca peo ft hepe r i o d i s se e n t o ha ve b e e n di vi de di s t ha t o fC o ur t a ndC o un- t r y. Po co ckha sa r gue d t ha t t he" Whi g ca no n" o fco m- mo nwe a l t hme n, t r a ce d b y C a r o l i ne Ro b b i ns a ndwhi ch 4Thequo t e sfr o mGi b so na b o ve se r vet o i l l ust r a t e t ha t whi l e co n- ce di ngt heo b vi o us, t ha tt he r e we r emul t i pl et r a di t i o ns, t hepa r t i sa nna t ur e o ft he de b a t edo e s no ta ppe a rt o ha ve di mi ni she d. 5Ba nni ng ha sco nt e nde d:" One o ft hemo sti mpo r t a nt co nse que nce so ft he mo de r nr e i nt e r pr e t a t i o no f Re vo l ut i o na r yr e pub l i ca ni sm ha sb e e n t heunde r st a ndi ng t ha t t he Re vo l ut i o na r i e sl e ft t o t he i r suc- ce sso r sal a st i nga nd pr o fo und co mmi t me nt t o va l ue s a ndi de a st ha t we r eno tpa r to fa l i b e r a lco nse nsus,t r a nsmi t t i ng t o t he i rhe i r sa mo r eco mpl e xpo l i t i ca lt r a di t i o nwho ser e di sco ve r ype r mi t si m- po r t a ntr e i nt e r pr e t a t i o nso fA me r i ca nde ve l o pme nt sa ndco nfl i ct sfr o m t heWa r o f1812t oWa t e r ga t e " ( 1986,13).Inasub se que nt e ssa y Ba nni nga dmi t st ha te a r l y a dvo ca t e so ft her e pub l i ca ni nt e r pr e t a - t i o n we r e" gui l t y o fi nca ut i o usl a ngua ge ."Thel a ngua gehe no wuse s i s mo r et e mpe r a t e(1992,108-09).A no t he rhi st o r i a n, Da ni e lT.Ro dge r s, i swr yl y a muse d b y such" co nce ssi o nst opo l ygl o t i sm,"b ut i nhi svi e w" muddl e i s no t asa t i sfa ct o r y co ncl usi o n"(1992,38). 589 A NNIEMITC HEL Li ncl ude s t he L e t t e r s' a ut ho r s, Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do n, " ca no ft e n b e t t e r b e unde r st o o di n aC o ur t -C o unt r y co nt e xtt ha n i n aTo r y-Whi g o r aWhi go ffi ci a l -Whi g i nt e l l e ct ua lo ne " Po co ck (1972a ,107-08). A ndhe ha s cha r a ct e r i ze d C a t o 'sL e t t e r sa nd Bo l i ngb r o ke 'swr i t i ngsa s" co nst i t ut i ng aco unt r yca mpa i gn, apo l e mi c de si gne d t o dr i veWa l po l efr o m po we r b ymo b i l i zi ng a'pub l i c o pi ni o n" '(Po co ck 1965,552). A l t e r na t i ve l y, whi l stKr a mni ck, wr i t i ng fr o m a di ffe r e ntst a ndpo i nt , ha s co nce de dt ha t Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do n's a dhe r e nce t o t hepr i nci pl e so fL o cke a npo l i t i - ca lphi l o so phy di st i ngui she st he mfr o m Bo l i ngb r o ke , hecl a i ms:" In a l l t ha t C a t o ha dt osa y o ft he ne wa ge , hespo kewi t ht he sa me vo i ce a sBo l i ngb r o ke 'sOppo si t i o n"(1968,248). It i s a na sse r t i o nwhi chi l l ust r a t e sa co mmo nmi sco nce pt i o n, t ha t b e ca useBo l i ngb r o keo r o t he r C o un- t r ywr i t e r sspo keal a ngua gea l soe mpl o ye db y Tr e ncha r d a nd Go r do n, t ha t o f" cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm,"t hel i nguafr a ncao f po l i t i ca ldi sco ur se o ft hepe r i o d, t ha t wha tt he y ha ve t osa y i s t he sa me .Ye t a cl o ser e a di ngo ft he L e t t e r se l i ci t s ave r y di ffe r e ntr e spo nset oque st i o nso f po l i t i ca lt he o r y a nd po l i t i ca l pr a ct i cet ha n t o t ha t a r t i cul a t e d b y Bo l i ngb r o ke , o ne a cce nt ua t e dmo r eb yWhi g t ha nb y C o unt r y co nce r ns.Thi s i s no t t or e je cti n t o t ot heva l i di t y o ft he C o ur t a nd C o unt r ypo l a r i t y b ut t oa r guet ha t apr e o ccupa t i o nwi t hi t ha s t e nde di n t he ca se o fC a t o 'sL e t t e r st o o b scur e a mo r e funda me nt a l di vi de b e t we e nWhi g a nd To r y.6 C e nt r a l t o t hi sdi vi si o n, a ndo ne o b - scur e d b y hi st o r i a ns whoa do ptt heC o ur t /C o unt r y a na l - ysi s, wa s t he i ssue o f r e l i gi o ust o l e r a t i o n, whi chha dr e - ma i ne dundi mi ni she di n fo r ce si nce t hedr a wi ngupo f b a t t l e l i ne sb y t hepr e cur so r Whi g a nd To r y pa r t i e so ft heRe st o r a t i o n. Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'scr i t i ci smo f Wa l po l ewa s no ti nt e nde dt o unde r mi ne t he ne w st r uct ur a l e co no mi c st a - t usquoo r t o a ddvo i ce t oo ppo si t i o nca l l sfo r t he r e mo va lo faWhi gmi ni st r yi n o r de r t or e pl a cei t wi t ha C o un- t r yco a l i t i o n.The t wo wr i t e r s we r e no tr e a l l y co nce r ne d wi t h l i b e r t y a ndvi r t ue i n t he cl a ssi ca lse nse ; t he y b e l i e ve d i t wa st o t a l l y unr e a l i st i cb a se do n t he i runde r st a ndi ng o f huma n na t ur e(se e , fo re xa mpl e , Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n1995,I,222,279-80, a nd II,761-62). Wha tt he y se t o utt o de fe ndwa sl i b e r t y i n i t smo de r n, i ndi vi dua l i st i cse nse . Unde ni a b l y Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n di d e mpl o y cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca nr he t o r i c. Ho we ve r , whe nt he y use dt hi s l a n- gua gei t wa s a s a r he t o r i ca l t o o l a ndno t a s a ne xpr e s- 6The r e i sno do ub t t ha t i nt he l a t t e rpa r to ft he se ve nt e e nt h ce nt ur y a ndi nt he fi r st de ca de so ft hee i ght e e nt hce nt ur y me nco nt i nue dt ouse t he di st i nct i o ns " C o ur t " a nd " C o unt r y,"t e r mswhi ch pr e da t e d t he C i vi l Wa r .It i sque st i o na b l e ,ho we ve r ,whe t he r t hi sdi vi si o nr e fl e ct sa ccur a t e l yt hema jo ri ssue so ft heda y t ha tdi vi de dme n. Se e ,fo r e xa mpl e ,O'Go r ma n(1997,142-52)a nd Ha yt o n(1984, 65). si o n o fa ni de o l o gi ca l pa r a di gm.7 Thi s i s a ni mpo r t a ntdi st i nct i o n.Whe nt he ya do pt e d t hel a ngua geo fcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm i n o r de r t o a t t a ck Wa l po l e 'sa dmi ni st r a - t i o n fo r i t smi sma na ge me nto ft he So ut hSe asca nda l , t he y we r eme r e l yusi ng avo ca b ul a r y cr e a t e dwhe n t heWhi gswe r e i no ppo si t i o n. It do e s no t me a nt he y we r ei de o l o gi - ca l l yo ppo se d t o t heWhi g e st a b l i shme nt .Thevo ca b ul a r y o fcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm ha d o r i gi na l l y b e e nde pl o ye d b yWhi gswhe na t t a cki ng C o ur t To r i e s a t t he e ndo ft hese ve nt e e nt h ce nt ur y. It wa s a ne ffe ct i ve , we l l -use dt o o lfo rcr i t i ci zi ng a n a dmi ni st r a t i o no f a nypo l i t i ca lco l o r , a sBo l i ngb r o kel a t e rdi sco ve r e d, b e ca use" co r r upt i o n"a nd " co nst i t ut i o na l b a l a nce " co ul d b e , a nd we r e , va r i o usl y i nt e r pr e t e d, a ndi ta ut o ma t i ca l l y se cur e dfo r t he cr i t i ct he mo r a lhi ghgr o und. It i s nosur pr i se , t he r e fo r e , t ha tTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n sho ul dha vea do pt e d t he cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni di o mi n o r de r t o l e ve l cr i t i ci sma t t hego ve r n- me nta nd, e qua l l y, t ha tt he y we r e a b l e t o a b a ndo n i t wi t h a ppa r e nte a se whe n t hego ve r nme nta ndna t i o n fa ce dape r ce i ve d Ja co b i t e t hr e a t . A sSki nne r ha ssho wni nhi se ssa y, " ThePr i nci pl e sa nd Pr a ct i ce o f Oppo si t i o n: The C a se o f Bo l i ngb r o keve r susWa l po l e ,"t hepa t r i o t i cr he t o r i co f ne o -Ha r r i ngt o ni a ni sm pr o vi de d a n e st a b l i she da nduna ssa i l a b l e ve hi cl e fo rl a unchi ng a n a t t a cko ngo ve r nme nt , wi t ho utne ce ssa r i l y i mpl yi ng a b e l i e fi n t hepr i nci pl e si nvo ke d (se eSki nne r1974). Thepo i nto fSki nne r 'se ssa y i s no t t o t a ke i s- sue wi t ht he Na mi e r i t e co nt e nt i o n t ha tBo l i ngb r o ke 'smo t i ve s we r ee nt i r e l yunpr i nci pl e d a ndse l f-i nt e r e st e d- i nde e dhe a ssume s t ha ti nt e r pr e t a t i o ni s co r r e ct a ndt ha tr e vi si o ni st hi st o r i a ns a r ena i ve l y mi st a ke n i nde nyi ng i t b ut t o r e fut e t he i de a t ha t i t fo l l o ws fr o mt hi s t ha tBo l i ngb r o ke 'spr o fe sse dpr i nci pl e sa r e i r r e l e va nt . Ski nne ra r gue st ha tBo l i ngb r o ke a do pt e d t he sepr i nci pl e sb e ca uset he y a l l o we dhi mt opr e se nthi s" ge ne r a l Oppo si t i o n"no ta sdi sl o ya l t y b ut a spa t r i o t i sm. The a i mhe r e i s no t t osugge stt ha t t he sa mea na l ysi sho l ds t r ue fo r Tr e ncha r d a nd Go r do n-t he y we r e cr i t i ca l o fb ut no to ppo se d t o7Wo o t t o na ppe a r sco r r e ct whe nhea r gue s, i n hi sfo r t hco mi ng pa - pe r " L i b e r t y,Me t a pho r , a ndMe cha ni sm:" che cksa ndb a l a nce s"a ndt heo r i gi nso fmo de r nco nst i t ut i o na l i sm,"t ha t t he r ewe r e no tse ve r a l a l t e r na t i vel a ngua ge sfo rdi scussi ngpo l i t i csa t t hi st i me ; r a t he rt ha t a numb e r we r e use d co ncur r e nt l y, e a cho fwhi chwa sa ppr o pr i a t et o a di ffe r e nta spe cto f po l i t i cs. Thi sa r t i cl ea r gue st ha tt hel a ngua geo fcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm t o b e fo undi n t he L e t t e r sse r ve s adi st i nct , r he t o r i ca lfunct i o n,t ha t i s,t o a t t a ckt he mi n- i st r y'spo l i ci ngo ft he st o ckma r ke t .It do e s no t ,ho we ve r , r e fl e ctho w Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do nvi e we dt hepo l i t i ca lwo r l d.Wo o t t o nwo ul dse e m i nco r r e ct ,t he r e fo r e , i nsugge st i ngt ha tt he sea l t e r na t i vel a ngua ge swe r emut ua l l ysuppo r t i ng. Ifo nea cce pt st he ne o -r o ma npa r a di gm-gr o unde d l i ke l i b e r a lpo l i t i ca lt ho ughti n aco nce pto f ne ga t i ve l