43534533 Subjective Inter Subjective Objective

8/13/2019 43534533 Subjective Inter Subjective Objective

1/150

Davidson, Donald , University of California, Berkeley

Subjective, Intersubjective, ObjectivePhilosophical Essays Volume 3

Print ISBN 0198237537, 2001

ContentsProvenance of te !ssays an" #ckno$le"%e&ents i'Intro"(ction 'iii

Subjective11) *irst Person #(tority +198- 32) .no$in% /nes /$n in" +1987- 153) e yt of te S(4ective +1988- 39) at is Present to te in"6 +1989- 535) In"eter&inis& an" #ntirealis& +1997- 9) e Irre"(ciility of te Concet of te Self +1998- 85

Intersubjective937) ational #ni&als +1982- 958) e Secon" Person +1992- 1079) e !&er%ence of o(%t +1997- 123

Objective13510)# Coerence eory of r(t an" .no$le"%e +1983-

137#fterto(%ts +1987- 15

11)!&irical Content +1982- 159

12)!iste&olo%y an" r(t +1988- 177

13)!iste&olo%y !'ternali:e" +1990- 193

1)ree ;arieties of .no$le"%e +1991- 205

Contents


2/150

Bewusstsein, Sprache und die Kunst, e"ite" y icael Bene"ikt an" ("olf Ber%er,y !"ition S) ;erla% "er @sterreiciscen Staats"r(ckerei, 1988)!ssay , at is Present to te in"6, $as "elivere" at te Secon" International*rance ;eer ColloA(i(&, el" in Ba" a"kers(r%, #(stria, an" orn4a a"%ona, in$at $as ten (%oslavia an" is no$ Slovenia) It $as (lise" in a ook of essays

on &y $ork, &ost of te& "elivere" at tat conference) e e"itors of te ook $ereDoannes Bran"l an" olf%an% o&oc:, an" it aeare" as a secial vol(&e ofra!er Philosophische Studien+vol) 3, 1989- title" "he #ind of Donald Davidson$#&ster"a&E o"oi-)

en" )i'

In"eter&inis& an" #ntirealis&, !ssay 5, $as rea" at a conference on realis& an"antirealis& at Santa Clara University in early 1992) It $as (lise" in%ealism&Antirealism and 'pistemolog(, e"ite" y C) B) .(l +enri) ettstein +In"ianaolisE University of Notre =a&e Press-) #o(t fo(ra%es near te en" are taken fro& e Con"itions of o(%t, a aer $ritten for,an" "elivere" at, a lenary session at te orl" Con%ress of Pilosoy in Bri%ton,1988) It $as (lise" in +e ahier du oll-ge International de Philosophie+ParisEJ"itions /siris, 1989-)!ssay 9, e !&er%ence of o(%t, $as %iven as a talk at a se&inar one&er%ence el" at te University of *rankf(rt in 1993) ranslate" into er&an y )arscner, it $as (lise" $it te title =ie !&er%en: "es =enkens in Die'rfindung des .niversums/ 0eue 1berlegungen !ur philosophischen Kosmologie,e"ite" y ) ) Salt:er, P) !isenar"t, =) .(rt, an" ) !) Ki&&er&ann +*rankf(rta& ainE Insel ;erla%, 1997-) It $as s(seA(ently (lise" in !n%lis $it itsresent title in 'r2enntnis, 51 +1999-, 7?17)!ssay 10, # Coerence eory of r(t an" .no$le"%e, $as &y contri(tion to acolloA(i(& or%ani:e" y icar" orty as art of te 1981 St(tt%art >e%el Con%ress)) ;) L(ine an" >ilary P(tna& $ere te oter articiants in te colloA(i(&) /(raers $ere (lise" t$o years later in te rocee"in%s of tat con%ress,

en" )'

Kant oder 3egel/#fter St(tt%art te fo(r of (s a" a &ore leis(rely e'can%e on tesa&e toics at te University of >ei"eler%) en te Pacific =ivision of te#&erican Pilosoical #ssociation &et in arc of 1983, orty rea" a aer title"Pra%&atis&, =avi"son, an" r(t) In it e co&&ente" on so&e of te tin%s I a"$ritten in # Coerence eory of r(t an" .no$le"%eM is aer $as s(seA(ently

(lise" +$it revisions- in "ruth and Interpretation4 Perspectives on the Philosoph(of Donald Davidson) I relie" $it #fterto(%ts, 1987, $ic $as first (lise" in


3/150

con4(nction $it a rerintin% of # Coerence eory of r(t an" .no$le"%e in%eading %ort(, e"ite" y #lan alaco$ski +Ca&ri"%eE Black$ell, 1990-)#fterto(%ts as rinte" ere is, asi"e fro& so&e ilio%raical "etails note"aove, a rerint of #fterto(%ts, 1987)!&irical Content, !ssay 11, $as rea" at a conference in ;ienna +in te o(se

itt%enstein ele" "esi%n- to celerate te (n"re"t anniversary of te irts oforit: Sclick an" /tto Ne(rat) It $as (lise" in te year of te conference inra!er Philosophische Studien,1?17 +1982-)!ssay 12, !iste&olo%y an" r(t, $as rea" at te *o(rt Pana&erican PilosoyConference, el" in Cor"oa, #r%entina, in Sete&er of 1987) It $as (lise" inte rocee"in%s of tat conference y te National University of Cor"oa in 1988)!ssay 13, !iste&olo%y !'ternali:e", $as rea" in an early version at a S#=#*&eetin% in B(enos #ires in 1989) e ne't year it $as resente" at a conference inBiel, S$it:erlan", an" (lise" in 1991 in Dialectica, 5 2?3E 191?202)ree ;arieties of .no$le"%e, !ssay 1, $as $ritten to e "elivere" in *er(ary of1991 as an #) D) #yer e&orial


4/150

te contents of o(r &in"s are in art "eter&ine" y e'ternal factors of $ic $e arei%norant $it te clai& tat $e kno$ te contents of o(r &in"s $ito(t +nor&ally-nee"in% or aealin% to evi"ence6 I ar%(e tat te ans$er "een"s, a&on% otertin%s, on %ivin% ( te i"ea of o4ects efore te &in" none of $ose attri(tes cane i""en fro& te a%ent)

In 'ssa( 9, e yt of te S(4ective, I try to &ake clear $at it &eans to "enytat tere are o4ects efore te &in" $en $e ave sensations or tink) e i"eatat tere is a f(n"a&ental "istinction to e "ra$n et$een (ninterrete" e'eriencean" an or%ani:in% str(ct(re of concets is closely relate" to te s(ose" "icoto&yof te s(4ective an" te o4ective) ese "(alis&s ave "o&inate" an" "efine" terole&s of &(c of &o"ern ilosoy, te role&s not only of eiste&olo%y, (talso of ilosoy of lan%(a%e an" ilosoy of &in") In tis essay I invei% a%ainstte ict(re of te &in" tat is res(ose" y te "(alis&s, an" so a%ainst te"(alis&s te&selves, an" te eiste&olo%ical an" &etaysical ositions ase" onte&) e vie$ tat te s(4ective is te fo(n"ation of o4ective e&irical kno$le"%eis attacke"M it is clai&e" tat e&irical kno$le"%e as no eiste&olo%ical fo(n"ation,

an" nee"s none)'ssa( :, at is Present to te in"6, contin(es te te&e of te last t$o essays$it fres e'a&les an" ar%(&ents restate")# n(&er of ilosoers ave A(estione" $eter tere is any fact of te &atterconcernin% te roositional attit("es) 'ssa( ;, In"eter&inis& an" #ntirealis&,atte&ts to (t tese "o(ts to rest) In artic(lar it "is(tes te clai& tat if oneaccets L(ines in"eter&inacy tesis, as I "o, ten one as aan"one" first ersona(tority)'ssa(


5/150

as tat of ostensive learnin%, (t $it an insistence tat trian%(lation is not a &atterof one erson %rasin% a &eanin% alrea"y tere, (t a erfor&ance tat +$en f(llyflese" o(t- esto$s a content on lan%(a%e) is tesis, an" its ra&ifications forilosoy of &in", lan%(a%e, an" eiste&olo%y, t(rn ( a%ain an" a%ain in &y $orkafter 1982 +!ssay 7-) Carol ovane, #keel Bil%ra&i, an" arcia Cavell $ere early

critics of tis i"ea) eir s(%%estions an" can"i" "o(ts ele" %reatly in sain% &ytinkin%)'ssa( @, e !&er%ence of o(%t, asks o$ $e are to "escrie te transitionfro& te relin%(istic, reconcet(al &in" of an infant to a cil" $it lan%(a%e,eliefs, an" te oter roositional attit("es) I ar%(e tat $e "o not ave avoca(lary for "escriin% te early sta%es of s(c "evelo&ent, an" tat it is (nclear$at $o(l" satisfy te felt nee" for s(c a voca(lary) It is s(%%este" tat a fe$&a4or stes can e "istin%(ise" y consi"erin% te stren%ts of te se&anticteories reA(ire" for vario(s lan%(a%es)'ssa( 7, # Coerence eory of r(t an" .no$le"%e, $as $ritten in 1981, eforeany of te first nine of tese essays) ere is no aer I ave $ritten I $o(l" like

&ore to re$rite) It as (n"erstan"aly attracte" &(c criticis&, $ic is $y I rerintit ere $ito(t can%e) #ny$ay, I ave in effect een re$ritin% it ever since

en" )'v

it $as $rittenM te nine essays tat rece"e it in tis ook are artial evi"ence of &ys(seA(ent &is%ivin%s, an" !ssay 1 is f(rter testi&ony) I ave also trie" to &akea&en"s in relies to vario(s critics in "he Philosoph( of Donald Davidson+in te


6/150

*ro& te ti&e of =escartes &ost eiste&olo%y as een ase" on first ersonkno$le"%e) #ccor"in% to te (s(al story $e &(st e%in $it $at is &ost certainEkno$le"%e of o(r o$n sensations an"

en" )'vi

to(%ts) In one $ay or anoter $e ro%ress, if $e can, to kno$le"%e of an o4ective

e'ternal $orl") ere is ten te final, ten(o(s, ste to kno$le"%e of oter &in"s) In'ssa( 79, !iste&olo%y !'ternali:e", I ar%(e for a total revision of tis ict(re) #llroositional to(%t, $eter ositive or sketical, $eter of te inner or of teo(ter, reA(ires ossession of te concet of o4ective tr(t, an" tis concet isaccessile only to tose creat(res in co&&(nication $it oters) ir" ersonkno$le"%ekno$le"%e of oter &in"sis t(s essential to all oter kno$le"%e) B(ttir" erson kno$le"%e is i&ossile $ito(t kno$le"%e of a sare" $orl" of o4ectsin a sare" ti&e an" sace) (s te acA(isition of kno$le"%e is not ase" on aro%ression fro& te s(4ective to te o4ectiveM it e&er%es olistically, an" isinterersonal fro& te start) Several for&s of e'ternalis& are e'a&ine" an" fo(n"$antin%) It is ar%(e" tat trian%(lation, $ic as feat(re" in &any oter essays in

tis ook, corrects an" a(%&ents ot a version of ercet(al e'ternalis& an" aversion of social e'ternalis&)ree ;arieties of .no$le"%e, 'ssa( 7:, co&es closest to (llin% to%eter te &aini"eas in tis ook) If all te essays a" een $ritten after &y to(%ts a" %elle",ree ;arieties of .no$le"%e $o(l" certainly ave co&e first, an" a rea"er $o$ants an overvie$ &i%t $ell e%in ere)I ave tinkere" $it te essays in tis ook to i&rove te %ra&&ar or style an"occasionally to "elete reetition or $at I no$ see as a &inor &istake) I a& s(re&any &ore errors ersist, an" tere is roaly too &(c a&&erin% a$ay at certainteses) B(t $en I conte&late" &a4or re$ritin% I reali:e" tat eiter I &(strero"(ce &y ast $ork retty &(c as it stoo" or si&ly start over a%ain, an" tis

$o(l" take years) I console &yself $it te to(%t tat a fres start $o(l" &ean$iin% o(t $at a&o(nts to a istory of &y atte&ts to co&e to %ris $it te trian%leco&ose" of a erson, is society, an" te sare" environ&ent) It $o(l" also"erive &y critics of so&e of teir favorite tar%ets)#&on% tose critics I &(st esecially tank icar" orty, $o as een e%%in% &eon for years to collect an" (lis tese essays) !rnest


