86

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EMBERLEY S, HUTCHEON I, SHEVALIER N, DUROCHER K, MAYER B,

GUNTER WD, PERKINS EH Monitoring of fluid–rock interaction and CO2 storage

through produced fluid sampling at the Weyburn CO2-injection enhanced oil recovery

site, Saskatchewan, Canada. Applied Geochemistry 20: 1131-1157, 2005

GALE, J,. Overview of CO2 emissions sources, potential, transport and geographical

distribution of storage possibilities. Proceedings of the workshop on CO2 dioxide

capture and storage, Regina, Canada, 18-21 November: 15-29, 2002.

GARRELS, R,M., MACKENZIE,F,T., Origin of chemical compositions of some

springs and lake. Equilibrium Concepts in Natural Water, Advances in Chemistry

Series, 67,222 – 242,1967.

GAUS I, AZAROUAL M. Reactive transport modelling of the impact of CO2 injection

on the clayey cap rock at Sleipner (North Sea). Chemical Geology 217 319– 337, 2005.

GAUS,I., PASCAL,A.,LAURENT,A., Geochemical and solute transport modelling for

CO2 storage, what to expect from it?. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas

Control 2, 605–625,2008.

HARVIE,C,E., e WEARE,J,H., The prediction of mineral solubilities in natural waters:

the Na-K-Mg-Ca-Cl-SO4-H2O systems from zero to high concentration at 25 C.

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HARVIE,C,E., MOLLER,N., WEARE,J,H., The prediction of mineral solubilities in

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natural waters: the Na-K-Mg-Ca-H-Cl-SO4-OH-HCO3-CO3-CO2-H2O system to high

ionic strengths at 25 C. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 48, 723-751,1984.

HELGESON, H,C., Thermodynamics of Hydrothermal system at elevated temperature

and pressure. (1969), Am,J,Sci 267, 729-804.

HELGESON, H,C.,KIRKHAM, D,M., FLOWER,G,C., Theoretical prediction of the

thermodynamic behavior of aqueous electrolytes at high pressure and temperature: IV.

Calculation of activity, coefficients osmotic coefficients and relavite partial molal

proprieties to 600 ᵒC and 5kb. Am J Sci ,281, 1249-1516,1981

HOPPEMA, M. et al. Distribution of barium in the Weddell Gyre: Impact of circulation

and biogeochemical processes. Marine Chemistry, v. 122, n. 1-4, p. 118-129, 2010.

IPCC (2005) Underground geological storage. In: METZ B, DAVIDSON O, DE

CONINCK HC, LOOS M, MEYER LA (eds) IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide

Capture and Storage, preparado pelo Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel

on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York,

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KELTZER,J.,IGLESIAS,R., Water–rock–CO2 interactions in saline aquifers aimed for

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Formation (Permian), southern Brazil. Applied Geochemistry, 24, 760–767,2009.

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implications of CO2 sequestration in arkosic sandstones. Proceedings of the Second

Annual Carbon Sequestration Conference, Alexandria VA, 5–8 May

LASAGA, C.A., Chemical Kinetics of Water-Rock Interaction. Journal of Geophys.

Res. Volume 89, páginas 4009 a 4025. 1984

Martin, C,J., The Effect if Clay on the Displacement of Heavy Oil by Water,

Venezuelan Annual Meeting, SPE Caracas Venezuela. 1959

MILLERO, F, J., FEISTEL,R., WRIGHT,D,G., MCDOUGALL,T,G., The composition

of Standard Seawater and the definition of the Reference-Composition Salinity Scale,

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mineral interaction kinetics for application to geochemical modelling. US Geol.

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computer program for speciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and inverse

geochemical calculations. US Geol. Surv. Water-Resour. Invest. Rep. 99-4259. 1999.

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Coefficients in Electrolyte Solution. Boca Raton, Flórida CRC Press.(1979) 157 a 208.

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Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 69, No. 13, pp. 3309–3320.

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YOUSEF A, AL-SALEC S. Smart Water Flooding for Carbonate Reservoir: Salinity

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90

10. Anexo 1

SPE-165500-MS

Modeling of Interaction Between CO2 and Rock in Core Flooding Experiments.

Alexandre Vilela Oliveira de Souzaa, Ingebret Fjelde

b

a Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-RIO), Chemistry Department,

bInternational Research Institute of Stavanger.