i b e r t y-i t mi ghti nde e d b et r ue , a t l e a sti npa r t , t osa y t ha tt he t wol a ngua ge sa r euse da spa r to faco nce pt ua ldi vi si o no fl a b o r . Thi swo ul dno t se e mt o b e so i nt he ca se o fcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm. 590 A L IBERA L REPUBL IC A N" C A TO"Wa l po l e 'sa dmi ni st r a t i o n-b ut t o ma ke t he mo r e o b vi - o uspo i ntt ha t i t i s na i ve t oa cce ptt ha t t heo nl y r e a so nwhy awr i t e r , pa r t i cul a r l y apo l i t i ca lwr i t e r , mi ghti nvo kepa r t i cul a rpr i nci pl e si s b e ca uset he y fo r mt he fr a me wo r k o f i de o l o gi ca lb e l i e ffo r hi m.It i s apo i nt , ho we ve r , t ha ti s o b scur e di fo ne sub scr i b e s t o Po co ck'sme t ho do l o gy o f fo cusi ngo nl a ngua ge s, i n t hi s ca se t hel a ngua geo f cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm. Ski nne r , a l t ho ugh i nde b t e dt o t heme t ho do l o gi ca l wr i t i ngso f Po co ck, r e co gni ze st ha t such a na ppr o a ch ca nl e a do ne i n t he di r e ct i o no fapo t e nt i a l l y mi sl e a di ng cha r a ct e r i sa t i o no fa n a ut ho r : I dofe e l ,ho we ve r , t ha t i fGr e e nl e a f's st r e ss o nt r a di t i o ns o r Po co ck'so nl a ngua ge sa r e t r e a t e da sme t ho do l o gi e si nt he mse l ve s, t he y a r epr o net oge ne r a t ea t l e a st t wo di ffi cul t i e s.The r e i s a no b vi - o usda nge rt ha t i fweme r e l y fo cus o nt he r e l a t i o nsb e t we e nt hevo ca b ul a r y use d b y agi ve nwr i t e r a nd t he t r a di t i o ns t o whi chhema ya ppe a rco nne ct e d b y hi s use o f vo ca b ul a r y, wema y b e co me i nse n- si t i ve t o i nst a nce s o f i r o ny,o b l i qui t y, a ndo t he rca se s i n whi cht he wr i t e rma y se e mt o b esa yi ng so me t hi ng o t he r t ha n wha t he me a ns.The chi e f da nge r , ho we ve r , i s t ha t i fweme r e l y co nce nt r a t eo n t hel a ngua geo fagi ve nwr i t e r , wema y r unt he r i sko f a ssi mi l a t i ng hi mt o aco mpl e t e l y a l i e ni nt e l l e ct ua lt r a di t i o n, a ndt hus o fmi sunde r st a nd- i ng t he who l e a i mo fhi spo l i t i ca lwo r ks. (Ski nne r1988a , 106)8 The se a r epr e ci se l y t heda nge r st ha t Po co ckfa l l spr e y t o i nhi sa na l ysi so fC a t o 'sL e t t e r s. Byco nce nt r a t i ng, a l mo st t oe xcl usi o n, o n Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'suse o ft he vo ca b - ul a r y o f ne o -Ha r r i ngt o ni a ni sm, Po co ckmi sunde r st a ndse nt i r e l y t hepur po seo ft he i r wo r ka nda ssi mi l a t e st he mt oa t r a di t i o n t ha t i s a l i e n t o t he i r b e l i e fs.A s Ski nne ri nsi st s, i t i s no te no ugh t o l o o ka t a na ut ho r 'suse o fa se t o r fo r m o fwo r ds i ni so l a t i o n; agi ve nst a t e me nt ha s t o b e l o o ke d a tt o ge t he rwi t ha n a ut ho r 'sst a t e me nt s o n t he sa me sub - je cte l se whe r e i n t he t e xt o r i n o t he r o fhi s t e xt s.Wo r dsde no t i nga n i de ama y b e use dwi t h va r yi nga nd qui t ei nco mpa t i b l ei nt e nt i o ns.The r e i s a l so t he o b vi o us di ffi - cul t yt ha t l i t e r a lme a ni ngso f ke y t e r ms so me t i me scha ngeo ve r t i me .9Just a s wi t hDe fo e 'swo r k, t ha t o fTr e ncha r d 8Ski nne r he r e i sdi scussi ng t hepa r a do x o f Bo l i ngb r o ke , a r ch-e ne my o ft heWhi gs, who i n hi s ma i npo l i t i ca lwo r kshi ja cke d a numb e ro fr a di ca lWhi g do ct r i ne s. He vi e ws a s mi st a ke nPo co ck'scha r - a ct e r i sa t i o no f Bo l i ngb r o kea s " t he mo stspe ct a cul a ro ft he ne o - Ha r r i ngt o ni a ns" (Ski nne r ,1988a ,107). 9Ofco ur sePo co ck r e a l i ze st hi s hi mse l f.Hea ckno wl e dge st ha t l a n- gua gei s no t fi xe db ut t he r ese e mst o b e a much gr e a t e r i nt e r pe ne - t r a t i o no f l a ngua ge st ha nhe a l l o ws.Ob vi o usl y, al a ngua geca nb ea nd Go r do n, r e pl e t ea s i t i s wi t h i r o ny, ca n no tjustb et a ke na t fa ceva l ue(se eSki nne r1988b ,270-71).The ywe r eso phi st i ca t e d i n t he i r use o f l a ngua gea nd ke e nl y a wa r eo f t hepo we ro f l a ngua get o mo ul d o pi ni o n. Oneha s, t he r e - fo r e , t o a sk whyt he ye mpl o ye d t hel a ngua geo fcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm o n so me o cca si o ns a ndno t o n o t he r s a nd wha t t hi s me a ns. It i s di ffi cul t t oa cce ptt ha t Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do nb e - l i e ve di n cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca npr i nci pl e sb e ca use so much o fC a t o 'sL e t t e r sa ndt he i r o t he rwr i t i ngsi ndi ca t e sske pt i - ci sma b o ut t hepo ssi b i l i t y o fci vi cvi r t ue . The r e fo r e , whe nt he ye mpl o y t hel a ngua geo fcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm i two ul dse e mr e a so na b l e t o a ssume i t i sa do pt e d a sa r he t o r - i ca lde vi ce , t he use o fwhi chi s co nsi st e nt wi t ht he i r vi e wo f t he a r t o f po l i t i cs (se e , fo re xa mpl e , Go r do n1744,91-92, 94-98, 167a ndTr e ncha r d 1755,52-53). Whe r e a si t wo ul d a ppe a ra co nt r a di ct i o ni n t e r ms t o a dhe r et o a cl a ssi ca lr e - pub l i ca ni de o l o gy a ndt he n t o unde r mi ne t heve r y i de a o f ci vi cvi r t ue .The cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca npa r a di gm o nl y wo r ksi fo ne r e a dsC a t o 'sL e t t e r sse l e ct i ve l y b ut t o do so i s t o mi s- t a ke r he t o r i cfo ri de o l o gy a nd pa r to ft hepa r a di gm fo r t hewho l e .A t r ue rpi ct ur eo fTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'si de o - l o gi ca l po si t i o n o nl ye me r ge swhe n o ne e xa mi ne st he mu- t ua l l yr e i nfo r ci ngr e l a t i o nshi pb e t we e n t he i rphi l o so ph- i ca l , po l i t i ca l , a nd t he o l o gi ca l t ho ught . A s Ski nne r ha sa r gue d,a nypa r t i cul a rb e l i e fi n whi cha hi st o r i a ni s i nt e r - e st e di sl i ke l y t opr e se nti t se l f ho l i st i ca l l y, a spa r to fa ne t - wo r ko fb e l i e fs wi t hi n whi cht he va r i o us i ndi vi dua l i t e mssuppl y e a cho t he r wi t hmut ua lsuppo r t (Ski nne r ,2002, I,43). One co ul do f co ur se , l i ke so me hi st o r i a ns(se e , fo re xa mpl e , Gunn1983,100-01), co ncl udesi mpl y t ha t Tr e n- cha r da ndGo r do n'svi e ws a r e a t t i me s i nco he r e nt .On t heo t he rha nd, o ne co ul d a ppl y To l a nd'sa dvi ce fo r unco v- e r i ng a n a ut ho r 'sme a ni ng t o Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'swo r k, t o de t e r mi ne a mi dstse e mi ngl yco nfl i ct i ngo pi n- i o ns t he i r t r uet ho ught so n vi r t ue .To l a ndco nt e nde dt ha twhe n a ma n ma i nt a i ns wha t i sco mmo nl y b e l i e ve di t ca nno t b e a ssume dhe b e l i e ve s i n wha t hesa ys. But whe n ama nput sfo r wa r di de a s t ha t co nde mn hi mi n t hee ye so f t hema jo r i t y o f me n, t he n i t i sve r yl i ke l y t ha t hespe a kswha t he b e l i e ve s t o b e t he t r ut h (se eTo l a nd 1720,96). Inpr a i si ng vi r t ue a nd r a i l i nga ga i nst co r r upt i o n, Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n we r er e so r t i ng t o me r eco mmo npl a cephr a se s. Ho we ve r , i na sse r t i ng t ha t me nwe r eb y na t ur ei n- ca pa b l eo ft r ue vi r t uet he ye xpo se d t he mse l ve st o ce nsur eo ft het ypel e ve l e da t Ho b b e s a ndMa nde vi l l e . mo di fi e da s i t co me si nt o co nt a ct wi t ha no t he rl a ngua ge . Ho w- e ve r i nt heca se o fTr e ncha r da nd Go r do n, t he y we r e no t so much mo di fyi ngt hel a ngua geo fcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm a sr e je ct i ng a sunr e a l i st i cke yco nce pt ssucha spub l i cvi r t ue . 591 A NNIEMITC HEL LA ca se i npo i nti spr o vi de db y t he co nt e nt o f e a r l y numb e r s o ft he L e t t e r s.The se we r e wr i t t e na t a t i me whe nt hepub l i c upr o a ro ve r t he So ut hSe a sca nda l wa s a t i t she i ght , a ndmo st a r e t a ke nupwi t ha t t a cksa ga i nstt heco mpa ny'sdi r e ct o r s a ndt he mi ni st e r s whoa ppe a r e d t oscr e e nt he m. The yne ce ssa r i l y, t he r e fo r e , e mpl o y t he l a n- gua geo f co r r upt i o na ndvi r t ue b e ca use i t i s t he mo sta ptvo ca b ul a r y t o use i n t he ci r cumst a nce s.Fr a me di n a ca l - cul a t e dfa shi o n t o fue l t he fl a me s o f pub l i c o pi ni o n, t he i ra i mwa st ob r i ngpr e ssur et o b e a r o nWa l po l e 'smi ni st r y t oe nsur e t he mi scr e a nt swe r eb r o ughtt ojust i ce . Ino ne such l e t t e r ," C a t o "b e gi ns b ye vo ki ng Ro me a s a ne xe mpl a ro f agr e a ta ndvi r t uo us st a t e r ui ne d b yco r r upt i o n (se eTr e n- cha r da ndGo r do n(1995,I,128). He t he ngo e so n t o dr a waco mpa r i so nwi t hhi s o wnda y,l a udi ngKi ngGe o r gei ne xt r a va ga ntt e r ms a s apa r a go no fvi r t ue who co ul db et r ust e dno t t o a l l o wco r r upt i o nt ogo unpuni she d. Ne i - t he r t hepr a i seo fRo me no r t ha t o f Ge o r gei s me a nt t o b et a ke n a t fa ce va l ue . C l e a r l y i t i s no t t o b esuppo se d t ha t" C a t o " he l d Ge o r get o b e " t he fa vo r i t e o f he a ve n, a ndt heda r l i ng o fa l lgo o d me n"(Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n1995,I, 132). It wa sco mmo nl y b e l i e ve dt ha t t heki ng'si nne r ci r - cl e ha duse dt he i rr o ya lco nne ct i o ns t o ma ke va stpr o fi t sa t t hee xpe nseo ft he ma ss o f o r di na r y So ut hSe a C o m- pa ny sha r e ho l de r s a ndt ha tGe o r geha dco unt e na nce d t he i rco r