411 162

Part 1

1. aspiration (p. 56) aspiration, a period of voicelessness

after the stop articulation and before the start of the voicing for the vowel. You can feel a burst of air that comes out during the period of voicelessness after the release of the stop.

In a narrow transcription, aspiration a small raised h

e.g. pie (after the release of the lip closure) pie , tie , kye

2. shorter

(Table 3.1, p. 56) 5th column : vowel is much shorter before the voiceless consonants ,,

nap vs mat knack cap cat back

6th column: vowel is longer before the voiced consonants ,,

nab mad nag cab cad bag

3. 4. white teeth final stop + nasal/ stop = unexploded/

unreleased/ no audible release e.g. in cat in phrase like the cat

pushed… (see narrow transcription of the whole phrase, p. 59)

within a word e.g. apt, act (see narrow transcription of the whole word, p. 60)

5. vocal folds

(p. 60) A glottal stop is the sound that occurs when the vocal folds are held tightly together.

6. (p. 60) A glottal stop usually occurs in the

utterance meaning ‘no’ i.e. uh-uh

7. (p. 61) Glottal stops frequently occur as

allophones of .

8. Homorganic (p. 62) Homorganic = two sounds have the

same place of articulation e.g. and which are both articulated on the alveolar ridge are homorganic.

9. (p.63) There is a general rule in

American English that whenever occurs after a stressed vowel and before an unstressed syllable other than , it is changed into a voiced sound .

10. tap/ /

(p .63) Many Americans produced as when it occurs after a stressed vowel and before an unstressed vowel.

It’s a quick tap similar to e.g. city, better, writer (see transcription, p.

63) For Americans, latter and ladder are not

different.

11. , (p. 65) The English fricatives ,

are strongly labialized, and , are slightly labialized.

12. aspirated/ pie, tie, kind

Rules for English Consonant Allophones, pp. 72-76

(2) Voiceless stops (i.e. , , ) are aspirated when they are syllabic initial. (see examples with transcription p. 72)

unaspirated/ spy, style, sky (5) Voiceless stops , , are unaspirated

after (see examples with transcription p. 72)

tenth, wealth (14) Alveolar consonants become dental

consonants when they occur before dental consonants. (see examples with transcription p. 74)

/ (8) The gestures for consecutive stops

overlap, so that stops are unexploded when they occur before another stop. (see examples with transcription p. 72)

/ (10) In many accents of English, is

replaced by a glottal stop when it occurs before an alveolar nasal in the same word. as in ‘beaten’ (see examples with transcription p. 73)

Probably most Americans and many British speakers have a glottal stop followed by a syllabic nasal in words such as beaten, kitten, fatten (see transcription, p. 61)

/ (19) The lateral is velarized when after a

vowel or before a consonant at the end of a word. (see examples with transcription p. 76)

13. epenthesisepenthesis = the insertion of a stop

into the middle of a word as in something and youngster (see transcription p. 75)

for many people: prince = prints; tense = tents

14. Rhotic (p.92) Rhotic accents are the norm in most parts of

North America. Standard BBC English is not rhotic. (*Chapter 7, p. 111) rhotic accent: when the letter ‘r’

appears in the written word after a vowel, the phoneme is used in the pronunciation of the word e.g. ‘car’ (American English, Irish English, and certain British regional accents)

non-rhotic accent: do not pronounce the phoneme e.g. ‘car’ BUT when there is a written ‘r’ at the end of a word and it occurs btw. the two vowel sounds, speakers with non-rhotic accents often use the phoneme to link the preceding vowel to a following one.

e.g. Her English is excellent. Vs Her German is absolutely awful, though.

15. , , , , (p. 97) Tense vowels long vowels +

diphthongs, , , Lax vowels short vowels ,,

16. (p. 94) In American English, the vowel at the

end of words with the –er spelling is usually , a very similar quality of , but with added r-coloring.

17. man, twin, sin

Rules for English Vowel Allophones

(p. 99) 5. Vowels are nasalized in syllables closed by a nasal consonant.

e.g. ‘ban’

18. assimilation (p. 109) assimilation = one sound is

changed into another because of the influence of a neighboring sound

e.g. in ‘tenth’ dental because of dental fricative

e.g. across word boundaries: in ‘in the’ and ‘on the’ dental because of dental fricative

19. ‘a’ ‘can’ (pp. 107-108) Many words seldom maintain

their citation form in conversational speech. They have two different forms: 1. strong form the word is stressed e.g. He wanted pie and ice cream, not pie or

ice cream. 2. weak form words in an unstressed

positionSee Table 5.1, p. 108

Rules for weak forms of some words, pp. 108-109

‘a’ + consonant ‘an’ + vowel ‘the’ ‘the’ + consonant ‘the’ + vowel or

‘to’ ‘to’ + consonant ‘to’ + vowel or e.g. The man and the old woman went to

Britain and to America. ‘that’ demonstrative pronoun or subordinate

conjunction (homonyms) ‘that’ demonstrative pronoun ‘that boy and

the man’ no weak form ‘that’ subordinate conjunction ‘he said that

women are better’ no weak form ‘has’ auxiliary verb ‘she’s gone’ ‘has’ possession or ‘she has

nice eyes.’

20. unstressed syllable/ higher ( Word stress: p. 110) A stressed syllable is

often, but not always, louder than an unstressed syllable.

It is usually, but not always, on a higher pitch. ( Sentence stress: p. 115) English tries to avoid

having stresses too close together. Very often stresses on alternate words are dropped in sentences

e.g. “The big brown bear bit ten white mice.” 21. pitch changes (p. 116) The intonation of a sentence is the pattern

of pitch changes that occurs.

Chapter 7: The Other Aspects of Connected Speech 1. Assimilation, pp. 109-110 Some rules for assimilation 1. ,, often become bilabial before ,, 2. before or

before or 3. before or 4. before 5. before 6. + 7. +

Linking and intrusion, p. 111-112 When two vowel sounds meet, speakers often link them in

various ways. Linking rhotic accent: when the letter ‘r’ appears in the

written word after a vowel, the phoneme is used in the pronunciation of the word e.g. ‘car’ (American English, Irish English, and certain British regional accents)

non-rhotic accent: do not pronounce the phoneme e.g. ‘car’ BUT when there is a written ‘r’ at the end of a word and it occurs btw. the two vowel sounds, speakers with non-rhotic accents often use the phoneme to link the preceding vowel to a following one.

See examples, no. 88, p. 111

Intrusive (only for non-rhotic accents)

Where two vowel sounds meet and there is no written letter ‘r’, speakers with non-rhotic accents will still often introduce the the phoneme in order to ease the transition.

when the first word ends in ,,or See examples no. 89, p. 111

Linking , p. 111

When a word ends in or a diphthong which finishes with , speakers often introduce a to ease the transition to a following vowel sound. (examples no. 90)

Linking , p. 112 When a word ends in or a diphthong

which finishes with , speakers often introduce a to ease the transition to a following vowel sound. (examples no. 91)