Copyright 2013, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Heavy Oil Conference Canada held

in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 11–13 June 2013.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review

of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper

have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to

correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the

Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction,

distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society

of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an

abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must

contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

91

Abstract

Understanding CO2 (aq), mineral and water reactions is one of the key elements to long

term CO2-storage in reservoirs. When CO2 is injected to reservoirs with water, CO2 will

be dissolved in the water phase. Liege outcrop chalk and Berea outcrop sandstone have

been used as analogous to chalk reservoir and sandstone reservoir rocks to study

interactions between CO2 and rocks. Core flooding experiments have been conducted in

these rocks at 340 bar 130ᵒ C with injection of formation water and carbonated water

(CO2-saturated formation water). The flow regime used was first injection of formation

water follow by injection of carbonated water and a second injection of formation water.

The sampling of the produced water phase was made at two different points after the

core, high pressure and temperature (340 Bar and 130 ᵒ

C) and low pressure and

temperature (2 Bar and room temperature). The samples were analysed for elements by

Inductive Coupled Plasma (ICP). After the experiments, the numerical simulations were

performed at the same conditions with two different geochemical softwares PHREEQC

and TOUGHREACTS, to reproduce the experimental results. Using kinetic rates of the

minerals, the numerical simulations were capable to show the dissolution and

precipitation of carbonates minerals and formation of secondary minerals. The

simulation results give a detailed understanding of the experimental geochemical

system. It is concluded that the experimental and simulation methods can be used in

combination to evaluate the potential for interactions between the rock and carbonated

water. The compositions of effluent samples taken at high pressure have been found to

be more representative than effluent samples taken at low pressure. The accuracy in the

preparation of high pressure effluent samples should be improved.

Introduction

In recent years, extensive research of formation water/rock and CO2/formation

water/rock systems has been carried out to establish more knowledge of rock-brine

interactions in reservoirs (Rochelle et al., 2004). Several coupled physical and chemical

processes occur during the water flooding of oil reservoirs, among them dissolution of

existing minerals, precipitation of secondary minerals and ion-exchange (Baker et al.,

1995; Moore et al., 2003)..

The purpose of the presented study was to investigate interactions between brine and

sandstone rock or chalk rock in flooding experiments related to CO2-injection to oil

92

reservoir rocks, and to compare the experimental results with numerical simulations.

The experimental set-up was designed to allow sampling at high and low pressure. The

flow regime was first injection of formation water (FW) followed by carbonated

formation water (CFW) and then a second FW injection. The laboratory experiments

were planned in an attempt to achieve as close to fluid-rock equilibrium as possible. The

temperature and pressure conditions were chosen be similar as in actual North Sea oil

fields.

The second step was modeling of the flooding experiments. The reactive transport

softwares used were PHREEQC Interactive v 2.18.3.5570 (Parkhurst and Appelo.,

1999) and TOUGHREACT. (Xu and Pruess., 2001). The softwares were chosen for two

reasons: easy implementation of changes and number of publications in the literature. In

the PHREEQC model, the interactions were investigated using a single phase flow and

without considering porosity and permeability change. In the TOUGHREACT model

single-flow, two-phase flow, porosity and permeability effects were implemented. In the

TOUGHREACT simulations the CO2 solubility was calculated as described by Spycher

and Pruess (2005).

Dissolution and precipitation mechanisms.

The dissolution of CO2 in water with the presence of carbonates minerails follows the

system below.

CO2(aq) + 2H2O ↔ H2CO3+ H2O ↔ H3O+ + HCO3

-

HCO3-+ H2O ↔ H3O

+ + CO3

2-

H3O+ + HCO3

- + CaCO3 ↔ Ca

2+ + 2HCO3

--+ H2O

H3O+ + HCO3

- +MgCO3 ↔ Mg

2+ + 2HCO3

--+ H2O

Thermodynamic equilibrium calculation at the experimental conditions (340 bar and

130ᵒC) was performed to select the secondary minerals. Using a general form of rate law

for kinetic dissolution and precipitation (Lasaga, 1984) all the minerals were modeled.

It is assumed that dissolution and precipitation obey the same rate, and kinetics

93

parameters for each mineral are taken from the literature (Palandir and Kharaka, 2004).