7/150

"ra$ ( $ill e sa&ef(lly inco&lete) B(t it &(st certainly incl("e osario !%i"i,Pascal !n%el, =a%finn *Olles"al, /let >anser%, =ieter >enric, Pierre Daco,Carol ovane, an" tose $o ca&e to te ten lect(res an" se&inars in erona,artic(larly ) ;) L(ine, B(rton =reen, #keel Bil%ra&i, !rnest


8/150

Secial a(tority attaces "irectly to clai&s ao(t te "esire an" elief, less "irectlyto clai&s ao(t te necessary ca(sal connection) ese "ifferences a&on% te $aysin $ic first erson a(tority &ay aly to roositional attit("es are i&ortant an"$ort e'lorin%) B(t in every case, first erson a(tority is relevant, an" it is te%eneral case I $is to consi"er ere) Since in al&ost every instance, if not in all, first

erson a(tority rests at least artially on a elief co&onent, I sall concentrate onte case of elief)o(% tere is first erson a(tority $it resect to eliefs an" oter roositionalattit("es, error is ossileM tis follo$s fro& te fact tat te attit("es are "isositionstat &anifest te&selves in vario(s $ays, an" over a san of ti&e) !rror is ossileMso is "o(t) So $e "o not al$ays ave in"(itale or certain kno$le"%e of o(r o$nattit("es) Nor are o(r clai&s ao(t o(r o$n attit("es incorri%ile) It is ossile for teevi"ence availale to oters to overtro$ self?4("%e&ents)It co&es closer to caracteri:in% first erson a(tority to note tat te self?attri(ter"oes not nor&ally ase is clai&s on evi"ence or oservation, nor "oes it nor&ally&ake sense to ask te self?attri(ter $y e elieves e as te eliefs, "esires, or

intentions e clai&s to ave) is feat(re of self?attri(tions $as re&arke" yitt%ensteinE at is te criterion for te re"ness of an i&a%e6 *or &e, $en it isso&eone elses i&a%eE $at e says or "oes) *or &yself, $en it is &y i&a%eEnotin%)$$e contin(es,te "ifferences are "ifferences of "e%ree, not of kin") e s(eriority of te seakerskno$le"%e of $at es "oin% over tat of te listener "oes not in"icate tat e asPrivile%e" #ccess to facts of a tye inevitaly inaccessile to te listener, (t only


9/150

tat e is in a very %oo" osition to kno$ $at te listener is often in a very oorosition to kno$) e t(rns taken y a &ans conversation "o not startle or erle'is $ife as &(c as tey a" s(rrise" an" (::le" is fiance, nor "o closecollea%(es ave to e'lain te&selves to eac oter as &(c as tey ave toe'lain te&selves to teir ne$ (ils)%%

ilert yle, "he oncept of #ind, 15, 179) en" )5I a%ree $it yle tat any atte&t to e'lain te asy&&etry et$een first ersonresent tense clai&s ao(t attit("es, an" oter erson or oter tense clai&s, yreference to a secial $ay of kno$in% or a secial kin" of kno$le"%e &(st lea" to asketical res(lt) #ny s(c acco(nt &(st accet te asy&&etry, (t cannot e'lain it)B(t yle neiter accets nor e'lains te asy&&etryM e si&ly "enies tat it e'ists)Since I tink it is ovio(s tat te asy&&etry e'ists, I elieve it is a &istake to ar%(efro& te asence of a secial $ay of kno$in% or a secial &o"e or kin" ofkno$le"%e to te asence of secial a(torityM instea", $e so(l" look for anoterso(rce of te asy&&etry)

#yer at one ti&e took a line si&ilar to yles) In "he oncept of a Personee&asi:es tat first erson ascritions can e in errorM an" e allo$s tat s(cascritions are rivile%e")33#) D) #yer, Privacy)B(t $en e co&es to "escrie te a(tority of self?ascritions, e co&ares it to tea(tority $e so&eti&es allo$ an eye$itness $en co&are" $it secon"an"reorts) is analo%y see&s to &e (nsatisfactory for t$o reasons) *irst, it fails to tell(s $y a erson is like an eye$itness $it resect to is o$n &ental states an"events $ile oters are not) #n" secon", it "oes not s(%%est an acc(rate "escritionof $at first erson a(tority is like) *or first erson attri(tions are not ase" onetter evi"ence (t often on no evi"ence at all) e a(tority of te eye$itness is at

est ase" on in"(ctive roailities easily overri""en in artic(lar casesE aneye$itness is "iscre"ite" an" is evi"ence "isco(nte" if e is a notorio(sly (nrelialeoserver, re4("ice", or &yoic) B(t a erson never loses is secial clai& to eri%t ao(t is o$n attit("es, even $en is clai& is callen%e" or overt(rne")Dose #%assi as act(ally &aintaine" tat $e kno$ te &ental states an" events inoter &in"s etter tan tose in o(r o$n &in") >e "istin%(ises rivile%e" accessfro& te co&&onsense tr(t tat every erson as access to so&e infor&ationavailale to tat erson alone, an" it involves ones self, at least as an eye?$itness)>e %oes onEe "octrine of rivile%e" access is tat I a& te a(tority on all &y o$n e'eriences) ) ) e tesis $as ref(te" y *re(" +I kno$ yo(r "rea&s etter tan yo(-, =(e& +I

kno$ yo(r &eto"s of scientific "iscovery etter tan yo(-, alino$ski +I kno$ yo(rc(sto&s an" aits etter tan yo(-, an"

en" )

ercetion teorists +I can &ake yo( see tin%s $ic are not tere an" "escrieyo(r ercetions etter tan yo( can-)&&Dose #%assi, Science in luC,120)#si"e fro& *re("s case, tere is little ere to treaten first erson a(tority) *re("svie$s, y e'ten"in% te concets of intention, elief, "esire, an" te rest to incl("ete (nconscio(s, "o &ean tat $it resect to so&e roositional attit("es a ersonloses "irect a(tority) In"ee", loss of a(tority is te &ain "istin%(isin% feat(re of(nconscio(s &ental states) /f co(rse, te re?*re("ian attit("es re&ain as s(4ect

as ever to first erson a(tority) B(t &ore interestin% is te fact tat in sycoanalyticractice, recovery of a(tority over an attit("e is often consi"ere" te only soli"


10/150

evi"ence tat te attit("e $as tere efore ein% noninferentially areciate" y itsol"er) (s tose cases of (nconscio(s &ental states tat $ere (nsyste&aticallyreco%ni:e" to e'ist efore *re(" are in"irectly incl("e" in te scoe of first ersona(tority y sycoanalysis) So I "o not tink te e'istence of (nconscio(s attit("estreatens te i&ortance of first erson a(tority)

I t(rn no$ to ilosoers $o ave ass(&e" tat tere is s(c a tin% as firsterson a(tority, an" ave accete" itt%ensteins "escrition of te "ifferenceet$een first an" tir" erson attri(tions)Stra$son "isc(sses first erson a(tority in te conte't of tryin% to ans$ersketicis& ao(t oter &in"s) #ccor"in% to Stra$son, if te sketic (n"erstan"s iso$n A(estion +>o$ "oes anyone kno$ $at is %oin% on in so&eone elses &in"6-,e kno$s te ans$er) *or if te sketic kno$s $at a &in" is, e kno$s it &(st e ina o"y, an" tat it as to(%ts) >e also kno$s tat $e attri(te to(%ts to oterson te asis of oserve" eavior, (t to o(rselves $ito(t s(c a asis) Stra$son$ritesEIn or"er to havetis tye of concet Qof a &ental roertyR, one &(st e ot a self?

ascrier an" an oter?ascrier of s(c re"icates Q$ic ascrie &ental roertiesR,an" &(st see every oter as a self?ascrier) In or"er to understandtis tye ofconcet, one &(st ackno$le"%e tat tere is a kin" of re"icate $ic is(na&i%(o(sly an" a"eA(ately ascriale bothon te asis of oservation of tes(4ect of te re"icate andnot on tat asis, i)e) in"een"ently of oservation of tes(4ect)''Peter Stra$son, Individuals, 108) +#nita #vra&i"es as ointe" o(t tat Stra$son as contri(te"&ore to tis iss(e tan I allo$) See er =avi"son an" te Ne$ Scetical Prole&)-

en" )7

is cannot e "ee&e" a satisfactory ans$er to te sketic) *or te sketic $ill relytat to(% Stra$son &ay ave correctly "escrie" te asy&&etry et$een first an"

oter erson ascritions of &ental re"icates, e as "one notin% to e'lain it) Inte asence of an e'lanation, te sketic is s(rely 4(stifie" in askin% o$ $e kno$tat te "escrition is correct) In artic(lar, $y so(l" $e tink tat a re"icate tatis so&eti&es alie" on te asis of oservation, an" so&eti&es not, is(na&i%(o(s6 is A(estion, to $ic Stra$son as not a""resse" i&self, is a&a4or so(rce of sketicis& ao(t kno$le"%e of oter &in"s) +/n te aarenta&i%(ity of &ental re"icates, see !ssay 2)-icar" orty as atte&te" an e'lanation) e are aske" to i&a%ine tat ori%inallyself?ascritions $ere &a"e on te asis of te sa&e sort of oservation or eavioralevi"ence as oter?ascritions) It $as ten notice" tat eole co(l" ascrie &entalroerties to te&selves $ito(t &akin% oservations or (sin% eavioral evi"ence,

an" tat self?ascritions t(rne" o(t in te lon% r(n to rovi"e etter e'lanations ofeavior tan tir" erson ascritions) So it eca&e a lin%(istic convention to treatself?ascritions as rivile%e"E it eca&e a constraint on e'lanations of eavior tattey so(l" fit all reorte" to(%ts or sensations into te overall acco(nt ein%offere")((icar" orty, Incorri%iility as te ark of te ental, 1) ortys acco(nt is "erive" fro& ilfre"Sellars, !&iricis& an" te Pilosoy of in") it resect to te oint at iss(e, Sellarss acco(nt"oes not "iffer fro& ortys)is acco(nt is not &eant to e taken serio(sly as a iece of folk antroolo%y, (t itis &eant to &ake it see& reasonale tat $e so(l" treat self?ascritions as avin%secial a(tority) B(t te A(estion re&ainsE $at reason as orty %iven to so$ tat

self?ascritions not ase" on evi"ence concern te sa&e states an" events asascritions of te sa&e &ental re"icates ase" on oservation or evi"ence6 ere
http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/private/content/philosophy/0198237537/p021.html#acprof-0198237537-chapter-2http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/private/content/philosophy/0198237537/p021.html#acprof-0198237537-chapter-2


11/150

is a "ifference in kin" in te $ays te t$o sorts of ascrition are &a"e, an" o$ teye'lain eavior is "ifferent) at orty "escries as te "iscovery tat self?ascritions not ase" on evi"ence e'lain eavior etter $ill e "escrie" y tesketic as te fact tat $at is ein% ascrie" is on every co(nt aarently "ifferent)It &ay co&e as a s(rrise to reali:e tat te ilosoers I a& "isc(ssin% ave not

really "ealt $it te ancient role& of sketicis& concernin% kno$le"%e of oter&in"s) B(t I tink it is easy to

en" )8

e'lain) >istorically te role& as een seen fro& eiter a Cartesian or ane&iricist oint of vie$, an" ot ven(es ass(&e tat eac erson kno$s $at is inis o$n &in") e role& as terefore see&e" to e tat of s(lyin% a asis forkno$le"%e of oter &in"s +an", of co(rse, te e'ternal $orl"-) Pilosoers no$reali:e tat art of (n"erstan"in% &ental concets +or re"icates- consists inkno$in% $at kin" of oservale eavior 4(stifies te ascrition of tese concets tooters) B(t tis ans$er to te sketic "oes notin% to e'lain first erson a(tority, orte asy&&etry et$een selfascritions an" oter?ascritions) e can still ask $y

