495 COMPLETED PROJECT
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Transcript of 495 COMPLETED PROJECT
Abstract
Competitions between carnivores are complex and common between species
of canids. Apex predators, which are predators that rely on meat for 100% of their
diet and mesocarnivores that has a diet of 75% encompassed by meat are known to
have competition that leads to one affecting the other through, predating on one
another, breeding, habitat usage, and feeding habits. This study looks into the
possible affects that coyote (Canis latrans) have on the populations of red wolves
(Canis rufus) in eastern, North Carolina. From review of earlier studies of sympatric,
coexisting predators in North America and Africa it is concluded that coyotes have
an effect on red wolves in eastern, North Carolina.
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Introduction
Just as people affect each other so do animals. With animals that are
carnivorous the issue of one affecting the other happens to be in depth, and for some
that are endangered the outcomes can be detrimental. Biologists have looked into
the behavior of how carnivores affect one another in multiple places around the
world such as Africa and North America. For example, in Africa researcher and
biologist Dr. Richard W. Yarnell studies the influence of large predators on their
feeding habits and feeding ecology by looking at the two mesocarnivores, the brown
hyena (Hyaena brunnea) and the black backed jackal (Canis mesomelas).
Further research in North America by Dr. Lynda Randa has looked at prey
switching of sympatric canids in response to variable prey abundance between red
foxes and coyotes. Meaning that with the affects and pressures that coyote had on
red fox in the same environment the red fox swapped what they typically feed on in
order to make room for the coyote in the area. By looking at these carnivores in
these varying environments we can translate what was found and use this
information to apply it North American predators such as the red wolf (Canis rufus)
and coyote (Canis latrans). The purpose of this study is to look at the competition
between red wolves and coyote by answering the following question: Does the
coyote (Canis latrans) effect the populations of red wolves (Canis rufus) in Eastern,
North Carolina, and if so, how?
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Background Information
Identification and Behavior
Red wolves (Canis rufus) are a species of wolf that are native to the
southeastern, United States. The characteristics of the red wolf are of two origins
within the rufus species. Those characteristics are of red variety (Appendix A, Figure
1, p. 21) and black variety (Appendix A, Figure 2, p.22) (Mech, 2003). The red
variety of red wolves are found today in eastern, North Carolina and parts of
northern, South Carolina (Mech, 2003). The lesser known the black variety of red
wolves are found in Florida and are fewer in number than the red variety (Mech,
2003). The red variety, which this research focuses on, is characterized as canids
that are morphologically similar to a gray wolf (Canis lupus) and a coyote.
At first glance looking at the red wolf and the coyote (Appendix A, Figure 3, p.
23) both canids look similar and are hard to distinguish. However, there are features
that help to identify the two easily. The similar features between the red wolf and
coyote are as follows, their facial features, their long legs, their long muzzle, large
ears, and to some their coat or pelt color. Red wolves may have these similarities
with coyotes, but these characteristics, when looked at more closely, also set them
apart (Mech, 2003).
For instance, when you look at the face of a red wolf in between the ears and
the muzzle side by side with a coyote and a gray wolf (Appendix A, Figure 4, p. 24)
there is a more wolfish appearance than the appearance of a coyote. When it comes
to coat or pelt color the red wolf has a reddish grey topcoat and markings with a
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light tan under coat, whereas the coyote has the markings of a tawny brown under
coat and blonde under coat and facial markings. Looking at the legs of each animal
the red wolf has a bigger paw and distal region that the coyote, and the legs are also
thicker and more muscled than the coyote.
Another indicator to help distinguish between red wolves and coyote is by
their behavior. Coyotes are more bold and territorial in their actions whereas red
wolves are more reclusive and the packs show more human avoidance and urban
avoidance (Beckoff, 2001). Coyotes seem to thrive in urban environments as habitat
generalists; however, their dens during pup rearing season are hard to find. Red
wolves focus more on the art of being unseen with their packs being hard to trace or
find and during the pup-rearing season they are made even more rare to find
(Hinton, 2013) Furthermore, even as habitat generalists red wolves prefer conifer
forests over human modified boreal forests, urban areas (Mech, 2003).
