5Managing HR in IT

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hile an organization’s foundersand other top executives definethe organization’s vision, strate-gies, and policies, it is the re-sponsibility of managers and su-

pervisors to interpret the vision as well as toimplement and to execute these strategiesand policies (Agarwal & Ferratt, 2002b). ITprofessionals are able to function best whenthey understand the mission, vision, andvalues of their organization; clearly under-stand their role in the organization; recog-nize technology’s part in fulfilling the or-

ganization’s goals; and feel that the valuesof the organization are consistently upheldby leaders (Glen, 2003). IT supervisors havethe ability and responsibility to emphasize

and heighten awareness of these issuesamong their subordinates.

IT workers experience numerous sourcesof stress that are universal across occupa-tions and work environments. Researchshows that, similar to other professions,stress in IT results from intensive work de-mands, complex relationships with others,career concerns, systems maintenance, roleambiguity, and tedious administrative tasks(Lim & Teo, 1999), as well as fear of obsoles-cence, team and client interactions, roleoverload, work culture issues, technical con-

straints, and competing work and family de-mands (Rajeswari & Anantharaman, 2003).Effective IT leadership provided by immedi-ate supervisors has the capacity to alleviate

MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCES IN

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY:

BEST PRACTICES OF HIGH-

PERFORMING SUPERVISORS

D E B R A A . M A J O R , D O N A L D D . D A V I S , L I S A M .G E R M A N O , T H O M A S D . F L E T C H E R , J A N I SS A N C H E Z - H U C L E S , A N D J O A N M A N N

Focus groups with information technology (IT) professionals and interviews

with high-performing IT supervisors were content-analyzed to discover best

supervisory practices. The focus is on how these best practices address challenges commonly confronted in the IT work environment. Consistent with

classic leadership theory, best practices fell into two major categories: task-

focused (boundary spanning, performance management, employee involve-

ment, training and development) and person-focused (relationship building,

mentoring, stress management, work-family balance) practices. Results

demonstrate that while leadership practices effective with other types of pro-

fessionals also are appropriate for IT professionals, these practices can be

tailored to address unique IT demands. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Correspondence to Debra Major, PhD, 250 Mills Godwin Building, Department of Psychology, Old Dominion Uni-versity, Norfolk, VA 23529, Phone: (757) 683-4235, Fax: (757) 683-5087, E-mail: [email protected].

Human Resource Management, Fall 2007, Vol. 46, No. 3, Pp. 411–427

© 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).

DOI: 10.1002/hrm.20171



412 H UMAN R ESOURCE M ANAGEMENT , Fall 2007

stress, while poor supervision creates stressof its own and exacerbates other stressors(Lim & Teo, 1999). Supervisors of IT profes-sionals must harmonize the unique needs of IT professionals with the organization’s goalsand culture and the technical aspects of thework itself (Glen, 2003).

Our focus is on identifying best practicesfor supervising IT personnel. Best practiceswere derived from qualitative data suppliedin ten structured interviews with high-per-forming supervisors of IT employees andsupplemented with data from 28 focusgroups conducted with IT professionals. SeeTable I for interview topics. The objective of these interviews was to identify the strategiesused by high-performing supervisors to meetthe challenges faced by the IT workforce.

Best practices derived from the data wereconsistent with classic leadership theory. Weuse the interview and focus-group data to de-scribe how supervisors can apply these prac-tices to meet the needs of the IT workforce.Research methodology and procedures foridentifying best practices are summarized inthe Appendix.

Application of Best SupervisoryPractices to IT Challenges

Challenges Due to Complexities of IT Work

One set of challenges concerns the nature of IT work, which requires a high degree of flex-ibility and adaptability on the part of IT per-

sonnel. IT work may be performed alone inisolation or in teams that may be colocatedor virtual. IT work can be distributed and in-terdependent, often requiring coordinationamong multiple experts. Workloads may bepunctuated by intense bursts of activity. Thework must be performed unceasingly with-out error (high machine uptime, bug-freecode) despite frequent changes brought onby a variety of factors, including technologi-cal innovation and customer demands.

The best supervisors address this set of challenges through boundary spanning, ef-fective performance management practices,and employee involvement. Boundary span-ning can be useful in anticipating and man-aging work demands from IT clients. Perfor-mance management is essential for ensuring

that IT workers understand their work prior-ities and have the tools to address these pri-orities. Through employee involvement, theIT supervisor gives employees the opportu-nity to have a voice and to develop personalinvestment in completing work tasks.

Managing distributed interdependentwork that requires multiple experts is furtheraccomplished through attention to trainingand development as well as good relation-ship-building practices. The IT supervisormust attend to stress management and work-

family balance due to the following uniqueelements of IT work: its 24-hour nature, theneed to respond to emergent issues and un-planned requests, and sporadic periods of in-tense work activity. In addition, the supervi-sor’s investment in relationship building andtrust helps ensure that IT professionals will-ingly put forth extra effort as required be-cause they know the supervisor will recipro-cate (e.g., with time off) during periods of lower demand. One supervisor stated, “A lotof things happen overnight during off-hours.

Recognition [that I provide] increases aware-ness that people are here overnight. Therecognition is important to these people.”Another stated, “We’re on call 24/7. Theymay have to come back in. I recognize thatthey work more hours than the hours thatthey are here.” These examples illustrate at-tention to individual needs, the 24/7 natureof IT work with its unexpected demands and

Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm

Interview Topics

• Supervisors’ working relationships with their

employees

• How supervisors help employees develop

professionally

• Supervisors’ efforts to encourage mentoring

• Managing stress and balancing work and fam-

ily demands

• Value for diversity

T A B L E I Supervisor Structured Interviews



Managing Human Resources in Information Technology: Best Practices of High-Performing Supervisors 413

potential intrusion into family life, and theneed to be flexible and accommodating.