$e elieve tese t$o sorts of ascrition ertain to te sa&e s(4ect &atter) #n" tisA(estion is a %oo" one, $eter or not $e reco%ni:e its tra"itional sketical ancestry)Peras it so(l" e ointe" o(t tat no concets asi"e fro& tose alyin% tosensations, roositional attit("es, an" te ositions of o(r li&s so$ te sort ofasy&&etry $e are "isc(ssin%) any concets can e alie" on te asis of &(ltilecriteria, (t no oters are s(c tat ascriers must, on artic(lar occasions, (se"ifferent criteria) If $e are to e'lain tis ano&aly an" avoi" an invitation tosketicis&, te e'lanation so(l" oint to a nat(ral asy&&etry et$een oteroservers an" o(rselves, an asy&&etry not si&ly invente" to solve te role&)e first ste to$ar"s a sol(tion "een"s on eco&in% clear ao(t te entities to$ic first erson a(tority alies) illia& #lston rooses tis rincile to

caracteri:e te secial stat(s of self?attri(tionsE !ac erson is so relate" toroositions ascriin% c(rrent &ental states to i&self tat it is lo%ically i&ossileot for i& to elieve tat s(c a roosition is tr(e an" not to e 4(stifie" in ol"in%tis elief $ile no one else is so relate" to s(c roositions)))illia& #lston, ;arieties of Privile%e" #ccess, 235)*or tis s(%%estion to e la(sile, $e &(st s(ose tat te roosition Donese'resses y te sentence I elieve a%ner "ie" ay is te sa&e roosition aste roosition S&it e'resses y te sentence Dones elieves a%ner "ie"ay) is is, of co(rse, a i%ly A(estionale s(osition) /nce &ore, teeiste&ic contrast %oes (ne'laine"M an" in te asence of an e'lanation, teA(estion arises $at reasonone as in any artic(lar case to elieve tat te

roosition entertaine" y Dones an" S&it iste sa&e) iven onlyen" )9

a "escrition of an eiste&ic "ifference, te nat(ral concl(sion is tat teroositions "iffer)I t(rn, ten, to a for&(lation of Si"ney Soe&akers, $ic &akes e'licit &ention oflan%(a%eE #&on% te incorri%ile state&ents are state&ents ao(t ) ) ) &entalevents, e)%) ) ) ) reorts of to(%ts ) ) ) ese are incorri%ile in te sense tat if aerson sincerely asserts s(c a state&ent it "oes not &ake sense to s(ose, an"notin% co(l" e accete" as so$in%, tat e is &istakenM i)e) tat $at e says isfalse)**Si"ney Soe&aker, SelfKnowledge and SelfIdentit(, 215?1)

I sall i%nore te incorri%iility con"ition an" s(stit(te so&etin% less stron%so&etin% tat a&o(nts to first erson a(tority) +is is eras reasonale, since


12/150

Soe&aker is &ainly concerne" $it sensations s(c as ain, $ile I a& e'cl(sivelyconcerne" $it roositional attit("es)- at is i&ortant ere is tat Soe&akerassi%ns te res(&tion of correctness not to a kin" of kno$le"%e, (t to a class of(tterances) is i"ea &i%t lea" to an e'lanation of first erson a(tority if te classof (tterances co(l" e secifie" in syntactic ter&s) Unfort(nately it cannot) If

Soe&aker is ri%t, a seaker $o sincerely (ses a certain sort of sentence &(st eres(&e" to e ri%t in $at e says) B(t of co(rse tis ol"s only if te seakerkno$s e is (sin% te rivile%e" sort of sentenceM if e is not, e is &is(sin%lan%(a%e) at $o(l" constit(te a &is(se ere6 #ove all, one $ants to say,sincerely assertin% a sentence one as no secial a(tority to assert) Peras soM(t tis is 4(st to reiterate te (ninfor&ative an" (ne'laine" clai& tat it is aconvention of lan%(a%e to treat self?ascritions $it secial resect) Seen fro& teoint of vie$ of te interreter, tis i&lies tat e so(l" interret self?ascritions ins(c a $ay as to &ake te& tr(eor to assi%n a secial riority to teir tr(t) eoint of vie$ of te interreter is te only one $e can take, %iven Soe&akersrincile, an" tis "erives te rincile of in"een"ent alicationE o(r only reason

for sayin% te seaker as secial a(tority on occasion is tat $e are reare" totreat is (tterance as a self?ascrition) In oter $or"s, self?ascritions ave seciala(torityE tr(eM an" tat is $ere $e e%an)No satisfactory e'lanation of te asy&&etry et$een first an" oter ersonattri(tions of attit("es as yet e&er%e") Still, foc(sin% on sentences an" (tterancesrater tan roositions or &eanin%s is

en" )10

a ste in a ro&isin% "irection) e reason for tis is relatively si&le) #s lon% as $eose te role& in ter&s of te kin" of $arrant or a(tority so&eone as $itresect to clai&s ao(t an a%ents attit("e to a roosition +or a sentence $it a%iven interretation-, $e see& constraine" to acco(nt for "ifferences y si&ly

ost(latin% "ifferent kin"s or so(rces of infor&ation) #lternatively, $e &ay ost(late"ifferent criteria of alication for te key concets or $or"s +elieves tat, inten"sto, $ises tat, etc)-) B(t tese &oves "o no &ore tan restate te role&, as $eave seen, an" terey invite sketicis& ao(t kno$le"%e of te &in"s of oters +orof o(r o$n &in"-) B(t if $e ose te role& in ter&s of relations et$een a%entsan" (tterances, $e can avoi" te i&asse)e no$ nee" to "istin%(is t$o relate" (t "ifferent asy&&etries) /n te one an",tere is te fa&iliar "ifference et$een self? an" oter?attri(tions of te sa&eattit("e to te sa&e ersonE &y clai& tat I elieve a%ner "ie" ay an" yo(rclai& tat I elieve a%ner "ie" ay) If tese clai&s are (t into $or"s, $e avete "iffic(lty of "eci"in% $at airs of (tterances are s(italy relate" in or"er to%(arantee tat te clai&s ave te sa&e content) /n te oter an", $e &ayconsi"er &y (tterance of te sentence I elieve a%ner "ie" ay, an" tencontrast &y $arrant for tinkin% I ave sai" so&etin% tr(e, an" yo(r $arrant fortinkin% I ave sai" so&etin% tr(e) ese t$o asy&&etries are of co(rse connecte"since $e are incline" to say yo(r $arrant for tinkin% I seak te tr(t $en I say Ielieve a%ner "ie" ay &(st e closely relate" to yo(r $arrant for tinkin% yo($o(l" e seakin% te tr(t if yo( sai" =avi"son elieves a%ner "ie" ay) B(tfor reasons tat $ill soon e evi"ent, I sall "eal $it te secon" version of teasy&&etry)e A(estion ten co&es to tisE $at e'lains te "ifference in te sort of

ass(rance yo( ave tat I a& ri%t $en I say I elieve a%ner "ie" ay an" tesort of ass(rance I ave6 e kno$ y no$ tat it is no el to say I ave access to a


13/150

$ay of kno$in% ao(t &y o$n eliefs tat yo( "o not aveM nor tat $e (se "ifferentcriteria in alyin% te concet of elief +or te $or" elieves-) So let (s si&lyconsi"er a sorter (tterance of &ineE I (tter te sentence a%ner "ie" ay)Clearly, if yo( or I or anyone kno$s tat I ol" tis sentence tr(e on tis occasion of(tterance, an" se kno$s $at I &eant y tis sentence on tis occasion of

(tterance, ten se kno$s $at I elieve$at elief I e'resse") en" )11It $o(l" once &ore &ake te acco(nt circ(lar to e'lain te asic asy&&etry yass(&in% an asy&&etry in te ass(rance yo( an" I ave tat I ol" te sentence Iave 4(st (ttere" to e a tr(e sentence) ere &(st bes(c an asy&&etry, ofco(rse, (t it cannot e allo$e" to contri(te to te "esire" e'lanation) B(t $e canass(&e $ito(t re4("ice tat $e ot kno$, $atever te so(rce or nat(re of o(rkno$le"%e, tat on tis occasion I "o ol" te sentence I (ttere" to e tr(e) Si&ilarly,it $o(l" e% te A(estion to e'lain te asic asy&&etry y aeal to so&easy&&etry in o(r kno$le"%e of te fact tat I kno$ $at &y sentence, as (ttere" ontis occasion, &eant) So a%ain, let (s si&ly ass(&e $e ot kno$ tis, $atever

te so(rce or caracter of o(r kno$le"%e)So far, ten, $e ave not ost(late" or ass(&e" any asy&&etry at all) eass(&tions are 4(st teseE yo( an" I ot kno$ tat I el" te sentence a%ner"ie" ay to e a tr(e sentence $en I (ttere" itM an" tat I kne$ $at tatsentence &eant on te occasion of its (tterance) #n" no$ tere is tis "ifferenceet$een (s, $ic is $at $as to e e'laine"E on tese ass(&tions, I kno$ $at Ielieve, $ile yo( &ay not)e "ifference follo$s, of co(rse, fro& te fact tat te ass(&tion tat I kno$ $at I&ean necessarily %ives &e, (t not yo(, kno$le"%e of $at elief I e'resse" y &y(tterance) It re&ains to so$ $y tere &(st e a res(&tion tat seakers, (tnot teir interreters, are not $ron% ao(t $at teir $or"s &ean) e res(&tion

is essential to te nat(re of interretationte rocess y $ic $e (n"erstan" te(tterances of a seaker) is rocess cannot e te sa&e for te (tterer an" for isearers)o (t te &atter in its si&lest for&E tere can e no %eneral %(arantee tat aearer is correctly interretin% a seakerM o$ever easily, a(to&atically,(nreflectively, an" s(ccessf(lly a earer (n"erstan"s a seaker, e is liale toserio(s error) In tis secial sense, e &ay al$ays e re%ar"e" as interretin% aseaker) e seaker cannot, in te sa&e $ay, interret is o$n $or"s) # earerinterrets +nor&ally $ito(t to(%t or a(se- on te asis of &any cl(esE te actionsan" oter $or"s of te seaker, $at e ass(&es ao(t te e"(cation, irtlace,$it, an" rofession of te seaker, te relation of te seaker to o4ects near an" far,an" so fort) e seaker, to(% e &(st ear &any of tese tin%s in &in" $ene seaks, since it is ( to i& to try to e (n"erstoo", cannot $on"er $eter e%enerally &eans $at e says)

en" )12

e contrast et$een te %ro(n"s a self?ascrier as for is selfascrition, an" te%ro(n"s an interreter as for accetin% tat sa&e ascrition, $o(l" e stark if $e$ere to ass(&e tat no A(estion can arise concernin% a seakers interretation ofis o$n $or"s) B(t of co(rse it can, since $at is $or"s &ean "een"s in art onte cl(es to interretation e as %iven te interreter, or oter evi"ence tat e4(stifialy elieves te interreter as) e seaker can e $ron% ao(t $at is o$n$or"s &ean) is is one of te reasons first erson a(tority is not infallile) B(t te

ossiility of error "oes not eli&inate te asy&&etry) e asy&&etry rests on te


14/150

fact tat te interreter &(st, $ile te seaker "oesnt, rely on $at, if it $ere &a"ee'licit, $o(l" e a "iffic(lt inference in interretin% te seaker)Neiter seaker nor earer kno$s in a secial or &ysterio(s $ay $at te seakers$or"s &eanM an" ot can e $ron%) B(t tere is a "ifference) e seaker, afteren"in% $atever kno$le"%e an" craft e can to te task of sayin% $at is $or"s