The diet of the red wolf mainly consists of deer, nutria, voles, mice, and other
small mammals. Red wolves do not go after big game such as elk, bison, or moose
like their grey wolf counter parts. Therefore, the farmer and rancher on the east
coast has nothing to fear from these predators when it comes to their livestock.
Furthermore, as with all wolves, red wolves will not attack people. There are no
documented or known wolf attacks from any species of wolf in the United States.
Historical Range and Modern Ranges
As previously stated red wolves are found in the southeastern, United States
in eastern, North Carolina, northern South Carolina, very northern parts of Georgia,
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and a few packs reaching to Florida, of the black variety (Mech, 2003). Fossil records
of the red wolf and the gray wolf show their historical range consisted of all of the
southeastern, United States reaching to parts of Ohio and going through the lower
parts of Texas (Appendix B, Figure 7, p. 27; Hinton, 2013).
Some documents state that the red wolf is a variation of the grey wolf (Canis
lupus). This information is inaccurate in that the red wolf is morphologically
different and followed a different evolutionary track. In comparison with the grey
wolf the red wolf is smaller, but still larger than a coyote. Grey wolves evolved in
North America in parts of Canada and the red wolf evolved in the southern United
states and branched out into their historical range reaching as far north as New
York, as far south as Florida, and as far east as eastern Texas (Mech, 2003). For
visuals on the historical range refer to Appendix B Figure 7 on page 27.
Likewise the coyote evolved in North America and grew in number and
ranged throughout the western states such as Nevada, California, New Mexico,
Texas, and even reaching as Far East as Louisiana. Texas and Louisiana are where
the red wolves and coyote have historically always shared the environment. Coyote
came to North Carolina from the western parts of U.S. in 1980 due to the killing of
grey wolves (Canis lupus). Grey wolves are main predators of the coyote and with
the killing of the wolves it allowed for the coyote to become more bold and
aggressive, whereas with the wolf present coyote were more focused in avoidance
from the grey wolf (Hinton, 2013).
Naturalist William Bartram has an account with wolves in his travels to
Florida that he mentions in his book that he published in 1791, Travels. For years
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many believed this to be an encounter with red wolves, but it was later discovered
that they were another species of wolf later to be known as the Florida wolf also
known as the black variation of the red wolf. These discoveries lead to the beginning
interests in the red wolf recovery project.
Red Wolf Recovery Project
With the decline in population in the red wolf population the United States
declared the red wolf as an endangered species in 1967. What lead to this
declaration were numerous factors consisting of human interference and a parasite
infestation as a result of interbreeding with coyote (Mech, 2003). The Endangered
species act began a recovery project in 1973 upon the US Congress passing the ESA.
Essentially, the program was set to calculate and document the remaining wolves
found in the wild. The research yielded results that showed the red wolf as being
rare, free ranging in the wild and that a good number of the pups documented were
of mixed species. The pups DNA revealed that there was a mix with coyote
(Mech,2003; Beckoff, 2001).
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service further concluded and stated that
the recovery of the red wolf needed to be accomplished through captive breeding.
Thus, the red wolf captive breeding program began in November of 1973 (Mech,
2003; Hinton, 2013). In 1980 the red wolf species was declared biologically extinct
(Hinton, 2013; Mech, 2003). This was the same year in which the coyote had
entered North Carolina and began to rapidly populate the state (Mech, 2003;
Beckoff, 2001). The breeding program initially began with the capturing of 400
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wolves from Louisiana and southeastern, Texas. During the project it was
discovered that from the canids they had captured there had been interbreeding
between red wolves and coyote. Because the ESA and USWS wanted to preserve the
red wolf as a species only approximately 43 wolves were used (Mech, 2003).
Amongst those 43 wolves only 14 were absolutely of pure strain. Red wolves are the
only known species of wolf that have been recorded to interbreed with coyote.
Today there is a new species of canid known as the coywolf. The coywolf is a hybrid
between coyotes and red wolves whose range is from Florida to New York
(Appendix A, Figure 5, p. 25). Their size is smaller than a red wolf but larger than a
coyote, and stockier build than a coyote (Appendix A, Figure 6, p. 26).
