4 . Vaishnavism and emergence of Nata Sankirtana ritual theatre in Manipur

4. Vaishnavism and emergence ofNata Sankirtana ritual theatre in Manipur

As indicated in the earlier chapters, prior to the advent of Hindu cult, Manipur was rich

in its indigenous repertoires o f dance, songs and music. They also performed many

ceremonies and rituals related to birth and death. Some of the indigenous rituals

associated with death were Hongnemba (ritual unfoldment), Ashithong Hangba

(opening the door of the dead), Mathou Yanggemba (complete rites for the dead),

Puroi Leikoiba (sradha), etc. The above duties were assigned to different deities like

the Thongnakpa (guardian of the door) to Sira kondingu (Thongnak Lairemma), the

Arangpham (arrangers) and Leilangba (flower collectors) to Panthoibi, the

Achangthong (door o f the living) to Khambi-lairemma and the door of the Sidaba

Mapu symbolized by heaven. The soul of the dead body was taken up to abode of the

ancestors by shouting “Hayi HaycT1. These rituals were predominant with music, dance

and songs. The traditional rituals culminated to a world acclaimed status when interacted

vigorously with Vaishnav culture.

Manipuri Hindu theatre in general means the court supported theatrical performing art

forms created by local gurus and scholars (under the support of the royal court) based

on the text, events and narratives o f the Hindu world. Kirtan generally means the act of

singing the name, virtue and glory of the lord. Nata Sankirtana had its flowering from

the Bangdesh Kirtan form extensively popularised by the Vaishnav followers. Although

different arguments are laid down, there is a possibility of a Kirtan in a very nascent

form, having developed in Manipur during Garibaniwaz. King Garibaniwaz (A.D. 1709-

AD 1748) after adopting the Ramandi cult wished to establish a kirtan pala to perform

in daily rituals of Rama worship. He invited kirtan performers, scholars, Brahmins,

pandits, to his court to form a kirtan pala. No doubt the newly formed pala must have

taken inspiration from the Bangla pala and locally known as Bangdesh pala2 or Ariba

Pala.. Fixation of rules and a strict decorum were set up in the form and structure of

Bangdesh Pala3. The Bangdesh pala Sankirtana formed at this time was simple. The

local made drum and kartal or cymbal were used. Bangdesh Pala before becoming a part

and parcel of Govindaji ritual service was used in die puja of Vishnu, Ram and Krishna through the service kirtan and Sankirtana.

The Bangdesh pala which we find today had undergone a complex process of its growth.

The trends today in the dress o f the pala is white dhoti with ‘‘kunja’ (fold front plaits)

lowered down, khwangyet (waist band) decorated with khwangnap (decoration on the

border of the cloth.) It was believed that padavali songs of Bangdesh Pala were written

by a Brahmin scholar form Bengal. The king was pleased and accepted the Brahmin to

the Konthoujam lineage and considered as the initiator of Bangdesh Pala4. Later on the

members of the Bangdesh Pala were assigned not only in the service of Rama worship

but were appointed to perform services in Govindaji temple.

Bangdesh Pala was divided into Leibak Chaba pala (chorus of vocals) and Sevak pala

(chorus of devotees)5. Leibak chaba pala group was formed under the patronage of the

nobles of the state and Sevak pala was formed by the Sevaks or the disciples. There is a

clear distinction in the dress o f the two palas6. The Pung Yeiba or drummer, the

Esheihanba or lead singer, Duhar (second lead performer), Khonbangba (backup singer)

adorned themselves with kings gift like khamen chatpa pheijom (dhoti with royal motifs),

gold bangles and other accessories. In order to meet the difficulties in fulfilling all the

arrangements the royal court took up steps in making divisions from the core groups.

Ariba Pala or Bangdesh pala is different from the Nata Sankirtana pala in many aspects

like the raga houba (manner o f beginning of raga), lyrics or text, drums, cymbals and

cholom abhinaya. Bangdesh Pala lacks stylized performance or choreography. It is

more ritual oriented performance. The grace and abhinaya (acting) are absent in Ariba

Pala. However the growth and evolution ofNata Sankirtana is traced to Bangdesh pala of

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Rama worship. Bangdesh pala sowed the seed for a well developed Sankirtana

performance, which during the prime Hindu period of 18th century took shape into Nata

Sankirtana performance with stylized and codified structures based on native form &

traditional belief system.