r upt i o n. Thepr a i seo f Ge o r gei s t he r e fo r e o b - vi o usl y me a nt t o b e r e a da si r o ni ca l , b ut i t se e msunl i ke l y t ha t t hepr a i seo fRo ma nvi r t ue i sa ny mo r e si nce r e .Bo t h pa ssa ge sse r veaspe ci fi c,po l e mi ca l pur po se . The r e fe r e ncet o Ro me do e s no t de no t e a ni de o l o gi ca lb e l i e fi n t hepo s- si b i l i t y a ndb e ne fi t o fci vi cvi r t ue .The t e no r o fTr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n'sdi scussi o ns a b o ut vi r t ue e l se whe r ei n C a t o 'sL e t t e r sa ndi n o t he r o ft he i rwr i t i ngsco nt r a di ct suchar e a di ng: I ha ve o ft e nr e a d, wi t h pl e a sur e ,pr e t t yspe cul a - t i ve di sco ur se supo nt he i nt r i nsi cke xce l l e nce o f vi r t ue , a ndo fi t sha vi ng a r e a l e xi st e ncei nde pe n- de nt o fhuma nco nsi de r a t i o ns, o rwo r l dl y r e l a - t i o ns:But whe n I ha ve b e e n a b l e t ofo r ge t , o rl a y a si de t he da l l i a nce sa nda muse me nt s o f fa ncy, a nd t he b e a ut i ful t ur ns o f e xpr e ssi o n, I co ul dco nsi de ri tphi l o so phi ca l l y,o nl y a s a ne mpt y so und, whe nde t a che da nd se pa r a t e d fr o m na t ur a l ,na t i o na l , o rr e l i gi o uspo l i t i cks.... (Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n1995,II, 761-62.Se e a l soI,282) The yma ke i tqui t ecl e a r t ha tt he y ha ve no fa i t hi nci vi c vi r t ue a s a mo t i ve fo r ce i npub l i cl i fe a ndt ha tma n i si ne vi t a b l y dr i ve nb y se l f-i nt e r e st a ndhi s se l fi sh pa ssi o ns: Eve r ypa ssi o n,e ve r y vi e wt ha t me nha ve , i s se l fi sh i n so mede gr e e ; b ut whe n i t do e sgo o d t o t hepub - l i cki n i t so pe r a t i o na nd co nse que nce , i tma y b ejust l y ca l l e ddi si nt e r e st e di n t he usua lme a ni ng o f t ha t wo r d... Di si nt e r e st e dne ss, i na ny o t he r se nset ha nt hi s, t he r e i s no ne .Fo r me n t o a cti nde pe n- de nt l y o ft he i rpa ssi o ns, i s a co nt r a di ct i o n!Si ncet he i rpa ssi o nse nt e r i nt o a l l t ha tt he y do , a nda r et he so ur ce o fi t :A ndt he b e st a ct i o ns whi chme npe r fo r m, o ft e n a r i se fr o m fe a r , va ni t y, sha me , a nd t he l i ke ca use s. (Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n1995,I, 279-80) It wa s t hi sve r yvi e wpo i nt , whi chdr e wo n t he se nsa t i o n- a l i stphi l o so phy o fHo b b e s a nd L o cke ,10 t ha tpr o vo ke d a ccusa t i o ns fr o m co nt e mpo r a r i e st ha tt he y we r ea po l - o gi st sfo r mi ni st e r i a lco r r upt i o n. In a l e t t e r wr i t t e n t oTheL o ndo nJo ur na l a ft e r Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'sde pa r - t ur eo neco nt r i b ut o r ," Phi l a r e t us,"de l i b e r a t e l ymi squo t e d t he L e t t e r s-whi l str e t a i ni ng t hespi r i to fTr e ncha r d'sse nsa t i o na l i sm-a ndi ndo i ng sopr e se nt e d " C a t o " a s a ne nt husi a st i ce ndo r se r o fC o ur t vi ce(se eThe L o ndo nJo ur - na l1723). In a no t he rl e t t e r , wr i t t e nsho r t l y a ft e r wa r dst oTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'sne who me a t t he Br i t i sh Jo ur na l , " Po pi co l a "ma de i t cl e a r t ha t he b e l i e ve d" C a t o 's"sym- pa t hi e si ncl i ne dt o wa r d Wa l po l e 'smi ni st r y r a t he r t ha n aC o unt r y o rTo r yOppo si t i o n: Yo ur a nswe r a b l eA r gume nt s co nce r ni ng o urSpr i ng o f A ct i o n, a r epe r ve r t e d t o ma i nt a i n t hemo st e no r mo us Vi l l a ni e s.Iha ve se e na l a t eEpi st l et o t ha tPur po se , wi t hse ve r a lst r a i ne d A l l usi o ns t oC l o ck-wo r k.Itsuppo se s (a mo ngsto t he r C ur i o si - t i e s) t woC l o cks; t he o ne a C o ur tC l o ck, a ndt heo t he r aC o unt r y C l o ck; a nd co ncl ude s, t ha t i ft heC o ur t C l o ckdo e s no tgoa s we l l a s t heC o unt r y C l o ck, ye tt heC o unt r y C l o ckca n'tr e pr o a ch t heC o ur tC l o ck, no r va unt i t s o wnPe r fe ct i o ns, si ncet he y b o t hmo ve a l i keb yNe ce ssi t y. No w,Si r , Ia p- pr e he nd t hi s t o b e aso phi st i ca lWa y o f Re a so ni ng, fo r a C o ur tC l o ck, ho we ve rspl e ndi d o r va l ua b l et o o ut wa r d A ppe a r a nce , (i f i tgo e s a mi ss) o ughtt ob e e xa mi ne di nt oa nd, i f po ssi b l e , se t t ogo r i ght ; '?The t e r m" se nsa t i o na l i st "e mpl o ye d he r e i n r e l a t i o n t o b o t h Ho b b e s a ndL o cke i s use d a dvi se dl y.Whe t he r o r no t scho l a r so f t hehi st o r y o fi de a s co nsi de rL o cke , i npa r t i cul a r , a se nsa t i o na l i stphi l o so phe r , a ndi nde e dwhe t he r o r no t L o cke wo ul dha ve se e nhi mse l fi nsuch t e r ms,t hi s i s ho wTr e ncha r da ndGo r do nsa whi m. The y l i nke dL o cke wi t hHo b b e sa ndvi e we db o t ha s se nsa t i o na l i stphi l o so phe r s. Se e Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n(1995,II,808). A num- b e ro fTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'scr i t i cswe r e o ft he sa meo pi ni o na nd da mne d t he a ut ho r so fC a t o 'sL e t t e r sa ndTheInde pe nde nt Whi gb ya sso ci a t i o nb yr a nki ng t he mwi t hHo b b e sa ndL o cke . 592 A L IBERA L REPUBL IC A N" C A TO"b uti f, upo n Enqui r y, i t b e fo und fa ul t yb e yo nd aPo ssi b i l i t y o f A me ndme nt , t he n i t must(l i keo neo ft he i nfe r i o rSo r t ) b e se nt e nc'dt o a Di sso l ut i o n. (Br i t i shJo ur na l 1722) Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'suno r t ho do xvi e ws a l sob r o ughtt he mt o t he a t t e nt i o n o ft he Mi ddl e se xGr a nd Jur y. C a t o 'sL e t t e r swe r esi ngl e d o utt o ge t he rwi t ho ne o t he rpub l i - ca t i o n, Ma nde vi l l e 's The Fa b l eo f t heBe e s, fo r co nde m- na t i o n.One o ft he fi vecha r ge sl e ve l e da t b o t hwa s t ha tt he y so ughtt o " r e co mme nd L uxur y, A va r i ce ,Pr i de , a nd a l l ki ndo f Vi ce s, a sb e i ngne ce ssa r y t o Pub l i ck We l fa r e "(Ma nde vi l l e 1988,I,385). A r o undt he sa me t i me a l e t t e ra ppe a r e d i n The L o ndo nJo ur na ll a b e l i ng t he a ut ho r o ft heFa b l ea s Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n's" a uxi l i a r y"(Ma nde vi l l e1988, I,397).C o nt e mpo r a r i e s a ppe a rt o ha ve se e n wha tha s b e e n mi sse d b y hi st o r i a ns, t ha t t he se wr i t e r s sha r e daco mmo npe r spe ct i ve . Ont he b a si so ft he i r " sci e nt i fi c" un- de r st a ndi ng o fhuma n na t ur et he y we r epe ssi mi st i ca b o utt hevi a b i l i t y o fci vi c vi r t ue ." Inst e a d, t he y b e l i e ve dt ha ti fme n'spa ssi o nswe r e a l l o we da wi desco peb o t ht hepr i - va t e a ndt hepub l i ci nt e r e stmi ghtb e se r ve d.L a ws a nd co nst i t ut i o na l me cha ni sms we r e t he r e t o r e st r a i nme n, a ndt he i rgo ve r no r s, whe n t ho sepa ssi o nst hr e a t e ne dt ob e co me de t r i me nt a l t o t he na t i o n. One o ft he r e a so ns fo r t he si mi l a r i t i e s b e t we e n t hevi e ws o fMa nde vi l l e a ndt ho se o fTr e ncha r da ndGo r do nmi ghtb e t ha tt he ya ppe a rt o ha ve b e e nsha pe db y anumb e r o fsha r e dso ur ce s.It i s we l l do cume nt e dt ha tMa nde vi l l e 'so b se r va t i o ns o n huma n na t ur e o we dmuch t oBa yl e , L aRo che fo uca ul d, a ndt he Fr e nchC a t ho l i cmo r a l i st e t r a di t i o n(se e e spe ci a l l yKa ye 'si nt r o duct i o n t oThe Fa b l eo f t he Be e s[1988,I, l xxxvi i i -xci v a nd ci i i -cv] a ndHo r ne[1978, 19-31 ]).Ho we ve r , a na na l ysi so fC a t o 'sL e t t e r s,t o ge t he rwi t ho t he r o fTr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n'swo r ks, r e ve a l s a l i ke de b t o n t he i rpa r t . Wha ta ppe a r e d t o i nt e r e st b o t h me n, a ndGo r do n i npa r t i cul a r , wa s t hewa y i n whi cht he mo r a l i st e s a ndt he i r succe sso r s e l a b o - r a t e do n Ho b b e s's na t ur a l i st i cst udy o fma n i n o r de r t oo ffe r aso phi st i ca t e da na l ysi so ft heo pe r a t i o no fse l f-l o vea nd,spe ci fi ca l l y, i t sa b i l i t y t opr o duce so ci a l l y b e ne fi ci a lr e sul t s.The Ja nse ni stco nce pt i o no fma n a s a cr e a t ur emo t i va t e d e nt i r e l yb y se l f-l o veco mpl e me nt e d t ha tpr e - se nt e d b y Ho b b e s a ndo t he r s i n t he mo de r n na t ur a l l a w" A l t ho ugh Ra he no t e s t ha tTr e ncha r d,Go r do n,a ndMa nde vi l l esha r e da " sci e nt i fi c"unde r st a ndi ng o fma na ndci vi lso ci e t y t hi s i so nl ypa r to ft hepi ct ur e . Se e Ra he(1992, I,19). A ni nt e gr a l pa r to f t he i r fr a me wo r ko fb e l i e fswa s a co mmi t me nt t or e l i gi o ust o l e r a - t i o n.Fo r a n e xa mi na t i o no fco mmo npo l i t i ca l , phi l o so phi ca l , a nd r e l i gi o uspe r spe ct i vesha r e d b y Tr e ncha r d,Go r do n,a nd Ma nde vi l l e ,se e Mi t che l l(2003). t r a di t i o n.'2Itwa sdo mi na t e d b y a na wa r e ne sso ft he we a k- ne ss o f r e a so n, t hest r e ngt h o ft hepa ssi o nsa ndt hepo we ro f pr i dea nd va ni t y. Ho we ve r , a t t he sa me t i me a si t i nsi st e d o n t heunr e ge ne r a t ena t ur e o f ma n, o fhi si na b i l i t y t o a cte xce pto n t he b a si s o f se l f-l o ve ,Ja nse ni st do ct r i neuphe l d ar i go r o us mo r a l i t y, i n t hekno wl e dget ha t i t co ul dne ve rb e a chi e ve dwi t ho ut di vi ne a i d.The co mb i na t i o n o fsuch pe ssi mi sm a b o ut huma n na t ur e a ndsucha nunyi e l di ng mo r a l i t ypr o duce d i nt he wo r ko ft he Po r tRo ya l i st sa ne x- co r i a t i ng psycho l o gi