Challenges Due to IT Skill Requirements

A second set of challenges concerns IT skillrequirements. IT professionals must engagein continuous learning to prevent technicalobsolescence (Rajeswari & Anantharaman,2003). It is not unusual for IT workers to havegreater technical knowledge than those whosupervise them. The high-performing IT su-pervisor generally manages the need for skilldevelopment through performance manage-ment practices, training and development,and mentoring. The need for continuoustechnical skill updating also is addressed ex-

perientially through employee involvement.IT workers also must be able to work wellwith supervisors and others throughout theorganization who do not share their techni-cal training and background. They must beflexible and capable of adapting to organiza-tional needs. This need for adaptability andcoordination requires IT workers to simulta-neously update their interpersonal skillsalong with their technical skills. Thus, rela-tionship building is essential, and high-per-forming IT supervisors demonstrate effective

interpersonal skills in their own relationshipswith IT subordinates. One supervisor stated,“I’m very personable with folks. I call it beingfully engaged.” Another stated, “I create anenvironment where they feel appreciated andengaged. I stay in touch with folks. I ‘showup.’” Yet another stated, “I identify personalgoals and see what training they need to en-hance their goals.” These examples show thateffective IT supervisors emphasize relation-ships, often through modeling good relation-ship behavior. As mentors, they assess indi-

vidual development needs and provide theresources to meet these needs.

Challenges Due to Role of IT inOrganization

A final set of IT challenges concerns IT’s rolein the organization. As a support function, IToften is unappreciated by other departments.

Nonetheless, IT often is responsible for inte-grating all other organizational functions.High-performing IT supervisors meet both of these challenges through employee involve-ment practices within the IT function, bybuilding and sustaining effective relation-ships with their own personnel, and by man-aging the associated stressors. In addition, ITprofessionals are prepared for their bound-ary-spanning roles through effective per-formance management practices as well astraining and development. One supervisordescribed meeting this challenge in this way,“When people come up withgood ideas, I let them run with it;come up with a proposal and givethe presentation to the businessunit. They can see the response.

They get a percentage if we usethe project. They get tied in withthe business unit. They feel theirinput is heard when they presentit themselves.” This supervisorempowers and motivates IT pro-fessionals to integrate closelywith the business units theyserve.

Issues Related to Applying Best Practices

Some of the practices might pres-ent special challenges for IT su-pervisors. For example, supervi-sors who help employees balancework and family demands by pro-viding accommodations on acase-by-case basis need to ensurethat perceptions of unfairnessand favoritism do not developamong employees. This type of breach of trust would have nega-

tive implications for relationshipbuilding. In addition, it is not feasible for asupervisor to simultaneously employ all thebest practices. High-performing supervisorsare skilled at assessing situations and atbringing the appropriate practices to bear.

It is noteworthy that each IT challenge isaddressed through a combination, ratherthan just one, of these practices. Moreover,

It is not unusual for

IT workers to have

greater technical

knowledge than

those who supervise

them. The high-

performing IT

supervisor generally

manages the need

for skill development

through performance

management

practices, training

and development,

and mentoring.





meeting most of these IT challenges requiressome combination of both task-focused andrelationship-focused practices. Although thelist of applications is not exhaustive, Table IIillustrates how supervisory best practicesconsistent with classic leadership theoryapply to IT supervision.

Supervisors’ Best Practices forManaging IT Employees

Our best practices for managing IT profes-sionals share some common elements and

emphases with other models of human re-source management and IT. For example, likeAgarwal and Ferratt (1999), our model in-cludes leadership practices, such as focus onstructure and relationships, and human re-source practices, such as performance meas-urement and flexible scheduling. However,the categories derived from our interviewand focus-group data generally representtask-focused practices (i.e., initiating struc-ture) and person-focused practices (i.e., con-sideration), consistent with the classic OhioState leadership studies (Fleishman & Harris,


Task-Focused Best Practices Person-Focused Best Practices

Boundary Spanning Relationship Building • Monitor environment for IT performance demands • Open communication and emphasis on face-to-face

• Improve client awareness of organizationwide interaction

• IT goals • Emphasis on self-direction of team members

• Market IT workgroup expertise to customers • Demonstrate interest in employees as individuals

• Socialize newcomers

• Build trust

Performance Management Mentoring

• Clarify expectations and roles • Provide career development support

• Engage in collaborative goal setting • Offer psychosocial support

• Use performance appraisal • Facilitate peer mentoring

• Link to organizational mission

• Provide recognition, reward, and acknowledgement • Encourage learning from mistakes

Employee Involvement Stress Management

• Use a collaborative approach to decisions • Directly address stressors in environment

whenever possible • Monitor stress levels and make work adjustments

• Create an environment in which employees can • Engage work team in nonwork social activities

give and receive feedback • Facilitate use of company-sponsored programs

• Use teams for problem solving and knowledge (e.g., vacation time)

sharing • Have fun on the job and use humor

• Encourage IT personnel to engage in upward • Encourage coworker support

influence with senior managers • Give employees time off

• Solicit employee input and implement their ideas

• Allow employees to disagree with supervisorTraining and Development Work-Family Balance

• Use project assignments to foster growth • Encourage use of organizational policies and

• Offer on-the-job training programs (e.g., leave taking)

• Provide resources and motivation for formal • Offer flexible hours and flexible scheduling

training and networking with other professionals • Provide telework opportunities

• Use teams to encourage peer learning • Have a flexible orientation and accommodate

• Engage in continuous needs assessment individuals on a case-by-case basis

• Include family in workplace social events

T A B L E I I Supervisor Best Practices with Applications to IT Challenges




1962). The practices in these categories mu-tually support one another and jointly influ-ence satisfaction, motivation, job perform-ance, and the effectiveness of both the groupand the organization (Judge, Piccolo & Ilies,2004). The task-focused practices deal moredirectly with getting work done effectively,while person-focused practices center onmeeting individuals’ social needs and main-taining high-quality relationships. Table IIincludes examples of best practices in eachcategory and their application to supervisionin IT.

