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History

A container shipbeing loaded by aportainercrane in Copenhagen Harbour

Twistlocks which capture and constrain containers. Forkliftsdesigned to handle

containers have similar devices.

The introduction of containers resulted in vast improvements in port handling efficiency,thus lowering costs and helping lower freight charges and, in turn, boosting trade flows.[citation needed] Almost every manufactured product humans consume spends some time in a

container.[dubiousdiscuss]

[edit] Origins

Although having its origins in the late 1780s or earlier, the global standardisation ofcontainers and container handling equipment was one of the important innovations in

20th century logistics.

By the 1830s,railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be

transferred to trucks or ships, but these containers were invariably small by today'sstandards. Originally used for shipping coal on and off barges, 'loose boxes' were used to

containerize coal from the late 1780s, on places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the

1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones. The early 1900s saw the adoptionof closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail.

In the United Kingdom, several railway companies were using similar containers by the

beginning of the 20th century and in the 1920s theRailway Clearing House standardised

the RCH container. Five or ten-foot long, wooden and non-stackable, these early standardcontainers were a great success but the standard remained UK-specific.

From 1926 to 1947, in the US, the Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railway carried

motor carrier vehicles and shippers' vehicles loaded on flatcars betweenMilwaukee,
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Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois. Beginning in 1929,Seatrain Lines carried railroad

boxcarson its sea vessels to transport goods between New York and Cuba. In the mid-

1930s, theChicago Great Western Railway and then the New Haven Railroad began"piggy-back" service (transporting highway freight trailers on flatcars) limited to their

own railroads. By 1953, the CB&Q, the Chicago and Eastern Illinoisand the Southern

Pacificrailroads had joined the innovation. Most cars were surplus flatcars equipped withnew decks. By 1955, an additional 25 railroads had begun some form of piggy-back

trailer service.

Toward the end of World War II, the United States Army began using specialized

containers to speed up the loading and unloading of transport ships. The army used theterm "transporters" to identify the containers, for shipping household goods of officers in

the field. A "Transporter" was a reusable container, 8.5 feet (2.6 m) long, 6.25 feet

(1.91 m) wide, and 6.83 feet (2.08 m) high, made of rigid steel with a carrying capacity of9,000 pounds. During theKorean Warthe transporter was evaluated for handling

sensitive military equipment, and proving effective, was approved for broader use. Theft

of material and damage to wooden crates, in addition to handling time, bystevedoresatthe Port of Pusan,[citation needed] proved to the army that steel containers were needed. In 1952the army began using the term CONEX, short for "Container Express". The first major

shipment of CONEXes (containing engineering supplies and spare parts) were shipped by

rail from the Columbus General Depot in Georgia to the Port of San Francisco, then byship toYokohama, Japan, and then to Korea, in late 1952. Shipment times were cut

almost in half. By the time of the Vietnam Warthe majority of supplies and materials

were shipped with the CONEX. After the U.S. Department of Defensestandardized an8'8' cross section container in multiples of 10' lengths for military use it was rapidly

adopted for shipping purposes.[1][2]

These standards were adopted in the United Kingdom for containers and rapidlydisplaced the older wooden containers in the 1950s.[citation needed]

Even the railways of the USSRhad their own small containers. [3]

[edit] Purpose-built ships

Containers waiting at the South Korean port ofBusan.

Main article: Container ship

The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers began operation in Denmark in 1951.In the U.S. ships began carrying containers betweenSeattleand Alaska in 1951. The
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regulatory oversight was cut back (and later abolished in 1995), trucking and rail were

deregulated in the 1970s and maritime rates were deregulated in 1984.[8]

[edit] Today

A converted container used as an office at abuilding site.

Containerization has revolutionized cargo shipping. Today, approximately 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide moves by containers stacked on transport ships [9]; 26% of all

containers originate from China.[citation needed] As of 2005, some 18 million total containers

make over 200 million trips per year. There are ships that can carry over 14,500 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU), for example theEmma Mrsk, 396 m long, launched August

2006. It has even been predicted that, at some point, container ships will be constrained in

size only by the depth of the Straits of Malaccaone of the world's busiest shipping

laneslinking the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. This so-called Malaccamax sizeconstrains a ship to dimensions of 470 m in length and 60 m wide (1542 feet by 197 feet).[6]