ca le xa mi na t i o no fma n(fo rage ne r a ldi scussi o n o f Ja nse ni sm, se e Ke o ha ne[1980,283-311]). Int he l a stha l fo ft he se ve nt e e nt h ce nt ur y ast r o ng cur - r e ntde ve l o pe d i nJa nse ni stt ho ughtwhi chsa wt hema ny ma ni fe st a t i o ns o f se l f-l o ve , i n a l l i t s sub t l e a nd i ngr a t i a t - i ng fo r ms, a s ane ce ssa r yco mpo ne nto fso ci a l co he si o n. In t he a b se nce o fna t ur a lso ci a b i l i t y se l f-l o ve wa s se e n t ob i ndme nt o ge t he ri n ci vi lso ci e t y. In o r de r t oga r ne rt hea dmi r a t i o na ndva l i da t i o nne ce ssa r y fo r se l f-l o ve t o t hr i vei tco mpe l l e d me n t o r e i ni n, a ndcl o a ki n di ffe r e ntgui se , t hi sr ul i ngpa ssi o nwhi chwo ul do t he r wi se r e nde r t he m i nt o l e r a b l e t o o ne a no t he r .Se l f-l o ve r e ma i ne d r e pr e he n- si b l e b ut i n i t so pe r a t i o ni tmi ghtb e se e n a s e vi de nceo fGo d'sme r cy, so t ha t e ve n ma n's fa l l e n na t ur e co ul d b e t ur ne dt ogo o d e ffe ct .In st r i ct mo r a l t e r ms se l f-l o vewa sa l wa yst o b eco nde mne d;ho we ve r , i n so mei nst a nce s, whe r e i t co nduce dt o a ni mpr o ve me nti n t hege ne r a lwe l - fa r e o f ma nki nd, t hee ffe ct s, i fno t t hemo t i ve , mi ghtb ea ppr o ve d. Thi sco nce pto f dua l i t y wa spe r ha psmo stcl e a r l y, a nd e nt husi a st i ca l l y,e xpr e sse d b y Ni co l e .Inco nve nt i o na lJa nse ni st fa shi o n he ca l l e dme n t or e co gni zet he i r si n- fulna t ur e , ye the a l so de scr i b e dho w ma n's a mb i t i o n t osa t i sfy hi s o wn de si r e spr o pe l l e d hi mt osa t i sfy t he de - si r e so fo t he r s.Me ngr a t i fi e d t he i rpsycho l o gi ca lne e ds i naqui dpr o quowhi chi nvo l ve dt hee xcha ngeo fci vi l i t i e sa nd fa vo r s, asyst e m o fmut ua lfl a t t e r y, a nd si mi l a r l y i ngr a t i fyi ng t he i r ma t e r i a l ne e dst he y se r ve dt he ma t e r i a lne e ds o fo t he r st hr o ugh t hepr o ce sso fco mme r ce .So i twa s t ha t a va r i ceb r o ughtb e ne fi t s a nda ni mpr o ve me nti n huma nha ppi ne sswhi che xce e de d b y fa ra nyt hi ng t ha tmi ghtb e e ffe ct e d t hr o ugh t he e xe r ci se o fme r echa r i t y(se eNi co l e1677-80,II,165-67). Si ncejudge db y o ut co me t her e sul t spr o duce db ycha r i t y we r e no di ffe r e nt t o t ho se o f " e nl i ght e ne d"se l f-l o ve , whi chi de nt i fi e di t s o wn i nt e r e st swi t ht ho se o f o t he r s, Ni co l epr o po se d t ha t i nst e a do fa t - t e mpt i ng t heho pe l e sst a sko f pe r sua di ng me n t opr a ct i ce'2Go r do nt o o ki ssue wi t h Gr o t i us, a r gui ng t ha t me n a r e e nt r ust e d wi t h r i ght st ha t ca nno tb esur r e nde r e d, no r t ho se o ft he i rpo st e r i t y, a ndt ha tsupr e me po we r a l wa ysr e st swi t ht hepe o pl e , e ve ni fso mepa r t so fi t a r ede l e ga t e d t o a mo na r ch.Se e Go r do n(1747, 35-36 a nd38-39). 593 A NNIEMITC HEL Lcha r i t y,t he y sho ul db ee nco ur a ge d t or e co gni zeho w e a ch ma n's i nt e r e st wa s t i e dt o t ha t o fhi s fe l l o w. Ni co l e 'st ho ughti nma nyr e spe ct sfo l l o we do r e l uci - da t e dt ha t o f Pa sca l , a l t ho ugh fo r t he l a t t e ra ppr o va lo f t he so ci a l b e ne fi t spr o duce db y t hei ndul ge nceo fme n'spa ssi o nswa s ne ve r a l l o we dt o dul l hi spe ne t r a t i nge xpo - sur e o fhuma nco r r upt i o n. Thi squa l i fi e da ppr o va le x- t e nde dt o t hegr e a t e stb e ne fi t a ffo r de dt o me n,t ha t o f ci vi lst a b i l i t y a nd pe a ce . It i s ce r t a i n t ha t Go r do n kne wa nda dmi r e dPa sca l 'swo r k,a nd, i n vi e w o ft hepe r si s- t e nt mo r a l i st e t he me s whi cho ccur i n C a t o 'sL e t t e r s,i t i sno tunl i ke l y t ha t t hi s wa s t r ue o fTr e ncha r da l so .Go r do nr e co mme nde dt o hi s r e a de r s " t he Re fl e ct i o ns o ft he e x- ce l l e nt Mo nsi e urPa sca l ,"a s o ne o ft he " mo st use ful a nd e nt e r t a i ni ng Bo o ks"pr o duce d i n t he l a t e ra ge s(Go r do n1741, II,130).13 The e xt e nt o fGo r do n'sfa mi l i a r i t y wi t h t he wo r ko fo t he r Ja nse ni st wr i t e r s i s no t soe a si l y e s- t a b l i she d. C e r t a i nl yNi co l e 's Mo r a lEssa yswe r e a va i l a b l ei n t r a nsl a t i o n i nEngl a nd a ndwe r ewi de l y r e a d, a ndt hewa r mt ho fGo r do n'sa dmi r a t i o nsugge st smo r e t ha na su- pe r fi ci a lo r na r r o wa cqua i nt a ncewi t ht he Po r tRo ya l i st s(se eGo r do n1728-31,II,137-38).'4 C a t o 'sL e t t e r sa l so r e - fe r t oBa yl e , L aRo che fo uca ul d, L aBr uye r e , Fo nt e ne l l e , a ndSa i ntEvr e mo nd, whoa l t ho ugh no tJa nse ni st ssha r e d t he i r vi e wo fhuma n na t ur e a ndt heso ci a l l y b e ne fi ci a l r o l epl a ye db yse l f-l o ve .The L e t t e r sfo l l o w Sa i nt Evr e mo nd i na r gui ng t ha tgi ve nma n i s mo t i va t e d pur e l yb y se l fi sh co nce r ns i fhe i s t o b eb r o ughtt o cho o se vi r t ue o ve r vi cehe ha s t o b e sho wn t ha t i t i s i n hi s o wn i nt e r e st t o doso(se eSa i nt Evr e mo nd 1714,I,318; cf.Tr e ncha r d a nd Go r do n 1995,I,436).15Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do nsi mi l a r l y a gr e e d wi t hSa i ntEvr e mo nd t ha t a ne l e me nt o f co r r upt i o nsho ul db ea cce pt e d a spa r ta nd pa r ce lo f pub l i cl i fe .Inde e d Tr e ncha r d sugge st e d t ha t i n so me i nst a nce sco r r upt pr a c- t i ce s we r el e gi t i ma t ea ndt ha t o n o cca si o n i t wa sne ce ssa r y t ofi ght co r r upt i o nwi t h co r r upt i o n (se eTr e ncha r d 1755, 52-53).He ma de cl e a r t ha tco r r upt i o n, t he wa t chwo r d o f cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm, wa s o f se co nda r y co nsi de r a t i o nwhe n i t ca me t ocho o si ng t he na t i o n'sgo ve r no r s. Wha twa s o f pr i me i mpo r t a ncewa s t o r e t ur n aWhi ggo ve r n- me nt whi chwo ul d sa fe gua r d t he na t i o n'sr e l i gi o usa nd ci vi l l i b e r t i e s: 13A l sopr i nt e d i n St . Ja me sJo ur na l , 4 Ma y 1723. Se e a l so Go r do n(1750,195). 14Hego e so nt o mo unt a de fe nce o ft he Po r tRo ya l i st s, who ha d co meunde ra t t a ckfr o mt heJe sui t s. L i kema ny o t he rPr o t e st a nt s,Go r do nr e ga r de d Ja nse ni sma s t hea cce pt a b l efa ce o fRo ma nC a t ho l i ci sm a ndvi e we dt he Po r tRo ya l i st sa s vi ct i ms o fJe sui tpe r se cut i o n, t hel a t t e rb e i ng se e nno to nl y a sb i go t sb ut me ddl e r si nst a t ea ffa i r s, t het wo ca r di na l si ns i n Go r do n'se ye s.'5Go r do n r e fe r s t o Pi e r r e De sma i ze a ux'st r a nsl a t i o n o fSa i nt - Evr e mo nd'swo r ks i n C a t o 'sL e t t e r s,II, 522a ndi n" Di sco ur se s,"Ta ci t us,II,138. In t he fi r st a ndchi e f Pl a ce , yo usho ul d pr o mo t et he Int e r e st o ft ho se who a r e t r ue Fr i e nds t o hi sMa je st yKi ngGe o r ge , a sb y L a we st a b l i she d, i nhi sr o ya lHo use ...Soyo usho ul dfi x yo ur Eye so nt ho se , who ha ve she wn apa r t i cul a r Re ga r d t ot he Pr o t e st a nt Succe ssi o n, whe nmo st i nDa nge r ... [A no t he rco nsi de r a t i o ni s] o ur l a t eMi sfo r t une si nr e l a t i o nt o t he wi cke d Ma na ge me nt o f t he So ut h- Se aSche me ; t hr o ugh i nmy o wnOpi ni o nI ca nno tt hi nki t soi mpo r t a nta st he o t he r swhi chIha ve o f- fe r e dt oyo u. Yo uca nno t b ei gno r a ntho wt hi s ha sb e e n ma de use o f b yde si gni ng me n, a ndho w i tha s mi sl e d ma nywe l l -me a ni ngPe o pl e ; a ndhe r eGe nt l e me n, b e no to ve r -ha st y i nyo urC e nsur e so n t hi s He a d. C o nsi de r , i n t he fi r stPl a ce , t ha ta l l Me n a r e l i a b l e t oMi st a ke s, t ha t t he r ema y b esuchaThi ng i n t he Wo r l da si nvo l unt a r y Er r o r , t ha t Me nma yde si gn ve r y we l l , a ndt he C o nse - que nce sb eve r y b a d.I wo ul dno t b e he r e unde r - st o o d, t ha t I a m vi ndi ca t i nga ny whode si gne d t opl unde rus, o r wa s i n t he Bo t t o mo ft ha tMyst e r y o fIni qui t y. No , I wo ul d o nl y se t Ma t t e r sr i ght : A l l o wi ng, t he r e fo r e , t ha tt wo , o rt hr e e , o rmo r e , sho ul dha veb e e nPl unde r e r s, fo r Go d'sSa ke do n'tt hi nka who l eC o mmuni t y, o rPa r t y i sgui l t y, do n'tco nde mn a who l e A dmi ni st r a t i o nfo r t he Sa ke o f a fe wwho ha veco r r upt e d t he mse l ve s. (Tr e ncha r d 1751,II,273-74) Of co ur se , a no t he rwa y t o unde r st a ndTr e ncha r da nd Go r do n's wo r k mi ghtt o b e vi e w t he ma spa r to fa ne o - r o ma n t r a di t i o n. Ski nne r , e sche wi ng t he de b a t e b e t we e npo si t i veve r susne ga t i vel i b e r t y, ha s co nt e nde dt ha t a mi ss- i ng l i ne o f a r gume nti s o ne e mb e dde di n t he cl a ssi ca la nd e spe ci a l l y i n t he Ro ma nt he o r y o f ci t i ze nshi p (Ski nne r1984,203). Ho we ve r o ve r a numb e r o f ye a r s, a s Ski nne rha sde ve l o pe d hi s ne o -r o ma nt he si s, i t ha s b e co me l e sscl e a r ho w t hi s t r a di t i o n di ffe r s i na nyi mpo r t a nt wa y fr o mt he l i b e r a l t r a di t i o n.'6Unt i lr e ce nt l y hi s a cco unt o f t he ne o -r o ma n t r a di t i o n wa spr e mi se d o n apr o no unce d di st i nct i o n b e t we e n t he cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca nl a ngua geo f vi r t ue a ndt he co nt r a ct a r i a nl a ngua geo f r i ght s.17Ini t i a l l y 16Ski nne r 'sa t t e mptt o a nswe r a si mi l a r cr i t i ci smfr o mPa t t e n-t ha the fa i l s t opo i ntt oa ny i nt e r e st i ngdi sa gr e e me ntb e t we e nr e pub - l i ca ns a ndl i b e r a l s-i s no tco nvi nci ng.Se e Pa t t e n(1996,27) a nd Ski nne r(1998,84). Pa t t e nse e msco r r e ct i nsugge st i ngt ha t Ski nne rde fi ne s co nt r a ct a r i a nl i b e r a l i sm t o ona r r o wl y. Indo i ngso Ski n- ne r se t supa fa l sedi cho t o my b e t we e nco nt r a ct a r i a nl i b e r a l i sma nd ne o -r o ma nt he o r y. 17" One ca nno tt he r e fo r edi st i ngui sh ne o -r o ma nfr o m co nt r a ct a r i a na cco unt so fci vi ll i b e r t yb y r e fe r e nce t o t he i rsuppo se dl yco nt r a st i ng t r e a t me nt o f r i ght s.Ifo r me r l ya r gue d o t he r wi se i nco nse que nceo f fo cusi ng t o oe xcl usi ve l y o n t he Re na i ssa nce t e xt s"(Ski nne r 1998, 19). 