5. Printed Report Copy

Clinometer

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition of Clinometer

The word Clinometer is derived from ‘clino’ which means slope or incline.

Clinometer is an instrument whose main purpose is to find the height and the distance

from one given point to the top of a building/object.

Alternatively, we can define it as

A Clinometer is a scientific instrument used to measure angles and is used by

scientists, engineers and other professionals to gather data during field work. For example,

an engineer might use a Clinometer, also known as an inclinometer, to survey land,

determine its slope or calculate the height of objects such as trees, buildings. There are

multiple types of clinometers, but all perform measurements and provide data for use in a

set of related formulas.

The name Clinometer comes from the word "incline," although the device is also

known as a tilt meter, slope gauge, declinometer, and level meter.

A Clinometer is a device used to measure specific angles by sight, usually how far

above a horizontal line, such as the ground or a person's line of sight. A Clinometer can

help measure the height of a tree, for instance, or show the angle of a slope that the user is

standing on.

Clinometer are measuring devices that may be used in several different

professions. Also known as an inclinometer, the essential function of the device is to

determine accurate measurements as they relate to sloping, height and distance. The

Clinometer is often used in the profession of meteorology, as well as in forestry and

surveying.

Department of ECE 1 H.K.B.K.C.E

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One of the most common applications of the Clinometer is measuring angles as

they relate to the slope of natural formations or buildings and other human construction

projects. The idea is to measure the angle with an eye toward identifying any amount of

slope. The Clinometer may be used to measure both inclines and declines, based on the

perspective of the individual calculating the measurements.

Along with measuring inclines, the Clinometer is also used in the field of forestry.

While measuring natural formations found in wooded areas, the Clinometer is also utilized

as a means of measuring the height of trees. Using the directed beam that is emitted by the

device, it is possible to determine height without having to use conventional means of

actually measuring the tree.

The Clinometer has been around since the early 20th century. Early versions relied

heavily on weights as a means of determining slope and distance. Later incarnations of the

Clinometer made use of curved glass tubes filled with some type of damping liquid and a

steel ball to chart angles and slopes. Today, the use of electronic sensors is an important

component in the design and function of the modern Clinometer.


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Fig 1.1 Clinometer

1.2 Need for the project

Clinometer is an instrument whose main purpose is to find the height and the

distance from one given point to the top of a building/object. The height of the object is

calculated along with the distance from the foot of the object to the place where we are

standing. Over the years Clinometer is being used to measure either the height or the

distance of an object manually by using trigonometric functions. But in applications such

as topographic mapping it becomes difficult to find both at a time.

The objective of this project is that we attempt to find both the height and the

distance of the object simultaneously and display the height and distance in terms of

meters on a LCD screen. The task of calculating the height and distance can be

accomplished with in a very short duration of time. In this way, we can get accurate

results with minimum human efforts.


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1.3 Working

The Proposed Project consists of a P89V51RD2 microcontroller, 3 switches, 2 of

which are angle freezing switches and the third is for the purpose of displaying. The first

step is to point towards the object of interest and press the first switch S1 for freezing the

angle, this angle (T1) is recorded. The initial angle (T1) is first displayed on the LCD

display. Then we move forward by a certain distance say 1 meter and repeat step 1 and

then press the second switch S2 for freezing the angle, this angle (T2) is recorded. The

second angle (T2) is then displayed on the LCD display. On pressing the 3rd switch the

height of the building/object is calculated internally and displayed along with the distance

from the foot of the building/object to the place where we are standing.

The hardware requirements for the model as shown in fig 1.2 are:

SWITCH: It is a device that is used to freeze the angles. The switches

being used here are single pole switches.

ADC (Analog to Digital Converter): ADC0803/0804CMOS 8-bit A/D

converters. The resolution of ADC is 256bits. Rotational knob which gives

the angular variation for height of object/building in analogous form is

converted to its digital equivalent by 8 channel ADC.

LCD (Liquid Crystal display): Alpha numeric display used to display the

message. It is 2x16 LCD.

Microcontroller: Philips 89v51RD2 microcontroller is used. It is an

80C51 microcontroller with 64kB Flash and 1024 bytes of data RAM. The


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Flash program memory supports both parallel and serial In-System

Programming (ISP).

Rotational knob: A 10k potentiometer is used as a rotational knob.

Power Supply: A 5v supply is used.

1.4 Block diagram

Fig 1.2 Block Diagram of Clinometer


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1.5 How to use a Clinometer?

A Clinometer is an instrument used to measure the height of objects at a distance.

Clinometers take advantage of the geometry of triangles to allow us to determine the

height visually rather than measuring the height physically.

For example, clinometers are commonly used to measure the height of trees,

plants, buildings, towers, poles and other objects, taking physical measurements of which

would have been time-consuming or otherwise impractical. For every type of clinometer,

the basic steps of use are the same.

1.5.1. Instructions

Point towards the object with the help of pointer by

adjusting the potentiometer.

Press switch S1, the switch S1 will freeze the first angle

T1. The freezed angle is displayed on the LCD screen.

Press switch Sm (motor switch), this will automatically

make the device move a distance of 1 meter. However if

the object is at a far distance then the clinometers may

be moved by a distance of 10 meters towards the object.

For the second reading, repeat step 1.

Press switch S2, the switch S2 will freeze the second

angle T2. The freezed angle is displayed on the LCD

screen.


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Press switch S3, to calculate and display the result (if the

object is at a short distance).

Press switch S4, to calculate and display the result (if the

object is at a far distance).

The result is obtained based on the two angles that were

recorded. The height and distance in terms of meters will

be displayed on the LCD screen after trigonometric

calculations.


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Chapter 2

ANCIENT CLINOMETERS

The ancient clinometers include an optical device for measuring elevation angles

above horizontal. The most common of them being used are compass-clinometers from

Suunto or Silva. Compass clinometers are fundamentally just magnetic compasses held

with their plane vertical so that a plummet or its equivalent can point to the elevation of

the sight line. A better version of Clinometer is the Abney hand spirit level clinometers,

where the object sighted and the level bubble can be seen simultaneously, so that the index

can be set accurately. An Abney Clinometer is shown in the figure 2.1. A spirit level is

called so because it contains alcohol in a tube of large radius, in which the bubble moves

to the highest point. Spirit levels are used for accurate surveying, although automatic

levels that go back to the principle of the plummet are now frequently found, and are easy

to use.

Fig 2.1 Abney clinometer

The Abney clinometer has a sighting tube with an angle scale reading from -90° to

+90°, and a spirit level with a Vernier index that can be moved along the scale while the

user looks through the sighting tube. A small mirror and lens makes the level bubble

visible in the field of view. When the object is aligned with the crosshair in the sighting

tube, the spirit level is rotated so that the bubble is bisected by the crosshair. Then, the

elevation of the line of sight can be read off on the scale. The Vernier can be read to 10',

but it requires a magnifier to do this. The clinometer can read easily and accurately angles


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of elevation that would be very difficult to measure in any other simple and inexpensive

way.