Due to morphological and evolutionary discrepancies in the scientific
community about the red wolf being considered a full separate species of wolf the
USFWS conducted a review of the red wolf species using William Bartram and
Audubon’s notes on the red wolf characteristics as well as DNA testing. It was shown
that the red wolf was in fact its own distinct wolf species not being a subspecies of
grey wolf that bred with coyote, as it was once believed (Mech, 2003; Hinton, 2013).
Reintroduction of the red wolf began preparations in 1982 and in 1984 another
recovery of 330 wolves began. The actual release program began in 1986 followed
soon after with the release of 63 wolves in 1987 (Mech, 2003).
The red wolf recovery program was highly active throughout the years
between 1987 through 1994, and by June of 2002 had implemented 100 red wolves
into the wild (Mech, 2003). The red wolves were released in Alligator River, North
Carolina, Bulls Island State Park, South Carolina, and Cape Romain National Wildlife
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Refuge, South Carolina. Ultimately these packs listed were and are still successful. A
pair of red wolves were released in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park but
were unsuccessful and the program in the Great Smoky Mountains was disbanded.
As of today the red wolf recovery program is still on going, however, as of
August 2014 North Carolina called for a review of the Red Wolf Recovery Program
to be reviewed in October 2014 in order to discuss the appropriateness of the red
wolf species and to decide the overall success of the recovery program. Today there
are approximately 265 wolves in captivity, with that number steadily increasing,
and approximately 100 wolves in the wild, with that number steadily decreasing.
According to varying sources the red wolf recovery program is not either a
success or a failure. The program itself has yielded some successful red wolf packs
in areas, but has failed overall in bringing the red wolf back to its historic range and
numbers. As an example the release in the Great Smoky Mountains is considered
puzzling and the results as to why the pack did not take in the area are still
unknown. According to Dr. L. David Mech who is considered to be the authority on
the biology and ecology of wolves due to his publishing of Wolves: Behavior, Ecology,
and Conservation which he published in 2003 in partnership with Luigi Boitani, has
said that he views the program has served as an example of what occurs with over
relaxation of regulations under experimental implication and design (Mech, 2003).
He states that a few of the reasons that the red wolf recovery program has
ultimately been a moot project neither yielding positives or negatives are due to
regulations that provide leniency and flexible land ownership (Mech, 2003).
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The statements made by Dr. L. David Mech raise questions with regards to
the North Carolina government and their wishes to review the overall program.
Such as: How strict should regulations be for landowners who live in areas where
endangered or threatened species live and should they be allowed to become
lenient? Is the red wolf recovery program a solid program as is or should we revise
it or be rid of it? Should we restore endangered species to historical ranges or do we
work to preserve them in the environment that is available to them? Even with the
relevance of these questions, for the sake of this research the main question that
everyone is asking and one that no one has even thought about answering is, does
the coyote (Canis latrans) effect the populations of red wolves (Canis rufus) in
Eastern, North Carolina, and if so, how?
Methods
There have been limited studies done on red wolves and coyotes, though
there have been no studies on the two species together at all. The methods that
were used in this research were adopted from, and influenced by, previous, relevant
research on other carnivores. The conclusions drawn, and the information
presented within the previous research offers parallels to the situation of the red
wolf and coyote. A, separate study, conducted in North America by researcher and
biologist Dr. Lynda Randa, analyzed the affects coyotes had on the red fox (Vulpes
vulpes) within the red fox environment. She observed that within the environments
inhabited by both the red fox and the coyote, the two predated on the same prey
species: voles, rabbits, and mice. They conducted their study by analyzing behavior
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and prey availability. What she found was in order for the two carnivores to coexist
they would feed on varying prey and avoid competition. Furthermore, if the
abundance of prey were scarce the canids would expand their home ranges, in
which coyote would push out the red foxes within that range (Randa, 2009).
Interference competition between grey wolves (Canis lupus) and coyotes in
Yellowstone National Park researched by J. A. Merkle, D.R. Stahler, and D.W. Smith
to better understand interactions and coexistence between both species. Merkle
studied the behavior and interspecific interactions between the two canids from
1995 to 2007 (Merkle, 2009). Their study found that the gray wolves showed
tolerance to a mesocarnivore within their territory. However, if coyote interfered
with left over kills, kills, or were around a den the wolves would predate on coyote.