594 A L IBERA L REPUBL IC A N" C A TO"hi sde scr i pt i o no ft he ne o -r o ma nt r a di t i o ni ncl ude d aco mmi t me ntt o ci vi c vi r t ue a nd pub l i cse r vi ce :" Inama nne r t ha t co nt r a st ssha r pl ywi t hmo de r nl i b e r a l i n- di vi dua l i sm,t he y[r e pub l i ca no r ne o -r o ma nwr i t e r s] no to nl y co nne ct so ci a l fr e e do mwi t h se l f-go ve r nme nt , b uta l sol i nk t he i de ao f pe r so na l l i b e r t ywi t h t ha to fvi r t uo uspub l i cse r vi ce .Mo r e o ve r , t he ya r e no l e sse mpha t i ct ha twema y ha ve t o b e fo r ce dt o cul t i va t e t he ci vi cvi r t ue s, a nd i nco nse que ncei nsi st t ha tt hee njo yme nto fo urpe r so na ll i b e r t yma y o ft e nha ve t o b e t hepr o ducto fco e r ci o na nd co nst r a i nt "(Ski nne r 1990,306).Ho we ve r , a nypo l i t i ca lt r a di t i o nt ha t wo ul dma kepe r so na l l i b e r t y co ndi t i o na lo n a l i fe o f pub l i cse r vi ce a ndt hepr a ct i ceo fci vi cvi r t uei s no t o ne i n whi chTr e ncha r da ndGo r do nwo ul dha vepl a ce d muchco nfi de nce .A l mo ste xcl usi ve l y, whe nt he y i nvo ke dt he i de a o f l i b e r t yt he ydi scusse di t i n t e r mso f ne ga t i ve l i b e r t y a nd, i mpo r t a nt l y, a st he e xe r ci se o fi ndi - vi dua lr i ght sr a t he r t ha nt hepe r fo r ma nceo fci vi cdut i e s. Just b e ca uset he y b e l i e ve dt ho ser i ght swe r e b e stpr e se r ve d i n ar e pub l i c,r a t he r t ha nunde ra na r b i t r a r ymo na r chy, do e sno tne ce ssa r i l ypl a cet he m i na ne o -r o ma nt r a di t i o n.Mo st l i b e r a l swo ul d no tqua r r e lwi t ht he i rjudge me nt . L a t t e r l y, ho we ve r , Ski nne r ha sje t t i so ne d t he i de a t ha tci vi cvi r t ue i s t he ce nt r a l fo cus o ft he ne o -r o ma nt r a - di t i o n.He ha s a l soi nco r po r a t e d i nt o hi s a cco unt t heco nt r a ct a r i a nl a ngua geo f r i ght s,a l t ho ugh he a ckno wl - e dge st ha t t hi sl a ngua gedo e sno tfi gur ei nt he t e xt so ft heRe na i ssa nce ne o -r o ma na ut ho r swhoha ve fo r me dt he fo - cus o fmucho fhi swo r k. Pr e suma b l y t he r e a so nfo r t hi scha ngei npo si t i o ni s t ha t i n o r de r t o e st a b l i shho wt hene o -r o ma nt he o r y r o se t opr o mi ne ncei n t he co ur seo f t heEngl i sh r e vo l ut i o no ft he mi d-se ve nt e e nt h ce nt ur y,a nd wa sl a t e r use d b yo ppo ne nt so ft heWhi go l i ga r chy o f e i ght e e nt h-ce nt ur yBr i t a i na nd b y A me r i ca nco l o ni st s, hei s fo r ce d b y t hewe i ghto ft e xt ua l e vi de nce t o i ncl ude t hel a ngua geo f r i ght si nhi sa na l ysi s. Tha t t he se t wo e l e me nt sfa i l t o ho l d t o ge t he ri nt hewa y hede scr i b e s, t o fo r ma di s- t i nct l y ne o -r o ma nt r a di t i o n, se e msa fa i l ur e i nco ge ncy no t o n t hepa r to ft he a ut ho r she ha s e xa mi ne db ut o f Ski nne r 'st he si s.Ift he co nt r a ct a r i a nl a ngua geo f r i ght si sno wse e na spa r to ft he ne o -r o ma nt r a di t i o n, a ndci vi cvi r t uei s nol o nge rco nsi de r e dt ofi gur ece nt r est a ge , i t i sdi ffi cul t t oi de nt i fy wha te xa ct l ydi st i ngui she st hi st r a di - t i o nfr o m t ha to fco nt r a ct a r i a nl i b e r a l i sm. Mo r er e ce nt l y, i n a nswe r t o t heque st i o no fwha tdi - vi de st he ne o -r o ma nfr o mt he l i b e r a lunde r st a ndi ng o f fr e e do m,Ski nne r ha sa r gue d: " Wha t t hene o -r o ma nwr i t - e r sr e pudi a t ea va nt l a l e t t r e i s t heke ya ssumpt i o no fcl a ssi - ca l l i b e r a l i smt o t he e ffe ct t ha t fo r ce o r t he co e r ci ve t hr e a to fi t co nst i t ut e t heo nl yfo r mso fco nst r a i nt t ha ti nt e r fe r ewi t hi ndi vi dua ll i b e r t y. The ne o -r o ma nwr i t e r si nsi stb y co nt r a st , t ha t t o l i ve i n a co ndi t i o n o f de pe nde ncei s i ni t se l fa so ur ce a nda fo r mo fco nst r a i nt .A s so o n a syo ur e co gni set ha tyo ua r el i vi ng i n suchaco ndi t i o n, t hi s wi l lse r vei ni t se l ft o co nst r a i nyo ufr o m e xe r ci si ng a numb e r o f yo urci vi lr i ght s" (Ski nne r 1998,84). Ski nne r i nsi st s t ha tfo r ne o -r o ma nt he o r i st s, unl i ke cl a ssi ca ll i b e r a l s, i t i s no tjustfr e e do mfr o mco e r ci o n whi chco nst i t ut e sl i b e r t y b utfr e e do mfr o mt he t hr e a t o fco e r ci o n.Sho ul do ne l i ve i n ast a t e o f de pe nde nce , a s i s t he ca se whe ngo ve r nme ntr e st si n t he ha nds o fa na r b i t r a r y r ul e r , no ma t t e r ho wb e ni gn, t he n o ne ha s nose cur i t y fo r o ne 'sl i b e r t y a ndmust t he r e - fo r e b e unfr e e .It i shi ghl yque st i o na b l e , ho we ve r , t ha t at r ue di st i nct i o n ca n b edr a wn, a s Ski nne r wo ul d a r gue , b e t we e n cl a ssi ca l l i b e r a l a ndne o -r o ma ni nt e r pr e t a t i o nso ft he i de a o fco nst r a i nt . L i b e r t y de fi ne db o t ha s fr e e - do mfr o ma ct ua l co nst r a i nt a ndfr e e do mfr o mt heda nge ro fco nst r a i nt i s no t i nco nsi st e nt wi t ht he i de a o f l i b e r t y fo undi n t he l i b e r a l t r a di t i o n. Inde e d, wi t hi n t ha t t r a di - t i o nse cur i t y i sr e ga r de d a s a co nst i t ue ntpa r to f l i b e r t y.18 It cl o uds r a t he r t ha n i l l umi na t e s ma t t e r s t o a sso - ci a t e , a s Ski nne rdo e s, " de pe nde nce "wi t ht he cl a ssi ca lno t i o n o fse r vi t ude .He co nt e nds t ha t ne o -r o ma n t he o - r i st s" a r gue -i nt he cl e a r e stpr o cl a ma t i o no ft he i r cl a s- si ca la l l e gi a nce s-t ha twha t i t me a ns fo r a n i ndi vi dua lpe r so nt o suffe r a l o ss o f l i b e r t y i s fo r t ha tpe r so nt o b ema de a sl a ve "(Ski nne r 1998,36). Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do ndo co nt r a stl i b e r t y wi t h sl a ve r y b ut t hi s sho ul dno t b et a ke n a s a nuna mb i guo usde cl a r a t i o n o ft he i r co mmi t - me nt t o cl a ssi ca l i de a l s. Sl a ve r y fo r Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do nha do t he r t ha n cl a ssi ca l o r i nde e d po l i t i ca lco nno t a t i o ns. It ca nno t b e st r e sse dt o ost r o ngl y t ha t co nt e xt i s funda - me nt a l t o a nunde r st a ndi ng o fC a t o 'sL e t t e r s. Fo cusi ng o nl i ngui st i ct e r ms i n i so l a t i o nca n, a s Ski nne rkno ws, l e a d t omi sl e a di ng co ncl usi o ns.Whe n Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do nr e fe r t o fr e e do ma nd sl a ve r y i t i s i n t he co nt e xt o f r i ght s. The di ffe r e nceb e t we e na fr e epe o pl ea nda ne nsl a ve d pe o - pl ei s t ha t t he fo r me rpo sse ssco nst i t ut i o na l me cha ni smst opr o t e ctt he i rr i ght s: By t he Bi l l o f Ri ght s, a ndA ct o f Se t t l e me nt , a t t heRe vo l ut i o n; ar i ghti s a sse r t e dt o t hepe o pl e a ppl y- i ng t o t heKi ng a ndt o t hePa r l i a me nt , b ype t i t i o na nd a ddr e ss, fo r a r e dr e ss o f pub l i ckgr i e va nce sa nd mi s-ma na ge me nt s, whe n sucht he r ea r e , o f whi ch t he y a r e l e ft t ojudge ; a ndt he di ffe r e nceb e t we e n fr e e a nde nsl a ve dco unt r i e s l i e spr i nci - pa l l y he r e , t ha t i n t hefo r me r , t he i rma gi st r a t e smust co nsul t t he vo i ce a ndi nt e r e st o ft hepe o - pl e ; b ut i n t hel a t t e r , t hepr i va t ewi l l ,i nt e r e st , a nd pl e a sur eo ft hego ve r no r s, a r e t he so l e e nda nd 18A sHo l me sa r gue s" ma nyl i b e r a l sa ct ua l l y de fi ne dfr e e do m a s se - cur i t y" (1995, 245).595 A NNIEMITC HEL Lmo t i ve s o ft he i r a dmi ni st r a t i o n. (Tr e ncha r d a nd Go r do n1995,I,272) Fo rt he m, a s fo rHume , sl a ve r y a l sor e pr e se nt e d t he e co - no mi c a s we l l a s so ci a l co ndi t i o n o ft he va stma jo r i t y o f Engl i sh me n unde rfe uda l i sm, pr i o rt o t he a dve nt o f t he co mme r ci a l e r a a ndt heco nse que nt i mpr o ve me nti nme n's so ci a l co ndi t i o ns.19Sot o o , i n t he i rvi e w, i t wa s t hee ffe ct i ve st a t us o ft hesub je ct so f po pi sh na t i o ns o r st a t e sdo mi na t e d b ypr i e st cr a fta nd supe r st i t i o n. In o nel e t t e r , whi chco nt r a st sl i b e r t ywi t h sl a ve r y, fr e e do mi s de fi ne di ne co no mi c a nd pe r so na lt e r ms. L i b e r t y wa s t he fr e e do mt ospe nd o ne 'smo ne y i n t hewa y o nepl e a se d a ndt opa sso nt o o ne 's chi l dr e nt hega i nso ne ha da ccumul a t e d: Inde e d l i b e r t y i s t he di vi ne so ur ce o fa l l huma nha ppi ne ss. Topo sse ss, i nse cur i t y, t he e ffe ct s o f o uri ndust r y, i s t he mo stpo we r fula ndr e a so n- a b l e i nci t e me nt t o b e i ndust r i o us:A ndt o b e a b l et opr o vi defo r o urchi l dr e n, a ndt o l e a ve t he ma l lt ha t weha ve , i s t he b e st mo t i ve t ob e ge tt he m.Butwhe r epr o pe r t y i spr e ca r i o us, l a b o urwi l ll a ngui sh. Thepr i vi l e ge so f t hi nki ng,sa yi ng, a nd do i ng wha twepl e a se , a ndo f gr o wi ng a s r i cha s weca n, wi t h- o uta ny o t he rr e st r i ct i o n, t ha n t ha tb y a l l t hi s wehur t no t t hepub l i ck, no r o nea no t he r , a r et hegl o - r i o uspr i vi l e ge so f l i b e r t y; a ndi t se ffe ct s, t o l i vei nfr e e do m, pl e nt y, a nd sa fe t y.