A fairly common use of a clinometer is to measure the height of trees, which is

easily done. A point should be marked with a stake from the centre of the trunk of the tree

as its estimated height, so that the elevation angle is about 45°, which gives the best

"geometry." This distance D is measured with a tape. The observer then stands over the

stake and sights the top of the tree, finding its elevation angle θ. The height H of the tree is then H = D tan θ + HI, where HI, the height of instrument, is the height of the observer's eye. All

this is illustrated in the following figures.

Fig. 2.2a Height of a tree

With the levelling rod, the HI can easily be obtained. Set the index at 0°, and the

clinometer comes at level. Sight the rod from close by, and read the

HI. This can, of course, be done by simply making a mark on a wall just

in front of your eyes, and then measuring its height.

Fig 2.2b Levelling


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The determination of the difference in elevation of two points is called levelling,

and can be carried out with the clinometer set at 0°. The place where you stand in level is

called a turning point, TP. Your rod person holds the rod on the first point, and you make

a backsight, BS, by reading the rod. The reading is the HI above the fist point. Now the

rod is held on the second point, and a foresight, FS, is taken. Foresights and backsights

should be roughly equal in distance. The difference in elevation of the two points is BS -

FS. This procedure is illustrated at the left. If both points cannot conveniently be viewed

from one TP, a chain of turning points is used, with an intermediate elevation between

each one. The difference in elevation is the sum of the backsights less the sum of the

foresights. If the sights are short, such as those that are practical with the clinometer, the

curvature of the earth will be taken into account automatically.

The procedure for finding the height of a tree can be inverted to find the distance D

when H is known. This is an application of the method of stadia. The difference in

elevation angles of two points on the rod (say top and bottom) is measured, and

trigonometry is used to find D in terms of distance. If one of the points has an elevation

angle of 0°, then D = H/tan θ. The clinometer is really not well-adapted to this, but it may

be of use occasionally.


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Chapter 3

POWER SUPPLY

The power supply circuit is built using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage

regulators. Starting with an AC voltage, a steady DC voltage is obtained by rectifying the

AC voltage, then filtering it to a DC level, and finally, regulating it to obtain a desired

fixed DC voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator unit,

which takes a DC voltage and provides an approximate lower DC voltage, which remains

the same even if the input DC voltage varies, or the output load connected to the DC

voltage changes.

3.1 Transformer

Transformers convert high AC voltage from the supply to low voltage with little

loss of power. They work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why the main supply

is AC. Step-up transformers increase voltage while step-down transformers decrease

voltage. Most power supplies use step-down transformers to reduce dangerously high

voltage to a safe low level voltage. The input coil is called the secondary. There is no

electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating

magnetic field created in the soft iron core of the transformer.

Transformers waste very little power so the output power is almost equal to the

input power. Also, as the voltage is stepped down, current is stepped up. The ratio of the

number of turns of each coil is called the ‘Turns ratio’,which determines the ratio of

voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns in its primary which are

connected to high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns which are connected

to the secondary to give a low output voltage.

Turns ratio=Vp/Vs=Np/Ns and power out= power in; Vs*Is=Vp*Ip

Vp= primary input voltage.


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Vs= secondary output voltage.

Np= number of turns in primary.

Ns= number of turns in secondary.

Ip= primary current.

Is= secondary current.

3.2 Bridge Rectifier

The rectification is carried out by employing diodes and there are different ways of

connecting diodes to make a rectifier convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most

important and it produces full wave varying DC. A full wave rectifier can also be made

using just two diodes if a centre tap transformer is used but this method is rarely used

since the diodes are not expensive.

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes. It is also available in

special packages containing the four diodes that are required. It is called a full-wave

rectifier because it uses the entire AC wave. 1.4V is used up because each diode uses 0.7V

when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting. Bridge rectifiers are rated

by the maximum current they can pass and the peak inverse voltage they can withstand.

Figure 3.1: Full-wave bridge rectifier.


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Figure 3.2: Input-Output waveforms.

As mentioned earlier, one can also implement a single-phase full-wave rectifier

using four diodes. The diagram of the full-wave bridge rectifier and associated waveforms

are shown in figure 3.2. In the positive half cycle of the transformer, diodes D1 and D2

conduct, supplying voltage to the load. In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, diodes

D3 and D4 conduct supplying this voltage to the load. It can be seen from the waveforms

that the peak inverse voltage of the diodes is only Vm. The average output voltage is the

same as that for the center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier.

Figure 3.3: Commercially available bridge rectifier.


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3.3 Filtering

It is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connection across the DC

supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current when the varying DC voltage from the

rectifier is falling. The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and

then discharges as it supplies current to the output.

Smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak

value(1.4xRMS value). For example, 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about

4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in bridge), with smoothing this increases almost to the peak value

giving 6.4V smooth DC. Smoothing is not perfect due to capacitor voltage falling a little

as it discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits ripple which is 10% of

the supply voltage is satisfactory. A large capacitor gives fewer ripples. The capacitor

value must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.

3.4 Voltage Regulator

Voltage regulator IC’s are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or

variable output voltages. They are rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative

voltage regulators are available but mainly for dual supplies. Most regulators include some

automatic protection from excessive current (overload protection) and over heating

(thermal protection). The voltage regulator IC used in this project is the 7805 which

outputs a constant voltage of 5V.

Figure 3.4: Block diagram of voltage regulator.


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Many of the fixed voltage regulator IC’s has three leads and look like power transistors,

such as the 7808 +8V regulator. They include a hole at top of common ground pin for

attachment of heat sink if necessary.

Figure 3.5: Image of voltage regulator.


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Chapter4

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1 Microcontroller P89V51RD2

4.1.1 Description

The P89V51RD2 is an 80C51 microcontroller with 64 KB Flash and 1024 bytes of

data RAM. A key feature of the P89V51RD2 is its X2 mode option. The design engineer

can choose to run the application with the conventional 80C51 clock rate (12 clocks per

machine cycle) or select the X2 mode (6 clocks per machine cycle) to achieve twice the

throughput at the same clock frequency. Another way to benefit from this feature is to

keep the same performance by reducing the clock frequency by half, thus dramatically

reducing the EMI.

The Flash program memory supports both parallel programming and in serial In-System

Programming (ISP). Parallel programming mode offers gang-programming at high speed,

reducing programming costs and time to market. ISP allows a device to be reprogrammed

in the end product under software control. The capability to field/update the application

firmware makes a wide range of applications possible. The P89V51RD2 is also In-

Application Programmable (IAP), allowing the Flash program memory to be reconfigured

even while the application is running.