The time and space of the beginning of Kirtan in Manipur is still being debated. However

none of the sources has authentically mentioned about the presentation of kirtan. Nata

pala in Manipur is o f two types Ariba Nata Pala known as Bangdesh Pala for which

discussion has already been made and Anouba pala or Nata Sankirtana. While the Bangdesh

kirtan was popularized as Ariba pala or the old form, the evolution of the Nata Sankirtana

from Ariba Pala is a kind of organized transformation of drum vocabularies and innovation

in the context of song and music and transfer of ritual energies from an approach to an

earlier deity to a completely new dimension of worship of Radha and Krishna supplanting

the traditional worship of Rama. More creative and refined body movements are added

to the repertoire and along with the sophistication of the texts, songs and dance there is

a much more elaborate exploration of bodily resources of expression for performative

practice. There is a quickening of tempo and enactment of drum vocabularies, expansion

of body gestures and quicker codification of movements structures. More refined story

telling techniques are added to the pure ritual chant like ritual song structure of Ariba

pala. Some 50 years of experimentation, innovation and exploration of physical resources

had seen organized for the Ariba pala to be developed into the new Nata Sankirtana

form.

However the old forms do not disappear. They are retained as pure art form dealing with

the traditional ritual structure and teacher/practitioner from rural areas continues to

perform and sustain this old ritual tradition. The Nata Sankirtana on the other hand has

engaged as a new genre of performance with its distinct codes, vocabularies and song

pattern with new additional texts of Vaishnav worship of Radha Krishna and it emerged

without any visible linkage externally to the beholder. Students of dance, music and

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movement however are able to identify structural changes that have taken place during

the evolution of this choral art. The Nata Sankirtana pala is also known as Anouba pala

or the new group, is again classified into two groups: PalaAhan (older group) consisting

the middle aged experienced ones and Pala Naha (younger group) for the convenience

in rendering service to Govindaji temple. Ojah Chaitanya and Ojah Rasikananda were

believed to be the first Esheihanba o f Pala Ahan and Pala Naha respectively7. Between

17th century and mid 19th century, the rules and regulations and essence of Sankirtana

were codified fixed and maintained completely.

It is however important to understand the two prevailing concepts and perceptions of

Nata Sankirtana performances. One group of hardcore Vaishnavite scholars strongly

believed that the whole cultural expression of Nata Sankirtana is based on the Hindu

religious texts and aspirations and theme, underestimates the contribution of native

performance form and structure. They however failed to transcend themselves from the

religio-ideological biases. The scholars failed to explain what constituted the behaviour,

derivation, growth and efflorescence of the indigenous performances. Another group

of scholars on the other hand beleived that the whole concept of Nata Sankirtana, Raas

Leela and other Hindu performances form were purely created and innovated cultural

expression in a time frame within a social milieu. They supported the Nata Sankirtana

origin and growth in the indigenous performance culture. The problems in the scholarship

are known but what comprises the character of a performance is still overshadowed due

to lack of study in performance anthropology.

A reference in one o f the ancient texts mentioned the performance of a congregation

dance tradition to the music of drum and cymbal decorated around by white cloths8. The

scholars belonging to this group supported the arguments of the existence of a type of

Sankirtana tradition in pre-Hindu period. Another thesis stated the prevalence of the

Sankirtana form existed in the pre-Hindu Manipur as “Hongnemba”.9 “Hongnemba”

was an act of rejoicing and celebration, first performed in Marongba Shanglen (pavilion)

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In Asiba Sinthong (ancient death rituals) and Ukrong Hongba11 (consecration of the

tree), the rituals ended with Ahonglon (song of regeneration) and Hongnemba was

associated since then with numerous rituals like Puhkri-Hongba (regeneration of the

pond), U-Hongba (regeneration o f the tree), Lanna Thouram (death rites),- LuHongba

(marriage), Epan thaba (swasti puja) and Chagumba (first solid-food feeding)12.

However, keeping in account the two theories, it is to be noted that the Nata Sankirtana

form is a unique creation of a cultural synthesis. Nata Sankirtana is a fundamental

performative art. The nature of the use o f the body, use of performance form and energy

are based on native traditional ingredients of culture incorporating a foreign text, sowing

the seed of its present form in roughly around 18 th century AD during the period of King

Bheigyachandra.