&ean, cannot i&rove on te follo$in% sort of state&entE y (tterance of a%ner"ie" ay is tr(e if an" only if a%ner "ie" ay) #n interreter as no reason toass(&e tis $ill e hisest $ay of statin% te tr(t con"itions of te seakers(tterance)e est $ay to areciate tis "ifference is y i&a%inin% a sit(ation in $ic t$oeole $o seak (nrelate" lan%(a%es, an" are i%norant of eac oters lan%(a%es,are left alone to learn to co&&(nicate) =ecierin% a ne$ lan%(a%e is not likelearnin% a first lan%(a%e, for a tr(e e%inner as neiter te reasonin% o$er nor testock of concets te articiants in te i&a%ine" sit(ation ave to "ra$ on) is"oes not, o$ever, affect te oint I $is to stress, since $at &y i&a%ine"interreter can treat conscio(sly as evi"ence is e'actly $at con"itions te first

learner to e a lan%(a%e (ser) is eavior &ay si&ly not e interretale) B(t if it is, ten $at is$or"s &ean is +%enerally- $at e inten"s te& to &ean) Since te lan%(a%e e isseakin% as no oter earers, te i"ea of te seaker &is(sin% is lan%(a%e as noalication) ere is a res(&tionan (navoi"ale res(&tion (ilt into tenat(re of interretationtat te seaker (s(ally kno$s $at e &eans) So tere isa res(&tion tat if e kno$s tat e ol"s a sentence tr(e, e kno$s $at eelieves)

en" )1

%.no$in% /nes /$n in"so$ cater astract an" key$or"s

i"e cater astract an" key$or"sDonald Davidsonere is no secret ao(t te nat(re of te evi"ence $e (se to "eci"e $at otereole tinkE $e oserve teir acts, rea" teir letters, st("y teir e'ressions, listento teir $or"s, learn teir istories, an" note teir relations to society) >o$ $e areale to asse&le s(c &aterial into a convincin% ict(re of a &in" is anoter &atterM$e kno$ o$ to "o it $ito(t necessarily kno$in% o$ $e "o it) So&eti&es I learn$at I elieve in &(c te sa&e $ay so&eone else "oes, y noticin% $at I say an""o) ere &ay e ti&es $en tis is &y only access to &y o$n to(%ts) #ccor"in%

to raa& allas, e little %irl a" te &akin% of a oet in er $o, ein% tol" to e


15/150

s(re of er &eanin% efore se soke, sai" >o$ can I kno$ $at I tink till I see$at I say6$$raa& allas, "he Art of "hought)# si&ilar to(%t $as e'resse" y oert oter$ellE I $o(l" say tat &ost %oo"ainters "ont kno$ $at tey tink (ntil tey aint it)

ilert yle $as $it te oet an" te ainter all te $ay in tis &atterM e sto(tly&aintaine" tat $e kno$ o(r o$n &in"s in e'actly te sa&e $ay $e kno$ te &in"sof oters, y oservin% $at $e say, "o, an" aint) yle $as $ron%) It is sel"o& tecase tat I nee" or aeal to evi"ence or oservation in or"er to fin" o(t $at IelieveM nor&ally I kno$ $at I tink efore I seak or act) !ven $en I aveevi"ence, I sel"o& &ake (se of it) I can e $ron% ao(t &y o$n to(%ts, an" sote aeal to $at can e (licly "eter&ine" is not irrelevant) B(t te ossiility tatone &ay e &istaken ao(t ones o$n to(%ts cannot "efeat te overri"in%res(&tion tat a erson kno$s $at e or se elievesM in %eneral, te elief tatone as a to(%t is eno(% to 4(stify tat elief) B(t to(% tis

en" )15

is tr(e, an" even ovio(s to &ost of (s, te fact as, so far as I can see, no easye'lanation) ile it is clear eno(%, at least in o(tline, $at $e ave to %o on intryin% to fato& te to(%ts of oters, it is osc(re $y, in o(r o$n case, $e can sooften kno$ $at $e tink $ito(t aeal to evi"ence or reco(rse to oservation)Beca(se $e (s(ally kno$ $at $e elieve +an" "esire an" "o(t an" inten"- $ito(tnee"in% or (sin% evi"ence +even $en it is availale-, o(r sincere avo$alsconcernin% o(r resent states of &in" are not s(4ect to te failin%s of concl(sionsase" on evi"ence) (s sincere first erson resent?tense clai&s ao(t to(%ts,$ile neiter infallile nor incorri%ile, ave an a(tority no secon" or tir" ersonclai&, or first erson oter?tense clai&, can ave) o reco%ni:e tis fact is not,o$ever, to e'lain it)

Since itt%enstein it as eco&e ro(tine to try to relieve $orries ao(t o(rkno$le"%e of oter &in"s y re&arkin% tat it is an essential asect of o(r (se ofcertain &ental re"icates tat $e aly te& to oters on te asis of eavioralevi"ence (t to o(rselves $ito(t enefit of s(c ai") e re&ark is tr(e, an" $enroerly elaorate", it o(%t to ans$er so&eone $o $on"ers o$ $e can kno$ te&in"s of oters) B(t as a resonse to te sketic, itt%ensteins insi%t +if it isitt%ensteins- so(l" %ive little satisfaction) *or first, it is a stran%e i"ea tat clai&s&a"e $ito(t evi"ential or oservational s(ort so(l" e favore" over clai&s $its(c s(ort) /f co(rse, if evi"ence is not cite" in s(ort of a clai&, te clai&cannot e i&(%ne" y A(estionin% te tr(t or relevance of te evi"ence) B(t teseoints ar"ly s(ffice to s(%%est tat in %eneral clai&s $ito(t evi"ential s(ort are

&ore tr(st$orty tan tose $it) e secon", an" cief, "iffic(lty is tis) /ne $o(l"nor&ally say tat $at co(nts as evi"ence for te alication of a concet els"efine te concet, or at least laces constraints on its i"entification) If t$o concetsre%(larly "een" for teir alication on "ifferent criteria or ran%es of evi"entials(ort, tey &(st e "ifferent concets) So if $at is aarently te sa&ee'ression is so&eti&es correctly e&loye" on te asis of a certain ran%e ofevi"ential s(ort an" so&eti&es on te asis of anoter ran%e of evi"ential s(ort+or none-, te ovio(s concl(sion $o(l" see& to e tat te e'ression isa&i%(o(s) y ten so(l" $e s(ose tat a re"icate like Celieves tat as=asan is te i%est &o(ntain in !tioia, $ic is alie" so&eti&es on te asisof eavioral evi"ence an" so&eti&es not, is (na&i%(o(s6 If it is

en" )1


16/150

a&i%(o(s, ten tere is no reason to s(ose it as te sa&e &eanin% $enalie" to oneself tat it as $en alie" to anoter) If $e %rant +as $e so(l"- tatte necessarily (lic an" interersonal caracter of lan%(a%e %(arantees tat $eoften correctly aly tese re"icates to oters, an" tat terefore $e often "o kno$$at otherstink, ten te A(estion &(st e raise" $at %ro(n"s eac of (s as for

tinkin% e kno$s $at +in te sa&e sense- hetinks) e itt%ensteinian style ofans$er &ay solve te role& of oter &in"s, (t it creates a correson"in%role& ao(t kno$le"%e of ones o$n &in") e correson"ence is not A(iteco&lete, o$ever) e ori%inal role& of oter &in"s invite" te A(estion o$ onekno$s oters ave &in"s at all) e role& $e no$ face &(st e (t tis $ayE Ikno$ $at to look for in attri(tin% to(%ts to oters) Usin% A(ite "ifferent criteria +ornone-, I aly te sa&e re"icates to &yselfM so te sketical A(estion arises $y Iso(l" tink it is thoughtsI a& attri(tin% to &yself) B(t since te evi"ence I (se inte case of oters is oen to te (lic, tere is no reason $y I so(l"nt attri(teto(%ts to &yself in te sa&e $ay I "o to oters, in te &o"e of raa& allas,oert oter$ell, an" ilert yle) In oter $or"s, I "ont, (t I co(l", treat &y o$n

&ental states in te sa&e $ay I "o tose of oters) No s(c strate%y is availale toso&eone $o seeks te sa&e sort of a(tority $it resect to te to(%ts of otersas e aarently as in "ealin% $it is o$n to(%ts) So te asy&&etry et$eente cases re&ains a role&, an" it is first erson a(tority tat creates te role&)I ave s(%%este" an ans$er to tis role& in te first essay in tis ook) ere Iar%(e" tat attention to o$ $e attri(te to(%ts an" &eanin%s to oters $o(l"e'lain first erson a(tority $ito(t invitin% sketical "o(ts) In recent years,o$ever, so&e of te very facts ao(t te attri(tion of attit("es on $ic I relie" to"efen" first erson a(tority ave een e&loye" to attack tat a(torityE it as eenar%(e", on $at are to(%t to e ne$ %ro(n"s, tat $ile te &eto"s of te tir"erson interreter "eter&ine $at $e (s(ally "ee& to e te contents of an a%ents&in", te contents so "eter&ine" &ay e (nkno$n to te a%ent) In te resent essayI consi"er so&e of tese ar%(&ents, an" (r%e tat tey "o not constit(te a %en(inetreat to first erson a(tority) e e'lanation I offere" in &y earlier essay of teasy&&etry et$een first an" oter erson attri(tions of attit("es see&s to &e ifanytin% to e

en" )17

stren%tene" y te ne$ consi"erations, or tose of te& tat see& vali")It so(l" e stresse" a%ain tat te role& I a& concerne" $it "oes not reA(iretat o(r eliefs ao(t o(r o$n conte&orary states of &in" e infallile orincorri%ile) e can an" "o &ake &istakes ao(t $at $e elieve, "esire, arove,an" inten"M tere is also te ossiility of self?"eceit) B(t s(c cases, to(% notinfreA(ent, are not an" co(l" not e stan"ar"M I "o not ar%(e for tis no$, (t take itas one of te facts to e e'laine")Settin% asi"e, ten, self?"ecetion an" oter ano&alo(s or or"erline eno&ena,te A(estion is $eter $e can, $ito(t irrationality, inconsistency, or conf(sion,si&ly an" strai%tfor$ar"ly tink $e ave a elief $e "o not ave, or tink $e "onot ave a elief $e "o ave) # n(&er of ilosoers an" ilosoically &in"e"sycolo%ists ave recently entertaine" vie$s tat entail or s(%%est tat tis co(l"easily aenin"ee", tat it &(st aen all te ti&e)e treat $as tere in (ssells i"ea of roositions tat co(l" e kno$n to e tr(eeven to(% tey containe" in%re"ients $it $ic te &in" of te kno$er $as not

acA(ainte"M an" as te st("y of te de reattit("es evolve", te eril %re$ &oreac(te)


17/150


18/150

ter&s artly of relations to o4ects an" events oter tan te s(4ect, P(tna&elieves tat +I- an" +II- co&e aartE in is oinion, no states can satisfy otcon"itions)P(tna& calls sycolo%ical states satisfyin% con"ition +I- narro$) >e tinks of s(cstates as solisistic, an" associates te& $it =escartess vie$ of te &ental)

P(tna& &ay consi"er tese states to e te only tr(e sycolo%ical statesM in &(cof is aer e o&its te A(alifier narro$, "esite te fact tat narro$ sycolo%icalstates +so calle"- "o not correson" to te roositional attit("es as nor&allyi"entifie") Not everyone as een ers(a"e" tat tere is an intelli%ile "istinction toe "ra$n et$een narro$ +or inner, or Cartesian, or in"ivi"(alisticall tese ter&sare c(rrent- sycolo%ical states an" sycolo%ical states i"entifie" +if any are- inter&s of e'ternal facts +social or oter$ise-) (s Don Searle as clai&e" tat o(ror"inary roositional attit("es satisfy con"ition +I-, an" so tere is no nee" of statessatisfyin% con"ition +II-, $ile yler B(r%e as "enie" tat tere are, in any interestin%sense, roositional attit("es tat satisfy con"ition +I-) ''Don Searle, Intentionalit(M an" yler B(r%e, In"ivi"(alis& an" Psycolo%y)