4.1.2 Features

80C51 Central Processing Unit

5 V Operating voltage from 0 to 40 MHz

64 KB of on-chip Flash program memory with ISP (In-System Programming)

IAP (In-Application Programming)

Supports 12-clock (default) or 6-clock mode selection via software or ISP

SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface)

PCA (Programmable Counter Array) with PWM


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Four 8-bit I/O ports with three high-current Port 1 pins (16mA each)

Three 16-bit timers/counters

Programmable Watchdog timer (WDT)

Eight interrupt sources with four priority levels

Second DPTR register

TTL- and CMOS-compatible logic levels

Power-down mode with external interrupt wake-up

PDIP40, PLCC44 and TQFP44 package.


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4.1.3 Memory organization

The device has separate address spaces for program and data memory.

Internal and external data memory structure.

Fig4.1: Memory Organization


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Flash program memory There are two internal flash memory blocks in the device. Block 0 has 64 Kbytes

and contains the user’s code. Block 1 contains the Philips-provided ISP/IAP routines and

may be enabled such that it overlays the first 8 Kbytes of the user code memory. The 64

kB Block 0 is organized as 512 sectors, each sector consists of 128 bytes. Access to the

IAP routines may be enabled by clearing the BSEL bit in the FCF register. However,

caution must be taken when dynamically changing the BSEL bit. Since this will cause

different physical memory to be mapped to the logical program address space, the user

must avoid clearing the BSEL bit when executing user code within the address range

0000H to 1FFFH.

Data RAM memory The data RAM has 1024 bytes of internal memory. The device can also address up

to 64 kB for external data memory.

In-System Programming (ISP)

In-System Programming is performed without removing the microcontroller from

the system. The In-System Programming facility consists of a series of internal hardware

resources coupled with internal firmware to facilitate remote programming of the

P89V51RD2 through the serial port. This firmware is provided by Philips and embedded

within each P89V51RD2 device. The Philips In-System Programming facility has made

in-circuit programming in an embedded application possible with a minimum of additional

expense in components and circuit board area. The ISP function uses five pins (VDD,

VSS, TxD, RxD, and RST). Only a small connector needs to be available to interface your

application to an external circuit in order to use this feature.

4.1.4 General description of Microcontroller


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A & B CPU registers:

The architecture of 89v51 contains 34 general purpose, or working registers. Two

of these, registers A and B, hold results of many instructions, particularly math and logical

operation of the 89v51 central processing unit (CPU). The other32 are arranged as a part

of internal RAM in four banks, B0-B3, of eight registers.

The A (accumulator) is the most versatile of the two CPU registers and is used for

mathematical operations and Boolean operations. The B register is used with A register

for multiplication and division operation and has no other function other than as a location

where data may be stored.

Program status word register:


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7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

CY AC FO RS1 RS0 OV - P

BIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

7 CY Carry flag

6 AC Auxiliary carry flag

5 FO User flag

4 RS1 Register bank select bit 1

3 RS0 Register bank select bit 0

RS1 RS0

0 0 Select register bank 0




2 OV Over flow flag

1 - Reserved for future use

0 P Parity flag

Table 4.1 PSW pin detail

Program counter and data pointer:


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The 89C52 contains two 16-bit registers—program counter (PC) and the data

pointer (DPTR). Each is used to hold the address of the byte in memory. Program

instruction bytes are fetched from locations in memory that are addressed by the PC. The

PC is automatically incremented after every instruction byte is fetched and may also be

altered by certain instructions. The PC is the only register that does not have any internal

address.

DPTR register is made up of two 8-bit registers, named DPH and DPL, which are used to

furnish memory address from internal and external code access and external data access.

Data pointer can also be addressed with its 16-bit name, DPTR or by each individual byte

named DPH and DPL. These two individuals have internal address.

4.1.5. Pin Functional Description

The microcontroller pins that have been utilized in the circuit for the project descriptions

as follows:

Port1 pins which is a pure i/o (input output) this port is used for dual purpose, one

for the liquid crystal display (LCD) and the other is for the ADC (analog to digital

converter) the digital converted value is accepted through this port pins 1 to 8.The

microcontroller has two external interrupt pins INT0 pin12 and INT1 pin13 are given to

the ADC EOC(end of conversion) and SOC( start of conversion) pins respectively so

when the INT1 pin goes low, then the ADC starts the conversion and when the conversion

is completed it signals/alerts the microcontroller by giving EOC to INT0 pin so that the

converted digital value is on the data lines of the ADC chip.

The data from ADC to microcontroller is latched by the help of RD pin 17 and WR

pin 16 of the microcontroller the microcontroller WR pin is given to ALE pin22 of ADC

and OE(output enable) Pin9ADC is given to the RD pin of microcontroller when the data

conversion is completed the microcontroller latches the converted digital data from ADC

to port1 by asserting WR pin high and WR pin low which is given to output enable signal


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of ADC . Similarly when the data to LCD is to be transmitted then the external

counter/timer inputs are used to control the LCD timer0 T0 pin 14 of microcontroller is

given to pin4 of LCD which is register select (RS) pin when RS = 0, LCD selects the

command register so that microcontroller can send commands like clear display screen,

select two lines 5X7 matrix LCD etc. When RS = 1, then data register is selected so that

data can be displayed on LCD.

Port0 bit P0.0 pin 39, P0.1 pin 38, and P0.2 pin 37 is given to ADC pins A2 pin 25,

A1 pin 24.And A0 pin 23 respectively, which are the address select pins of ADC, which

are used to select any one of the input from 8 input pins of the ADC.

Port2 bit 7 pin 28is given to the not gate 7404 for the purpose of selecting any one

com port for serial communication between GPS and GSM since microcontroller at any

given time can handle only one UART com port.

4.2 Analog to Digital converter4.2.1 Description

The ADC0804 is CMOS 8-bit successive approximation A/D converters that use a

differential potentiometric ladder-similar to the 256R products. These converters are

designed to allow operation with the NSC800 and INS8080A derivative control bus with

TRI-STATE output latches directly driving the data bus. These A/Ds appear like memory

locations or I/O ports to the microprocessor and no interfacing logic is needed.

Differential analog voltage inputs allow increasing the common-mode rejection and

offsetting the analog zero input voltage value. In addition, the voltage reference input can

be adjusted to allow encoding any smaller analog voltage span to the full 8 bits of

resolution.


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Fig 4.2: Pin configuration of ADC0804


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4.2.2. Features• Compatible with 8080 µP derivatives-no interfacing logic needed - access time - 135 ns.

• Easy interface to all microprocessors, or operates "stand alone".

• Differential analog voltage inputs.

• Logic inputs and outputs meet both MOS and TTL voltage level specifications

Works with 2.5V (LM336) voltage reference.

• On-chip clock generator.

• 0V to 5V analog input voltage range with single 5V supply.

• No zero adjustment is required.

• 0.3[Prime]

standard width 20-pin DIP package.

• 20-pin moulded chip carrier or small outline package.