Meaning and Essence of Nata Sankirtana

The theatrical elements in the performance can be identified with the study of the

nomenclature of Nata Sankirtana. The termNata is a Sanskrit word meaning ‘to act’13 or

‘to dance’.14 A Nata is the one who acts the feelings and sentiments of men. Nata denotes

the enactment and interpretation through the medium of dance conveying the Rasa

(flavour and sentiment) and Bhava (mood). In the classical definition, a ‘Nata’ is the

actor or performer who has the capability to express or act the sentiments, dance and

sing accompanied with musical instruments. A ‘Nata’ also has the ability to fulfil the

four Abhinayas of ‘Angika’ (hand and body movements), ‘Aharya ’ (costume and make

up), ‘Vachika ’ (speech) and ‘Battvika’ (sentiments expression). Few personalities well

knownfor such skills are Lord ‘Mahadev’ as Nataraj, ‘Sri Govinda’ as Natavar, and ‘Sri

Gouranga’ asNatasekhara15. In books like Abhinaya Darpana and treatises or comments

on Natya Shastra highlight the ‘Nata’ as an actor who brings out the expression in a

Natya (drama) using the four Abhinayas16. Nata pala means the congregation of many

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Natas or actors. So from the name itself ‘Nata Sankirtana’, is performance-based art

form by many actors and it stands out from the rest because of its inherent theatrical

dynamics. The Nata Sankirtana performance if seen superficially gives the impression

of a musical dance predominant by the skills of the actor. But it has its own philosophy

and is the combined meditation o f body, mind and soul. Nata Sankirtana is affinal to Lai

Haraouba in matters o f form and structure. It represents a refined modification of leela

kritana flourished in Bengal during 16th century.

Nata Sankirtana to the followers o f Goudiya Vaishnctvism is a form of worship. It is

considered as a mahayagya (complete sacrifice). The Vaishnav architects trace its origin

to the aesthetics and philosophy of Shrimad Bhagavata. In Shrimad Bhagvata the only

merit in Kdiyuga is Hari Sankirtana (chanting the name of the lord) and through Sankirtana

a person can reach his ends and attain moksha. A person in Satyayuga attains mukti

through Dhyan, in Treta Yuga by yajnas and Dwarpur Yuga through puja and in Kali

Yuga through Hari Sankirtana17. The above Dhyan, Puja, Yajanas, etc., are all combined

ormerged in the form ofHari Sankirtana in Kali Yug to attain salvation. Sri Chaitanya or

Lord Gouranga preached the value and importance of Sankirtana to liberate and attain

moksha.

According to Vaishnav philosophy, Lord Gouranga came in the Kaliyuga as the incarnation

of Lord Krishna (with Krishna Varna or dark colour Krishna) to fulfil the three promises,

taking the outwardly golden complexion symbolically representing Smt. Radha. Lord

Gouranga is the symbolic union of Krishna and Radha. Sri Chaitanya represents Radha

Krishna as one body and soul. The prem leela (episodes of love plays) madhur rasa

played by Radha Krishna at the time of Dwarpur Yuga at Braja mandal (Brindavan) is re­

enacted in the form of Sankirtana to cleanse the miseries and darkness in kaliyuga.

Gouranga along with his distinct followers introduced Sankirtana as a medium through

which the people of kaliyuga experienced the blissful state liberating them and attaining

LordKrishna.

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In theme and spirit of the Nata Sankirtana it is the embodiment of bhakti at purest. The

essence of Nata Sankirtana is bhakti (devotion). The whole performance is bhakti oriented.

Itis the depiction of the ‘madhur prem rasa’ (transcendent love) of Radha Krishna. Nata

Sankirtana is performance based ritual in which the leelas or plays of Lord Krishna are

enacted non-realistically. The performance is enacted with subdued acting, dance, music

and songs. This abstract performance symbolically represents the merging of both the

actors and participants (audience) in the process of ritual performance to another realm

where each one of them can identify themselves with the lord.

Thus, Nata Sankirtana is a sacred ritualistic performance. Aperson can only understand

the true essence of Nata Sankirtana only if he is a pure and sincere devotee. The devotee

being part of the Nata Sankirtana performance is also liberated and attains salvation. The

devotion and love enable both the performers and participants to experience Radha

Krishna union and transcendent love. In later developments, Nata Sankirtana as one of

the performing art form became the foremost reason to achieve spiritual goal.

To completely identify with Lord Krishna, Lord Gouranga acts as a medium in the Nata

Sankirtana performance. His body is constructed, meditated, kept in front and his psycho

spiritual experience with lord Krishna is portrayed in the performance. The whole

panorama of his life experiences are sung and danced out in what we called as Nata

Sankirtana. Lord Chaitanya’s imagined and visualised Brindavan Raas Leela along with

his distinct followers is then re-enacted or performed bringing social efficacy and good

results. It is also a means to lead the people to the right path, cleanse their thoughts and

to be self - contented. Lord Chaitanaya approached the Lord through Radha Bhav which

symbolise a tender unlimited devotion.