Task-Focused Practices

Boundary Spanning

The IT function spans departmental bound-aries within organizations and, given the na-ture of IT work, often spans organizationalboundaries as well. As a support function, ITlaterally integrates the organization in essen-tial ways. A major challenge for IT, then, is tomaintain a holistic and integrative perspec-tive of the organization while attempting tomeet the demands of other functions thatare often focused myopically on their ownparticular needs. IT departments in our sam-ple routinely dealt with clients who lacked a

clear understanding of their own require-ments and who failed to appreciate the con-sequences of their requests, resulting in un-realistic deadlines, inadequate resources, andinterdepartmental conflicts. The most effec-tive IT supervisors took the boundary spanner role seriously and monitored the environ-ment in an effort to prevent such situations.One supervisor stated, “I mean, with an ITdepartment, no one knows you exist untilsomething is broken. So, I think it is so im-portant to have personal contact with con-

sumers, customers, and clients wheneverpossible.” They often educated key clients byproviding an integrated perspective of theclients’ needs in the context of overarchingorganizational goals. Effective IT supervisorsalso marketed IT’s capabilities to customers,both internal and external to the organiza-tion, in order to increase the likelihood thatIT would be included in the planning and

development stages of initiatives likely tohave IT implications.

Performance Management

Performance management refers to fosteringbetter links between individual behavior andorganizational strategies and goals usingtechniques such as role clarifica-tion, goal setting, performanceappraisal, and rewards tied to per-formance (Banks & May, 1999).Moreover, performance manage-ment practices often are used toenhance motivation, for example,by employing performance-basedpay (Heneman & Gresham, 1998)and increasing perceptions of or-

ganizational fairness (Gilliland &Langdon, 1998). The best supervi-sors in our sample managed per-formance by establishing clearrole expectations, setting cleargoals and deadlines, and monitor-ing work progress. In addition,they involved employees in roleclarification and goal setting.High expectations regarding per-formance and norms for hardwork were conveyed. One supervi-

sor said, “I give them expecta-tions, but I don’t tell them how todo their jobs. I get frequent up-dates from staff. I hold them ac-countable for doing their jobs.”

Supervisors commented onthe need to stay focused on the “big picture”and to share organizational goals with IT em-ployees. In organizations where IT was a sup-port function, providing IT employees with asense of their roles in the organization’soverall mission was a common theme. How-

ever, supervisors in our sample acknowl-edged that it could be a challenge to link in-dividual and team goals to their firm’sfrequently changing strategic goals. IT em-ployees in one of our focus groups com-plained about the frequent shift of focus thatoccurred in their firm. “They [senior leaders]constantly change their business decisions.Change is rapid and often. Buzzwords

The best

supervisors in our

sample managed

performance by

establishing clear

role expectations,

setting clear goals

and deadlines, and

monitoring work

progress. In

addition, they

involved employees

in role clarification

and goal setting.





change with retreats. The company’s focusand direction changes the projects we’reworking on.” Often, the IT supervisor madea point to reinforce the value of IT work, es-

pecially in situations where or-ganizational recognition was notapparent. In one health care or-ganization, for instance, IT super-visors stressed the relevance andcriticality of IT to patient care. Infocus groups, IT employees em-phasized the meaningfulness of their work, noting that in thehealth care context, IT could have“life-and-death” consequences.

Performance management wasfacilitated with frequent, sched-uled opportunities to discuss per-

formance. One supervisor from apublishing firm holds weeklymeetings with the workgroup thatreports to him and biweekly meet-ings with each individual memberof the group. Meetings were usedto monitor goal achievement, as-sign new tasks, and surface impor-tant emerging concerns.

A global manufacturing firmin our sample that was imple-menting a Six Sigma program to

improve quality illustrates a com-prehensive approach to manag-ing performance. As part of thisprocess, IT supervisors involvedsubordinates in clarifying rolesand setting goals, establishingdeadlines, and monitoring per-formance that was linked to com-pany strategic objectives. Seniormanagers were consulted to de-

fine key roles and identify core IT competen-cies (e.g., quality assurance, business leads).

Goal trees were used to identify interlinkedgoals and means-ends relationships con-nected to goal achievement, especially forteam performance in project management.Quarterly reviews were used to report goalachievement and to recalibrate expectationsas necessary. Performance management wasused to foster employee development andtraining in the Six Sigma process.

Supervisors in our sample publicly ac-knowledged achievements and celebratedsuccesses through publishing articles in com-pany newsletters and hosting employeeluncheons and dinners. One supervisor fromthe IT unit of a regional health care organiza-tion celebrates major upgrades to the com-puter system. When senior managers failed topay much attention to such achievements,the supervisor let everyone leave work earlyto attend a lobster and champagne party atan employee’s home. This same supervisorsponsors happy hours, bagel breakfasts, andpot luck lunches to recognize achievementsand to foster motivation and team building.

Many supervisors in our sample empha-sized learning as part of an effort to create alearning organization (Senge, 1990). Perfor-

mance mistakes were not punished but wereviewed as opportunities for learning and de-velopment. Such an emphasis is common inorganizations that create environments thatfoster learning and adaptation (Tannen-baum, 1997).

High-performing supervisors recognizedthe link between performance and motiva-tion. Like recent integrative models of moti-vation (Mitchell & Daniels, 2003), they rec-ognized that individual differences inknowledge, skills, and dispositions combine

with features of the IT work environment,such as norms for hard work, positive expec-tations, and elements of task design to en-hance motivation (e.g., challenge and auton-omy). They identified important positiveoutcomes and delivered these to employeesin exchange for good performance.

Employee Involvement

High-performing work systems share infor-mation, involve employees in decision mak-

ing, and emphasize employee feedbackabout quality and business processes (Becker& Huselid, 1998; Huselid, 1995; Lawler,Mohrman, & Benson, 2001). High-perform-ing supervisors in our sample emphasizedemployee involvement in problem solvingand decision making and made efforts to cre-ate an environment that supported feedback.They did this in two ways: with one-on-one

High-performing

supervisors in our

sample emphasized

employee

involvement in

problem solving and

decision making

and made efforts to

create an

environment that

supported feedback.