However, few initially foresaw the extent of the influence containerization would bring to

the shipping industry. In the 1950s, Harvard University economist Benjamin Chinitzpredicted that containerization would benefit New York by allowing it to ship industrial

goods produced there more cheaply to the Southern United States than other areas, but

did not anticipate that containerization might make it cheaper to import such goods fromabroad. Most economic studies of containerization merely assumed that shipping

companies would begin to replace older forms of transportation with containerization, but

did not predict that the process of containerization itself would have some influence onproducers and the extent of trading.[6]

The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven modifications in other freight-

moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies orswap bodies into the

standard sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), andchanging completely the worldwide use of freightpallets that fit into ISO containers or

into commercial vehicles.
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Improved cargo security is also an important benefit of containerization. The cargo is not

visible to the casual viewer and thus is less likely to be stolen and the doors of the

containers are generally sealed so that tampering is more evident. This has reduced the"falling off the truck" syndrome that long plagued the shipping industry.

Use of the same basic sizes of containers across the globe has lessened the problemscaused by incompatible rail gauge sizes in different countries. The majority of the rail

networks in the world operate on a 1,435 mm (4 ft 812 in) gauge track known asstandardgauge but many countries (such as Russia, India, Finland, and Spain) usebroader gaugeswhile many other countries in Africa and South America usenarrower gaugeson their

networks. The use of container trains in all these countries makes trans-shipment between

different gauge trains easier.

[edit] ISO standard

[edit] Shipping container

Main article: Intermodal freight shipping container

There are five common standard lengths, 20-ft (6.1 m), 40-ft (12.2 m), 45-ft (13.7 m), 48-

ft (14.6 m), and 53-ft (16.2 m). United States domestic standard containers are generally

48 ft (15 m) and 53-ft (rail and truck). Container capacity is often expressed in twenty-

foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). An equivalent unit is a measure ofcontainerized cargo capacity equal to one standard 20 ft (length) 8 ft (width) container.

As this is an approximate measure, the height of the box is not considered, for instance

the 9 ft 6 in (2.9 m)High cube and the 4-ft 3-in (1.3 m) half height20 ft (6.1 m)containers are also called one TEU.

The maximum gross mass for a 20 ft (6.1 m) dry cargo container is 30,480 kg, and for a

40-ft (including the 2.87 m (9 ft 6 in) high cube container), it is 34,000 kg. Allowing for

the tare mass of the container, the maximum payload mass is therefore reduced toapproximately 28,380 kg for 20 ft (6.1 m), and 30,100 kg for 40 ft (12 m) containers.[10]

The original choice of 8 foot height for ISO containers was made in part to suit a large

proportion of railway tunnels, though some had to be deepened. With the arrival of even

taller containers, further enlargement is proving necessary. [11]

[edit] Air freight containers
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A number of LD-designation Unit Load Device containers

Main article: Unit Load Device

While major airlines use containers that are custom designed for their aircraft and

associated ground handling equipment theIATAhas created a set of standard containersizes, the LD-designation sizes are shown below:

DesignationWidth

(in)

Height

(in)

Depth

(in)

Base

(In)

Max load

(lb)

Max load

(kg)Shape

LD-1 92.0 64.0 60.4 61.5 3500 ~1588 Type A

LD-2 61.5 64.0 47.0 61.5 2700 ~1225 Type ALD-3 79.0 64.0 60.4 61.5 3500 ~1588 Type A

LD-4 96.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 5400 ~2449 Rectangular

LD-5 125.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 7000 ~3175 Rectangular

LD-6 160.0 64.0 60.4 125.0 7000 ~3175 Type B

LD-7 125.0 64.0 80.0 n/a 13300 ~6033Rect. or

Contoured

LD-8 125.0 64.0 60.4 96.0 5400 ~2449 Type B

LD-9 125.0 64.0 80.0 n/a 13300 ~6033Rect. or

Contoured

LD-10 125.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 7000 ~3175 ContouredLD-11 125.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 7000 ~3175 Rectangular

LD-29 186.0 64.0 88.0 125.0 13300 ~6033 Type B

LD-1, -2, -3, -4, and -8 are those most widely used, together with the rectangular M3

containers.

[edit] Load Securing in containers

Application incontainer

Polyester Strapping and Dunnage Bag Polyester Lashing
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application Application

There are many different ways and materials available to stabilize and secure cargo in

containers used in all modes oftransportation. Conventional Load Securing methods and

materials such as steel banding and wood blocking & bracing have been around fordecades and are still widely used. Present Load Securingmethods offer several, relatively

new and unknown options that have become available through innovation and

technological advancement including polyester strapping and -lashing, syntheticwebbings and Dunnage Bags, also known as air bags or inflatable bags.