In the Goudiya Vaishnav philosophy the Lord and followers are inseparable. They are

interlinked by a common chain of love and devotion. And this understanding is reflected

in hari Nata Sankirtana. The Nata Sankirtana in the Shradha or death ceremony is

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performed on the imagination of surrendering the mortal soul to the lord. The study is

based on the existence of Nata Sankirtana as a separate performance form as seen now

in the mortuary rites and other celebratory events in rites de passage of citizens. As

traditional theatre texts, however the Nata Sankirtana is a compulsory prelude to the

performance of Raas Leela. However as part of the understanding of the presentation of

these two structures o f performance is mutually complementary, but independent in

character should be kept in mind in the corpus of scholastic studies in the traditional

theatre of Manipur.

Types of Nata Sankirtana

There are many types of Nata Sankirtana performance forms each depending on the

differences in depicting Bhakti rasa according to the purpose, seasons and context of

the rituals. The different forms o f Sankirtana are Nata maha Sankirtana (performed

during Sradha and marriage ceremony), Kirtan Khongshangba (elongated Kirtan),

Dhrumel (drum chorus), Bashok Sheishak (song of clapper girls), Naarn pala (chorus

& chants), Katha kirtan (story processions), Nagar kirtan (ritual procession), Ashti

sanchay (fifth day after cremation), Porok Sheishak (ritual songs for the dead), Basanta

Holi style in Rathyatra, Jaidev Dasavtar kirtan (waking up of lord Jaganath), Khubak

eshei (mainly women chorus) and Shayon performance. The Nata Maha Sankirtana

perform at various festivals like Holi, Rathyatra, legends of Krishna Radha, etc. It has

become inseparable from the numerous ‘rites-de-passage’ of a person like

annaprashana (first feeding of the solid food fo the infant), karna vedha (piercing of

the ear), upnayan (thread ceremony), lu hongba (marriages), shradha (death

ceremony), firoi (death anniversary).

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The kirtan Khongshangba is mainly a sankirtana form performed on death anniversary or

in honour of ancestors. It can include Dhrumel too. Dhrumel is a sankirtana performance

However its elaborate rituals decrease the popularity among the common masses.

Different forms of Sankirtana Dhrumel are introduced by different scholars and gurus.

Strict rules are imposed on the performance of such Dhrumel18. Some of the important

Dhrumel forms are Maha Dhrumel, Devi Dhrumel, Goura Dhrumel, etc19. However the

major Nata Sankirtana performance is seen in the shradha ceremony20. The Sankirtana

in such occassions are normally performed by Nupa pala (male singers) although ther

are Nupi palas (women singers) also which perform in almost all instances of rites de

passage except shradha, asthi and phiroy.

The main performers of Khubak eshei are men, women and children. The main part of

this kirtan is Abhinaya Cholom to the tune of clapping hands. The Julon and Jalakeli

(water springing) leela are performed for many days by men, women and children. The

Shayan sheishak oiM era month (November) is similar to Katha kirtan and Nagar kirtan.

The Basanta Holi Shishak is performed by different pala groups both professional and

unprofessional during the time of Holi festival.

Organisers or officials

The organisers involved in the arrangement of the Nata Sankirtana specially in the mandali

(demarcated performance space or mandap) according to Nabadweep Rasa are identified

as Haridas for deep seva (light server), Swarup Damudor for pana seva (betel server)

Jayanand as dhup seva (incense server), Ramanand as gandh chandan seva (sandle

paste server) etc21. The flowers, sandal paste, light, incense, betel nuts along with ghot

or earthen pitcher are offered in Nata Sankirtana representing the five rasas to awaken

the panch tatwa (five main essence).

Pala position

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The number of performers in a Sankirtana pala differs according to the nature of the

Nata Sankirtana: Performance space and Pala position

Figure 5.(i) Initial stage

1. Moibung khongba 2. Mandap mapu 3. Mandali (sacred performance space demarcated in the mandap) 4. Entry door 5. Pungyeiba (lead drummer) 6. Pungyeiba (follower) 7. Esheihanba (lead singer) 8. Khonbangba (support vocal of the Esheiha nba side) 9. Duhar (second lead singer standing opposite to the Esheihanba) 10,11 & 13. Palas (with the cymbals either assisting the Esheihanba or duhar) 12. Khonbangton (last of the vocal support of Esheihanba side) 14. Khomdon (last performer of Duhar side) 15. Thongshaba or formation of the door ( it is the symbolical door formed by the 2 Pungyeibas in the beginning of the Raga Houba) 16. Pillars of the mandap (12 nos.) 17. Space provided for the Arangpham.