Reactive transport has been studied both for sandstone and chalk rocks.

The temperature corrections to the rate constant at 130ᵒC were calculated using the

Arrhenius law.

Experimental apparatus and process

The test parameter is described in Table 1. FW composition is given in Table 2. Berea

sandstone and Liege chalk outcrops were selected as analogous to sandstone and chalk

oil reservoir rocks in the North Sea. The compositions of these rocks are given in Table

3.

Experimental set-up

A sketch of the experimental arrangement is provided in Figure 1. Quizix pumps were

used in the experiments; one for overburden pressure control and one for pumping

injection fluid. Piston cells were used for the injection waters and these were placed

inside the hot oven. The water was then pumped through the core (vertical orientation).

The rig allowed the pumping of the effluent either through a sampling unit or by

bypassing it. The sampling unit was a removable of coiled tubing (with valves at each

end) for pressurized sampling. A back pressure regulator was placed at room

temperature. A fraction collector was used for sampling at low pressure after the back

pressure regulator. Differential pressure across the core was measured by using a

pressure transducer.

Preparation of carbonated formation water.

The piston cell with CFW was prepared by establishing equilibrium between FW and

CO2-phase 320 bar. The criteria for equilibrium were that the pressure and volume

reading of the pump were constant. The test pressure was 340 bar. However, the CFW

was equilibrated at 320 bar to reduce the risk for formation of free gas-phase during the

experiments.

Core flooding

94

The core (Berea or Chalk) was mounted into a triaxial core holder and the core was

saturated with FW. The main flooding steps are given in Table 4:

Step 1: Flooding with FW

An ordinary water flooding was carried out (q=0.1 mL/min) with FW. Samples were

collected by using a fraction collector after the back pressure regulator.

Step 2: Flooding with CFW

The piston cell with CFW was connected to the injection line. The core was then

flooded with CFW (q=0.1 mL/min).

Samples were collected in two ways:

1. By using the fracture collector after the back pressure regulator (BP) at low

pressure

2. By using the special sampling units (SU) at high pressure

Step 3: Flooding with FW

The core was flooded with FW (without CO2) using q=0.1mL/min.

Samples were collected at low pressure after the back pressure regulator by using a

fracture

collector.

Samples from fracture collector

Most of the samples were diluted by injecting HCl (1M) to the capillary tube at ambient

conditions. This will also dissolved possible precipitates formed due to reduction of

pressure and temperature. A few of the samples were instead filtrated (precipitate

removed) before HCl was added and the samples were diluted. The prepared samples

were analysed for elements by Inductive Coupled Plasma (ICP).

Modelling approach

The main goal of the simulation study was to try to reproduce the experimental sketch

and the results. The conceptual model to this paper was divided into three sequential

steps that were built up in stages of complexity (Gaus et al 2005):

Batch modeling; (Parkhurst and Appelo 1999)

Reactive transport model without change of porosity and permeability;

Reactive transport with the change of porosity and permeability.

The sensitivity study shows that the simulation needs at least one point every 0.25 hours

to capture the interactions observed in the core flooding experiments. The injection

volume used in the model was 40 pore volumes (PV), on the Berea core and 10.5 (PV)

on the Chalk core. The simulation time was 400 hours in the batch model and 153 hours

95

in the model. 60 grid cells were required in modeling of the core flooding experiments.

The conditions described in Table 1 were used in the modeling by both software tools.

Batch and Reactive transport models

The batch system used at this stage was compositions of the rock and formation water at

340 bar and 130ᵒC for the cores. Batch models were used to assess the geochemical

interactions between the CO2 system and the core primary minerals. Once the transport

interaction does not take place, the geochemical system core/formation water happens

faster and the near equilibrium condition is formed. With both softwares, this situation

was achieved after 400 hours. Secondary minerals can profoundly influence the

modeling results. The minerals formed in equilibrium batch modelling and their kinetic

rate equations were included in reactive transport models.

The reactive transport steps were simulated as in core flooding experiments as shown in

Table 4.

Modelling softwares

To allow the comparison between the two softwares, the models were designed as

similar as possible. For this reason, the isothermic flow was used. The pressure change

due to the back pressure regulator was implemented after all the geochemical

equilibrium. In the PHREEQC model, this change was made adding one transport step

with reaction temperature function. In the TOUGHTREACT model, this was made

adding one cell after the last grid cell with a different boundary condition.