B(t tere see&s to e (niversal a%ree&ent tat no states satisfy ot con"itions)e tesis of tis essay is tat tere is no reason to s(ose tat or"inary &entalstates "o not satisfy ot con"itions +I- an" +II-E I tink s(c states are inner, in tesense of ein% i"entical $it states of te o"y, an" so i"entifiale $ito(t referenceto o4ects or events o(tsi"e te o"yM tey are at te sa&e ti&e non?in"ivi"(alistic inte sense tat tey can e, an" (s(ally are, i"entifie" in art y teir ca(sal relationsto events an" o4ects o(tsi"e te s(4ect $ose states tey are) # corollary of tistesis $ill t(rn o(t to e tat, contrary to $at is often ass(&e", first erson a(toritycan $ito(t contra"iction aly to states tat are re%(larly i"entifie" y teir relationsto events an" o4ects o(tsi"e te erson)I e%in $it te corollary) y is it nat(ral to ass(&e tat states tat satisfy con"ition+II- &ay not e kno$n to te erson $o is in tose states6No$ I &(st talk ao(t P(tna&s $in !art) >e asks (s to i&a%ine t$o eolee'actly alike ysically an" +terefore- alike $it resect to all narro$ sycolo%icalstates) /ne of te t$o eole, an inaitant of !art, as learne" to (se te $or"$ater y ein% so$n $ater, rea"in% an" earin% ao(t it, etc) e oter, aninaitant of

en" )20

$in !art, as learne" to (se te $or" $ater (n"er con"itions not oservaly"ifferent, (t te s(stance to $ic se as een e'ose" is not $ater (t alookalike s(stance $e &ay call t$ater) Un"er te circ(&stances, P(tna& clai&s,te first seaker refers to $ater $en se (ses te $or" $aterM er t$in refers to

t$ater $en she(ses te $or" $ater) So $e see& to ave a case $ere narro$sycolo%ical states are i"entical, an" yet te seakers &ean "ifferent tin%s y tesa&e $or")>o$ ao(t te to(%ts of tese t$o seakers6 e first says to erself, $en facin%a %lass of $ater, >eres a %lass of $aterM te secon" &(tters e'actly te sa&eso(n"s to erself $en facin% a %lass of t$ater) !ac seaks te tr(t, since teir$or"s &ean "ifferent tin%s) #n" since eac is sincere, it is nat(ral to s(ose teyelieve "ifferent tin%s, te first elievin% tere is a %lass of $ater in front of er, tesecon" elievin% tere is a %lass of t$ater in front of her) B(t "o tey kno$ $at teyelieve6 If te &eanin%s of teir $or"s, an" t(s te eliefs e'resse" y (sin%tose $or"s, are artly "eter&ine" y e'ternal factors ao(t $ic te a%ents arei%norant, teir eliefs an" &eanin%s are not narro$ in P(tna&s sense) ere isterefore notin% on te asis of $ic eiter seaker can tell $ic state se is in,


19/150

for tere is no internal or e'ternal cl(e to te "ifference availale) e o(%t, itsee&s, to concl("e tat neiter seaker kno$s $at se &eans or tinks) econcl(sion as een "ra$n e'licitly y a n(&er of ilosoers, a&on% te&P(tna&) P(tna& "eclares tat e totally aan"ons te i"ea tat if tere is a"ifference in &eanin% ) ) ) ten tere muste so&e "ifference in o(r concets +or in

o(r sycolo%ical state-) at "eter&ines &eanin% an" e'tension is not, in %eneral,f(lly kno$n to te seaker)((>ilary P(tna&, e eanin% of eanin% ) 1?5)>ere sycolo%ical state &eans narrowsycolo%ical state, an" it is ass(&e" tatonly s(c states are f(lly kno$n) Derry *o"or elieves tat or"inary roositionalattit("es are +retty nearly- in te ea", (t e a%rees $it P(tna& tat ifroositional attit("es $ere artly i"entifie" y factors o(tsi"e te a%ent, tey $o(l"not e in te ea", an" $o(l" not necessarily e kno$n to te a%ent)))Derry *o"or, Co%nitive Science an" te $in !art Prole&, 103) #lso see is eto"olo%icalSolisis& Consi"ere" as a esearc Strate%y in Co%nitive Psycolo%y, ) viii)Don Searle also, to(% is reasons are not *o"ors, ol"s tat &eanin%s are in te

ea" +tere is no$ere else for te& to e-, en" )21(t see&s to accet te inference tat if tis $ere not te case, first erson a(tority$o(l" e lost)**Don Searle, Intentionalit(, c) 8)Peras te lainest state&ent of te osition aears in #n"re$ oo"fiel"sintro"(ction to a ook of essays on te o4ects of to(%t) eferrin% to te clai& tatte contents of te &in" are often "eter&ine" y facts e'ternal to an" eras(nkno$n to te erson $ose &in" it is, e saysE Beca(se te e'ternal relation isnot "eter&ine" s(4ectively, te s(4ect is not a(toritative ao(t tat) # tir" erson&i%t $ell e in a etter osition tan te s(4ect to kno$ $ic o4ect te s(4ect istinkin% ao(t, ence e etter lace" to kno$ $ic to(%t it $as)++#n"re$ oo"fiel" Intro"(ction, in oo"fiel" +e")-, "hought and Object, ) viii)ose $o accet te tesis tat te contents of roositional attit("es are artlyi"entifie" in ter&s of e'ternal factors see& to ave a role& si&ilar to te role&of te sketic $o fin"s tat $e &ay e alto%eter &istaken ao(t te o(tsi"e $orl")In te resent case, or"inary sketicis& of te senses is avoi"e" y s(osin% tatte $orl" itself &ore or less correctly "eter&ines te contents of to(%ts ao(t te$orl") +e seaker $o tinks it is $ater is roaly ri%t, for e learne" te (se ofte $or" $ater in a $atery environ&entM te seaker $o tinks it is t$ater isroaly ri%t, for e learne" te $or" $ater in a t$atery environ&ent)- B(tsketicis& is not "efeate"M it is only "islace" onto kno$le"%e of o(r o$n &in"s) /(ror"inary eliefs ao(t te e'ternal $orl" are +on tis vie$- "irecte" onto te $orl",(t $e "ont kno$ $at $e elieve)ere is, of co(rse, a "ifference et$een $ater an" t$ater, an" it can e "iscovere"y nor&al &eans, $eter it is "iscovere" or not) So a erson &i%t fin" o(t $at eelieves y "iscoverin% te "ifference et$een $ater an" t$ater, an" fin"in% o(teno(% ao(t is o$n relations to ot to "eter&ine $ic one is talk an" eliefsare ao(t) e sketical concl(sion $e see& to ave reace" concerns te e'tent offirst erson a(torityE it is far &ore li&ite" tan $e s(ose") /(r eliefs ao(t te$orl" are &ostly tr(e, (t $e &ay easily e $ron% ao(t $at $e tink) It is atransose" i&a%e of Cartesian sketicis&)ose $o ol" tat te contents of o(r to(%ts an" te &eanin%s of o(r $or"s are

often fi'e" y factors of $ic $e are i%norant ave not een &(c concerne" $it


20/150

te aarent conseA(ence of teir vie$s $ic I ave een e&asi:in%) ey ave,of co(rse,

en" )22

reali:e" tat if tey $ere ri%t, te Cartesian i"ea tat te one tin% $e can ecertain of is te contents of o(r o$n &in"s, an" te *re%ean notion of &eanin%s f(lly

%rase", &(st e $ron%) B(t tey ave not &a"e &(c of an atte&t, so far as Ikno$, to resolve te see&in% conflict et$een teir vie$s an" te stron% int(ition tatfirst erson a(tority e'ists)/ne reason for te lack of concern &ay e tat so&e see& to see te role& asconfine" to a fairly li&ite" ran%e of cases, cases $ere concets or $or"s latc on too4ects tat are icke" o(t or referre" to (sin% roer na&es, in"e'icals, an" $or"sfor nat(ral kin"s) /ters, to(%, ar%(e tat te ties et$een lan%(a%e an" to(%t,on te one an", an" e'ternal affairs, on te oter, are so ervasive tat no asect ofto(%t as (s(ally conceive" is (nto(ce") In tis vein =aniel =ennett re&arks tatone &(st e ricly infor&e" ao(t, inti&ately connecte" $it, te $orl" at lar%e, itsocc(ants an" roerties, in or"er to e sai" $it any roriety to ave eliefs)$$

=aniel =ennett, Beyon" Belief, 7)>e %oes on to clai& tat te i"entification of alleliefs is infecte" y te o(tsi"e, non?s(4ective factors tat are reco%ni:e" to oerate in te sort of case $e ave een"isc(ssin%) B(r%e also e&asi:es te e'tent to $ic o(r eliefs are affecte" ye'ternal factors, to(% for reasons e "oes not e'lain, e aarently "oes not vie$tis as a treat to first erson a(tority)$$$$yler B(r%e, /ter Bo"ies, In"ivi"(alis& an" te ental, $o o(%t !'eri&ents evie$e",28?93)e s(4ect as taken a "isA(ietin% t(rn) #t one ti&e eavioris& $as invoke" toso$ o$ it $as ossile for one erson to kno$ $at $as in anoters &in"Meavioris& $as ten re4ecte", in art eca(se it co(l" not e'lain one of te &ost

ovio(s asects of &ental statesE te fact tat tey are in %eneral kno$n to teerson $o as te& $ito(t aeal to eavioristic evi"ence) e recent fasion,to(% not strictly eavioristic, once &ore i"entifies &ental states artly in ter&s ofsocial an" oter e'ternal factors, t(s &akin% te& to tat e'tent (licly"iscoverale) B(t at te sa&e ti&e it reinstates te role& of acco(ntin% for firsterson a(tority)ose $o are convince" of te e'ternal "i&ension of te contents of to(%ts asor"inarily i"entifie" an" in"ivi"(ate" ave reacte" in "ifferent $ays) /ne resonseas een to &ake a "istinction et$een te contents of te &in" as s(4ectively an"internally "eter&ine", on

en" )23

te one an", an" or"inary eliefs, "esires, an" intentions, as $e nor&ally attri(tete& on te asis of social an" oter o(t$ar" connections, on te oter) is isclearly te tren" of P(tna&s ar%(&ent +alto(% te $or" $ater as "ifferent&eanin%s, an" is (se" to e'ress "ifferent eliefs $en it is (se" to refer to $ateran" to t$ater, eole (sin% te $or" for tese "ifferent (roses &ay e in te sa&esycolo%ical state-) Derry *o"or accets te "istinction for certain (roses, (tar%(es tat sycolo%y so(l" a"ot te stance of &eto"olo%ical solisis&tatis, it so(l" "eal e'cl(sively $it inner states, te tr(ly s(4ective sycolo%icalstates tat o$e notin% to teir relations to te o(tsi"e $orl")$%$%Derry *o"or, eto"olo%ical Solisis& Consi"ere" as a esearc Strate%y in Co%nitivePsycolo%y)Steen Stic &akes essentially te sa&e "istinction, (t "ra$s a sterner &oralE$ere *o"or tinks $e &erely nee" to tinker a it $it roositional attit("es as(s(ally conceive" to searate o(t te (rely s(4ective ele&ent, Stic ol"s tat


21/150

sycolo%ical states as $e no$ tink of te& elon% to a cr("e an" conf(se" folksycolo%y $ic &(st e relace" y a yet to e invente" co%nitive science) es(title of is recent ook is e Case a%ainst Belief)$3$3Steen Stic, rom ol2 Ps(cholog( to ognitive Science)Clearly tose $o "ra$ s(c a "istinction ave ins(re" tat te role& of first

erson a(tority, at least as I ave ose" it, cannot e solve") *or te role& Iave set is o$ to e'lain te asy&&etry et$een te $ay in $ic a erson kno$sao(t is conte&orary &ental states an" te $ay in $ic oters kno$ ao(t te&)e &ental states in A(estion are eliefs, "esires, intentions, an" so on, as or"inarilyconceive") ose $o accet so&etin% like P(tna&s "istinction "o not even try toe'lain first erson a(tority $it resect to tese statesM if tere is first ersona(tority at all, it attaces to A(ite "ifferent states) +In Stics case, it is not ovio(stat it can attac to anytin%)-I tink P(tna&, B(r%e, =ennett, *o"or, Stic, an" oters are ri%t in callin% attentionto te fact tat or"inary &ental states, at least te roositional attit("es, are artlyi"entifie" y relations to society an" te rest of te environ&ent, relations $ic &ay

in so&e resects not e kno$n to te erson in tose states) ey are also ri%t, in&y oinion, in ol"in% tat for tis reason +if for no oter-, te concets of folksycolo%y cannot e incororate" into a

en" )2

coerent an" co&reensive syste& of la$s of te sort for $ic ysics strives)ese concets are art of a co&&onsense teory for "escriin%, interretin%, an"e'lainin% (&an eavior $ic is a it freestyle, (t +so I tinkin"isensale) Ican i&a%ine a science concerne" $it o$ eole tink an" act (r%e" of folksycolo%y, (t I cannot tink in $at its interest $o(l" consist) is is not, o$ever,te toic of tis essay)I a& ere concerne" $it te (::lin% "iscovery tat $e aarently "o not kno$