[edit] Issues

[edit] Increased efficiency

Although there have been few direct correlations made between containers and job

losses, there are a number of texts associating job losses at least in part withcontainerization. A 1998 study of post-containerization employment at United Statesports found that container cargo could be moved nearly twenty times faster than pre-

container break bulk.[12]The new system of shipping also allowed for freight

consolidating jobs to move from the waterfront to points far inland, which also decreasedthe number of waterfront jobs.

[edit] Additional fuel costs

Containerisation increases the fuel costs of transport and reduces the capacity of thetransport as the container itself must be shipped around not just the goods. For certain

bulk products this makes containerisation unattractive. For most goods the increased fuel

costs and decreased transport efficiencies are currently more than offset by the handlingsavings.[citation needed] On railway the capacity of the container is far from its maximum

weight capacity, and the weight of a railcar must be transported with not so much goods.

In some areas (mostly USA and Canada) containers are double stacked, but this is usuallynot possible in other countries.

[edit] Hazards

Containers have been used to smuggle contraband. The vast majority of containers are

never subjected to scrutiny due to the large number of containers in use. In recent years

there have been increased concerns that containers might be used to transport terrorists or

terrorist materials into a country undetected. The U.S. government has advanced theContainer Security Initiative (CSI), intended to ensure that high-risk cargo is examined or

scanned, preferably at the port of departure.

[edit] Empty containers
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Containers are intended to be used constantly, being loaded with new cargo for new

destination soon after having emptied of previous cargo. This is not always possible, and

in some cases, the cost of transporting an empty container to a place where it can be usedis considered to be higher than the worth of the used container. Shipping lines and

Container Leasing Companies have become expert at repositioning empty containers

from areas of low or no demand, such as US West Coast, to areas of high demand such asChina. However, damaged or retired containers may also be recycled in the form of

shipping container architecture, or the steel content salvaged.

[edit] Loss at sea

Containers occasionally fall from the ships that carry them, usually during storms; it is

estimated that over 10,000 containers are lost at sea each year.[13] For instance, onNovember 30, 2006, a container washed ashore on the Outer Banks ofNorth Carolina

USA, along with thousands of bags of its cargo ofDoritos Chips. Containers lost at sea

do not necessarily sink, but seldom float very high out of the water, making them a

shipping hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has providedoceanographerswith unexpected opportunities to track global ocean currents, notably a

cargo ofFriendly Floatees.[14]

In 2007 the International Chamber of Shippingand the World Shipping Councilbegan

work on a code of practice for container storage, including crew training on parametricrolling, safer stacking and marking of containers and security for above-deck cargo in

heavy swell.[15]

[edit] Double-stack containerization

Part of a United States double-stack container train loaded with 53 ft (16.2 m) containers

A railroad car with a 20 ft tank container and a conventional 20 ft container

Most flatcars cannot carry more than one standard 40-foot (12 m) container, but if the rail

line has been built with sufficient vertical clearance, a double-stack carcan accept a
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipping_container_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization#cite_note-12http://hamptonroads.com/node/189201http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doritoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly_Floateeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly_Floateeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Chamber_of_Shippinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Chamber_of_Shippinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Shipping_Councilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Shipping_Councilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatcarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-stack_carhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Railroad_car_with_container_loads.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Railroad_car_with_container_loads.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DTTX_724681_20050529_IL_Rochelle.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DTTX_724681_20050529_IL_Rochelle.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipping_container_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization#cite_note-12http://hamptonroads.com/node/189201http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doritoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly_Floateeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Chamber_of_Shippinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Shipping_Councilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatcarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-stack_car


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container and still leave enough clearance for another container on top. This usually

precludes operation of double-stacked wagons on lines withoverhead electric wiring.

However, the Betuweroute, which was planned with overhead wiring from the start, hasbeen built with tunnels that do accommodate double-stacked wagons so as to keep the

option to economically rebuild the route for double stacking in the future. The overhead

wiring would then have to be changed to allow double stacking.[16]

Lower than standardsize containers are run double stacked under overhead wire in China.[17]

[edit] History

United States/ Canada/ Mexico:Southern Pacific Railroad (SP), with

Malcom McLean, came up with the idea of the first double-stack intermodal car

in 1977.[5][18] SP then designed the first car with ACF Industries that same year.[19][20] At first it was slow to become an industry standard, then in 1984 American

President Lines, started working with the SP and that same year, the first all

"double stack" train left Los Angeles, California forSouth Kearny, New Jersey,

under the name of "Stacktrain" rail service. Along the way the train transferredfrom the SP to Conrail. It saved shippers money and now accounts for almost 70

percent ofintermodal freight transport shipments in the United States, in part due

to the generous vertical clearances used by U.S. railroads. These lines aredieseloperated with no overhead wiring.