They did this in two

ways: with one-on-

one consultation

involving supervisor

and subordinate

and through

collaboration with

coworkers in teams.





consultation involving supervisor and subor-dinate and through collaboration withcoworkers in teams.

Teams also were used to enhance knowl-edge sharing and learning. In both one-on-one and team approaches to employee in-volvement, employees were encouraged toshare ideas and provide alternatives. Con-sistent with participative approaches toleadership (Vroom & Jago, 1988), some-times supervisors employed consultationbefore making decisions themselves; othertimes, employees were encouraged to makedecisions. Supervisors also emphasized theimportance of implementing employee sug-gestions; that is, they made an effort to takeaction on feedback provided by employees.This emphasis distinguishes participation

from influence (Major, Davis, Sanchez-Hu-cles, Germano, & Mann, 2006; Major &Germano, 2006). Participation must lead toinfluence to achieve its potential motiva-tional effect.

Rather than being authoritarian or di-rective, supervisors discussed the need to“sell” their ideas to IT employees who couldprovide a range of technical and practicalexperience. Supervisors recognized that anidea that could not be sold was probably abad one. This respect for subordinate input

is due, in part, to the fact that supervisorsmay be less technically skilled than theirsubordinates. One supervisor stated, “I al-ways solicit it [input], partly because I don’thave the background and expertise thatthey have. I consult people on the team fortheir opinion to see what projects weshould pursue.”

High-performing supervisors encour-aged their employees to participate in meet-ings and to make presentations to seniormanagers in the IT function. Employees

with good ideas were provided the opportu-nity to present their ideas to the relevantbusiness unit. As one supervisor stated, “Irarely make decisions without staff input.Those who are involved in projects are in-cluded in the whole process. The staff hasthe sense that their input matters. Theyknow that I learn from them. They see inmeetings that I repeat something they told

me. When I meet with the big honchos,when appropriate, I bring my staff along.”This was done to enhance visibility for theemployee and as a means for rewardinggood performance. A global IT services firmin our sample schedules regularbreakfasts with employees andthe CEO to provide opportuni-ties for providing upward feed-back.

Supervisors fostered em-ployee involvement as a way topush decision making down-ward. Supervisors discussed theneed to ask employees to suggesttheir own solutions to problemsrather than have supervisors im-mediately solve the problem for

them. This strategy is importantin the IT workplace context todevelop employees, to preparethem for future responsibilities,and to foster collaborationamong multiple experts in teams.This emphasis on initiative andself-reliance also addressed thefact that the location and timingof IT work often made direct su-pervision difficult. Importantly,employees were encouraged to

engage in healthy disagreementwith their supervisor and witheach other. In an effort to achievethe best decisions, supervisors ac-knowledged that it was impor-tant for all team members toshare their relevant IT expertise. This is re-lated to efforts to foster learning and devel-opment, described below, as well as encour-agement for experimentation as a strategy inperformance management, described above.

Training and Development

High-performing organizations emphasizeknowledge and skill development for teamand managerial skills as well as technicalskills (Lawler et al., 2001). High-performingsupervisors in our IT sample similarly en-couraged employee training and develop-ment in technical, management, and team

Rather than being

authoritarian or

directive,

supervisors

discussed the need

to “sell” their ideas

to IT employees

who could provide a

range of technical

and practical

experience.

Supervisors

recognized that an

idea that could not

be sold was

probably a bad one.





skills. The rapidity with which IT skills canbecome obsolete makes continuous techni-cal skill updating essential. Interpersonallyoriented managerial and team skills also areessential for ensuring effective workgroupsand maintaining a strong customer serviceorientation.

High-performing organizations usedmany training techniques. These organiza-tions commonly provided challenging job

assignments to enhance skills,along with on-the-job training.Employees were encouraged totake classes and to do so duringwork time. Several companiespaid tuition for IT classes at localcommunity colleges and universi-ties. A privately held publishing

firm paid for non-IT classes if they were required as part of a de-gree program. Employees wereencouraged to participate oncomputer list servers and to at-tend vendor presentations andlunches with subject matter ex-perts to improve technical skills.

Some companies used in-tranets to share technical knowl-edge throughout the company.One global IT services firm deliv-

ered guided educational modulesvia the Internet with learningcontests; individuals and work-groups that completed the mosttraining modules won rewards. Inother firms in our sample, em-ployees were provided training inleadership skills and opportuni-ties to develop leadershipthrough participation on com-

pany committees and in professional organi-zations. Several supervisors emphasized peer

training in workgroups because they be-lieved that workgroups facilitated teaching,learning, and sharing among employees.

Individual training needs were consid-ered and assessed regularly as part of per-formance appraisal and coaching activities.High-performing supervisors spoke aboutthe need to discuss training and develop-ment requirements with employees and to

match training to individual needs in orderto thwart obsolescence of IT skills. Effectivesupervisors linked training back to individ-ual performance goals. One supervisorstated, “I identify personal goals and seewhat training they need to enhance theirgoals.” Another stated, “I make sure that Iknow their goals for the next 3–5 years andidentify training needs.”

In addition to tying goals to personal de-velopment, supervisors also increased moti-vation for training through encouragementand training competitions. Attention to in-dividual differences in training needs, moti-vation, and training choices reflects currentbeliefs about the requirements of effectivetraining (Colquitt, LePine, & Noe, 2000;Kraiger, 2003). Effective supervisors were

able to customize training and developmentopportunities and to distribute them usingprocedurally fair processes. Avoiding percep-tions of favoritism was essential to ensuringthe success of individualized training and de-velopment plans.