$at $e tinkat least in te $ay $e tink $e "o) is is a real (::le if, like &e,yo( elieve it is tr(e tat e'ternal factors artly "eter&ine te contents of to(%ts,an" also elieve tat in %eneral $e "o kno$, an" in a &anner oters "o not, $at $etink) e role& arises eca(se a"&ittin% te i"entifyin% an" in"ivi"(atin% role ofe'ternal factors see&s to lea" to te concl(sion tat o(r to(%ts &ay not e kno$nto (s)B(t "oes tis concl(sion follo$6 e ans$er "een"s on te $ay in $ic one tinkste i"entification of &ental contents "een"s on e'ternal factors)e concl(sion "oes follo$, for e'a&le, for any teory tat ol"s tat roositionalattit("es are i"entifie" y o4ects +s(c as roositions, tokens of roositions, orreresentations- tat are in or efore te &in", an" tat contain or incororate +as

in%re"ients- o4ects or events o(tsi"e te a%entM for it is ovio(s tat everyone isi%norant of en"less feat(res of every e'ternal o4ect) at te concl(sion follo$sfro& tese ass(&tions is %enerally conce"e")$&$&See e)%) aret !vans, "he Earieties of %eference, 5, 199, 201)>o$ever, for reasons I sall &ention elo$, I re4ect te ass(&tions on $ic teconcl(sion is in tis case ase")yler B(r%e as s(%%este" tat tere is anoter $ay in $ic e'ternal factors enterinto te "eter&ination of te contents of seec an" to(%t) /ne of is to(%te'eri&ents aens retty $ell to fit &e) Until recently I elieve" artritis $as aninfla&&ation of te 4oints ca(se" y calci(& "eositsM I "i" not kno$ tat anyinfla&&ation of te 4oints, for e'a&le %o(t, also co(nte" as artritis) So $en a

"octor tol" &e +falsely as it t(rne" o(t- tat I a" %o(t, I elieve" I a" %o(t (t I "i"not elieve I a" artritis) #t tis oint B(r%e asks (s to i&a%ine a $orl" in $ic I


22/150

$as ysically te sa&e (t in $ic te $or" artritis aene" act(ally to alyonly to infla&&ation of te 4oints ca(se" y calci(& "eosits) en te

en" )25

sentence o(t is not a for& of artritis $o(l" ave een tr(e, not false, an" teelief tat I e'resse" y tis sentence $o(l" not ave een te false elief tat %o(t

is not a for& of artritis (t a tr(e elief ao(t so&e "isease oter tan artritis) etin te i&a%ine" $orl" all &y ysical states, &y internal A(alitative e'eriences, &yeavior an" "isositions to eave, $o(l" ave een te sa&e as tey are in tis$orl") y belief$o(l" ave can%e", (t I $o(l" ave no reason to s(ose tat ita", an" so co(l" not e sai" to kno$ $at I elieve")B(r%e stresses te fact tat is ar%(&ent "een"s on te ossiility of so&eonesavin% a roositional attit("e "esite an inco&lete &astery of so&e notion in itscontent ) ) ) ifte to(%t e'eri&ent is to $ork, one &(st at so&e sta%e fin" tes(4ect elievin% +or avin% so&e attit("e caracteri:e" y- a content, "esite aninco&lete (n"erstan"in% or &isalication)$'$'yler B(r%e, In"ivi"(alis& an" te ental, 83)

It see&s to follo$ tat if B(r%e is ri%t, ten $enever a erson is $ron%, conf(se",or artially &isinfor&e", ao(t te (lic &eanin% of a $or", e is $ron%, conf(se",or artially &isinfor&e" ao(t any of is eliefs tat are +or $o(l" e6- e'resse" y(sin% tat $or") Since s(c artial (n"erstan"in% is co&&on or even nor&al in tecase of a lar%e n(&er of e'ressions in o(r voca(laries accor"in% to B(r%e, it&(st e eA(ally co&&on or nor&al for (s to e $ron% ao(t $at $e elieve +an", ofco(rse, fear, oe for, $is $ere te case, "o(t, an" so on-)B(r%e aarently accets tis concl(sionM at least so I interret is "enial tat f(ll(n"erstan"in% of a content is in %eneral a necessary con"ition for elievin% tecontent) >e e'licitly re4ects te ol" &o"el accor"in% to $ic a erson &(st e"irectly acA(ainte" $it, or &(st i&&e"iately areen", te contents of is to(%ts

) ) ) a ersons to(%t contentis not fi'e" y $at %oes on in i&, or y $at isaccessile to i& si&ly y caref(l reflection)$($(Ii") 90, 102, 10)I a& (ncertain o$ to (n"erstan" tese clai&s, since I a& (ncertain o$ serio(sly totake te talk of "irect acA(aintance $it, an" of i&&e"iately areen"in%, acontent) B(t in any case I a& convince" tat if $at $e &ean an" tink is "eter&ine"y te lin%(istic aits of tose aro(n" (s in te $ay B(r%e elieves tey are, tenfirst erson a(tority is very serio(sly co&ro&ise") Since te "e%ree an" caracterof te co&ro&ise see& to &e inco&atile

en" )2

$it $at $e kno$ ao(t te kin" of kno$le"%e $e ave of o(r o$n &in"s, I &(st

re4ect so&e re&ise of B(r%es) I a%ree tat $at I &ean an" tink is not fi'e"+e'cl(sively- y $at %oes on in &e, so $at I &(st re4ect is B(r%es acco(nt of o$social an" oter e'ternal factors control te contents of a ersons &in")*or a n(&er of reasons, I a& incline" to "isco(nt te i&ortance of te feat(res ofo(r attri(tions of attit("es to $ic B(r%e oints) S(ose tat I, $o tink te $or"artritis alies to infla&&ation of te 4oints only if ca(se" y calci(& "eosits, an"&y frien" #rt(r, $o kno$s etter, ot sincerely (tter to S&it te $or"s Carl asartritis) #ccor"in% to B(r%e, if oter tin%s are &ore or less eA(al +#rt(r an" I areot %enerally co&etent seakers of !n%lis, ot ave often alie" te $or"artritis to %en(ine cases of artritis, etc)-, ten o(r $or"s on tis occasion &ean tesa&e tin%, #rt(r an" I &ean te sa&e tin% y o(r $or"s, an" $e e'ress te

sa&e elief) y error ao(t te "ictionary &eanin% of te $or" +or ao(t $atartritis is- &akes no "ifference to $at I &eant or to(%t on tis occasion) B(r%es


23/150

evi"ence for tis clai& see&s to rest on is conviction tat tis is $at anyone+(nsoile" y ilosoy- $o(l" reort ao(t #rt(r an" &e) I "o(t tat B(r%e isri%t ao(t tis, (t even if e is, I "ont tink it roves is clai&) /r"inary attri(tionsof &eanin%s an" attit("es rest on vast an" va%(e ass(&tions ao(t $at is an" isnot sare" +lin%(istically an" oter$ise- y te attri(ter, te erson to $o& te

attri(tion is &a"e, an" te attri(ters inten"e" a("ience) en so&e of teseass(&tions rove false, $e &ay alter te $or"s $e (se to &ake te reort, often ins(stantial $ays) en notin% &(c in%es on it, $e ten" to coose te la:y $ayE$e take so&eone at is $or", even if tis "oes not A(ite reflect so&e asect of teseakers to(%t or &eanin%) B(t tis is not eca(se $e are o(n" +o(tsi"e of a la$co(rt, any$ay- to e le%alistic ao(t it) #n" often $e arent) If S&it +(nsoile" yilosoy- reorts to still anoter arty +eras a "istant "octor atte&tin% a"ia%nosis on te asis of a teleone reort- tat #rt(r an" I ot ave sai", an"elieve, tat Carl as artritis, e &ay actively &islea" hisearer) If tis "an%er $ereto arise, S&it, alert to te facts, $o(l" not si&ly say #rt(r an" =avi"son otelieve Carl as artritisM e $o(l" a"" so&etin% like B(t =avi"son tinks artritis

&(st e ca(se" y calci(& "eosits) e nee" to &ake tis a""ition I take to so$tat te si&le attri(tion $as not A(ite ri%tM tere $as a relevant "ifference in teto(%ts #rt(r an" I e'resse" $en $e sai" Carl

en" )27

as artritis) B(r%e "oes not ave to e ("%e" y tis ar%(&ent, of co(rse, sincee can insist tat te reort is literally correct, (t co(l", like any reort, e&islea"in%) I tink, on te oter an", tat tis rely $o(l" overlook te e'tent to$ic te contents of one elief necessarily "een" on te contents of oters)o(%ts are not in"een"ent ato&s, an" so tere can e no si&le, ri%i", r(le forte correct attri(tion of a sin%le to(%t)$)$)B(r%e s(%%ests tat te reason $e nor&ally take a erson to &ean y is $or"s $at oters in is

lin%(istic co&&(nity &ean, $eter or not te seaker kno$s $at oters &ean, is tat Peole arefreA(ently el", an" ol" te&selves, to te stan"ar"s of te co&&(nity $en &is(se or&is(n"erstan"in% are at iss(e) >e also says s(c cases "een" on a certain resonsiility toco&&(nal ractice +ii") 90-) I "ont "o(t te eno&enon, (t "o(t its earin% on $at it iss(ose" to so$) +a- It is often reasonale to ol" eole resonsile for kno$in% $at teir $or"s&eanM in s(c cases $e &ay treat te& as co&&itte" to ositions tey "i" not kno$ or elieve tey$ere co&&itte" to) is as notin% +"irectly- to "o $it $at tey &eant y teir $or"s, nor $attey elieve") +b- #s %oo" citi:ens an" arents $e $ant to enco(ra%e ractices tat enance tecances for co&&(nicationM (sin% $or"s as $e tink oters "o &ay enance co&&(nication) isto(%t +$eter or not 4(stifie"- &ay el e'lain $y so&e eole ten" to attri(te &eanin%s an"eliefs in a le%alistic $ayM tey oe to enco(ra%e confor&ity) +c- # seaker $o $ises to e(n"erstoo" &(st inten" is $or"s to e interrete" +an" ence interretale- alon% certain linesM tisintention &ay e serve" y (sin% $or"s as oters "o +to(% often tis is not te case-) Si&ilarly, a

earer $o $ises to (n"erstan" a seaker &(st inten" to interret te seakers $or"s as teseaker inten"e" +$eter or not te interretation is stan"ar"-) ese recirocal intentions eco&e&orally i&ortant in en"less sit(ations $ic ave no necessary connection $it te "eter&ination of$at so&eone a" in &in")o(% I re4ect B(r%es insistence tat $e are o(n" to %ive a ersons $or"s te&eanin% tey ave in is lin%(istic co&&(nity, an" to interret is roositionalattit("es on te sa&e asis, I tink tere is a so&e$at "ifferent, (t very i&ortant,sense in $ic social factors "o control $at a seaker can &ean y is $or"s) If aseaker $ises to e (n"erstoo", e &(st inten" is $or"s to e interrete" in acertain $ay, an" so &(st inten" to rovi"e is a("ience $it te cl(es tey nee" toarrive at te inten"e" interretation) is ol"s $eter te earer is soisticate" in

te (se of a lan%(a%e te seaker kno$s or is te learner of a first lan%(a%e) It is tereA(ire&ent of learnaility, interretaility, tat rovi"es te irre"(cile social factor,


24/150

an" tat so$s $y so&eone cant &ean so&etin% y is $or"s tat cant ecorrectly "eciere" y anoter) +B(r%e see&s to &ake tis oint i&self in a lateraer)$*$*yler B(r%e, $o o(%t !'eri&ents evie$e", 289)-

No$ I $o(l" like to ret(rn to P(tna&s $in !art e'a&le, $ic "oes not "een"on te i"ea tat social lin%(istic (sa%e "ictates +(n"eren" )28