It was further shown that with scarcity of prey wolves would hunt coyote pairs.
Interbreeding among coyote and grey wolves was not shown, like it is in the red
wolf and Mexican grey wolf species. Coyote unless starved or inexperienced with
wolves showed avoidance of wolves, but were opportunistic about stealing left over
food cashes that packs were known to travel back too.
Research by Dr. Richard Yarnell conducted in Africa, studied the influence
large predators had on the feeding habits and feeding ecology of mesocarnivores;
specifically looking at the brown hyena (Hyaena brunnea) and the black backed
jackal (Canis mesomelas). Both predators feed on the same prey, mainly consisting
of the carrion of sea birds, cape fur seals, and other means. In the presence of an
apex predator their diet of living animals consists of young antelope, small
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mammals, and rodents (Yarnell, 2013). Yarnell looked into how these two
mesocarnivores competed for their food resources.
What Yarnell found was that these two meso-carnivores would switch
dietary habits in the presence of, or lack of, an apex predator within their
environments. The apex predator for both the brown hyena and the black backed
jackal is the African Lion (Panthera leo). In the areas where lions were present the
two meso-carnivores continued to eat carrion and would co-exist sympatrically.
However, it was observed that in the event the lion was absent from the
environment, the habits of the two meso carnivores changed; they began to directly
compete against each other, for resources, fresh kills, and carrion finds (Yarnell,
2013). Black-backed Jackals are submissive to brown hyena in the absence of an
apex predator, whereas both meso-carnivores are submissive to the apex predator
when present.
In a study conducted by Jan F. Kamler in 2007 the predation of a
mesocarnivores by an apex predator was observed. Kamler looked into the factors
that lead to the predation of black backed jackals by African Wild Dogs (Lycoan
pictus). These canids were observed for this research because interspecific
predation among African canids is rare whereas interspecific predation is common
amongst northern temperate canids, as observed in wolves and coyote (Kamler,
2007; Mech, 2003). The behavior of each canid was observed as well as aggression
levels between the two species. Results showed that when ranges were vast and
abundance of prey was high the two canids coexisted, sharing the same territory.
However, it was further observed that if another apex predator, such as spotted
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hyena or African lions, was present aggression level between the two species of
canids was high and predation of the mesocarnivores was present. Some
observations showed the black backed jackals eating the carrion left over from
African wild dog kills, when usually African wild dogs guard previous kills as a
source for food when hunts are unsuccessful (Kamler, 2007). In one observation it
was noted that a pack of African wild dogs, in an environment with low prey
abundance, were chasing pairs of black backed jackals for sport (Kamler, 2007).
Kamler suggested that further research among the 13 species of African canines be
conducted for confirmation of common nature among African canines (Kamler,
2007).
Another study by Heather E. Watts and K. E. Holekamp in 2009 looked at
interspecific competition between spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) and African lions
and the affects the competition had on reproduction among the spotted hyena. The
relevance of this journal to this project can be related to the affects coyote have on
red wolf pup rearing seasons and overall reproduction. Furthermore, it must be
noted that predation among carnivores is not limited to apex predators predating
on mesocarnivores; apex predators will also predate on each other in rare
circumstances when prey abundance is low (Watts; Holekamp, 2009; Mech, 2003)
(Mech; Boitani, 2001). For their research Watts and Holekamp looked at two
populations of spotted hyena, one with African lions present in the home range and
one without African lions in the home and only having spotted hyena as the apex
predator within the home range (Watts; Holekamp, 2009). Aggression levels,
behavior, predation, prey abundance, and reproduction were observed amongst the
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two populations of spotted hyena, as well as aggression levels between spotted
hyena and African lions. What the results showed were in the population with lions
present the reproduction of the spotted hyena females was affected by 24%,
showing a decrease in pups born compared to the population of spotted hyena that
lived in an environment without African lions (Watts; Holekamp, 2009). It was again
suggested that further research into the 13 species of African canines be conducted
for more conclusive evidence.