• Operates ratio metrically or with 5 VDC, 2.5 VDC, or analog span adjusted voltage

reference.

Fig. 4.3: Top View of A2D Converter

4.2.3 Key Specification


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4.2.4. Typical Application Schematic

Fig. 4.4: Interfacing with microcontroller

As shown in the typical circuit, ADC0804 can be interfaced with any

microcontroller. We need a minimum of 11 pins to interface ADC0804, eight for data pins

and 3 for control pins. As shown in the typical circuit the chip select pin can be made low

if you are not using the microcontroller port for any other peripheral . There is a universal


Resolution 8 bits

Total error ±¼ LSB, ±½ LSB and ±1 LSB

Conversion time 100 µs

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rule to find out how to use an IC. All we need is the datasheet of the IC you are working

with and take a look at the timing diagram of the IC which shows how to send the data,

which signal to assert and at what time the signal should be made high or low etc.

Fig.4.5: Start Conversion


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Fig 4.6: Output Enable and Reset INTR

The above timing diagrams are from ADC0804 datasheet. The first diagram Fig. 4.5

shows how to start a conversion . Also you can see which signals are to be asserted and at

what time to start a conversion . So looking into the timing diagram, Fig 4.6. We note

down the steps or say the order in which signals are to be asserted to start a conversion of

ADC. As we have decided to make Chip select pin as low so we need not to bother about

the CS signal in the timing diagram. Below steps are for starting an ADC conversion.

Make chip select (CS) signal low.

1. Make write (WR) signal low.

2. Make chip select (CS) high.

3. Wait for INTR pin to go low (means conversion ends).

Once the conversion in ADC is done, the data is available in the output latch of the ADC.

Looking at the Fig. 4.6which shows the timing diagram of how to read the converted value

from the output latch of the ADC. Data of the new conversion is only available for reading

after ADC0804 made INTR pin low or say when the conversion is over. Below are the

steps to read output from the ADC0804.


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1. Make chip select (CS) pin low.

2. Make read (RD) signal low.

3. Read the data from port where ADC is connected.

4. Make read (RD) signal high.

5. Make chip select (CS) high.

4.2.5. Successive approximation ADC

One method of addressing the digital ramp ADC's shortcomings is the so-called

successive-approximation register ADC as shown in fig 4.7. The only change in this

design is a very special counter circuit known as a successive approximation register.

Instead of counting up in binary sequence, this register counts by trying all values of bits

starting from bits with the most-significant bit and finishing at the least-significant bit.

Throughout the count process, the register monitors the comparator's output to see if the

binary count is less than or greater than the analog signal input, adjusting the bit values

accordingly. The way the register counts is identical to the "trial and fit" method of

decimal-to-binary conversion, whereby different values of bits are tried from MSB to LSB

to get a binary number that equals the original decimal number. The advantage to this

counting strategy is much faster results: the DAC output converges on the analog signal

input in much larger steps than with the 0-to-full-count sequence of a regular counter.


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Fig. 4.7: ADC using SAR

Where,

DAC = digital-to-analog converter

EOC = end of conversion

SAR = successive approximation register

S/H = sample and hold circuit

Vin = input voltage

Vref = reference voltage

It should be noted that the SAR is generally capable of outputting the binary number

in serial (one bit at a time) format, thus eliminating the need for a shift register. Plotted

over time, the operation of a successive-approximation ADC looks like this:


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SA_ADC_block_diagram.png

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Fig. 4.8: Input and output waveforms

4.2.6. SAR Algorithm

The successive approximation analog to digital converter circuit typically consists

of four chief sub circuits:

1. A sample and hold circuit to acquire the input voltage (Vin).

2. An analog voltage comparator that compares Vin to the output of the

internal DAC and outputs the result of the comparison to the successive

approximation register (SAR).

3. A successive approximation register sub circuit designed to supply an

approximate digital code of Vin to the internal DAC.

4. An internal reference DAC that supplies the comparator with an analog

voltage equivalent of the digital code output of the SAR for comparison

with Vin.

The successive approximation register is initialized so that the most significant bit (MSB)

is equal to a digital 1. This code is fed into the DAC which then supplies the analog

equivalent of this digital code (Vref/2) into the comparator circuit for comparison with the


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_significant_bit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_to_digital_converter

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sampled input voltage. If this analog voltage exceeds V in the comparator causes the SAR

to reset this bit; otherwise, the bit is left a 1. Then the next bit is set to 1 and the same test

is done, continuing this binary search until every bit in the SAR has been tested. The

resulting code is the digital approximation of the sampled input voltage and is finally

output by the DAC at the end of the conversion (EOC).

Mathematically, let Vin = xVref, so x in [-1, 1] is the normalized input voltage. The

objective is to approximately digitize x to an accuracy of 1/2n. The algorithm proceeds as

follows:

1. Initial approximation x0 = 0.

2. ith approximation xi = xi-1 - s(xi-1 - x)/2i.

where, s(x) is the signum-function(sgn(x)) (+1 for x ≥ 0, -1 for x < 0). It follows using

mathematical induction that |xn - x| ≤ 1/2n.

As shown in the above algorithm, a SAR ADC requires:

1. An input voltage source Vin.

2. A reference voltage source Vref to normalize the input.

3. A DAC to convert the ith approximation xi to a voltage.

4. A Comparator to perform the function s(xi - x) by comparing the DAC's

voltage with the input voltage.

5. A Register to store the output of the comparator and apply x i-1 - s(xi-1 -

x)/2i.

4.3 MAX 232 connection to RS232 and Microcontroller.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_search_algorithm

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The details of the Physical connection of the microcontroller to RS232 connectors

are given. The RS232 standard is not compatible, therefore it requires a line driver such as

the MAX232 chip to convert RS232 voltage levels to TTL levels and vice versa. The

microcontroller has two pins that are used specifically for transferring and receiving data

serially. These two pins are called TxD and RxD and are part of the port3.

These pins are TTL compatible therefore they require a line driver to make RS232

compatible. The one such line driver is MAX232 chip. The connection between the

microcontroller and the RS232 is shown in the below figure.

Fig 4.9: MAX 232 Connection to RS232 and Microcontroller

4.3.1. MAX232 Line Drivers


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The MAX232 has two sets of line drivers for transferring and receiving data, as

shown in fig. The line drivers used for TxD are called T1 and T2, while the line drivers for

RxD are designated R1 and R2. In many applications only one of each is used. Notice in

MAX232 that the T1 line driver has a designation of T1in and T1out on pin numbers 11

and 14, respectively. The T1in pin is the TTL side and is connected to the TxD of the

microcontroller, while T1out is the RS232 side that is connected to the RxD pin of the

RS232 DB connector. The R1 line driver has a designation of R1in and R1out on pin

numbers 13 and 12, respectively. The R1in (pin 13) is the RS232 side that is connected to

the TxD pin of the RS232 DB connector, and R1out (pin 12) is the TTL side that is

connected to the RxD pin of the microcontroller.