The 1D - PHREEQC model used the Davis approach for the speciation calculation.

(Michard, 1989) This equation was chosen because of the high ionic strength. The

database using LLNL.dat was quite satisfactory. Attempting to improve the speciation,

the Pitzer (1973) approach was tried out, but could not be applied due to a lack of

aluminium speciation parameter that could be used in both softwares. CO2 solubility

was calculated by (Duan et al., 1992) The grid and the cell parametres are described in

Figure 2 and Table 5 respectively. The cell composition is as shown in Table 3.

The 3D - TOUGHREACT model used as default thermXu4.dat database and the

equation of state chosen ECO2N. The grid and the cell parameters are presented in

Figure 3 and Table 5 respectively. The cell composition is as shown in Table 3.

Results

96

The core flooding experiments provide results for calibration and verification of the

simulation models. For the chalk core the concentrations of Ca and Mg determined by

ICP are given. However, for the Berea core the concentrations of Ca, Al, Fe, K, Mg and

Si determined by ICP are given. For both cores effluent samples were taken both at low

and high pressure. Figure 4 to 11 presents the results for the different elements

individually.

In the chalk core experiment the effluent profiles for Ca and Mg were as shown in

Figure 4 and 5, respectively. The results were obtained at two experiments. The

Calcium variation described in Ca SU1 and Ca2 SU the precipitation of calcite follow

by dissolution due to CFW injection. The Ca1 and Ca2 samples collected using the

fracture collector after the back pressure regulator at low pressure, shows similar

trend.The Mg concentration showed similar changes at Mg1 SU and Mg2 SU. The low

pressure samples Mg1 and Mg2 follow Ca1 and Ca2 trends. These changes indicated

coprecipitation of CaCO3 and MgCO3.

The Berea core experiment showed more complex results. In the Figure 6 the Ca

concentration indicate the same trend as for the chalk core. On the injection on FW in

the first 11 PV, notice the same dissolution precipitation process happened When the

CWF was injected between 11 and 30 PV, dissolution of CaCO3 occurred and the Ca

concentration was increased. On the average the Ca concenctration in samples taken at

high pressure was higher than in samples taken after the back pressure regulator. When

the second injection of FW the Ca concentration cannot increase once the solution into

the pores is saturated due the previous CFW injection. In the Figure 7 the Mg

concentration shows a similar behavior.

In the Figure 8 the result show the effect of dissolution of Siderite which increase the

iron concentration. This dissolution begins with the CFW injection due to the reduction

of pH. The Fe concentration in the samples taken at higher pressure was higher than in

samples taken lower pressure. This means that Fe was precipitated from the effluent

when the pressure and temperature was reduced, and that the samples taken at low

pressure is not representative.

The Figure 9 and 10 describe the dissolution of the minerals that have aluminum in the

composition as Feldspar (Xu et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2005) and Kaolinite (Morad et al.,

97

2000; Krumhansl et al., 2003). The Figure 10 shows at beginnig of FW injection higher

K concentration, indicate dissolution of these minerals. The samples taken at high

pressure show the higher concentration of the aluminium and potassium in middle of the

CWF injection. The higher Al concentration in the samples from high pressure than in

the samples from low pressure show that prepitation of Al occurred when the pressure

and temperature was reduced. In Figure 11 the effluent Si concentration due to

dissolution of quartz and all the minerals which have Si in its composition, is shown.

For this reason the increase of Si concentration once the CFW begins. It was also for Si

found that the Si concentration during CFW injection was higher in samples taken at

high pressure than in sample taken at low pressure. This showed that Si was

precipitating during reduction of pressure and temperature.

The result for Berea core simulations obtained from the PHREEQC and

TOUGHTREACT simulations are presented in Figure 12 to 17. Ca concentration

profiles are shown in Figure 12, and the difference between theses two simulations was

less the 10 % on average. The Mg concentration profiles in Figure 13 show very similar

trend. However, the potassium results, Figure 14, simulated by PHREEQC show a

complete discrepancy with experimental results and the TOUGHREACT simulations.