Results
The articles conducted in North America and in Africa are of different
predators, but these articles shows an affect on prey abundance, habitat size, and
reproduction are affected by other carnivores. In Holekamp’s study, on the
reproduction levels in spotted hyenas, the study can be related to the affects that
coyote have on red wolf pup rearing seasons and overall reproduction.
Each individual study found that, if prey abundance was inadequate that
competition would be present. The separate studies by Randa, Yarnell, and Merkle
show that low prey meant that predation or coexistence between the predators
within that environment.
With this related information I feel confident in concluding that coyote do
affect the red wolf species. Mech in 2003 wrote a book, Wolves: Biology, Ecology,
and Conservation which he states how it was difficult for the biologists to find pure
strains of red wolves for the recovery and captive breeding programs (Mech, 2003).
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Furthermore, red wolves began to drastically decline the same year, 1980, that
coyote populated all 100 counties of North Carolina.
The Wildlife and Fisheries of North Carolina has been observed this year that
in areas heavily populated by coyotes, red wolves will not have as many pups as in
areas that have low level coyote interference, though know study has been done to
confirm this observation (Hinton, 2013).
Another impact on the red wolf species, by the coyote, is that the two species
are nearly identical in appearance making it difficult for farmers and hunters to
discern the canid they are hunting. As of 2013 four packs of wild red wolves were
shot and killed because of misidentification (Dalesio, 2014).
Discussion
The driving force behind this study was the knowledge that red wolves began a
rapid decline in 1980, which was the same year that coyotes populated North
Carolina; to me that was no coincidence. The other overarching issue was how
closely the two species resembled each other to the unaided eye. Those two factors
brought me to my question, Does the coyote (Canis latrans) effect the populations of
red wolves (Canis rufus) in Eastern, North Carolina, and if so, how?
When I gathered my information I specifically chose David Mech’s book as
my main source of background information since I could compare the red wolves to
other species of wolves found in other parts of the world, and because David Mech is
considered the biological authority on wolves. In using Mech’s book I specifically
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researched articles and peer reviewed journals that related to behavior and
biodiversity relatedness on canids. From those journals I could then relate that
information back to articles and issues brought up by Mech and J.W. Hinton.
Although, extinction and replacement is a natural cycle in the Earth’s history,
these cycles greatly impact ecosystems when keystone species go extinct. As a
keystone species red wolves are important to North Carolina’s ecosystem as a whole
and currently there are no other keystone species that could replace the role that
red wolves have on the environment.
The parallels shown in the related research should aid in further study of the
coyote and red wolf issue in North Carolina, and further research should be done to
better understand the impact that coyote have on the red wolf species. Preservation
of not only the species but the environment should be a priority.
Conclusion
In conclusion red wolves are a native apex predator to eastern, North
Carolina and are critically endangered. Red wolves began a rapid decline in 1980
and were declared biologically extinct. Also, in 1980 coyote, due to declining
numbers of their natural predator the grey wolf began to populate all 100 counties
of North Carolina. The issues facing the relations between these two species are how
closely they resembling each other, and how unlike other species of wolves, red
wolves will interbreed with coyote.
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Studies on other separate species of canines aided in drawing indirect
evidence on the issues facing the red wolf and coyote competition in eastern, North
Carolina. Randa’s study on red foxes and coyotes showed how two species of
predators were able to coexist in the same environment, and Watt’s study on
African lions impact on reproduction levels of spotted hyena further showed how
another apex predator, impact pup rearing and births.
Through looking at the evidence presented in related research and the current
events on red wolves it is concluded that coyotes do impact red wolves. However,
further research should be conducted to fully understand the competition between
red wolves and coyote in order to enact methods to help protect red wolves from
extinction.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Jeff Llewellyn, Professor of Biology at Brevard
College, who was my senior project advisor. I would also like to thank Dr. Bob Cabin,
Associate Professor of Environmental Studies and Ecology at Brevard College, who
was the SCI 494/495 class professor, and my academic advisor. Both Dr. Llewellyn
and Dr. Cabin greatly helped me with forming my study to what it now is! I would
also like to thank the Wolf Conservation Center in Salem, New York for sending me
current events in Red Wolf news, as well as allowing me to adopt Nikai! I would
further like to thank Dr. Edward Schwartzman of the North Carolina Heritage
Program for Transylvania County, North Carolina, who sent me the range maps for
the red wolf! Finally, I would like to thank my parents for supporting me through all
of my academics and being encouraging when I needed it most!