Fig 4.10 MAX232 Line Drivers

4.3.2. Applications of MAX 232:

Battery-Powered Systems.


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Terminals.

Modems.

Computers.

4.4. LCD Module

Fig.4.11. LCD Module

LCD displays designed around LCD module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is

even possible to produce a readout using the 8 x 80 pixels of the display. Hitachi LCD

displays have a standard ASCII set of characters plus Japanese, Greek and mathematical

symbols.

For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires a +5V supply plus 11 I/O lines. For a 4-

bit data bus it only requires the supply lines plus seven extra lines. When the LCD display

is not enabled, data lines are tri-state which means they are in a state of high impedance


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(as though they are disconnected) and this means they do not interfere with the operation

of the microcontroller when the display is not being addressed.

The LCD also requires 3 "control" lines from the microcontroller. The Enable

(E)line allows access to the display through R/W and RS lines. When this line is low, the

LCD is disabled and ignores signals from R/W and RS. When (E) line is high, the LCD

checks the state of the two control lines and responds accordingly. The Read/Write(R/W)

line determines the direction of data between the LCD and microcontroller.

When it is low, data is written to the LCD. When it is high, data is read from the

LCD. With the help of the Register select (RS)line, the LCD interprets the type of data on

data lines. When it is low, an instruction is being written to the LCD. When it is high, a

character is being written to the LCD.

Logic status on control lines:

E 0 Access to LCD disabled

1 Access to LCD enabled

R/W 0 Writing data to LCD

1 Reading data from LCD

RS 0 Instruction

1 Character

Writing data to the LCD is done in several steps:

Set R/W bit to low


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Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)

Set data to data lines (if it is writing)

Set E line to high

Set E line to low

Read data from data lines (if it is reading)

Reading data from the LCD is done in the same way, but control line R/W has to be

high. When we send a high to the LCD, it will reset and wait for instructions. Typical

instructions sent to LCD display after a reset are: turning on a display, turning on a cursor

and writing characters from left to right.

When the LCD is initialized, it is ready to continue receiving data or instructions. If it

receives a character, it will write it on the display and move the cursor one space to the

right.

4.5 RS-232

4.5.1 Introduction to RS232 Pin Connection

Serial communication is basically the transmission or reception of data one bit at a

time. Today's computers generally address data in bytes or some multiple thereof. A byte

contains 8 bits. A bit is basically either a logical 1 or zero. Every character on this page is

actually expressed internally as one byte. The serial port is used to convert each byte to a

stream of ones and zeroes as well as to convert streams of ones and zeroes to bytes. The

serial port contains an electronic chip called a Universal Asynchronous

Receiver/Transmitter (UART) that actually does the conversion.


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Fig 4.12: Serial connector and cable

The serial port has many pins. We will discuss the transmit and receive pin first.

Electrically speaking, whenever the serial port sends a logical one (1) a negative voltage is

effected on the transmit pin.

Whenever the serial port sends a logical zero (0) a positive voltage is affected.

When no data is being sent, the serial port's transmit pin's voltage is negative (1) and is

said to be in a MARK state. Note that the serial port can also be forced to keep the

transmit pin at a positive voltage (0) and is said to be the SPACE or BREAK state. (The

terms MARK and SPACE are also used to simply denote a negative voltage (1) or a

positive voltage (0) at the transmit pin respectively).

When transmitting a byte, the UART (serial port) first sends a START BIT which

is a positive voltage (0), followed by the data (general 8 bits, but could be 5, 6, 7, or 8 bits)

followed by one or two STOP BITs which is a negative(1) voltage. The sequence is


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repeated for each byte sent. Figure 4.13 shows a diagram of how a byte transmission

would look like.

Fig 4.13: Byte transmission

At this point you may want to know what is the duration of a bit is. In other words,

how long does the signal stay in a particular state to define a bit. The answer is simple. It

is dependent on the baud rate. The baud rate is the number of times the signal can switch

states in one second. Therefore, if the line is operating at 9600 baud, the line can switch

states 9,600 times per second. This means each bit has the duration of 1/9600 of a second

or about 100 µsec. when transmitting a character there are other characteristics other than

the baud rate that must be known or that must be setup. These characteristics define the

entire interpretation of the data stream. The first characteristic is the length of the byte that

will be transmitted. This length in general can be anywhere from 5 to 8 bits.

The second characteristic is parity. The parity characteristic can be even, odd,

mark, space, or none. If even parity, then the last data bit transmitted will be a logical 1 if

the data transmitted had an even amount of 0 bits.

If odd parity, then the last data bit transmitted will be a logical 1 if the data

transmitted had an odd amount of 0 bits. If MARK parity, then the last transmitted data

bit will always be a logical 1. If SPACE parity, then the last transmitted data bit will

always be a logical 0. If no parity then there is no parity bit transmitted.

The third characteristic is the amount of stop bits. This value in general is 1 or

2.Assume we want to send the letter 'A' over the serial port. The binary representation of

the letter 'A' is 01000001. Remembering that bits are transmitted from least significant bit


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(LSB) to most significant bit (MSB), the bit stream transmitted would be as follows for

the line characteristics 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit, and 9600 baud.

LSB (0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1) MSB

The above represents (Start Bit) (Data Bits) (Stop Bit)

To calculate the actual byte transfer rate simply divide the baud rate by the number

of bits that must be transferred for each byte of data. In the case of the above example,

each character requires 10 bits to be transmitted for each character. As such, at 9600 baud,

up to 960 bytes can be transferred in one second.

The above discussion was concerned with the "electrical/logical" characteristics of

the data stream. We will expand discussion to the line protocol. Serial communication can

be half duplex or full duplex. Full duplex communication means that a device can receive

and transmit data at the same time. Half duplex means that the device cannot send and

receive at the same time. It can do them both, but not at the same time. Half duplex

communication is all but outdated except for a very small focused set of applications.

Half duplex serial communication needs at a minimum two wires, signal ground

and the data line. Full duplex serial communication needs at a minimum three wires,

signal ground, transmit data line, and receive data line. The RS232 specification governs

the physical and electrical characteristics of serial communications. This specification

defines several additional signals that are asserted (set to logical 1) for information and

control beyond the data signals and signal ground.

These signals are the Carrier Detect Signal (CD), asserted by modems to signal a

successful connection to another modem, Ring Indicator (RI), asserted by modems to

signal the phone ringing, Data Set Ready (DSR), asserted by modems to show their

presence, Clear To Send (CTS), asserted by modems if they can receive data, Data

Terminal Ready (DTR), asserted by terminals to show their presence, Request To Send

(RTS), asserted by terminals if they can receive data. The section RS232 Cabling

describes these signals and how they are connected.