The reason for this is not known.PHREEQC simulation could not detect any change in

the Fe and Si concentrations for the Berea core flooding at used experimental

conditions.Although TOUGHREACT did not show agreement with experimental data.

These results are presented in Figure 15 and 16 . The porosity change (Figure 17) was

mainly due to reduction in pH during CFW injection. Similar reported by Gaus et al.

(2005) and Yousef et al. (2011).

The chalk core simulations, show result very similar to magnesium and calcium

describe in Figure 12 and 13. As described in Figure 18 and 19. PHREEQC and

TOUGHREACT presented the similar trends.

Conclusions

Core flooding experiments at different injection conditions have been presented. and

experimental apparatus and process proven to be a fundamental tool in this paper. The

ICP analyses were capable of detecting the concentrations variation of the all main

elementens. The compositions of effluent samples taken at high and low pressure have

been found to be different, and precipitation occurred when the pressure and

temperature were reduced before the sampling at ambient conditions. The effluent

samples taken at high pressure are more difficult to prepare, but are more representative.

98

The accuracy in the preparation of high pressure effluent samples should be improved.

Both softwares were capable to detect the change in the chalk core flood. The same

numerical result suggest that the concentration of magnesium and calcum are achieved

the saturation inside the core. The Berea core simulation show in good agreement with

the experiemental data. PHREEQC simulation achieved the goal to provide a good

approximation with simple implementation. The TOUGHREACT showed a very usefull

tool for this experiment and present the best results.

References

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Amsterdam. 642

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Continental-scale magmatic carbon dioxide seepage recorded by dawsonsite in the

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22 530 -542

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system: 1. Pure systems from 08 to 1000 8C and0 to 8000 bar. Geochim. Cosmochim.

Acta 56, 2605–2617.

Gaus I, Azaroual M. 2005. Reactive transport modelling of the impact of CO2 injection

on the clayey cap rock at Sleipner (North Sea). Chemical Geology 217 (2005) 319– 337.

Krumhansl, J.L., Westrich, H.R., Jove-Colon, C. 2003. Geochemical implications of

CO2 sequestration in arkosic sandstones. Proceedings of the Second Annual Carbon

Sequestration Conference, Alexandria VA, 5–8 May.

Lasaga, A.C. 1984. Chemical kinetics of water–rock interaction. J. Geophys. Res. 89,

4009– 4025.

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reservoirs beneath the Colorado Plateau and Southern Rocky Mountains: an example

from the Springerville– St Johns Field, Arizona and New Mexico. Proceedings of the

Second Annual Conference on Carbon Sequestration, Alexandria VA, 5–8 May,.

Palandir, J., Kharaka, Y.K. 2004. A compilation of rate parameters of water–mineral

interaction kinetics for application to geochemical modelling. US Geol. Surv.Open File

Rep. 2004-1068, pp. 1–64.

Parkhurst, D.L. and Appelo, C.A.J. 1999. User’s guide to PHREEQC (version 2)—a

computer program for speciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and inverse

geochemical calculations. US Geol. Surv. Water-Resour. Invest. Rep. 99-4259.

Pitzer, K.S. 1973. Thermodynamics of electrolytes: I. Theoretical basis and general

equations. J. Phys. Chem. 77, 268– 277.

Rochelle, C.A., Czernichowski-Lauriol, I., Milodowski, A.E. 2004. The impact of

chemical reactions in CO2 storage in geologic formations: a brief review. In: Baines,

S.J., Worden,R.H. (Eds.),

Geological storage of carbon dioxide 233. Geological Society, London, Special

Publications: pp. 87–106.

Spycher N, and Pruess K. 2005. CO2-H2O mixtures in the geological sequestration of

CO2. II. Partitioning in chloride brines at 12–100°C and up to 600 bar. Geochimica et

Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 69, No. 13, pp. 3309–3320.

Xu, T., and Pruess, K. 2001. Modeling multiphase non-isothermal fluid flow and

reactive geochemical transport in variably saturated fractured rocks: 1. Methodology.

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100

mineral trapping in deep aquifers. Appl. Geochem. 19, 917–936.

Xu, T., Apps, J.A., Pruess, K. 2005. Mineral sequestration of carbon dioxide in a

sandstone-shale system. Chem. Geol. 217, 295–318.