(ii) RagaTabaAfter Raga Taba or completion ofthe raga (end ofinitial stage), the 2 Pungyeibas change their position and stand inside fee semi circle. This Nata Sankirtana pala position will be maintained till the completion ofthe performance though movements and structures follow the story theme.

ceremony. The drummers range from two or four to six or eight and can be increased by

a pair up to fourteen. The space of the performance is utilized by all the actors depending

on the sequences and ritual enactments. The pala follows a strict sitting or standing

position in unision to the progress of the sankirtana performance, for e.g. different

phirep (positions) are normally adopted as the kirtan progress to cholom, rajmel, etc.

The Nata Sankirtana pala stand in a semi circle form. The Esheihanba (lead singer)

stands inside the semicircle taking the entry from the right side. The two Pungyeibas

(drummer) too positioned inside the semicircle on the right side of the Esheihanba

diagonally. The semicircle is led by the Duhar (second leader) facing the lead singer.

The Duhar and other pala singers repeat back the songs of the lead singer. The Duhar

leads the cholom. In the initial raga stage, the two drummer stand between the

khonbangba (voice helper of the lead singer) and duhar. But after it, the two drummers

take the usual position inside the semicircle. On raga taba (completion of raga) the

pala sit down in three steps. There are three sitting positions of the Nata pala tintal,

phampret (sitting with position of ground) and khurukuduk (kneeling position) in which

the timing is signalled by the tune of the cymbals.

Dress

There is a dress code for pala performers. A sacred ashta vesh dress (eight elements in

dressing) is compulsory for Sankirtana actors. The actors wear Trikatcha Pheijom or

dhoti i.e. the pleats or kunja falling loosely from the front ofthe dhoti, namei or back

pleat or namei twisted elegantly and tucked in the back. The dhoti is worn below the

knee. The kunja (front pleats) hides the toes22. The waist is wrapped with khwangchet

made from two piece of cloth stitched at the centre23. In the beginning of the Nata

Sankirtana’s raga, the performers put a cloth or lengyan on the left shoulder. It is

necessary to put a lengyan as it symbolically represents the humble journey to the lord.

The innafi (a kind of a shawl) is offered to all the performers including the Mandap

mapu (in charge of mandap) and Moibung khongba (conch blower) at the beginning

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and end of the Sankirtana by the host.

The Nata pala without kokyet (turban) is incomplete in Sankirtana. There are two types

of pala kokyet: Kokyet achouba (a big turban) and kokyet macha (a small turban). The

pala performers except the drummer wear big turbans. The Pung Yeiba wears a smaller

turban. There is a small opening in the central part of the turban. In big turban that small

opening is filled with black patch petruk (made from threads). Different pala groups

have specific Kokyet style. Kokyet is exempted for the Nata Nupi pala. Likewise married

Nupi Pala and unmarried Nupi pala group dressed up in different attires.

Ritual accessories

The performers put sandal paste mark (12 parts) on their forehead, arms, chest, etc24.

They must wear lugoon (sacred upnayan thread) and link (beads made out of Tulsi). The

body up to the waist is bare and place a lengyan on the left shoulder. Since the

establishment of Nata Sankirtana pala, King and royal court made major contribution in

fixing the dress code. However, the present form of Nata Sankirtana dress code was

finalised during King Churchand’s period25. There is no green room to change the dress.

They dress up in the performance area. Make up is avoided totally as it is more related

to ritualistic bhakti oriented performances.

Barton or invitation

Barton is an invitation or sending message for organizing Nata Sankirtana in the name of

lord. It is the depiction of SmtRadhika, sending message to Sri Krishna through her

Gopis for Raas Leela26. It can be in the form of pana or betel nut or lei chandan (flower

and sandle paste). Nowadays it is through print invitation and become easier to invite

people from far-off places too. In the Barton or floral invitation inclusion of pana

completes the essence of invitation of Nata Sankirtana27. It is arranged on top of two

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plantain leaves signifying Radha and Krishna and in the Meitei philosophy Lainingthou

and Lairemma. In Braja Bhava (mood o f Braja or Brindavan) the betel leaf represents

Smt. Radha and betel nut that o f Lord Krishna. And if the invitation is to the God the

whole (peeled but un-sliced) betel nut is used.

Performers or actors

The pala performers are the main actors o f Nata Sankirtana. There is no fixed age for the

pala. They can be young or old. Aperformer should have a good vocal, pleasing physical

feature and have the urge to chant Harinam showing utter dedication to Nata music. He

should be a follower o f Vaishnava religion observing the basic tenets. Aperformer can

be from any lineage as there is no specification of lineage groups for Nata performance.

It is not a hereditary profession either. Anyone who wishes to become a pala performer

can acquire the skills and knowledge from a renowned guru by his own will. Guru dakhina

can be offered according to one’s capability. After acquiring the skills of aNata Sankirtana

performer, the disciple is given the opportunity to enact or perform as a follower in the

Sankirtana group of the guru. The performer need to be disciplined and of sound behaviour.