Australia: Double stacking is also used in Australia between Adelaide,

Parkes, Perth and Darwin. These are diesel only lines with no overhead wiring.

India: Double stacking in India is used for selected freight-only lines, on

electrified lines with specially high overhead wiring.

China: using double stacked container trains under25kV AC overhead lines.

[edit] Wagons

Railways have flat wagons and gondola (rail) wagons that can hold 40' ISO containers.

Narrow gauge railways of 610 mm (2 ft) gauge have smaller wagons that do not readily

carry ISO containers, such as the 30' long and 7' wide wagons of theKalka-Shimla

Railway. Wider narrow gauge railways of e.g. 1,000 mm (3 ft 338 in) gauge can take ISOcontainers.

[edit] Other uses for containers

Shipping container architecture is the use of containers as the basis for housing and other

functional buildings for people, either as temporary housing or permanent, and either as a

main building or as a cabin or workshop. Containers can also be used as sheds or storageareas in industry and commerce.

Containers are also beginning to be used to house computer data centers, although these

are normally specialized containers.Sun Microsystems was one of the first to do this with
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theirSun Modular Datacenter; Hewlett-Packard introduced the HP Performance

Optimized Datacenter(or POD).

[edit] Companies

[edit] Biggest ISO container companies

Top 10 container shipping companies in order of TEU capacity, 17 August 2009

Company TEU capacity[21] Number of ships

A.P. Moller-Maersk Group 2,022,956 539

Mediterranean Shipping Company S.A. 1,517,200 409

CMA CGM 1,023,208 365

Evergreen Marine Corporation 594,154 162

American President Lines 531,865 135

Hapag-Lloyd 475,282 120

COSCO 469,848 146China Shipping Container Lines 449,469 139

NYK Line 412,711 109

Hanjin Shipping 406,462 90

[edit] Other container systems

Some other container systems are:

PODS (container) (US, Canada, Australia)

Haus-zu-Haus (Germany) RACE (container) (Australia)

Hellenic Container Transport Ltd (Greece)

SECU (container) (Sweden, Finland, UK)

ARKAS(container) (Turkey)

[edit] International

Before the International Standard Container appeared, various countries had their owncontainers. These containers were generally small, and not able to be stacked one upon

another. Clearly the idea of containerisation is not new, though the implementation of theISO container was much better done.

[edit] Australia

Less than Car Load (LCL) [22]
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[edit] Germany

Von Haus zu Haus (from House to House)

[edit] BBC tracking project

Main article: The Box (BBC container)

On September 5, 2008 the BBC embarked on a year-long project to study internationaltrade andglobalization by tracking a shipping container on its journey around the world.[23][24]

IT for shipping

Green wave was founded in 2000 with the goal to serve the shipping industry withcomprehensible internet based systems for forwarders, carriers and

terminal/depot/stevedore operators.

Understanding the needs, challenges and long term goals of this industry, we do our

outmost to leverage the transport value chain for all involved partners in often complextransport processes. Security, flexibility and accessibility are key in our philosophy.

Our products are designed to serve customers in all countries, since they build on

international standards. They shall also empower you to optimize your processes,

strengthen your customer relations and leverage your profitability.

T3 - Terminal Transaction ToolThis complete, scalable and inexpensive tool keeps control of all containers handled by

your coastal or inland container terminal.

S3 - Shipping Support System

The indispensable and inexpensive administrative platform for freight rate administration,

online-booking and documentation for forwarders who want to take advantage of online

and real-time Internet technology when serving their demanding freight customers.

EDI - Electronic Data Interchange

Greenwave runs its own on-the-edge EDI technology to ensure a smooth data transfer.Both T3 and S3 either already are or can be integrated with your business partners.

Software developmentWe are specialized in the development of customized database-driven web-based

applications. Discuss your business challenges with us and we can help you to solve the

IT related aspects. Solutions from a simple Internet page to extensive dynamic object

oriented and database driven Internet/Intranet or Extranet solutions for your company.
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Web presentation

Are you interested in exploring the possibilities of our products?

For more information do not hesitate to contact us.