&ore or less stan"ar" con"itions- $at seakers &ean y teir $or"s, nor, of co(rse,$at teir +narro$- sycolo%ical states are) I a&, as I sai", ers(a"e" tat P(tna&is ri%tM $at o(r $or"s &ean is fi'e" in art y te circ(&stances in $ic $elearne", an" (se", te $or"s) P(tna&s sin%le e'a&le +$ater- is not eno(%,eras, to nail "o$n tis oint, since it is ossile to insist tat $ater "oesnt aly4(st to st(ff $it te sa&e &olec(lar str(ct(re as $ater (t also to st(ff eno(% like$ater in str(ct(re to e o"orless, otale, to s(ort s$i&&in% an" sailin%, etc) +Ireali:e tat tis re&ark, like &any oters in tis iece, &ay so$ tat I "ont kno$ a

ri%i" "esi%nator $en I see one) I "ont)- e iss(e "oes not "een" on s(c secialcases, nor on o$ $e "o or so(l" resolve te&) e iss(e "een"s si&ly on o$te asic connection et$een $or"s an" tin%s, or to(%ts an" tin%s, isestalise") I ol", alon% $it B(r%e an" P(tna& if I (n"erstan" te&, tat it isestalise" y ca(sal interactions et$een eole an" arts an" asects of te$orl") e "isositions to react "ifferentially to o4ects an" events t(s set ( arecentral to te correct interretation of a ersons to(%ts an" seec) If tis $erenot te case, $e $o(l" ave no $ay of "iscoverin% $at oters tink, or $at tey&ean y teir $or"s) e rincile is as si&le an" ovio(s as tisE a sentenceso&eone is insire" +ca(se"- to ol" tr(e y an" only y si%tin%s of te &oon is atto &ean so&etin% like eres te &oonM te to(%t e'resse" is at to e tat

te &oon is tereM te to(%t insire" y an" only y si%tin%s of te &oon is at toe te to(%t tat te &oon is tere) #t to e, allo$in% for intelli%ile error,secon"an" reorts, an" so on) Not tat all $or"s an" sentences are tis "irectlycon"itione" to $at tey are ao(tM $e can erfectly $ell learn to (se te $or"&oon $ito(t ever seein% it) e clai& is tat all to(%t an" lan%(a%e &(st ave afo(n"ation in s(c "irect istorical connections, an" tese connections constrain teinterretation of to(%ts an" seec) Peras I so(l" stress tat te ar%(&ents fortis clai& "o not rest on int(itions concernin% $at $e $o(l" say if certainco(nterfact(als $ere tr(e) No science fiction or to(%t e'eri&ents are reA(ire")$+$+B(r%e as "escrie" to(%t e'eri&ents $ic "o not involve lan%(a%e at allM one of tesee'eri&ents ro&ts i& to clai& tat so&eone ro(%t ( in an environ&ent $ito(t al(&in(& co(l"

not ave al(&in(& to(%ts +In"ivi"(alis& an" Psycolo%y, 5)- B(r%e "oes not say $y e tinkstis, (t it is y no &eans ovio(s tat co(nterfact(al ass(&tions are nee"e" to &ake te oint) Inany case, te ne$ to(%t e'eri&ents see& to rest on int(itions A(ite "ifferent fro& te int(itionsinvoke" in In"ivi"(alis& an" te entalM it is not clear o$ social nor&s feat(re in te ne$e'eri&ents, an" te lin%(istic aits of te co&&(nity are aarently irrelevant) #t tis oint it &aye tat B(r%es osition is close to &ine)

en" )29

I a%ree $it P(tna& an" B(r%e, ten, tat +as B(r%e (ts it-E te intentional contentof or"inary roositional attit("es ) ) ) cannot e acco(nte" for in ter&s of ysical,eno&enal, ca(sal?f(nctional, co&(tational, or syntactical states or rocesses tatare secifie" nonintentionally an" are "efine" (rely on te in"ivi"(al in isolationfro& is ysical an" social environ&ent)%%$o o(%t !'eri&ents evie$e", 288)


25/150

e A(estion re&ains $eter tis fact is a treat to first erson a(tority, as B(r%esee&s to tink, an" P(tna& an" oters certainly tink) I ave re4ecte" one of B(r%esar%(&ents $ic, if it $ere ri%t, $o(l" ose s(c a treat) B(t tere is te osition"escrie" in te revio(s ara%ra, $ic I ol" $eter or not oters "o, since Itink tis &(c e'ternalis& is reA(ire" to e'lain o$ lan%(a%e can e learne", an"

o$ $or"s an" attit("es can e i"entifie" y an interreter)y "oes P(tna& tink tat if te reference of a $or" is +so&eti&es- fi'e" y tenat(ral istory of o$ te $or" $as acA(ire", a (ser of te $or" &ay lose firsterson a(tority6 P(tna& clai&s +correctly, in &y vie$- tat t$o eole can e in allrelevant ysical +ce&ical, ysiolo%ical, etc)- resects te sa&e an" yet &ean"ifferent tin%s y teir $or"s an" ave "ifferent roositional attit("es +as tese arenor&ally i"entifie"-) e "ifferences are "(e to environ&ental "ifferences ao(t$ic te t$o a%ents &ay, in so&e resects, e i%norant) y, (n"er tesecirc(&stances, so(l" $e s(ose tese a%ents &ay not kno$ $at tey &ean an"tink6 alkin% $it te& $ill not easily so$ tis) #s $e ave note", eac, $enface" $it a %lass of $ater or t$ater, says onestly, >eres a %lass of $ater) If tey

are in teir o&e environ&ents, eac is ri%tM if tey ave s$itce" earts, eac is$ron%) If $e ask eac one $at e &eans y te $or" $ater, e %ives te ri%tans$er, (sin% te sa&e $or"s, of co(rse) If $e ask eac one $at e elieves, e%ives te ri%t ans$er) ese ans$ers are ri%t eca(se, to(% verally i"entical,tey &(st e interrete" "ifferently) #n" $at is it tat tey "o not kno$ +in te (s(ala(toritative $ay- ao(t teir o$n states6 #s $e ave seen, P(tna& "istin%(iseste states $e ave 4(st een "isc(ssin% fro& narro$ sycolo%ical states $ic "onot res(ose te e'istence of any in"ivi"(al oter tan te s(4ect in tat state)e &ay no$ start to $on"er $y P(tna& is intereste" in narro$ sycolo%icalstates) Part of te ans$er is, of co(rse, tat it is tese states tat e tinks ave teCartesian roerty of ein%

en" )30

kno$n in a secial $ay y te erson $o is in te&) +e oter art of te ans$eras to "o $it constr(ctin% a scientific sycolo%yM tis "oes not concern (s ere)-e reasonin% "een"s, I tink, on t$o lar%ely (nA(estione" ass(&tions) eseareE+1-If a to(%t is i"entifie" y a relation to so&etin% o(tsi"e te ea", it isnt $olly

in te ea") +It aint in te ea")-+2-If a to(%t isnt $olly in te ea", it cant e %rase" y te &in" in te $ay

reA(ire" y first erson a(tority)at tis is P(tna&s reasonin% is s(%%este" y is clai& tat if t$o ea"s are tesa&e, narro$ sycolo%ical states &(st e te sa&e) (s if $e s(ose t$oeole are &olec(le for &olec(le te sa&e +in te sense in $ic t$o neckties cane i"entical M yo( &ay a"", if yo( $is, tat eac of te t$o eole tinks te sa&everali:e" to(%ts ) ) ) as te sa&e sense "ata, te sa&e "isositions, etc)-, tenit is as(r" to tink QoneR sycolo%ical state is one it "ifferent fro& te oter)ese are, of co(rse, narro$ sycolo%ical states, not te ones $e nor&allyattri(te, $ic aint in te ea")%$%$e eanin% of eanin% , 227)It is not easy to say in e'actly $at $ay te verali:e" to(%ts, sense "ata, an""isositions can e i"entical $ito(t revertin% to te neckties, so let (s revert) ente i"ea is tisE te narro$ sycolo%ical states of t$o eole are i"entical $en teirysical states cannot e "istin%(ise") ere $o(l" e no oint in "is(tin% tis,since narro$ sycolo%ical states are P(tna&s to "efineM $at I $is to A(estion isass(&tion +1- aove, $ic le" to te concl(sion tat or"inary roositional


26/150

attit("es arent in te ea", an" tat terefore first erson a(tority "oesnt aly tote&)It so(l" e clear tat it "oesnt follo$, si&ly fro& te fact tat &eanin%s arei"entifie" in art y relations to o4ects o(tsi"e te ea", tat &eanin%s arent in teea") o s(ose tis $o(l" e as a" as to ar%(e tat eca(se &y ein%

s(n(rne" res(oses te e'istence of te s(n, &y s(n(rn isnt a con"ition of &yskin) y s(n(rne" skin &ay e in"istin%(isale fro& so&eone elses skin tatacieve" its (rn y oter &eans +o(r skins &ay e i"entical in te necktie sense-Myet one of (s is really s(n(rne" an" te oter not) is is eno(% to so$ tat anareciation of te e'ternal

en" )31

factors tat enter into o(r co&&on $ays of i"entifyin% &ental states "oes not"iscre"it an i"entity teory of te &ental an" te ysical) #n"re$ oo"fiel" see&sto tink it "oes) >e $ritesE No de restate ao(t an o4ect tat is e'ternal to teersons rain can ossily e i"entical $it a state of tat rain, since no rain stateres(oses te e'istence of an e'ternal o4ect)%%%%

#n"re$ oo"fiel", in "hought and Object, ) viii)In"ivi"(al states an" events "ont conceptuall(res(ose anytin% in te&selvesMso&e of teir descriptions&ay, o$ever) y aternal %ran"fater "i"nt res(ose&e, (t if so&eone can e "escrie" as &y aternal %ran"fater, several eoleesi"es &y %ran"fater, incl("in% &e, &(st e'ist)B(r%e &ay &ake a si&ilar &istake in te follo$in% assa%eEno occ(rrence of a to(%t ) ) ) co(l" ave a "ifferent content an" e te very sa&etoken event ) ) ) ten ) ) ) a ersons to(%t event is not identical$it any event ini& tat is "escrie" y ysiolo%y, iolo%y, ce&istry, or ysics) *or let be any%iven event "escrie" in ter&s of one of te ysical sciences tat occ(rs in tes(4ect $ile e tinks te relevant to(%t) e %oes on, &aterialist i"entity teories ave scoole" te i&a%ination to ict(re tecontent of a &ental event as varyin% $ile te event re&ains fi'e") B(t $eter s(ci&a%inin%s are ossile fact or 4(st ilosoical fancy is a searate A(estion) It iseca(se e tinks te "enial of te re&ise to e very i&roale tat e ol"s tat

&aterialist i"entity teories are te&selves ren"ere" i&la(sile y te non?in"ivi"(alistic to(%t e'eri&ents)%&%&In"ivi"(alis& an" Psycolo%y, 15 n) 7) Cf) In"ivi"(alis& an" te ental, 111)I accet B(r%es re&iseM I tink its "enial not &erely i&la(sile (t as(r") If t$o&ental events ave "ifferent contents, tey are s(rely "ifferent events) at I takeB(r%es an" P(tna&s i&a%ine" cases to so$ +an" $at I tink te S$a&&ane'a&le so$s &ore "irectly- is tat eole $o are in all relevant ysical resectssi&ilar +or i"entical in te necktie sense- can "iffer in $at tey &ean

en" )32

or tink, 4(st as tey can "iffer in ein% %ran"faters or ein% s(n(rne") B(t ofco(rse tere is something"ifferent ao(t te&, even in te ysical $orl"M teir

ca(sal istories are "ifferent, an" tey are "iscrete ysical o4ects)