One supervisor from a health care organ-ization described how her team was knownas a “black hole” within the IT function be-cause team members’ skill levels were notup-to-date. Upon assuming leadership of thisteam, she involved team members in identi-

fying training needs. She then developed atraining program for applications, program-ming skills (e.g., Oracle), time managementskills, and knowledge of the IT system. Shedeveloped a training schedule for each teammember. She also ensured that all teammembers received training in communica-tion and leadership skills three to four timesper year. Everyone on the team reached therequired skill level within two years of her as-suming leadership.

High-performing supervisors in our IT

sample recognized the importance of contin-uous training and development, acknowl-edged that training needs and motivationvaried across individuals, used a variety of individual and team training methods, inte-grated training into performance manage-ment and career development, and providedtime and money to make training and devel-opment possible.

The rapidity with

which IT skills can

become obsolete

makes continuous

technical skill

updating essential.

Interpersonally

oriented managerial

and team skills also

are essential for

ensuring effective

workgroups and

maintaining a strong

customer service

orientation.





Person-Focused Practices

Relationship Building

High-performing IT supervisors realized thevalue of building effective relationships withand among their employees. Open communi-cation was acknowledged as an essential ele-ment in relationship building. Supervisors re-ferred to having “an open door policy” withthose they managed. Open communicationwas seen as essential to managing the com-monplace tight deadlines and shifting cus-tomer demands. IT employees expressed aclear preference for supervisors willing to shareand explain the rationale behind decisions.Even when decisions were beyond the controlof the IT function, sharing information so that

IT employees could understand how the situa-tion emerged (for better or worse) helped tomotivate them to meet customer demands.

In addition to commenting on the open-ness and frequency of communication withtheir IT employees, supervisors also dis-cussed preferred communication media.Though they acknowledged using multiplemedia (e.g., memos, e-mail, phone confer-ences), high-performing supervisors stressedthe superiority and necessity of face-to-facecommunication. IT employees also expressed

a preference for face-to-face interaction,most often noting that it seemed more “per-sonal.” Occasional face-to-face communica-tion is particularly important for IT profes-sionals who must work at a distance, forexample, at client sites or in virtual teams(Davis & Bryant, 2003). One supervisorstated, “I promote communication with myemployees. I think that a personal call orface-to-face meeting is much more effectivethan e-mail. It adds a personal touch that isso important.”

Given that participants in our researchreported that most IT work was accom-plished by groups or project teams, team-work was another important aspect of rela-tionship building. Contrary to popularmyths of the IT professional working in iso-lation (King, 1998), we found that it wasquite unusual for IT employees to work aloneon a regular basis. Thus, effective relation-

ships facilitated task work. Moreover, mostsupervisors were unable to provide direct su-pervision to all employees on a continuousbasis. In some cases, supervisors were notcolocated with their entire staff. In other in-stances, the supervisor had a very large spanof control. In addition, even among the mosttechnically competent supervisors, most didnot have skills that were completely redun-dant with every IT team member. Thus, for avariety of reasons, supervisors relied a greatdeal on the mutual respect, trust, and loyaltyindicative of high-quality relationships (e.g.,Liden & Maslyn, 1998), ratherthan direct supervision, to getwork accomplished.

Such emphases are most im-portant when IT employees work

at a distance and are not colo-cated, as in virtual teams (Davis &Bryant, 2003). Finally, IT workersroutinely were subjected to anumber of stressors (e.g., cus-tomer demands, tight deadlines,on-call duty, understaffing); effec-tive working relationships withone’s supervisor and coworkersseemed to serve as an anchor. Theimportance of interpersonal rela-tionships in the IT environment

cannot be overemphasized. Whenasked, “Why do you work here?”the overwhelming response fromfocus-group participants in everyIT department was “because of thepeople I work with.”

Supervisors reported that developingtrust was an essential component of the rela-tionship-building process. Consistent withextant research (e.g., Korsgaard, Brodt, &Whitener, 2002), supervisors stressed opencommunication, honesty, and follow-

through as key ingredients of trust building.As noted previously, most IT work is accom-plished in teams, and trust is a key compo-nent in team effectiveness (Costa, 2003).Moreover, trust is critical to the success of distributed work in virtual teams (Davis &Bryant, 2003; Jarvenpaa, Shaw, & Staples,2004) and telework (Vandever & Davis,2004), forms of work design common in IT.

One supervisor

stated, “I promote

communication with

my employees. I

think that a personal

call or face-to-face

meeting is much

more effective than

e-mail. It adds a

personal touch that

is so important.”





Another key aspect of relationship build-ing was socialization or “onboarding” of newIT employees. Supervisors expressed a prefer-ence for the serial socialization tactic (VanMaanen & Schein, 1979), in which new hires

could be paired for a period of time with employees they wouldbe replacing. High-performing su-pervisors showed sensitivity tothe needs of these new hires. Forinstance, they helped them navi-gate the more practical side of be-coming a team member (e.g.,completing paperwork for humanresources, understanding policiesand practices, familiarizing themwith organizational and depart-mental resources). They also

made sure that all new hires wereintroduced to other team mem-bers and often allowed a period of more lenient project deadlineswhile newcomers were adjusting.Although none of these practicesmay seem extraordinary, theyneed to be considered in light of the all-too-commonplace alterna-tive. Some supervisors viewed so-cialization as strictly a human re-sources department function. As a

result, new hires might go to anorganizational orientation ses-sion but would receive little in-struction or information specificto the IT department. In morethan one focus group, employeescomplained that new hires werenot even introduced to theircoworkers. One recent hire in agovernment agency describedhow he sat alone, working at hisdesk in his cubicle for nearly a

week before a coworker intro-duced herself and asked if he wasa new member of the depart-ment.