He must respect and render devotion to his guru. The Guru - Shishya parampara is

well maintained. Out of the group; Esheihanba, Duhar, and Pung Yeibas are very

important. Being the leader of cholom, the Duhar performer especially should have a

striking physical feature and should be well-versed in cholom abhinaya. The

Khonbangba or the voice helper o f the lead singer must be good in singing. The palas

take the form of Sakhi or companion in their hearts. There is no fixed organization or

institution of the pala nowadays. Earlier they were present in the pala loishang (office

of the chorus). Normally a group is formed and a particular pala is normally known

through the lead singer or drummer. The host or the one who organises the Sankirtana

can send invitation to any distinct lead singer or drummer.

The lead singer directs the whole performance of Nata Sankirtana. He is the head of the

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pala. A particular place generally his residence is fixed where all the pala members

rehearse and discuss on various issues. The fee of the Nata Sankirtana is generally not

fixed. For their fee is a collective amount o f clothes and money offered to them during

the performance of Sankirtana either by the host or the relative of the host28. There is

a fundamental association with religion in their profession. The moment the actors enter

the Nata Sankirtana mandap, they forget their own individuality and symbolically

projected as entering the realm of Sri Chaitanya and his world. The Esheihanba considers

himself as Sri Vaas, chief Pung Yeiba as Advaita, the second Pung Yeiba as Govinda,

I )uhar as Nityananda, Khonbangba as Gadadhar respectively. The five main actors

identify themselves with the disciples of Lord Gouranga and perform the Nata Sankirtana

with the same fervour and spirit.

Functionaries

There are two functionaries - Mandap Mapu mdM oibung Khongba- inside the mandap

who participate the Nata Sankirtana completely. Mandap mapu (the presiding master

of the celebration) is an important functionary of Nata Sankirtana. He begins the Nata

Sankirtana by shouting ‘Hari ja i Dhwani’ (Lord’s victory proclamation) giving

permission to start the enactment. He ends it by declaring ‘Jai Dhwani’ (sound of victory)

again. The lead singer takes the permission of the Mandap mapu to complete the Nata

Sankirtana. The master of the ceremony should be a Brahmin, well read, educated with

full knowledge of Nata Sankirtana ritual and philosophy. He maintains the cordial

relationship between the performers and responsible to take all the outcome and errors

of Nata Sankirtana. The smooth organising of the Nata Sankirtana depends a lot on the

Mandap mapu’s efficiency. He is the head of the audience and seated in a specific

position, on the south western comer of the performance space, the front line of the

audience row29.

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Hie master of the ceremony has certain specific functions. In case of certain disturbances

in the beginning of the raga, a puja is performed according to his direction before the

end of Sankirtana. If the person died in an unusual manner a rite is conducted under the

supervision of the Mandap mapu so that such nature of death will not occur again to the

concerned family. The Mandap mapu or the master of the ceremony also carries the

bhava of Meitei Lai Haraoba and other rituals in the control of the seating arrangement

near the performance space.

Thq Arangpham is the traditional ritual arranger who is engaged in looking after all the

rituals of the Nata Sankirtana. Arangpham begins their duty by keeping the lord in their

heart, from that moment onwards every service they perform is service to the lord.

Their main aim is to please and fulfill the lord. The Arangpham offers their reverence to

Smt. Radhika before the start of their work. They personified themselves as to be Radhika

serving Lord Krishna, so that the ceremony could be performed without any fault.

Moibung khongba is a vital member of the Nata Snakirtana. He blows the moibung

(conch shell) in the beginning and closing ofthe Nata Sankirtana performance and also

at specific intervals sometimes in between the Sankirtana songs to indicate end and

beginning of episodes. Conch plays an important role in the Nata Sankirtana music.

Mandap mapu and moibung khongba are the two actors who are seated during the

performance.

Musical instruments

The songs in the Nata Sankirtana are accompanied by the musical instruments of pung

(drum or Mridanga) and kartal (cymbal). Their shape, size and sound are specific to the

theme and functions of Nata Sankirtana. “The range of sound which can be produced

through the pung has to be experienced to be believed. Perhaps among percussion

instruments there is no other which can command the same range of communicative

sound as the pung”.30

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Drums: Drums had been in existence in this land for centuries. The Nata Sankirtana

pung is a transformation from the then existing drum being used in the past for war call,

declaration of an order, in case o f natural calamities, emergency meetings etc31.