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The above paragraph related to hardware flow control. Hardware flow control is a

method that two connected devices use to tell each other electronically when to send or

when not to send data. A modem in general drops (logical 0) its CTS line when it can no

longer receive characters. It re-asserts it when it can receive again. A terminal does the

same thing instead with the RTS signal. Another method of hardware flow control in

practice is to perform the same procedure in the previous paragraph except that the DSR

and DTR signals are used for the handshake.

Note that hardware flow control requires the use of additional wires. The benefit

to this however is crisp and reliable flow control. Another method of flow control used is

known as software flow control. This method requires a simple 3 wire serial

communication link, transmit data, receive data, and signal ground. If using this method,

when a device can no longer receive, it will transmit a character that the two devices

agreed on. This character is known as the XOFF character. This character is generally a

hexadecimal 13. When a device can receive again it transmits an XON character that both

devices agreed to. This character is generally a hexadecimal 11.


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Pin outs

The following table lists commonly-used RS-232 signals and pin assignments.

Signal Origin

DE-9

(TIA-574)Name Abbreviation

DT

EDCE

Common Ground G 5

Transmitted Data TxD ● 3

Received Data RxD ● 2

Data Terminal

ReadyDTR ● 4

Data Set Ready DSR ● 6

Request To Send RTS ● 7

Clear To Send CTS ● 8

Carrier Detect DCD ● 1

Ring Indicator RI ● 9

Table 4.2: Pin assignment of RS 232

The signals are named from the standpoint of the DTE. The ground signal is a

common return for the other connections; it appears on two pins in the Yost standard but

is the same signal. The DB-25 connector includes a second "protective ground" on pin 1.


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Connecting this to pin 7 (signal reference ground) is a common practice but not

recommended. Use of a common ground is one weakness of RS-232: if the two devices

are far enough apart or on separate power systems, the ground will degrade between them

and communications will fail, which is a difficult condition to trace.

Signals

Commonly-used signals are:

Transmitted Data (TxD)

Data sent from DTE to DCE.

Received Data (RxD)

Data sent from DCE to DTE.

Ready to Send (RTS)

Asserted (set to logic 0, positive voltage) by DTE to prepare DCE to receive data.

This may require action on the part of the DCE, e.g. transmitting a carrier or reversing the

direction of a half-duplex channel. For the modern usage of "RTS/CTS handshaking," see

the section of that name.

Ready to Receive (RTR)

Asserted by DTE to indicate to DCE that DTE is ready to receive data. If in use,

this signal appears on the pin that would otherwise be used for Request To Send, and the

DCE assumes that RTS is always asserted; see RTS/CTS handshaking for details.

Clear To Send (CTS)

Asserted by DCE to acknowledge RTS and allow DTE to transmit. This signalling

was originally used with half-duplex modems and by slave terminals on multidrop lines:

The DTE would raise RTS to indicate that it had data to send, and the modem would raise

CTS to indicate that transmission was possible. For the modern usage of "RTS/CTS

handshaking," see the section of that name.


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Data Terminal Ready (DTR)

Asserted by DTE to indicate that it is ready to be connected. If the DCE is a

modem, this may "wake up" the modem, bringing it out of a power saving mode. This

behaviour is seen quite often in modern PSTN and GSM modems. When this signal is de-

asserted, the modem may return to its standby mode, immediately hanging up any calls in

progress.

Data Set Ready (DSR) Asserted by DCE to indicate the DCE is powered on and is ready to receive

commands or data for transmission from the DTE. For example, if the DCE is a modem,

DSR is asserted as soon as the modem is ready to receive dialing or other commands;

DSR is not dependent on the connection to the remote DCE (see Data Carrier Detect for

that function).

If the DCE is not a modem (e.g. a null modem cable or other equipment), this signal

should be permanently asserted (set to 0), possibly by a jumper to another signal.

Data Carrier Detect (DCD)

Asserted by DCE when a connection has been established with remote equipment.

Ring Indicator (RI)

Asserted by DCE when it detects a ring signal from the telephone line.

Serial Cable

The standard does not define a maximum cable length but instead defines the

maximum capacitance that a compliant drive circuit must tolerate. A widely-used rule-of-

thumb indicates that cables more than 50 feet (15 metres) long will have too much

capacitance, unless special cables are used. By using low-capacitance cables, full speed


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communication can be maintained over larger distances up to about 1,000 feet.[7] For

longer distances, other signal standards are better suited to maintain high speed.

Since the standard definitions are not always correctly applied, it is often necessary to

consult documentation, test connections with a breakout box, or use trial and error to find

a cable that works when interconnecting two devices. Connecting a fully-standard-

compliant DCE device and DTE device would use a cable that connects identical pin

numbers in each connector (a so-called "straight cable"). "Gender changers" are available

to solve gender mismatches between cables and connectors. Connecting devices with

different types of connectors requires a cable that connects the corresponding pins

according to the table above. Cables with 9 pins on one end and 25 on the other are

common. Manufacturers of equipment with 8P8C connectors usually provide a cable with

either a DB-25 or DE-9 connector (or sometimes interchangeable connectors so they can

work with multiple devices). Poor-quality cables can cause false signals by crosstalk

between data and control lines (such as Ring Indicator).

4.6 POTENTIOMETER

Fig 4.14(a) potentiometer


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Fig 4.14(b) potentiometer

Working

In a POT, when the value of the resistance is zero the voltage is also zero. Hence

the voltage to the ADC will be zero. Therefore there is no conversion taking place in the

ADC.

However as the resistance is varied, there will be a variation in the voltage value.

This variation in the voltage value is fed to the ADC which is an 8 bit ADC having (28-1)

i.e.; 0-255 steps . Each variation in the POT is recorded in the program so that each

variation in the POT results in a corresponding variation in the voltage which is fed to the

ADC. This specific voltage is converted into its equivalent digital form in the ADC which

gets converted into a corresponding degree in the program.

So by varying the POT we in turn change the angle or degree to get the specific

voltage.


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4.7 DC Gear Motor

4.7.1 What is a Gear Motor?

A gear motor is a type of electrical motor. Like all electrical motors, it uses the

magnetism induced by an electrical current to rotate a rotor that is connected to a shaft.

The energy transferred from the rotor to the shaft is then used to power a connected

device. In a gear motor, the energy output is used to turn a series of gears in an integrated

gear train. There are a number of different types of gear motors, but the most common are

AC (alternating current) and DC (direct current).

Fig. 4.15: Dc Gear motor

Gear motors are complete motive force systems consisting of an electric motor and

a reduction gear train integrated into one easy-to-mount and -configure package. This

greatly reduces the complexity and cost of designing and constructing power tools,

machines and appliances calling for high torque at relatively low shaft speed or RPM.

Gear motors allow the use of economical low-horsepower motors to provide great motive

force at low speed such as in lifts, winches, medical tables, jacks and robotics. They can

be large enough to lift a building or small enough to drive a tiny clock.