Good IT supervisors realize that taking apersonal interest in employees is an essentialpart of building relationships. During focusgroups, IT employees expressed appreciationfor supervisors who knew enough about

their personal lives to ask about specificevents (e.g., a child’s soccer game or play)and to acknowledge personal milestones(e.g., birthdays, anniversaries). One supervi-sor said, “I talk to everyone each day andknow what’s going on in their personallives.” These supervisors invested time ingetting to know their employees as people.One of the ways they accomplished this wasby providing formal and informal opportu-nities for social interaction during both workand nonwork hours. For instance, one super-visor at a publishing company organized aweekly “breakfast club.” Every Friday, em-ployees came in early to share breakfast be-fore the workday began. Team members,who all took turns cooking, reported enjoy-ing sharing their best family dishes or sur-

prising their colleagues with interesting con-coctions. Some employees reported thatpreparing breakfast had provided an oppor-tunity to share their cultural heritagethrough food.

Several employees commented on hav-ing supervisors with exceptional technicalskills but no interpersonal skills. As an ex-ample, one government employee describedhow her supervisor would walk by her eachday without saying “good morning,” andthen once in his office, he would send her an

e-mail. Although IT employees valued tech-nically competent supervisors, they haddeep appreciation for those who possessedboth technical and “people” skills. In thesehigh-tech environments, the desire for mak-ing a personal human connection was great,making such connections a supervisory bestpractice.

Mentoring

In several respects, mentoring also played a

key role in supervisors’ relationship-buildingactivities. High-performing supervisors oftenserved as mentors by providing both career-related and psychosocial support as well asserving as role models (Scandura, 1992; Scan-dura & Ragins, 1993). A great deal of super-visory mentoring focused on employees’growth as IT professionals. Supervisorshelped employees map out professional de-

Good IT supervisors

realize that taking a

personal interest in

employees is an

essential part of

building

relationships.

During focus groups,

IT employees

expressed

appreciation for

supervisors who

knew enough about

their personal lives

to ask about

specific events (e.g.,

a child’s soccer

game or play) and to

acknowledge

personal milestones

(e.g., birthdays,

anniversaries).





velopment goals and were instrumental insecuring assignments and projects thatwould stretch employees. Some supervisorsalso facilitated subordinates’ career develop-ment by providing technical mentoring. Al-though not all high-performing supervisorspossessed superior technical skills, those whodid made it a priority to share their knowl-edge with their employees.

The supervisor’s role in providing psy-chosocial support also was evident. Giventhe stresses of IT work, high-performing su-pervisors often served as a buffer betweentheir employees and the demands of the en-vironment. Supervisors advocated for em-ployees by working to secure reasonable ex-pectations and deadlines for IT work. Insome cases, supervisors offered psychosocial

support in the form of empathy by acknowl-edging heavy workloads and other stresses.As described below, highly effective supervi-sors also provided IT employees with assis-tance in managing stress and maintainingwork-family balance. Additionally, supervi-sors encouraged their employees to partici-pate in organizationally sponsored mentor-ing programs. Research shows thatmentoring is positively related to commit-ment and negatively related to turnover; su-pervisory mentoring in particular is more

strongly associated with affective commit-ment than other sources of mentoring(Payne & Huffman, 2005).

Research suggests that supervisors andcoworkers may be effective mentors, espe-cially compared to assigned formal mentors(Raabe & Beehr, 2003). Supervisors in ourstudy strongly encouraged peer mentoring. Jun-ior team members were frequently pairedwith senior team members. One supervisorsaid, “The less experienced workers work withthe more experienced. I have them work with

someone else, give them a small project, andtell them who to go to for help. I give themlonger deadlines and fit the person to theproject.” Effective supervisors created envi-ronments in which peers freely shared knowl-edge and expertise and assisted each otherwith tasks. In our focus groups, IT employeesexpressed a strong preference for this type of environment, although not all were working

in one. Supervisors who were viewed as lesseffective by employees tended to promote acompetitive climate in which individuals feltpenalized for sharing their knowledge andskills with others. Productivity suffered in de-partments run by such supervisors.

Stress Management

The stressfulness of the IT workenvironment was a persistenttheme. Ineffective supervision ap-peared to be among the mostprominent stressors. However,even those IT workgroups withhigh-performing supervisors re-ported stress stemming from highcustomer service demands, on-call

duty, tight and changing projectdeadlines, high environmentaluncertainty, and understaffing.The best supervisors took steps tomitigate these stressors directly(e.g., requesting additional staff,advocating with organizationaldecision makers for realistic proj-ect deadlines, monitoring the en-vironment to anticipate IT needs).They tried to keep pressure man-ageable by maintaining an aware-

ness of stressors and openly dis-cussing them with IT staff. Othersupervisors reframed issues: “I callit frustration, not stress. Reframethe issue and prioritize. Familycomes first. Try to accommodatewhat does cause the stress.” Effec-tive supervisors also made surethat work-task priorities wereclear; employees typically had more workthan they could handle, so the most pressingand important tasks had to be identified. In

addition, supervisors monitored individualworkloads to ensure that work demands weredistributed fairly. Research shows that jobstress is diminished when employees havegood working relationships with their super-visors (Bernas & Major, 2000).

In addition to confronting sources of stress, supervisors reported using a numberof techniques to buffer the effects of stress.

Given the stresses

of IT work, high-

performing

supervisors often

served as a buffer

between their

employees and the

demands of the

environment.

Supervisors

advocated for

employees by

working to secure

reasonable

expectations and

deadlines for IT

work.





Despite heavy workloads, effective IT super-visors encouraged their employees to taketime off. Informally, some supervisors wereable to give individuals comp time at theconclusion of projects that had demandedlong hours. In addition, the best supervisorsencouraged their staff to use their vacationtime. In some of the least effective IT depart-

ments, supervisors often pre-vented employees from using va-cation time, even though it was“on the books.”

High-performing IT supervi-sors unanimously recognized theneed to “blow off steam” and“take some down time” in orderto maintain peak performance.Sometimes this was accomplished

through time off, but supervisorsalso used humor and tried toinstill a sense of fun in the work-place in order to reduce the ef-fects of stressors. In one work-group in an IT consulting firm,the supervisor and coworkerstook turns giving each other the“Bonehead Award” as a way to re-lieve stress and keep mistakes inperspective. Helping employeesto keep work in perspective was a

best practice commonly reportedby supervisors.