According to Chakpa Tingshalon, the first drum to be used in dance songs and

entertainment was made by Chakpa Tingsha around A.D. 159.32

The shape, size and sound o f the pung was improvised during the reign of King

Garibaniwaz when the worship of Ramji Prabhu began. Later it was in the time of king

Bheigyachandra that the present form of Nata Sankirtana pung took its shape. The two

faces of the pung were identified as maru from cow skin and manou from calf skin and

black loading is pasted on both the heads. Leather straps lace the parchment with a

Cotton Belt tied to the straps through the brass rings. The Ariba pung of Ariba pala was

bigger and longer in its appearance but later modified for Nata Sankirtana making it

softer, lighter and shorter. White cotton cloth is wraped around the drum.

To the Manipuri Vaishnavas pung is taken as Sri Krishna himself. The colour of the drum

is interpreted as shyam Varna or the colour of Lord Krishna33. Each part of the drum is

symbolically identified with the Lord Krishna, Radhika, Gopis and others related to

Krishna cycle. Pung or drum is revered as sacred and holy verses are recited before

teaching and playing the pung34. The sound of the pung signifies Sri Krishna, Radhika,

Sri Chaitanya, Nityanand and Sri Advaita respectively. However, the syllables of the

drum are interpreted differently. In the Nata Sankirtana the drum evokes the rasa of Sri

Chaitanya, Nityanand and Radha-kiishna.

Kartal: kartal or cymbal is an instrument played by the hands. It consists of two saucers

like brass disks. There is a depression in the centre of the cymbal and a hole through

which the handle (made of colour cords or threads) is attached. There are two types of

cymbals- cymbal o f the Bangdesh pala and kartal of the Nata pala. In King

Bheigyachandra’s period kartal became smaller and heavier. The golden colour of the

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kartal (made of brass) is referred to the golden complexion of Radha and the sound

produced that of Radha’s sweet voice. The handle (composed of numerous cotton knotted

thread) of the cymbal is symbolized as the long beautiful tresses of Radha. The knotted

cotton threads which serve as the handle o f the Ariba pala is around 8 inches long and is

shorter than the Anouba pala, whereas that o f Anouba Nata pala kartal being long is more

suitable to the graceful cholom performance. The cotton threads are mostly of dyed

kabrang or silk threads

Moibung: It is the conch shell instrument blown by the mouth. Such instruments played

by blowing are used since ancient times. The first moibung khongba or conch shell

blower player is believed to be Nahaba Moireng Chamba35. Ancient text also highlight

the use of moibung in rejoice of the deities. Conch is blown in the beginning of the Nata

Sankirtana and it is considered auspicious and also ends with it.

Perform ance sp ace

Any kind of theatrical performance needs a space. Ritual oriented theatrical performance

like Nata Sankirtana is performed in mandap either attached to temples or temporary

constructions in the courtyard. In Nata Sankirtana, the space and positional direction is

setup in accordance with the imagined Brindavan bhava, Nabadweep and Lai Haraoba.

During royal times the royal court sent Brahmins in all parts of the kingdom for the

temples in the localities and villages spreading the new religion. Idols of Radha, Krishna

and Lord Gouranga made of wood were installed in these temples. Amandap or apavilion

attached to a temple was commonly seen. Thus the ranga manch of Manipur Nata

Sankirtana since then was the mandap.

Mandap or pavillion is closely associated with the performance of numerous religious

and social rituals. It is built mostly in continuation/extension of the temple, having its

own codes, style and architecture. The pillars are normally made of bricks, wood or

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bamboo, and the roof is covered either with tin sheets or thatch (straw). The central area

ot the mandap is called mandali. It is kept empty and considered sacred where incense

and offerings are kept. The Nata Sankirtana is performed in the mandali. In case of

absence of mandap, a temporary mandap is constructed with the demarcation of the

mandali space in shumang or courtyard. The construction of mandap should be in the

auspicious hour. The purohit or the Brahmin fixed the jatra (foundation pillar) and

outline of the mandap. The pillars have to be either nine or twelve according to the type

of the ceremony36. The floor of the mandap is flat. The four sides (space) of the mandap

enclosing the mandali is meant for the audience. Such mandap are found in leikais or

surrounding precincts. The area or the representation of door that faces the west is the

cntTy to Mani mandir and with this knowledge in the mind the door (symbolic opening

space) of the mandap is laid down.

The door is symbolically shown by the place where the two drummers stand in the

beginning of raga towards the western side. The eight pillars of the mandap are considered

as the eight Sakhis while the central pillar is taken as Lord Krishna. They are erected at

the direction of the north, north-east, east, south-east, south, south-west, west, and north­

west37 . The mandali or the main performing space in the mandap is signified as

Nabadweep or Brindavan. The sequence of the encirclement of the main performing

space in the performance is taken as Nabadweep parikarma and Brindavan parikarma.