T3 - Terminal Transaction Tool

the complete and inexpensive tool to keep control over all containers handled by your

coastal or inland container terminal. All you need is an Internet access and an Internetbrowser!

Transaction registrationYou are able to register all possible transactions for the whole life cycle of containers at

your terminal, i.e. Discharge, Gate-out, Gate-in, Load, Stripping, Stuffing, and

Maintenance & Repair.

Reporting

A key issue for all parties! Both terminal operators and their customers are depending on

real-time and accurate information about transactions and stock figures. T3s reportgenerator is extensive and flexible. T3 generates real-time reports on request in different

formats and sends automatically stock or movement reports to all your contacts by e-

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Invoicing

T3 manages the most advanced price models for each of your terminal/depot customers

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Wireless solution

our wireless solution connects both your gate and back office personnel with your

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Booking administration

This module allows you to administrate liner booking references and assign containers to

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registration, load discharge list functionality in T3.
http://www.greenwave.no/gwi/default.asp?menu_id=14http://www.greenwave.no/gwi/wireless_module_images.asphttp://www.greenwave.no/gwi/wireless_module_images.asphttp://www.greenwave.no/gwi/default.asp?menu_id=14http://www.greenwave.no/gwi/wireless_module_images.asp


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Yard Planning

Define your own container storage yard with all available rows, cells and heightsdepending on container type and size. Find your stored containers without searching and

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EDI

T3 can be interfaced with all of your depot customers. We do dispose of a professional

EDI platform and have the right contacts with the systems responsible of your depotcustomers! Our EDI-HUB serves actually the following EDI-partners.

Security

Security is a top issue for us. Our online services are secured by encrypted data exchangeas well as an advanced username and password administration. Users get only access to

data they are authorized to see.

3rd party online accountGive your customers access to their data via their own T3 account. This opens for self-

service for stock/movement information as well as booking and invoice administration.

Please contact us for a short online introduction of this user friendly terminal tool or to

register for a test account!

S3 - Shipping Support System

The indispensable and inexpensive tool for forwarders who want to take advantage of

online and real-time Internet technology when serving their demanding freight customers.

All you need is an Internet access and an Internet browser!

Online Rate Request

S3 includes an advanced freight rate administration tool for both standard and pre-negotiated customer specific freight rates. All relevant cost elements like BAF, CAF, can

be updated as well and is available online for users, defined by you.

Online booking

Greenwaves S3-Booking portal is fully EDI-integrated with several carriers. S3 supports

the entire booking process for all types of cargo and to all destinations. Each booking istraceable at any status and contains the whole history.

Online Track & Trace

All bookings placed in S3 are automatically updated with Track & Trace informationrelated to a specific booking. This makes you easy to notify arrivals or other events!

Online Shipping documentation

S3 is one big intelligent data repository for all your bookings including the most relevant

documentation following the transport processes such as Waybill, B/L ect.
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Invoicing and integration with financial systems

S3 produces invoices based on existing shipping documents like B/L and is able to exportaccounting information to different third party suppliers via standard interfaces.

AccessibilityThe web technology gives you the possibility to access your data 24 hours a day and

where ever you are in the world. All you need is access to Internet and of course your

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Security

Security is a top issue for us. Our online services are secured by encrypted data exchange

as well as an advanced username and password administration. Users get only access todata they are authorized to see.

For more information do not hesitate tocontact us!

EDI - Electronic Data Interchange

This is a central aspect of our applications and system platforms. Greenwave runs on-the-edge EDI technology to ensure a smooth data transfer between your business partners.

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we are able to help you to integrate you with your business partners in a most efficientand cost effective way.

Our EDI integrations are mainly related to our applications such as T3 for Container

Depot management and S3 for our online booking platform both for forwarders andshippers. Please find more about these product by pressing the links!

Our EDI-platform is linked to several important shipping companies and we are workingon a daily basis to integrate with additional players in order to satisfy the requirement of

our customers.

Tue to our wide compency within EDI, we do also support customers in their internalcompany EDI-projects.

Greenwaves EDI-HUB is actually linked to the following companies:
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If you wish to integrate both in relation with our web based Container administration toolT3 or our online-booking tool S3 with additional companies, we are able to help you!

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Our products

T3

Keep control over all containers handled by your container terminal.

Read more

S3

Booking and freight rate administration tool.

Read more

Software development

Simple Internet page to advanced Internet/Intranet or Extranet

solutions.Read more

Software development
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Greenwave offers support for the technical solutions of new and existing Internet pages.

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Please feel free to contact us.

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