(Tr e ncha r d a nd Go r do n1995,I,432, se e a l soI,427) Thepr o vi sot ha t a ma n sho ul dno t hur t t hepub l i co ro t he r i ndi vi dua l s i n t hepr o ce sso f pur sui ng hi s o wn de - si r e ssho ul db e se e ni n t he co nt e xt o ft he So ut hSe a Bub b l ea ffa i r .It sho ul db e r e me mb e r e dt ha t t he L e t t e r swe r e i ni - t i a l l ya i me da tca l l i ngWa l po l e 's mi ni st r yt o t a skfo r i t sma na ge me nto ft he fi na nci a l sca nda l .Fo r Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do nunr e st r a i ne d pur sui to fwe a l t hwa s no tr e pr e he n- si b l e , unl e ss i t i nvo l ve dt hee mpl o yme nto f i l l e ga lme a nsa ndr e sul t e di nt heb a nkr upt cyo f pub l i co rpr i va t epur se s. Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n we r e no t di st ur b e d b y t hei de a o f " de pe nde nce " pe rse , o nl yb yde pe nde nceun- he dge d wi t h sa fe gua r ds. The who l epo i nto f l i b e r t y fo rt he mwa s t ha t me n sho ul db e fr e e t opur suet he i r i ndi - vi dua l a i ms a nd de si r e s, a sl o ng a st he y ha r me dno o nei n t hepr o ce ss.De pe nde ncet he r e fo r e i n o ne se nse wa s e f- fe ct i ve l yapr e co ndi t i o nfo rl i b e r t y.Re pr e se nt a t i ve go ve r n- me nt fr e e dme n fr o mt he b ur de no fa ct i vepa r t i ci pa t i o ni n19Tr e ncha r dce l e b r a t e dt hepr o gr e sso ft he a r t s a ndsci e nce s i n si m- i l a r t e r ms t o t ho se l a t e r use d b yHume .Se e Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n(1995, I,471-76a nd II,628-31). t hepo l i t i ca lo rpub l i c sphe r ea nda l l o we dt he mt o de vo t et he i r t i me a nd e ne r gy t o t he i r o wnpr i va t eco nce r ns: Wha t i sgo ve r nme nt , b ut a t r ust co mmi t t e d b y a l l , o r t hemo st , t oo ne , o r afe w, who a r e t o a t t e nd upo nt he a ffa i r so f a l l , t ha te ve r y o nema y, wi t ht hemo r ese cur i t y, a t t e nd upo nhi s o wn? (Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n1995,I,267) Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'sco nce pto f l i b e r t y i s funda me n- t a l l y a t o dds wi t ht he mo st b a si cco nt e nt i o n o fne o -r o ma ni de o l o gy i de nt i fi e d b y Ski nne r , t ha t " i t i so nl ypo ssi b l et oe sca pefr o m pe r so na lse r vi t ude i f yo ul i ve a s a n a c- t i ve ci t i ze n unde r ar e pr e se nt a t i vefo r mo f go ve r nme nt "(Ski nne r 1998,77). Fo r t he mfr e e do mt i e dt o a l i fe co m- mi t t e dt o a ct i veci t i ze nshi pwo ul dha ve b e e n a co nt r a di c- t i o n i n t e r ms.Int he i r vi e wt heo nl y fo r mo f l i b e r t y wo r t h i t s na me wa s t ha t se cur e d b y co nst i t ut i o na lme cha ni sms, sucha sr e gul a re l e ct i o ns, t heo pe r a t i o no fa fr e epr e ssa nd t hepo we ro f pub l i c o pi ni o n. The r o l e o ft hepe o pl ewa sco nfi ne dt oma i nt a i ni ng avi si b l y wa t chfule yeo n t ho see nt r ust e dwi t h go ve r nme nt ;vo ca l i zi ng t he i rdi spl e a sur ea t a b use s o f po we ra nd pe t i t i o ni ng fo rr e dr e ss; a ndul t i - ma t e l y t opuni shi ng vi a t he b a l l o t b o xt ho sejudge dgui l t y b ypub l i c o pi ni o no f mi sgo ve r nme nt .20 The t r a di t i o nt o whi chTr e ncha r da ndGo r do nb e l o ng i s no t t he ne o -r o ma n b ut t he l i b e r a lr e pub l i ca n. A l i n- e a gewhi chi ncl ude s Ho b b e s(r e pub l i ca na s i n t he Dut ch Ho b b e si a nt r a di t i o n),L o cke ,Ma nde vi l l e ,Hume , a nd Smi t h.A ndi t i s a spa r to ft hi s l i b e r a lr e pub l i ca nt r a - di t i o n t ha tt he yhe l pe dsha pet hepo l i t i ca l t ho ughto f t he A me r i ca nRe vo l ut i o na r yge ne r a t i o n. Whe npa ssa ge so r e nt i r e numb e r s o fC a t o 's L e t t e r s we r equo t e d, o rl i ft e dwi t ho uta t t r i b ut i o n, i n A me r i ca npub l i ca t i o nso rco r r e spo nde nceb e fo r e a nda ft e rInde pe nde nce , i t wa sfr e que nt l y i n de fe nce o fsuch t ypi ca l l y " l i b e r a l "pr i nci pl e sa s fr e e do mo f spe e ch, fr e e do mo ft hepr e ss, a ndfr e e do m o fco nsci e nce .In 1722 Be nja mi nFr a nkl i nr e pr i nt e d i nThe Ne wEngl a nd C o ur a nt no .15o fC a t o 'sL e t t e r s, " Of Fr e e do mo f Spe e ch; The sa me i si nse pa r a b l efr o m pub - l i ck L i b e r t y."It i ncl ude dast i r r i ng de fe nce o ffr e e do mo f spe e ch a nda de fi ni t i o n o f l i b e r t y t ha t i s i n t he t r a di t i o no fL o cke r a t he r t ha n A r i st o t l e(Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n1995,I,110). In asub se que nti ssue o ft he sa mepub l i ca - t i o n, Fr a nkl i nquo t e d a tl e ngt h fr o ma no t he r i ssue o ft heL e t t e r s, o ne whi chi de nt i fi e dse l f-l o ve a s ma n'sst r o nge stpa ssi o na ndt he r o o t o fa l l o t he r s. Ye t , l i ke Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do n, he sa wt ha t t hi st e nde ncy, ma ni fe st e di nt he de si r e20Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n's l i b e r a lr e pub l i ca ni sm a ndwha t Pa t t e nca l l s Ski nne r 's" i nst r ume nt a lr e pub l i ca ni sm" a ppe a r ve r ysi mi l a runt i l o nege t st o t hi sst i cki ngpo i nto fa ct i veci t i ze nshi p. 596A L IBERA L REPUBL IC A N" C A TO"t opur cha sea nd e njo y l uxur i e s, co ul db e a fo r ce fo rgo o d (Fr a nkl i n,1836-40,II,448-49).Jo hnA da ms a t t r i b ut e d t hevi ct o r yo fOl i ve rWo l co t t i n t he C o nne ct i cutgub e r na - t o r i a l e l e ct i o n o f 1817, i n whi cht heca mpa i gni ssue wa s" whe t he rfr e e me nsha l l b e t o l e r a t e di n t he fr e e e xe r ci se o f t he i rr e l i gi o usa nd po l i t i ca l r i ght s,"i npa r tt o t he r e ce ntr e pub l i ca t i o no fTheInde pe nde nt Whi g. " The se Vo l ume s"he wr o t e " ha vepr o duce d a Bur st o f Indi gna t i o n a ga i nstPr i e st cr a ftBi go t r y a nd Int o l l e r a nce , a ndi nco njunct i o nwi t ho t he r ca use s ha vepr o duce d t he l a t e El e ct i o n"(Jo hnA da ms t o Tho ma sJe ffe r so n, 19A pr i l1817,1959,II,510). Mo r e o ve r , t he r e vo l ut i o na r i e s' t hi nki ng ha dno t b e e nsoe nt i r e l yco l o ni ze d b y" C o unt r y" i de o l o gy-whi ch suppo se dl yi nspi r e d t he i r mi nds wi t hvi si o ns o fco n- spi r a cy a nd co r r upt i o n-t ha t t he y co ul dno t a l so i nvo kese l f-i nt e r e st , t he t r a di t i o na lr e fugeo f" C o ur t "a po l o gi st s, i nca l l i ng fo r co l o ni a l se l f-de t e r mi na t i o n.In Ne w Yo r k dur i ng1765l e t t e r swe r epub l i she d i nJo hnHo l t 'sGa ze t t e , t hepr i nci pl e o r ga no fr a di ca lo pi ni o ni n t hepe r i o d o f t heSt a mpA ct , whi chde fe nde dA me r i ca nr i ght s b y fi r sta ppe a l i ng t ol e ga l pr e ce de nta nd t he n, se co ndl y,b y a r - gui ng t ha t t he ser i ght swe r eul t i ma t e l ygr o unde d i n se l f- i nt e r e st . Echo i ng C a t o 'sL e t t e r s, " Fr e e ma n"a r gue d t ha tse l f-i nt e r e stwa s funda me nt a l t o huma nna t ur e a ndt ha t i twa st hepr i nci pl eo n whi ch go ve r nme ntsho ul db ejudge d: Se l f Int e r e st i s t hegr a ndPr i nci pl eo fa l l Huma nA ct i o ns; i t i s unr e a so na b l e a ndva i nt oe xpe ctSe r - vi ce fr o ma Ma nwho must a ctco nt r a r y t o hi s o wnInt e r e st st ope r fo r m i t .No Go ve r nme nt t he r e fo r eca n b e wi se o rgo o d, unl e ss t he Int e r e st so fIndi - vi dua l s i s ma de co -i nci de nt wi t ht he Int e r e st o f t he Pub l i ck.Wema yde mo nst r a t e t hi s fr o mt hedi vi neOe co no my: We fi ndt he C r e a t o r ha s l a i d i nt e l l i ge ntC r e a t ur e sunde r suchna t ur a ll a ws, t ha tno i ndi vi dua l ca n a ctco nt r a r y t o t he Int e r e st o f t he Pub l i ckwi t ho uti njur i ng hi mse l fi n t he sa mePr o po r t i o n. A ndt hepub l i ckHa ppi ne ssi s t he n i nt he mo stpe r fe ctSt a t e , whe n e a chIndi vi dua l a ct st he mo sta gr e e a b l y t o hi s o wn Int e r e st .Thi so ughtt o b e t he Mo de l o fa l l Huma n Go ve r nme nt . (Ne wYo r k Ga ze t t e ,4 A pr i l1765, quo t e d i nFr i e dma n, 1970,789-90). Thea r gume ntwa s co nt i nue di n fur t he r l e t t e r s a ndco n- cl ude dt wo mo nt hsl a t e r , i nJune 1765, wi t h" Fr e e ma n"r e a so ni ng t ha t si nce t he i nt e r e st s o fBr i t a i n a ndhe rA me r i ca n co l o ni e s co ul dno t b e ma de t o co i nci de t heco nne ct i o n b e t we e n t he msho ul db e se ve r e d.Inpr e ssi ng t hi s de ma ndfo r t her i ghtt ol i b e r t y b a se do n t he uni ve r - sa l l a w o fse l f-i nt e r e st Tr e ncha r d'se ssa y " OfPl a nt a t i o nswa s na t ur a l fo r aco l o ny t o se e k i nde pe nde ncefr o mi t smo t he rco unt r y o nce i t nol o nge rde r i ve d a ny b e ne fi tfr o mt her e l a t i o nshi p. Thi spr i nci pl eo f o ve r r i di ng se l f- i nt e r e st i nfo r me dt hefr e que nta nd ungua r de d a l l usi o nst oi nde pe nde ncewhi ch a ppe a r e d i n t he co l o ni a lpr e ssi nt hee nsui ng mo nt hs o ft heSt a mpA ct cr i si s.The Ne wYo r k Jo ur na l ce l e b r a t e d se l f-i nt e r e st , o r " se l f Pr e se r va t i o n,se l f- l o ve ,"a s" t e ndi ng i n t hehi ghe st de gr