A gear motor converts power from one source, such as electricity or internal

combustion, into rotational power. This power can be applied in a variety of contexts,

from turning other gears to driving pistons up and down. The key, though, is that the gear

in the gear motor has the ability to vary a power source's torque.


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4.7.2 Principle of Operation

Most synchronous electric motors have output ranges of from 1,200 to 3,600

revolutions per minute. They also have both normal speed and stall-speed torque

specifications. The reduction gear trains used in gear motors are designed to reduce the

output speed while increasing the torque. The increase in torque is inversely proportional to

the reduction in speed. Reduction gearing allows small electric motors to move large driven

loads, although more slowly than larger electric motors. Reduction gears consist of a small

gear driving a larger gear. There may be several sets of these reduction gear sets in a

reduction gear box.

4.7.3 Gear types

There are several gear types, each with their respective advantages and limitations.

Amongst the list are

Worm

Spur and

Helical gears.

Worm gears are relatively inexpensive and are available in high ratios in single gear set

up to 100:1, also available in right angle configurations. They will tolerate high shock

loads, and are quiet. However they are less efficient than other forms of gearing.

Fig. 4.16: Worm Gears


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Spur gears are produced by many manufactures and therefore are easy to locate. They are

compact, efficient, and are available in a parallel shaft arrangement. They are available in

10:1 ratio per gear stage. The limitations are that spur gears are slightly more expensive,

are more likely to produce noise and have less shock capability (compared to worm gears).

Fig. 4.17: Spur Gears


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Helical gears can be used on non–parallel and even perpendicular shafts, and can carry

heavier loads than spur gears. They are compact, efficient, and are available in 5:1 ratio

per gear stage. Limitations of helical gears are that they are slightly less efficient than a

spur gear of the same size, are more expensive, and produce thrust loading on the

bearings.

Fig. 4.18: Helical Gears

Gear Ratios

The key point of a gear motor system is the gear ratio. This is the ratio of teeth on the ring

gear to the pinion gear. If, for example, the ring gear has 20 teeth and the pinion gear has

10, the ratio is 2:1. For every one time the ring gear spins, the pinion gear needs to spin

twice. The higher the gear ratio, the more torque the system will have. The lower the gear

ratio, the more speed it will have.

Speed Reduction

Sometimes the goal of using a gear motor is to reduce the rotating shaft speed of a motor in

the device being driven, such as in a small electric clock where the tiny synchronous motor

may be spinning at 1,200 rpm but is reduced to one rpm to drive the second hand, and further

reduced in the clock mechanism to drive the minute and hour hands. Here the amount of

driving force is irrelevant as long as it is sufficient to overcome the frictional effects of the

clock mechanism.


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Torque Multiplication

Another goal achievable with a gear motor is to use a small motor to generate a very large

force albeit at a low speed. These applications include the lifting mechanisms on hospital

beds, power recliners, and heavy machine lifts where the great force at low speed is the

goal.

4.7.4 ApplicationsWhat power Can openers, garage door openers, stair lifts, rotisserie motors, timer cycle

knobs on washing machines, power drills, cake mixers and electromechanical clocks have

in common is that they all use various integrations of gear motors to derive a large force

from a relatively small electric motor at a manageable speed. In industry, gear motor

applications in jacks, cranes, lifts, clamping, robotics, conveyance and mixing are too

numerous to count.


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Chapter 5

SOFTWARE TOOLSThe software’s which are used to developed this project are,

Keil IDE compiler

Languages used: Embedded C

5.1 Introduction to Keil softwareKeil MicroVision is an integrated development environment used to create

software to be run on embedded systems (like a microcontroller). It allows such

software to be written both in assembly or C programming languages and for that

software to be simulated on a computer before being loaded onto the microcontroller.

5.1.1 What is µVision3?

µVision3 is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that helps write,

compile, and debug embedded programs. It encapsulates the following components:

A project manager.

A make facility.

Tool configuration.

Editor.

A powerful debugger.

5.1.2 Steps followed in creating an application in µvision3

To create a new project in uVision3:

1. Select Project - New Project.

2. Select a directory and enter the name of the project file.

3. Select Project –Select Device and select a device from Device Database.

4. Create source files to add to the project

5. Select Project - Targets, Groups, and Files. Add/Files, select Source Group1,


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and add the source files to the project.

6. Select Project - Options and set the tool options. Note that when the target

device is selected from the Device Database™ all-special options are set

automatically. Default memory model settings are optimal for most

applications.

7. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target

To create a new project, simply start MicroVision and select “Project”=>”New

Project” from the pull–down menus. In the file dialog that appears, choose a name and

base directory for the project. It is recommended that a new directory be created for

each project, as several files will be generated. Once the project has been named, the

dialog shown in the figure below will appear, prompting the user to select a target

device. In this lab, the chip being used is the “P89v51RD2”.

Fig. 5.1: Window for choosing the target device


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Next, MicroVision must be instructed to generate a HEX file upon program

compilation. A HEX file is a standard file format for storing executable code that is

to be loaded onto the microcontroller.

In the “Project Workspace” pane at the left, right–click on “Target 1” and select

“Options for ‘Target 1’ ”.Under the “Output” tab of the resulting options dialog,

ensure that both the “Create Executable” and “Create HEX File” options are

checked. Then click “OK” as shown in the two figures below.

Fig. 5.2: Project Workspace Pane Fig. 5.3: Project Options Dialog

Next, a file must be added to the project that will contain the project code. To do this,

expand the “Target 1” heading, right–click on the “Source Group 1” folder, and select

“Add files…” Create a new blank file (the file name should end in “.asm”), select

it, and click “Add.” The new file should now appear in the “Project Workspace” pane

under the “Source Group 1” folder. Double-click on the newly created file to open it

in the editor. All code for this lab will go in this file. To compile the program, first

save all source files by clicking on the “Save All” button, and then click on the

“Rebuild All Target Files” to compile the program as shown in the figure below. If

any errors or warnings occur during compilation, they will be displayed in the


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output window at the bottom of the screen.

All errors and warnings will reference the line and column number in which they

occur along with a description of the problem so that they can be easily located.

Note that only errors indicate that the compilation failed, warnings do not (though it is

generally a good idea to look into them anyway).

Fig.5.4: “Save All” and “Build All Target Files” buttons

When the program has been successfully compiled, it can be simulated using the

integrated debugger in Keil MicroVision. To start the debugger, select

“Debug”=>”Start/Stop Debug Session” from the pull–down menus. At the left side of the

debugger window, a table is displayed containing several key parameters about the

simulated microcontroller, most notably the elapsed time (circled in the figure below).

Just above that, there are several buttons that control code execution. The “Run”

button will cause the program to run continuously until a breakpoint is reached,

whereas the “Step Into” button will execute the next line of code and then pause (the

current position in the program is indicated by a yellow arrow to the left of the code).