High-performing supervisorsconsidered supportive coworkerrelationships a key to stress man-agement and took steps to fostersupportive employee relation-

ships. Supervisors noted that although theygave coworkers autonomy to work out is-sues themselves, they were prepared to in-tervene as necessary to end interpersonalconflicts before they escalated to serious

levels. By organizing employees into work-groups and project teams, supervisors cre-ated a system for sharing resources that fa-cilitated task completion and reducedindividual pressures.

Finally, engaging in non-work-related so-cial activities was a popular technique formanaging stress. Supervisors reported thatgroup lunches and dinners, sports events,

and parties for their IT team provided the op-portunities to “vent,” “cut loose,” and “blowoff steam.” These events also were instru-mental in helping the supervisor andcoworkers get to know one another better asindividuals.

Work-Family Balance

Research consistently shows that supervisorsupport reduces work-family conflict (e.g.,Thomas & Ganster, 1995; Thompson & Prot-tas, 2006). In our research, high-performingsupervisors recognized the importance of their employees’ personal and family lives.Many espoused a personal “family first” phi-losophy and expressed strong support foremployees who also prioritized family. One

said, “Home life is more important thanwork life . . . . Family stress affects you atwork.” Supervisors we interviewed had anappreciation for the influence of family ontheir employees’ work lives. Thus, being in-vested in family was not viewed as a liabilityby these supervisors. Instead, they acknowl-edged that employees’ work performancecould be adversely affected by neglectingfamily, and they facilitated and supportedemployees’ efforts to address family needs.

IT supervisors encouraged their employ-

ees to take advantage of organizational poli-cies and practices in order to better balancework and family. For instance, supervisorssupported IT employees in taking parentalleave. They also recommended that employ-ees participate in their organizations’ flexibleand alternate scheduling programs (e.g.,4/40 and flextime). Research suggests that al-though the majority of employees appreciatefamily-friendly benefits, many do not usethem out of concern for the career repercus-sions (Grover & Crooker, 1995). The best IT

supervisors not only allowed but actually en-couraged their employees to take part insuch organization-sponsored programs. Onesupervisor said, “Be as flexible as we can be.Look at policies. Encourage managers to begenerous, go beyond the law.” As researchshows, family-friendly benefits are morelikely to be used when employees perceivethe work environment as supportive in this

In our research,

high-performing

supervisors

recognized the

importance of their

employees’

personal and family

lives. Many

espoused a

personal “family

first” philosophy

and expressed

strong support for

employees who also

prioritized family.





manner (Allen, 2001; Thompson, Beauvais,& Lyness, 1999).

In organizations that offered formal flex-ible scheduling programs, the IT supervisorswe interviewed supported their use. How-ever, it was much more frequently the casethat no organizational policy existed andthat scheduling flexibility and family accom-modations were handled on an individual,informal basis by the supervisor. Supervisorsstressed the need for a flexible orientationwhen helping their employees manage workand family needs, given the nature of ITwork. Supervisors recognized that IT work isdemanding in terms of the need for 24-hourIT support, on-call requirements, frequentperiods of intense work activity, and theneed to respond to emergent issues and un-

planned requests. On a case-by-case basis, allthe supervisors we interviewed offered flexi-ble work hours, flexible scheduling, and tele-work opportunities, even when no formal or-ganizational policy existed for thesepractices. Supervisors noted that rather thantreating all of their employees exactly thesame, they instead tried to meet each em-ployee’s individual needs.

Finally, effective IT supervisors includedfamily in workplace social events. Some usedthis as an opportunity to thank spouses for

their support of the IT employee’s work. Allfelt that hosting social events for employeesand their families increased good will. Con-versely, excluding family from workplace so-cial events negatively affected morale. Oneorganization that had historically includedemployees’ families in its annual Christmasparty decided to limit the event to employ-ees only as a cost-savings measure. Althoughthe practice had been in place for over twoyears at the time of our focus groups, em-ployees still commented on how insulted

they felt by this change.

Summary and Conclusion

Based on content analyses of interviews withIT supervisors empirically identified as high-performing, supervisory best practices werederived. Practices fell into two categories,task-focused and person-focused, demonstrat-

ing the relevance of classic leadership theoryfor supervising IT professionals. Task-focusedand person-focused leadership categorieswere further developed into eight groups of best practices. Task-focused practices in-cluded boundary spanning, performancemanagement, employee involvement, andtraining and development. Per-son-focused practices included re-lationship building, mentoring,stress management, and work-family balance. Although they aredistinguishable, the best practicesare also interrelated and interac-tive. Some best practices servemultiple purposes. For example,giving employees time off allevi-ates stress and enhances work-

family balance. Likewise, workingin teams provides training anddevelopment opportunities andfosters relationship building. Fur-ther, some of the best practicesare reciprocally related. For in-stance, effective relationshipbuilding paves the way for em-ployee involvement, while em-ployee involvement also con-tributes to relationship building.

At first glance, it may appear

that our research verifies the obvi-ous, that sound leadership prac-tices result in effective IT supervi-sion. In contrast, we think thatthis is a strength of our study. Wedemonstrate that, despite theunique characteristics and de-mands seen in IT work, IT profes-sionals benefit from the samepractices shown to be importantamong other technical professions(Ferratt & Short, 1988). Another

strength of our work is the empiri-cal grounding of our recom-mended practices among highlyeffective first-line supervisors. Ourresults complement and extend previous re-search that focused on higher-level managers(e.g., Agarwal & Ferratt, 1999, 2002a, 2002b).Our practices distinguish empirically betweenmore and less effective IT supervisors and are

On a case-by-case

basis, all the

supervisors we

interviewed offered

flexible work hours,

flexible scheduling,

and telework

opportunities, even

when no formal

organizational

policy existed for

these practices.