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Literature Cited
BARTRAM: 1791. Travels. Norton Anthology. 2002. The Norton Book on Nature Writing. W. W. Norton & Company; College Edition. 1135 pp.
KAMLER, J. F. and DAVIES-MOSTERT, H. T. 2007. Predation on Black Backed Jackals (Canis mesomelas) by African Wild Dogs (Lycoan pictus). African Journal of Ecology. Vol. 45 (4): 667-668
MECH, D. L. and BOITANI, L. 2003. Wolves Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. 448 pp.
MECH, D. L., CHRISTENSEN, B. W., ASA, C. S., CALLAHAN, M., and YOUNG, J. K. 2014. Production of hybrids between western grey wolves and western coyote. PloS ONE. Vol. 9 (2): 1-7
MERKLE, J. A., STAHLER, D. R., and SMITH, D. W. 2009. Interference competition between gray wolves and coyote in Yellowstone National Park. Canadian Journal of Zoology. Vol. 87 (1): 56-63
RANDA, L. A., COOPER, D. M., MESERVE, P. L., and YUNGER, J. A. 2009. Prey switching of sympatric canids in response to variable prey abundance. Journal of Mammology. Vol. 90 (3): 594-603
WATTS, H. E. and HOLEKAMP, K. E. 2008. Interspecific competition influences reproduction in spotted hyenas. Journal of Zoology. Vol. 276 (4): 402-410
YARNELL, R. W., PHIPPS, W. L., BURGESS, L. P., ELISS, J. A., HARRISON, S. W. R., DELL, S., MAC TAVISH, D., MAC TAVISH, L. M., and SCOTT, D. M. 2013. Influence of large predators on the feeding ecology of two African mesocarnivores the black backed jackal and brown hyena. South African Journal of Wildlife Research. Vol. 43 (2): 155-156
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Appendix A
Figure 1: Red variety of Red Wolf The image is by the Wolf Conservation Center in Salem, New York.
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Appendix A Continued
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Figure 2: Black Variety of Red Wolf (found in Florida.)William Bartram documented this variation in his book, Travels, in 1791. This image was obtained through World Wildlife.
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Appendix A Continued
Figure 3: Both Red Wolves and Coyote Look Similar (Top is red wolf and Bottom is coyote). The red wolf image is by the Wolf Conservation Center in Salem, New York and the Coyote image is by Nature.
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Appendix A Continued
Figure 4: Grey Wolf:Wolf Conservations Center’s 2014 Pic of my wolf, Nikai. Nikai is a Canadian Rocky Mountain Grey Wolf that is found historically in the U.S. in the lower 48. I adopted Nikai on 9/20/14.
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Appendix A Continued
Figure 5: Coyote Hybrid Known As the Coywolf
Coywolves are hybrids of red wolf and coyote and range up and down the east coast of the United States. They pose a threat since they are considered a new species because they are feral unlike other hybrids that are sterile. This image was obtained through the Nature Documentary on PBS.
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Appendix A Continued
Figure 6: Skull Comparison to Show Size
PBS Nature Documentary Image of Skulls to show size of new species. Left to Right: Red Wolf, Coywolf, and Coyote. The coywolf is a red wolf coyote hybrid that has become an entirely new species.
Appendix B
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Figure 7: Historical Range of Red Wolves
Dr. Edward Schwartzman of North Carolina Heritage for Transylvania
County provided this image.
Appendix B Continued
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Figure 8: The Modern Range of Red Wolves found in North Carolina
Appendix B Continued
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Figure 9: Historical Range of Coyotes
This image was found on an information site dedicated to coyote facts.
Appendix B Continued
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Figure 10: Modern Ranges of Coyotes
This is an image by National Geographic.
Bibliography
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