e et o t hege ne r a lBe ne fi t o ft he Who l e a nd e ve r y Pa r t "(Ne wYo r k Jo ur na l , 19Ma r ch 1767, quo t e d i nFr i e dma n,1970,792). In do - i ng so i t e ndo r se dt het e a chi ng o fC a t o 'sL e t t e r s, l o o ki ng t ose l f-i nt e r e st , r a t he r t ha nse l f-sa cr i fi ci ng vi r t ue ,a s t hefo unda t i o n o f l i b e r t y. Pub l i cvi r t ue , a ndt he sa cr i fi ce o fi ndi vi dua l i nt e r e st st o t hegr e a t e r go o d o ft he who l e ,ho we ve r ,i s me a nt t oha ve fo r me dt he co r ne r st o ne o fA me r i ca npo l i t i ca lt hi nk- i ngt hr o ugho utt heRe vo l ut i o na r y e r a , o r a t l e a st unt i lt he C o nst i t ut i o n.Re vi si o ni str e pub l i ca nhi st o r i a ns, whoge ne r a l l ya gr e eo n t hepr e -e mi ne nt po si t i o n o ccupi e db y t he cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca no r ci vi chuma ni stpa r a di gm i nt hepo l i t i ca l i de o l o gy o f e i ght e e nt h-ce nt ur y A me r i ca , di ffe rt oso mede gr e ea st o t hepo i nta t whi chi t s do mi na nceb e ga nt o wa ne .21Ye t e ve ne a r l y i n t hece nt ur y i t wo ul d a ppe a rt ha tma ny o ft he i de a l s whi ch sha pe d t hepo l i t i ca lt hi nk- i ng o ft heFo undi ng Fa t he r sha dl i t t l e t o do wi t hcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca npr i nci pl e sa ndt ha t t he sei de a l s, l i b e r a l i n na - t ur e , we r epo pul a r l y t r a nsmi t t e di nt he wo r ko fTr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n. One vo ca l cr i t i c o f r e pub l i ca nr e vi si o ni sm, Jo yceA ppl e b y, ha s a t t a cke dPo co ckfo r hi sa ppl i ca t i o no fana r r o wa nt hr o po l o gi ca l l y b a se d me t ho do l o gy t ha t fa i l st oa ckno wl e dget he i nva r i a b l e co e xi st e nce o fapl ur a l - i t y o fdi sco ur se s wi t hi n aco mpl e x,so phi st i ca t e dso ci e t y (se eA ppl e b y 1985,469).22 He r o wn i nst r uct i ve e xa mi - na t i o n o ft heco mpe t i ngl a ngua ge swhi chcha r a ct e r i ze d se ve nt e e nt h-ce nt ur yEngl a nd ha s fo cuse do n t ha t o ft hema r ke te co no my. Eco no mi c l i t e r a t ur e o ft hepe r i o d, shea r gue s, se t o utpr i nci pl e sfo r agr o wt h i n na t i o na l we a l t h whi cha ssume dt ha t ma r ke t r e l a t i o nspo sse sse d a n o r de r21Whe r e a s Wo o d a r gue st ha t t he de fe a to ft he A nt i -Fe de r a l i st ssa wt he a b a ndo nme nto ft he cl a ssi ca lt he o r y o f po l i t i cs, Po co ck po st - po ne si t s de mi se t o so me de ca de sl a t e r a nddi sco ve r si t st i l l a l i vea nd pr e se nta s t hea ni ma t i ng fo r ce o fJe ffe r so ni a nRe pub l i ca ni sm. Se e Wo o d (1969,606) a ndPo co ck (1972b ,134). 22A ppl e b y'scr i t i ci sm i s a va l i d o ne ,a l t ho ugh he r a ccusa t i o ni s no tst r i ct l y a ccur a t e .Po co ckha sco nce de dt hepo ssi b i l i t y, i nde e d pr o b - a b i l i t y, o ft hepr e se nceo fapl ur a l i t y o f l a ngua ge swi t hi naco mpl e x pl ur a l so ci e t y.Ne ve r t he l e ss,he ha sa t t he sa met i me ,no t l e a st whe nmo r er e ce nt l yr e vi si t i ng t hesub je ct , r e i nfo r ce dt he no t i o n o ft hesupr e ma cy o ft he cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca npa r a di gm. Se e Po co ck (1983, e spe ci a l l y239-40).Mo r e o ve r ,t he t o l e r a nce Po co cka l l o wsi nt he o r y t o t he i de a o fr i va ll a ngua ge si s o ft e no ve r l o o ke d b yt ho se who ha vea ndC o l o ni e s" wa squo t e d a tl e ngt h, t o i l l ust r a t e t ha t i t597 e mb r a ce dcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm a s a fo r mo f o r t ho do xy. A NNIEMITC HEL Lb a se do n t hedr i vi ng fo r ce s o fhuma n na t ur e a ndt ha ti ndi vi dua l e co no mi c fr e e do mfur t he r e dco nsi st e nt co m- me r ci a lde ve l o pme nt . Whi l st i t se l do m di r e ct l y a ddr e sse d po l i t i ca li ssue s, t hi s l i t e r a t ur epr e se nt e d a mo de l o fe co - no mi cr e l a t i o ns, st r uct ur e do n t he i de a t ha t e co no mi cl a ws we r ea na l o go ust ophysi ca ll a ws, t ha t ha d pr o fo und i mpl i ca t i o nsfo r t he o r i e s o fso ci a lo r de r , so ve r e i gnt y, i ndi - vi dua l fr e e do ma nd r i ght s, a ndt her e l a t i o nshi pb e t we e nna t ur a l a nd po si t i vel a w.Tr a nsmi t t e dt o t he A me r i ca nco l o ni e s, A ppl e b ya r gue s, t hi s t r a di t i o no f t ho ught he l pe d fo st e r aco mpe t i ngi de o l o gy t o t ha t o fcl a ssi ca lr e pub - l i ca ni sm.It co nce i ve do fhuma n na t ur e a ndt he co ndi - t i o ns o fso ci a lst a b i l i t y i nqui t edi ffe r e nt t e r ms a nda r - t i cul a t e da ne w so ci a lr e a l i t yi n whi cht hese l f-se e ki ng dr i vea ppe a r e d mo r epo we r fult ha n i nst i t ut i o na l e ffo r t st o mo ul dme n's a ct i o ns(se e A ppl e b y 1992, e spe ci a l l y 171-76). Ho we ve rA ppl e b y,fo l l o wi ngKr a mni ck, r e ga r dsTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n a s cl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ns, who r e - je ct e d ma t e r i a lpr o gr e ssb e ca use i t wa s no t fo unde do nvi r t ue(A ppl e b y 1992,181). She fa i l s t or e co gni zet ha t o nt heco nt r a r yt he y, l i keMa nde vi l l e , we r e i n t he sa me t r a di - t i o n a sDudl e y No r t h,Jo hnHo ught o n, Ni cho l a sBa r b o n, a ndt he o t he rse ve nt e e nt h-ce nt ur y e co no mi c co mme nt a - t o r s she ha s cho se n t ocha mpi o n. Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do nwe r e " mo de r ns" who ce l e b r a t e dma t e r i a lpr o gr e ssa nd vi e we dco mme r ci a lso ci e t y a s a na t ur a lde ve l o pme nta r i s- i ng o ut o fma n's na t ur e a s a cr e a t ur e o fl i mi t l e ss de si r e s. Go r do n co ul da l mo st b ee cho i ng Ba r b o n, o r i nde e da n- t i ci pa t i ng Smi t h, whe n he wr o t e t ha t ma n wa s a cr e a t ur eo fi nsa t i a b l ea ppe t i t e sa ndt ha t t he mo r e hea cqui r e d t hemo r e he wa nt e d.23Ye t fa r fr o m co nde mni ng t hi s t r a i t i nma n, whi chme a nt t ha t he co ul dne ve r fe e lt r ul y sa t i sfi e d, Go r do na ppl a ude d i t a s a mo t o r fo rpr o gr e ss,fo r wa r di ng t he co ur se o fci vi l i sa t i o n: A s so o n a s me n a r e fr e e dfr o mt hei mpo r t uni t i e so f hunge ra nd co l d; t het ho ught sa ndde si r e o f co nve ni e ncy, pl e nt y, o r na me nt , a nd po l i t e ne ss, dopr e se nt l y succe e d:a ndt he n fo l l o wa ft e r , i nve r y qui ckpr o gr e ssi o n, e mul a t i o n,a mb i t i o n, pr o fu- si o n, a ndt he l o ve o f po we r : a nda l lt he se , unde rpr o pe r r e gul a t i o ns, co nt r i b ut e , t o t heha ppi ne ss, we a l t ha nd se cur i t y o fso ci e t i e s. (Tr e ncha r d a nd Go r do n1995,I,473;Ba r b o nwr o t e i nsi mi l a rve i n, se e1690,15) But Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n we ntb e yo ndme r e l y l i nk- i ngpsycho l o gi ca ldr i ve s t opr o duct i vea ct i vi t i e s.Unl i ke23He r e Go r do nwa s,o f co ur se ,a l soe cho i ng Ho b b e s.Se eHo b b e s(1985,129-30).A ppl e b y t r a ce s at r a je ct o r y fr o mse ve nt e e nt h- Ba r b o n,No r t h, a nd A ppl e b y'so t he rfr e e -ma r ke t e e r s, t he y we r ee xpl i ci t l ypo l i t i ca lwr i t e r sa nd, dr a wi ng o n t hee pi s- t e mo l o gi ca l phi l o so phy o f L o cke , t he ypr o vi de d a r a t i o - na l e fo r i ndi vi dua lr i ght sb a se do n ma n'sl i mi t e d ca pa ci t y fo rkno wl e dge . Si nce , t he y co nt e nde d, no ma no rgr o upo f me n ca nb e i nfa l l i b l e o r ha veamo no po l y o nt het r ut h, fr e ee xe r ci se o ft heb a l l o t , fr e espe e ch, fr e e do mo ft hepr e ss, a nd fr e e do mo fco nsci e nce we r e a l lr i ght st ha t co ul d no t , wi t h- o uti njust i ce , b e de ni e d.Thepo l i t i ca li de a swhi ch A ppl e b y fi ndsi mpl i ci ti n t he e co no mi ct he o r y o ft he se ve nt e e nt h- ce nt ur y fr e e -ma r ke t e e r s, a ndwhi chshea r gue s he l pe d sha pea n A me r i ca nl i b e r a li de o l o gy, a r e ma dee xpl i ci ti nt hewr i t i ngso fTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n. Mo r e o ve r , A ppl e b y fa i l s t oe xpl a i nho w t he i de a se xpr e sse d i n t he e co no mi cl i t e r a t ur eo f se ve nt e e nt h-ce nt ur yEngl a nd we r eco nve ye d t o t he A me r i ca n co l o ni e s o ft hee i ght e e nt hce nt ur y a nd ga i ne d co mmo ncur r e ncy. Shepr o vi de sno e vi de nce t ha tNo r t h, Ho ught o na nd Ba r b o n, o r e a r l i e r wr i t e r s sucha sMun a nd Mi sse l do n, i nfl ue nce dt he co l o ni st s.On t heo t he rha nd, a sa l r e a dy no t e d, t he r e i sa mpl ee vi de nce t ha tC a t o 'sL e t t e r swe r ewi de l y r e a d t hr o ugho uta l l t hi r t e e nco l o ni e s a ndwhi l st t hi sr e a de r shi pma y ha ve b e e n l i t - t l ea cqua i nt e d wi t ht he e co no mi c l i b e r a l i smo f A ppl e b y'sunsung he r o e s o f se ve nt e e nt h-ce nt ur yEngl a nd, i t wo ul d ha ve di sco ve r e d t he sa me fr e e t r a de a nda nt i -b ul l i o ni st a r - gume nt sfo r wa r de d b y Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do na nd, t i e dt ot he se , a de fe nce o f po l i t i ca ll i b e r a l i sm (se eTr e ncha r da nd Go r do n1995,I, 442-50a nd II,626-37). Tr e ncha r de ve na dva nce d a ne co no mi ca r gume ntdr a wnfr o mhuma n na - t ur e t o wa r n Br i t a i na ga i nst o ve r b ur de ni ng he r co l o ni e swi t ht a xe s a nd st r i ppi ng t he mo ft he i r we a l t h-a na r gu- me nt , a sa l r e a dy sho wn, whi chwa s t a ke nb yupA me r i ca nr e vo l ut i o na r i e s. The