27/150

I concl("e tat te &ere fact tat or"inary &ental states an" events are in"ivi"(ate"in ter&s of relations to te o(tsi"e $orl" as no ten"ency to "iscre"it &ental?ysicali"entity teories as s(c) In con4(nction $it a n(&er of f(rter +la(sile-ass(&tions, te e'ternalis& of certain &ental states an" events can e (se", Itink, to "iscre"it tye?tye i"entity teoriesM (t if anytin% it s(orts token?token

i"entity teories) +I see no %oo" reason for callin% all i"entity teories &aterialistM ifso&e &ental events are ysical events, tis &akes te& no &ore ysical tan&ental) I"entity is a sy&&etrical relation)-P(tna& an" oo"fiel" are $ron%, ten, in clai&in% tat it is as(r" to tink t$oeole co(l" e ysically i"entical +in te necktie sense- an" yet "iffer in teiror"inary sycolo%ical states) B(r%e, (nless e is $illin% to &ake far stron%er laytan e as $it essentialist ass(&tions, is $ron% in tinkin% e as so$n alli"entity teories i&la(sile) e are terefore free to ol" tat eole can e in allrelevant ysical resects i"entical +i"entical in te necktie sense- $ile "ifferin%sycolo%icallyE tis is in fact te osition of ano&alo(s &onis&, for $ic I avear%(e" else$ere)%'%'ental !vents, in =onal" =avi"son, 'ssa(s on Actions and 'vents)/ne ostacle to nonevi"ential kno$le"%e of o(r o$n or"inary roositional attit("esas no$ een re&ove") *or if or"inary eliefs an" te oter attit("es can e in teea" even to(% tey are i"entifie" as te attit("es tey are artly in ter&s of $atis not in te ea", ten te treat to first erson a(tority cannot co&e si&ly fro&te fact tat e'ternal factors are relevant to te i"entification of te attit("es)B(t an aarent "iffic(lty re&ains) r(e, &y s(n(rn, to(% "escriale as s(conly in relation to te s(n, is i"entical $it a con"ition of &y skin $ic can +Iass(&e- e "escrie" $ito(t reference to s(c e'ternal factors) Still, if, as ascientist skille" in all te ysical sciences, I ave access only to &y skin, an" a&"enie" kno$le"%e of te istory of its con"ition, ten y yotesis tere is no $ayfor &e to tell tat I a& s(n(rne") Peras, ten, so&eone

en" )33

as first erson a(tority $it resect to te contents of is &in" only as tosecontents can e "escrie" or "iscovere" $ito(t reference to e'ternal factors) In sofar as te contents are i"entifie" in ter&s of e'ternal factors, first erson a(toritynecessarily lases) I can tell y e'a&inin% &y skin $at &y rivate or narro$con"ition is, (t notin% I can learn in tis restricte" real& $ill tell &e tat I a&s(n(rne") e "ifference et$een referrin% to an" tinkin% of $ater an" referrin% toan" tinkin% of t$ater is like te "ifference et$een ein% s(n(rne" an" ones skinein% in e'actly te sa&e con"ition tro(% anoter ca(se) e se&antic "ifferencelies in te o(tsi"e $orl", eyon" te reac of s(4ective or s(l(nar kno$le"%e) So

te ar%(&ent &i%t r(n)is analo%y, et$een te li&ite" vie$ of te skin "octor an" te t(nnel vision of te&in"s eye, is f(n"a&entally fla$e") It "een"s for its aeal on a fa(lty ict(re ofte &in", a ict(re $ic tose $o ave een attackin% te s(4ective caracter ofor"inary sycolo%ical states sare $it tose tey attack) If $e can rin% o(rselvesto %ive ( tis ict(re, first erson a(tority $ill no lon%er een seen as a role&Min"ee", it $ill t(rn o(t tat first erson a(tority is "een"ent on, an" e'laine" y,te social an" (lic factors tat $ere s(ose" to (n"er&ine tat a(tority)ere is a ict(re of te &in" $ic as eco&e so in%raine" in o(r ilosoicaltra"ition tat it is al&ost i&ossile to escae its infl(ence even $en its fa(lts arereco%ni:e" an" re("iate") In one cr("e, (t fa&iliar, version it %oes like tisE te&in" is a teater in $ic te conscio(s self $atces a assin% so$ +te sa"o$son te $all-) e so$ consists of aearances, sense "ata, A(alia, $at is %iven


28/150

in e'erience) at aear on te sta%e are not te or"inary o4ects in te $orl" tatte o(ter eye re%isters an" te eart loves, (t teir (rorte" reresentatives)atever $e kno$ ao(t te $orl" o(tsi"e "een"s on $at $e can %lean fro& teinner cl(es)e "iffic(lty tat as een aarent fro& te start $it tis "escrition of te &ental

is to see o$ it is ossile to eat a reliale track fro& te insi"e to te o(tsi"e)#noter consic(o(s, to(% eras less areciate", "iffic(lty is to locate te selfin te ict(re) *or te self see&s on te one an" to incl("e teater, sta%e, actors,an" a("ienceM on te oter an", $at is kno$n an" re%istere" ertains to tea("ience alone) is secon" role& co(l" e as $ell state" as te role& of telocation of te o4ects of te &in"E are tey inte &in", or si&ly vie$e" b(it6

en" )3

I a& not no$ concerne" $it s(c +no$ lar%ely "isavo$e"- o4ects of te &in" assense "ata, (t $it teir 4("%e&ental co(sins, te s(ose" o4ects of teroositional attit("es, $eter to(%t of as roositions, tokens of roositions,reresentations, or fra%&ents of &entalese) e central i"ea I $is to attack is tat

tese are entities tat te &in" can entertain, %ras, ave efore it, or eacA(ainte" $it) +ese &etaors are roaly instr(ctiveE voye(rs &erely $ant toave reresentations efore te &in"s eye, $ile te &ore a%%ressive %ras te&Mte !n%lis &ay e &erely acA(ainte" $it te contents of te &in", $ile &orefrien"ly tyes $ill act(ally entertain te&)-It is easy to see o$ te "iscovery tat e'ternal facts enter into te in"ivi"(ation ofstates of &in" "ist(rs te ict(re of te &in" I ave een "escriin%) *or if to e in astate of &in" is for te &in" to e in so&e relation to an o4ect, ten $atever els"eter&ine $at o4ect it is &(st eA(ally e %rase" if te &in" is to kno$ $at stateit is in) is is artic(larly evi"ent if an e'ternal o4ect is an in%re"ient in te o4ectefore te &in") B(t in eiter case, te erson $o is in te state of &in" &ay not

kno$ $at state of &in" e is in)It is at tis oint tat te concet of te s(4ectiveof a state of &in"see&s toco&e aart) /n te one an", tere are te tr(e inner states, $it resect to $icte &in" retains its a(torityM on te oter an", tere are te or"inary states ofelief, "esire, intention, an" &eanin%, $ic are oll(te" y teir necessaryconnections $it te social an" (lic $orl")In analo%y, tere is te role& of te s(n(rn e'ert $o cannot tell y insectin%te skin $eter it is a case of s(n(rn or &erely an i"entical con"ition $it anoterca(se) e can solve te s(n(rn role& y "istin%(isin% et$een s(n(rn an"s(nnis(rnM s(nnis(rn is 4(st like s(n(rn e'cet tat te s(n &ay or &ay not einvolve") e e'ert can sot a case of s(nnis(rn 4(st y lookin%, (t not a case ofs(n(rn) is sol(tion $orks eca(se skin con"itions, (nlike o4ects of te &in", arenot reA(ire" to e s(c tat tere e a secial so&eone $o can tell, 4(st y lookin%,$eter or not te con"ition otains)e sol(tion in te case of &ental states is "ifferent, an" si&lerM it is to %et ri" of te&etaor of o4ects efore te &in") ost of (s lon% a%o %ave ( te i"ea ofercetions, sense "ata, te flo$ of e'erience, as tin%s %iven to te &in"M $eso(l" treat roositional o4ects in te sa&e $ay) /f co(rse eole ave eliefs,

en" )35

$ises, "o(ts, an" so fortM (t to allo$ tis is not to s(%%est tat eliefs, $ises,an" "o(ts are entitiesin or efore te &in", or tat ein% in s(c states reA(irestere to e correson"in% &ental o4ects)

is as een sai" efore, in vario(s tones of voice, (t for "ifferent reasons)/ntolo%ical scr(les, for e'a&le, are no art of &y interest) e $ill al$ays nee" an


29/150

infinite s(ly of o4ects to el "escrie an" i"entify attit("es like eliefM I a& nots(%%estin% for a &o&ent tat elief sentences, an" sentences tat attri(te te oterattit("es, are not relational in nat(re) at I a& s(%%estin% is tat te o4ects to$ic $e relate eole in or"er to "escrie teir attit("es nee" not in any sense eps(chologicalo4ects, o4ects to e %rase", kno$n, or entertaine" y te erson

$ose attit("es are "escrie")is oint, too, is fa&iliarM L(ine &akes it $en e s(%%ests tat $e &ay (se o(ro$n sentences to kee track of te to(%ts of eole $o "o not kno$ o(rlan%(a%e) L(ines interest is se&antical, an" e says notin% in tis conte't ao(tte eiste&olo%ical an" sycolo%ical asects of te attit("es) e nee" to rin%tese vario(s concerns to%eter) Sentences ao(t te attit("es are relationalM forsemanticreasons tere &(st terefore e o4ects to $ic to relate tose $o aveattit("es) B(t avin% an attit("e is not avin% an entity efore te &in"M forco&ellin%ps(chologicalan" epistemologicalreasons $e so(l" "eny tat tere areo4ects of te &in")e so(rce of te tro(le is te "o%&a tat to ave a to(%t is to ave an o4ect

efore te &in") P(tna& an" *o"or +an" &any oters- ave "istin%(ise" t$o sortsof o4ectsE tose tat are tr(ly inner an" t(s efore te &in" or %rase" y it, an"tose tat i"entify te to(%t in te (s(al $ay) I a%ree tat no o4ects can servetese t$o (roses) P(tna& +an" so&e of te oter ilosoers I ave &entione"-tink te "iffic(lty srin%s fro& te fact tat an o4ect artly i"entifie" in ter&s ofe'ternal relations cannot e co(nte" on to coinci"e $it an o4ect efore te &in"eca(se te &in" &ay e i%norant of te e'ternal relation) Peras tis is so) B(t it"oes not follo$ tat $e can fin" othero4ects $ic $ill ins(re te "esire"coinci"ence) *or if te o4ect isn*tconnecte" $it te $orl", $e can never learnao(t te $orl" y avin% tat o4ect efore te &in"M an" for recirocal reasons, it$o(l" e i&ossile to "etect s(c a to(%t in anoter) So it see&s tat $at isefore te &in" cannot incl("e its o(tsi"e connectionsits se&antics) /n te oteran", if te o4ect isconnecte" $it te $orl", ten it cannot e f(lly efore

en" )3

te &in" in te relevant sense) et (nless a semantico4ect can e efore te &in"in its semantic aspect, to(%t, conceive" in ter&s of s(c o4ects, cannot escaete fate of sense "ata)e asic "iffic(lty is si&leE if to ave a to(%t is to ave an o4ect efore te&in", an" te i"entity of te o4ect "eter&ines $at te to(%t is, ten it &(stal$ays e ossile to e &istaken ao(t $at one is tinkin%) *or (nless one kno$sever(thingao(t te o4ect, tere $ill al$ays e senses in $ic one "oes not kno$$at o4ect it is) any atte&ts ave een &a"e to fin" a relation et$een a ersonan" an o4ect $ic $ill in all conte'ts ol" if an" only if te erson can int(itively esai" to kno$ $at o4ect it is) B(t none of tese atte&ts as s(ccee"e", an" I tinkte reason is clear) e only o4ect tat $o(l" satisfy te t$in reA(ire&ents of ein%efore te &in" an" also s(c tat it "eter&ines te content of a to(%t &(st, like>(&es i"eas an" i&ressions, e $at it see&s an" see& $at it is) ere are nos(c o4ects, (lic or rivate, astract or concrete)e ar%(&ents of B(r%e, P(tna&, =ennett, *o"or, Stic, .alan, !vans, an" &anyoters to so$ tat roositions cant both"eter&ine te contents of o(r to(%tsande s(4ectively ass(re" are, in &y oinion, so &any variants on te si&le an"%eneral ar%(&ent I ave 4(st sketce") It is not 4(st roositions tat cant "o te 4o)

No o4ects co(l")


30/150

en $e ave free" o(rselves fro& te ass(&tion tat to(%ts &(st ave&ysterio(s o4ects, $e can see o$ te fact tat &ental states as $e co&&onlyconceive te& are i"entifie" in art y teir nat(ral istory not only fails to to(c teinternal caracter of s(c states or to treaten first erson a(torityM it also oens te$ay to an e'lanation of first erson a(tority) e e'lanation co&es $it te

reali:ation tat $at a ersons $or"s &ean "een"s in te &ost asic cases on tekin"s of o4ects an" events tat ave ca(se" te erson to ol" te $or"s to ealicaleM

43534533 Subjective Inter Subjective Objective

Documents

Transcript of 43534533 Subjective Inter Subjective Objective