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Fig. 5.5: µVision3 Debugger window

Breakpoints can be set by double–clicking on the grey bar on the left edge of the

window containing the program code. A breakpoint is indicated by a red box next to the

line of code.


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Fig. 5.6: ‘Reset’, ‘Run’ and ‘Step into’ options

The current state of the pins on each I/O port on the simulated microcontroller can

also be displayed. To view the state of a port, select “Peripherals”=>”I/O Ports”=>”Port

n” from the pull–down menus, where n is the port number. A checked box in the port

window indicates a high (1) pin, and an empty box indicates a low (0) pin. Both the I/O

port data and the data at the left side of the screen are updated whenever the program is

paused.

The debugger will help eliminate many programming errors, however the

simulation is not perfect and code that executes properly in simulation may not

always work on the actual microcontroller.


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5.1.3 Device database

A unique feature of the Keil µVision3 IDE is the Device Database, which

contains information about more than 400 supported microcontrol lers . When

you create a new µVision3 project and select the target chip from the database,

µVision3 sets all assembler, compiler, linker, and debugger options for you. The only

option you must configure is the memory map.

5.1.4 Peripheral simulation

The µVision3 Debugger provides complete simulation for the CPU and on-chip

peripherals of most embedded devices. To discover which peripherals of a device are

supported, in µVision3 select the Simulated Peripherals item from the Help menu. You

may also use the web-based Device Database. We are constantly adding new devices

and simulation support for on-chip peripherals so be sure to check Device Database

often.

5.2 Proload programming software‘ProLoad’ is a software working as a user friendly interface for programmer

boards from Sunrom Technologies. Proload gets its name from “Program Loader”

term, because that is what it is supposed to do. It takes in compiled HEX file and

loads it to the hardware. Any compiler can be used with it, Assembly or C, as all of

them generate compiled HEX files. ProLoad accepts the Intel HEX format file

generated from compiler to be sent to target microcontroller. It auto detects the

hardware connected to the serial port. It also auto detects the chip inserted and bytes

used. The software is developed in Delphi and requires no overhead of any external

DLL.

The programmer connects to the computer’s serial port (Comm 1, 2, 3 or 4) with a

standard DB9 Male to DB9 Female cable. Baud Rate - 57600, COMx Automatically

selected by window software. No PC Card Required.


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After making the necessary selections, the ‘Auto Program’ button is clicked as shown

in the figure below which burns the selected hex file onto the microcontroller.

Fig 5.7: Programming window


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5.3 Embedded C

The embedded c programming language is used in the microcontrollers. The

embedded c language is a general-purpose programming language that provides code

efficiency, elements of structured programming and a rich set of operators. Embedded c is

not a big language and is not designed for any one particular area of application. It’s

generally combined with its absence of restriction, makes embedded c a convenient and

effective programming solution for a wide variety of software tasks. Many applications

can be solved more easily and efficiently with embedded c than with other more

specialized languages.

The embedded c language on its own is not capable of performing operations (such as

input and output) that would normally require intervention from the operating system.

Instead, these capabilities are provided as a part of standard library. Because these

functions are separated from the language itself, embedded c is especially suited for

producing code that is portable across wide platforms.

5.3.1. Advantages of Embedded C

High code efficiency

Applicable in any platforms

Easy to compile

Chapter 6


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APPLICATIONS OF CLINOMETER

Clinometer has different applications based on the professions in which they are used.

The Clinometer is a versatile and exacting instrument used by many professions

that makes streets and sidewalks safer, keeps buildings from sliding off hillsides and

provides formulas for building stabilized bridges for crossing expanses of water and deep

ravines. This remarkable instrument determines heights of mountains, measures the true

distance of a horizon and calculates the grade of an incline. All of these are necessary for

surveying, building cities and skyscrapers.

1. Geologists and Surveyors

Using Clinometer with a specific mathematical formula--height x distance y

angle--assists geologists to assess the height of a tree or a mountain. On the other hand,

surveyors use this multipurpose instrument for measuring angles with reference to the

ground level. This provides important details of road building for the grade of a slope, to

be used by vehicles. Surveyors also use clinometers to mark mining claims.

2. Winter Hikers and Skiers

Using Clinometer, winter hikers and skiers make certain their activities are safe.

This instrument reveals the angle of a snow-covered slope, information that can be used to

avoid the risk of an avalanche. Higher incidents of the life-threatening landslides occur at

25- and 45-degree angles .

3. SailorsBefore the invention of satellite weather monitors for seafaring vessels, sailors

more commonly depended on the Clinometer to warn them of dangerous storms. Using a

sight Clinometer, a seaman would calculate the height of clouds, which can determine if

inclement weather is brewing in the atmosphere.


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4. City PlannersAssessing road safety, appropriate runoff for streets and sidewalks as well as

accessibility for pedestrians with special needs makes the Clinometer a valuable tool for

city planners. The quality of life of city dwelling depends partly on roads and pedestrian

pathways having the appropriate slope.

5. Engineers

Engineers designing bridges and structures use the inclinometer (another type of

Clinometer) for measuring the incline of the land. By incorporating this important feature

of design, the engineer has more diversity for assuring a structural plan in harmony with

the land.

6. Forest Rangers

Forest rangers use Clinometer to measure how steep a hill is or how high a tree

reaches. Clinometer is particularly important to foresters and the field work in which they

engage. Foresters use the device for basic tasks such as determining tree height and

volume data, which is needed, for example, to provide measurements for wildlife habitats

or to monitor the health and growth of trees and other plants in a specific geographical

area.

6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Clinometer


Clinometer

6 .1 .1 Advantages:

1. Clinometer makes calculation of distance and height of objects simple.

2. Both height and distance can be calculated simultaneously

3. Human errors are reduced.

4. It is user friendly.

5. It is economical.

6.1.2 Disadvantages:

1. Accuracy of determining the height and distance of any building or object depends

mainly on the operator’s vision.

2. Clinometer cannot be used for applications below ground level.

3. The distance and height of moving objects cannot be determined.

Chapter 7


Clinometer

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

7.1 Conclusion

This is a simple and wonderful innovation which would be extremely beneficial to

mankind as it makes the evaluation of the height and distance of both far and near objects

very convenient. By using Clinometer we can find the height and distance of any object or

building from a point within fraction of seconds with utmost accuracy. Human errors can

be minimized as the height and distance does not require any manual calculation.

7.2 Future scope

With some extra implementations and programming, the system can be made more

advanced and a lot more features can be added.

Drilling and mining equipment.

Construction equipment.

Navigation and GPS Compensation.

Antenna positioning.

In the marine industry, clinometers can be used on ships and oil rigs to measure

how much a vessel slants while being on still water and when the water is choppy.

Surveying landscapes and determining the height of waterfalls and etc.

.


5. Printed Report Copy

Documents

Transcript of 5. Printed Report Copy