b e stpo l i cy, hea r gue d, wa s no t t o usevi o l e ncea ga i nst b ur ge o ni ng co l o ni e s, o r t opr o vo ket he m i nt ose t t i ng t he mse l ve supa s t r a der i va l s, b ut t o " i mi - t a t e t hee xa mpl eo fme r cha nt sa nd sho pke e pe r s"a ndt a ket he mi nt opa r t ne r shi p(se eTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n1995, II,753). C o mme r ce wa s a l so t i e dfo r Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do n, a s i t wa s fo r t he de l a C o ur tb r o t he r s, wi t h r e pub l i ca ngo v- e r nme nt a nd r e l i gi o ust o l e r a t i o n.24 Pe r ha psb e ca use o f sha r e d pr e o ccupa t i o nswi t h l i b e r t y, de fi ne d b y t o l e r a t i o n24Se e Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n(1995,I,442-50a nd 462-71).Ka yeno t e sMa nde vi l l e 'ssi mi l a rpa i r i ngo f r e l i gi o usa nd co mme r ci a l fr e e - do m.Se e Ma nde vi l l e(1988,I,xci x). Go r do na ppe a r st o ha veb e e na cqua i nt e d wi t hPi e t e rde l a C o ur t 'sThe Tr ue Int e r e st a ndPo l i t i ca lMa xi mso ft heRe pub l i cko fHo l l a nd a ndWe st -Fr i e sl a nd (1702)(t he na t t r i b ut e dt oJa ndeWi t t ), t o whi chhe r e fe r si nt he St . Ja me s'sJo ur - na l ,13A ugust1723.A t r a nsl a t i o no fde l a C o ur t 'sFa b l e smo r a l a nd po l i t i ca l a ppe a r e d t hefo l l o wi ng ye a r , i n 1703.It i s no tunl i ke l y t ha ta sme mb e r so ft he Gr e ci a nInnco t e r i e , whi ch ha dl i nkswi t hr a di ca lDut ch ci r cl e st hr o ughA nt ho ny C o l l i nsa nd Jo hnTo l a nd,Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do nwe r ea wa r e o ft he de l a C o ur t s'o t he rwo r ks, i ncl udi ng ce nt ur y e co no mi st st o A da mSmi t h.Se eA ppl e b y(1984,25-50).598 Po l i t i ca l Di sco ur se sa ndPo l i t i ca l Ba l a nce .Se eJa co b (1981,142-76, A L IBERA L REPUBL IC A N" C A TO"a ndt hepr i ma cy o fci vi l r a t he r t ha n e ccl e si a st i ca l a u- t ho r i t y, Ho b b e spr o ve d a s se r vi ce a b l e t o Dut ch r e pub - l i ca ns a s he di dt o t ho se a tho me , sucha s Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do n.25In t he 1650s a nd1660sJo ha na ndPi e t e r del a C o ur t a ndo t he r s ha duse dHo b b e s's wo r ks i n o r - de r t o co unt e r t he mo na r chi st b i a s i nhe r e nt i n o r t ho do x C a l vi ni sma ndi nsuppo r to ft he i rpo si t i o no n t heuni t a r y na t ur eo f so ve r e i gnpo we ra nd, co nse que nt l y, t he r e l a t i o n- shi pb e t we e n C hur cha ndst a t e .26L i keHo b b e s, t he de l aC o ur t s vi e we dma n a si nhe r e nt l y se l fi sh.Thest a t e , t he r e - fo r e , ha dt o funct i o n a sa ni nde pe nde ntme cha ni sm-t hewhe e l s o fwhi chco ul d o pe r a t ewi t ho ut t he o i l o fvi r t ue - ca pa b l eo f co nt r o l l i ng a nd cha nne l l i ng t hepa ssi o nso f go ve r no r sa nd go ve r ne d so t ha t b o t hwe r eco mpe l l e d,b y r e a so no rfo r ce , t oi de nt i fy t he i rpr i va t ei nt e r e st wi t ht ha to ft hepub l i ci nt e r e st . C o nt r a r y t oHo b b e s,ho we ve r , t hede l a C o ur t s b e l i e ve dar e pub l i ca nfo r mo f go ve r nme ntwa s t he mo st e ffe ct i ve me a ns o f a chi e vi ng t hi s e nd (se edel a C o ur t1702,2). Fo rt he m, a sfo r Tr e ncha r da nd Go r do n, ar e pub l i cwa s t he b e st fo r mo f go ve r nme ntfo r ma n a s hewa s; no t b e ca use i nr ul i ng a nd b e i ng r ul e dhee xpr e sse d t hede fi ni ng cha r a ct e r i st i cso fwha t i t wa s t o b e a ma nb ut b e - ca use ar e pub l i cco nst i t ut e dt heo nl y me a ns o f r e st r a i ni ng ma n'so t he r wi seungo ve r na b l e pa ssi o ns. The de l aC o ur t s, who wr o t ee xt e nsi ve l y o n e co no mi cma t t e r s, he l dt ha tco mme r ce fl o ur i she dmo st i nr e pub l i csa nd a r gue d, a sTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n we r e l a t e r t odo , t ha t a co mme r - ci a lr e pub l i cwa s mo st sui t e dt o ma n's na t ur e .It a l l o we d pl a y t o hi s do mi na nt a nd i ne xt i ngui sha b l e pa ssi o n, t hefo unt a i nhe a do fa l l o t he rpa ssi o ns, se l f-l o ve , whi l stke e p- i ng i t wi t hi nb o undsb y me a ns o fa co nst i t ut i o na l a nd l e ga l150-51,230) a ndC o l i e(1959). Ja co br a t he r o ve r st a t e st he i de o - l o gi ca l si gni fi ca nceo fsci e nce i n t hee i ght e e nt hce nt ur y. Shea l so , mi st a ke nl y,a t t e mpt st opr e se ntt he Gr e ci a nInn " b r o t he r ho o d"a spo l i t i ca lr a di ca l swi t hde mo cr a t i cl e a ni ngs.Wha t i s no t e wo r - t hy, ho we ve r , i s t ha t Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do n'sco nne ct i o nwi t ht hi sA ngl o -Dut ch ne t wo r k ga vet he ma cce sst o a di ffe r e nt t r a di t i o no f t ho ughtt o t ha t o fcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm,t ha ti s, t o t he na t ur a l l a wt r a di t i o no fL o cke a ndHo b b e sme di a t e d t hr o ugh t he de l a C o ur t sa nd Spi no za . Thi st r a di t i o na l l o we dt he mt o co nce i veo far e pub l i cb ui l t no t o n vi r t ue b ut o n se l f-i nt e r e st . 25Hi gh C hur ch cl e r gy, l i ke t ho se o ft he C hur cho f Ro me , we r ese e nb y Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do na s api l l a ra ndchi e f suppo r to fa b so l ut emo na r chy.The y sa wt her e l a t i o nshi pb e t we e n C hur cha ndst a t ea s aco nspi r a cy t oo ppr e sst hepe o pl e , whe r e b y t heco co nspi r a t o r scl a i me d a ut ho r i t y o n t he b a si s o fa " di vi ne co mmi ssi o n."The y a r gue d fo r a st r i ctse pa r a t i o nb e t we e nC hur cha ndst a t ea nda wi det o l e r a t i o n.Se eJo hnTr e ncha r da ndTho ma s Go r do n(1732,118- 19,226,228,254-55). Fo r a n e xt e nde d st udy o ft hei mpo r t a nceo f r e l i gi o usl i b e r t y t o t het ho ughto fTr e ncha r da ndGo r do nse eMi t che l l(2002). 26The y we r ea nxi o us, l i keHo b b e s, t ha t t he na t i o na lC hur chhi e r a r - chy sho ul dno t r i va lt hepo we ro ft he se cul a ra ut ho r i t y.Ho we ve r , t he y wo ul dha ver e je ct e dhi s vi e wt ha t me n sho ul dco nfo r mt o t hefr a me wo r k. Mo r e o ve r , at hr i vi ng co mme r ce wa s l i nke di nt he i ra r gume nt s, a s i n t ho se o fTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n,t or e l i gi o ust o l e r a t i o n.The de l a C o ur t s he l dt ha t t heo nl y co nse que nceo f pe r se cut i o nwa s t o dr i ve o ut use ful co m- muni t i e s, who wo ul dt r a nsfe r t he i r t a l e nt s a ndwe a l t ht omo r e t o l e r a nt r i va lt r a di ng na t i o ns. C l e a r l y, Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n di dno t ha r b o ra ny mi sgi vi ngsa b o ut co mme r ce .It i sdi ffi cul t ,t he r e fo r e ,t ose e ho wt he e nt husi a st i ce ndo r se me nt o f o pe nco mme r ci a la ndfi na nci a l ma r ke t so ne fi nds i n C a t o 'sL e t t e r ssqua r e swi t ht her e pub l i ca nr e vi si o ni st i de nt i fi ca t i o no fapa r a di g- ma t i ca t t i t ude o fa mb i va l e nce t o wa r d co mme r ce ,a ndo ut - r i ght a nt i pa t hy t o wa r dt he fi na nci a l fr a me wo r kwhi ch fa ci l i t a t e di t sgr o wt h. Wo o di s i nco r r e ct t oa r guet ha tTr e ncha r da ndGo r do n" e xpr e sse d ade e pa ndb i t t e r ho s- t i l i t y"t o t he ne wso ci a l ,e co no mi c, a nd po l i t i ca lo r de rwhi ch e me r ge d a ft e r 1688 (Wo o d1993,101).The y a c- ce pt e d co mme r ce , a ndt he fi na nci a l i nst r ume nt s a sso ci - a t e dwi t h i t , a s t he b a si s o fBr i t a i n's we a l t ha nd gr e a t - ne ss.Ra t he r t ha nde no unci ng t hecha ngefr o mo l dt o ne wfo r ms o f pr o pe r t yb r o ughta b o utb y t he fi na nci a l r e vo l u- t i o n, Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do ne nt husi a st i ca l l ysuppo r t e d t he t r a nsi t i o n.The i r s wa s apr a gma t i ca na l ysi swhi chfa rfr o m r e je ct i ng t he ne we co no mi ca ge a ppl a ude d t he b e ne - fi t s i tb r o ughtt he na t i o n. The ype r ce i ve d co mme r ce a s a ne xpr e ssi o no fo ne o ft he na t ur a lr i ght so fma n-r a nke d wi t hfr e e do mo fco nsci e nce a ndfr e e do mo f spe e ch a nd i nt i ma t e l y b o undwi t hb o t h-ma n'sr i ghtt oa cqui r ea nd di spo seo f pr o pe r t y fr e e fr o m co nst r a i nt , e xce ptwhe r e hepr e judi ce d t hee qua l r i ghto fa no t he r t ob e l i e ve , spe a k, o ra ct a s hepl e a se d(Tr e ncha r d a ndGo r do n1995,I,429). Wha t Tr e ncha r da ndGo r do no b je ct e d t o whe nt he y cr i t - i ci se dt heha ndl i ng o ft he So ut hSe a sca nda l wa s t ha tgo ve r nme ntha dno t a l l o we da l e ve lpl a yi ng fi e l d, i npe r - mi t t i ng t ho se cl o se t o C o ur t t oma ni pul a t et he ma r ke ta ndt he ne sca pewi t ho utpuni shme nt .The y we r espe a k- i ng o uta ga i nst co r r upt i o nb ut a l so o n b e ha l fo f o r di na r y sha r e ho l de r s.It wa s no t t ha tt he y we r eo ppo se d t o t hema r ke t i t se l fb ut t o t hego ve r nme nt 'sfa i l ur e t opo l i cei ta de qua t e l y. A s r e a l i st st he ya r gue d no t fo r a r e t r e a ti nt o apa st go l de n a geo f vi r t ue , o r fo re xpe r i me nt si ngo ve r n- me ntde si gne d t o cr e a t e a fut ur eut o pi a , b ut fo rpr e se ntvi gi l a nce . Ho we ve r , whi l st r e vi si o ni st hi st o r i a ns ha vepr o ve d r e l uct a nt t oa ckno wl e dget ho sea spe ct so fC a t o 'sL e t t e r swhi ch sugge sta n a l t e r na t i vepa r a di gm t o t ha t o fcl a ssi ca lr e pub l i ca ni sm, mo de r nda y a dvo ca t e so ffr e e ma r ke tca p- i t a l i sma ndl i mi t e d go ve r nme ntha