Supervisors noted

that rather than

treating all of their

employees exactly

the same, they

instead tried to meet

each employee’s

individual needs.





consistent with other supervisory recommen-dations in the literature (e.g., Rau, 2004).Moreover, the supervisory best practices de-rived from our research address some of themost common challenges in the IT work en-vironment, and these are indeed new. Finally,the current research takes a step beyond de-tailing the uniqueness of the IT workplace

and identifies how best to handle the supervi-sion implications of these unique features.

Acknowledgment

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant 0204430.


DEBRA A. MAJOR is a professor of psychology at Old Dominion University. Her research

focuses on career development issues, including barriers faced by women and minori-

ties, developmental relationships at work, and work-family conflict. She was principal in-

vestigator of the multiyear National Science Foundation grant that supported this re-

search on inclusion in the information technology workforce. Her work has appeared in

scholarly journals, including Human Resource Development Quarterly, Human Resource

Management Review, the Journal of Applied Psychology, and the Journal of Business

and Psychology, as well as numerous edited volumes. She serves on the editorial board

of the Journal of Organizational Behavior.

DONALD D. DAVIS is an associate professor of psychology at Old Dominion Univer-

sity. He has been a visiting professor of psychology at the University of Virginia and

Fulbright professor of organization behavior and social psychology at Wuhan Univer-

sity in China. He studies cultural diversity, cross-cultural organization and manage-

ment practices, virtual organizations, organization change, and technological innova-

tion. He has published one book (Managing Technological Innovation) and many

papers on these topics. He has consulted with more than 100 organizations around

the world. He serves on the editorial board of the Journal of High Technology Man-

agement and Research.

LISA M. GERMANO is a doctoral candidate in industrial/organizational psychology at OldDominion University. She is currently an associate consultant at Kenexa. Her research

interests include work-life balance, job stress, mentoring, and the experiences of women

and minorities in the workplace.

THOMAS D. FLETCHER received a doctorate in industrial/organizational psychology

from Old Dominion University in 2005. He is currently an assistant professor of psy-

chology at the University of Missouri-St. Louis. His work focuses on research methods

and motivation in the workplace, especially the role of competition (both as a personal-

ity characteristic and as a reward structure) in influencing workplace performance and in

interpersonal relationships. His research has appeared in scholarly journals such as Sex

Roles and the Journal of Applied Psychology.

JANIS SANCHEZ-HUCLES is a professor and chair of psychology at Old Dominion Uni-

versity. She is a clinical psychologist with research and consulting experience in diversity,

cultural competence, and increasing women and minorities in underrepresented areas.

Her work has appeared in scholarly publications such as the Psychology of Women Quar-

terly, The Counseling Psychologist, Professional Psychology, and the Journal of Social Be-

havior and Personality. She has also written numerous book chapters. Dr. Sanchez-Hucles

is the author of The First Session with African Americans and is a coeditor of a 2007 vol-

ume, Feminist Visions and Diverse Voices: Leadership and Collaboration.




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Research Project Overview

Supervisor best practices for managing IT employees were identified as part of a multiyear project designed to

investigate characteristics of the IT workplace that foster inclusion and equal opportunity for all employees. Dur-

ing the first phase, ten organizations with IT departments of varying sizes and demographic compositions were

recruited to participate in the project. The organizations represented various industries, including health care, ed-

ucation, local government, consumer and industrial products, publishing, business and IT consulting, chemical

manufacturing, and waste management. Web-based survey data were collected from 914 IT employees.

The second phase of the project consisted of a survey feedback intervention. Feedback reports summarizing

the survey data collected during the first phase were distributed to each participating organization. Data from

the entire sample were used to benchmark performance for each organization and to identify strengths and

low-performing areas that could serve as a focus for change. Workgroup-level feedback was also provided in

each organization.

After the reports were disseminated to the leadership at each company, feedback meetings with company ex-

ecutives were conducted and feedback presentations were given to IT employees. In addition, we invited IT

employees to participate in focus groups. The aim of the focus-group discussions was to obtain qualitative

data to aid in interpretation of the survey results. Based on the survey findings and focus-group feedback, we

worked with management to develop action plans that capitalized on their strengths and addressed theirweaknesses.

In order to identify supervisory best practices for IT personnel management, ten high-performing supervisors

participated in structured interviews. Supervisors responded to questions about (a) working relationships with

their employees, (b) how they help employees develop professionally, (c) efforts made to encourage mentor-

ing, (d) managing stress and balancing work and family demands, and (e) their value for diversity. Data from

workgroup reports in combination with data from focus-group discussions and executive nominations led to

the identification and selection of ten high-performing supervisors for participation in the structured inter-

views from six of the ten partner organizations. These six organizations represented the health care, educa-

tion, publishing, business and IT consulting, chemical manufacturing, and waste management industries. The

type of IT employees supervised varied (e.g., software developers, system maintainers, IT consultants, and

programmers). In four of the organizations, none of the IT supervisors were identified as high-performing. The

structured interviews were designed to assess the supervisory role, support for diversity issues, decision

making, mentoring, and work-family balance. Each interview lasted approximately 30–60 minutes.

Interview Content Coding

First, the field notes from the ten supervisor interviews were transcribed and entered into a database for cod-

ing. Each practice was treated as the unit to be coded. A total of 339 practices were coded. In an effort to cre-

ate a list of categories grounded in theory, five members of the research team individually generated lists of

content categories based on reviews of the literature. Combining the five lists of content categories and elimi-

nating redundant categories resulted in 13 categories. During the second round of coding, four raters used

the 13 categories to code the 339 practices. One category was deleted because it did not reflect supervisor

best practices for managing IT personnel, and the behaviors were unrelated to the remaining 12 categories.

The “recruitment and selection” category also was eliminated because so few supervisors reported having

control over these processes. The “socialization” and “open communication” categories were collapsed into

the “relationship building” category. The “valuing diversity” category, which seemed to reflect organizational

climate rather than supervisory practices, is not discussed here. The remaining eight categories are presentedin Table II.

A P P E N D I X

5Managing HR in IT

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