Yousef A, Al-Salec S.2012 Smart Water Flooding for Carbonate Reservoir: Salinity

and Role of Ions SPE 141082 presented at SPE Middle East Oil Gas Show and

Conference held in Manama, Bahrain 25-28 September

TABLE 1 –CORE FLOOD TEST PARAMETERS

Parameters Berea Core Chalk Core

Temperature 130 °C 130 °C

Pressure 340 bar 340 bar

Flooding rate (q) 0.1 mL/min 0.1 mL/min

Core - Length 8.96 cm 6.9 cm

Core - Diameter 3.8 cm 3.8 cm

Pore volume 23.0 mL 27.37mL

TABLE 2 – FORMATION WATER COMPOSITION

Salt Concentration (g/L)

NaCl 36.81

KCl 0.31

MgCl2∙6H2O 4.48

CaCl2∙2H2O 33.25

LiCl 0.61

TABLE 3–CORE COMPOSITION

Parameters Berea Core ( Weight %) Chalk Core ( Weight %)

Quartz 69 2.0

Feldspar 6.0 -

Kaolinite 3.5 -

Illite 3.5 -

101

Calcite 8 98

Siderite 1.0 -

Dolomite 4.0 -

Ankerite 2.0 -

Rutile 2.0 -

TABLE 4 – FLOOD EXPERIMENTS INJECTIONS STEPS

Step Core Description Pore Volume injected

1- Berea Formation Water 0 – 11

2 Berea Carbonated Formation Water 11- 29.2

3 Berea Formation Water 29.2 -40

1 Chalk Formation Water 0 - 5

2 Chalk Carbonated Formation Water 5- 9.6

3 Chalk Formation Water 9.6 -10.5

TABLE 5 – CELL COMPOSITION AT MODELS

Parameters PHREEQC MODEL TOUGHREACT MODEL

Length X direction 0.148 cm 0.148 cm

Length Y direction - 3.8 cm

Length Z direction - 3.8 cm

Number of cell 60 60

Water Volume 0.456 mL 0.383 mL

Fig. 1 − Sketch of the rig used on core flood experiments

102

Fig. 2 – Grid used in PHREEQC models

Fig. 3 –Grid used in TOUGHTREACT models

Fig4 – Effluent Ca profiles in Chalk core flooding experiment. Ca 1 is the first sample

and Ca 2 is the second sample. Ca1 SU is the first sample using SU Ca2 SU is the

second sample using SU. The vertical line shows the injections PV for each step.

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Fig 5 – Effluent Mg profiles in Chalk core flooding experiment. Mg 1 is the first sample

and Mg 2 is the second sample. Mg1 SU is the first sample using SU Mg2 SU is the

second sample using SU. The vertical line shows the injections PV for each step.

.

Fig 6 – Effluent Ca profiles in Berea core flooding experiment. 1FW – first FW

injection; 2 FW – second FW injection; Reference of 1FW; Reference of CFW;

Samples of CWF using the SU.CFW is the CFW injection. Same legend and used in

figure 6 to 11.

Fig 7 – Effluent Mg profiles in Berea core flooding experiment.

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Fig 8 – Effluent Fe profiles in Berea core flooding experiment.

Fig 9 – Effluent Al profiles in Berea core flooding experiment.

Fig 10 – Effluent K profiles in Berea core flooding experiment.

Fig 11 – Effluent Si profiles in Berea core flooding experiment.

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Fig12 – Comparison of effluent Ca concentration from PHREEQC and

TOUGHREACT simulations of Berea core flooding experiment

Fig 13 – Comparasion of effluent Mg concentration from PHREEQC and

TOUGHREACT simulations of Berea core flooding experiment.

Fig 14 – Comparison of effluent K concentration form PHREEQC and TOUGHREACT

simulations of Berea core flooding experiment

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Fig 15 – Effluent Fe concentration from TOUGHREACT simulation of Berea core

flooding experiment.

Fig 16 – Effluent Si concentration from TOUGHREACT simulation of Berea core

flooding experiment

Fig 17 – Porosity results for TOUGHREACT simulation of Berea core flooding

experiment.

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Fig 18 – Effluent Ca profiles from simulation of in Chalk core flooding experiment.

Fig 19 – Effluent Mg profiles from simulation of in Chalk core flooding experiment