Through the transcendental mood, the mandap represents the world of Sri Chaitanya in

a non-realistic manner. The first transportation to Nabadweep world is with the invocation

of Lord Gouranga. Then through Goura Bhava the next transportation to the world of

Brindavan begins with the enactment of Brindavan leela. The structure and movement

patterns are also based on the traditional movement patterns of the ancestral serpent

dragon (Pakhangba). Coils of the serpent dragon are imagined in the movement. The

building of the body of Gourachandra is rooted in the Lai Haraoba tradition of building

up the body image of the deity in the Haraoba structure. Sense of direction (entry &

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exit) and placement of guardian deities in the Lai Haraoba direction follow native beliefs.

The performance space of Nata Sankirtana is related to the concept of laibung of Lai

Haraoba, where the central area is reserved for important rituals and placing of laiboula

(or seat of residing deity). Likewise in Nata Sankirtana, incense sticks, light, flower,

fruits, sandal paste, betel leaves and nuts are placed in the centre which signifies the

Asan or place o f lord Krishna. In the near end of the Sankirtana a part of the Mandap’s

roof is believed to be symbolically opened either by cutting a bamboo strip, so that the

soul can leave for heaven. Thus, the performance space ofthe Nata Sankirtana and even

for other rituals is mixed with indigenous belief systems forming its distinct codes.

Audience

Audience is another important element of theatre. Audience in general sense can be

very casual or informal. But in ritual oriented traditional Hindu theatre forms like Nata

Sankirtana audiences play an important role in the fulfilment of the overall performance.

The audience comprises o f children, aged people, men and women. The audiences are

not only viewers but they themselves are the participants in the journey of spiritual

transformation to Chaitanya’s world. The audience of Nata Sankirtana needs to be well-

versed in the rituals. A true devotee never considers the Nata Sankirtana as a mode of

entertainment but to listen to Harinam is considered as a kind of worship to the lord.

They know the lyrics, rasa or sentiments, and the bhava or moods of the Nata Sankirtana.

In Meitei religion from the earlier times the seating direction was specific. In Lai Haraoba

there were specific spaces for the kings, queens, nobles, and others though they differ

according to the clans and geographical area. Such similar kind of demarcation in the

seating arrangement is even evident in the Nata Sankirtana. In western side, the

incarnation of Srimati Radhika, Sri Mahavendrapuri is the honoured audience. In south,

Nityanand’s incarnation of Sanskarshan and in north the incarnation of Sri Narad, Sri

Vaas are the chief audiences respectively. In east the chief audience is the incarnation of

Hanuman, Sri Mukund Dutta38. Likewise seating arrangement was fixed for the royal

families, queen, princess, host, Brahmins and other devotees. The audience in the Nata

Sankirtana performance need to follow certain minute details which make it all the

more distinct than any other Sankirtana form39. The performance itself does not

demarcate the audience from the actors. The first devotee or audience is considered

important. In the closing part o f the Nata Sankirtana during aarati the audience stand up

and join the pala performers. The community thus totally involve in the ritual theatre

Performance Text

There is no specific written text for the Nata Sankirtana though nowadays, punglon

(drum vocabulary) and songs are recorded in written texts. Some events and episodes

are highly theatrical. Nata Sankirtana is performance based text and there are no instances

of being tied down by any text. The gurus from time to time have been inserting new

contents. The performance text can be stretched out or shortened by the actors but in

accordance to the chrome or (structure) of the Nata Sankirtana performance. Within

the structure a Nata Sankirtana performance can go on with Dhrumel additions too. Nata

Sankirtana performance is for almost five hours. The events are manifold. The text of

Nata Sankirtana is vast and based on Radha Krishna leelas, or liberally focused on the

stories of Shri Chaitanya’s life.

The songs which are sung are narrative based songs expressing stories or events of

Brindavan leela and Nabadweep leela. There are instances in the performance when the

lead singer does not do any acting through songs but narrate the story line simply in

prose narrative forms. A piece of dialogue delivery is seen in the performance as

interspersing or connecting two events. The technique is used quite often to bring in

two different time frames. The performance text of Nata Sankirtana is simple and starts

with raga houba (beginning of Raga), guru vandana, sabha vandana, gourachandrika, etc.

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The main body of the performance text is Krishna leela, Chaitanya stories and it ends

withNityapad. The beginning and end are not directly a part of the main performance

text but vital in the overall structure of the Nata Sankirtana performance. There is no

specification in the time and place of the text. The text can range from the birth to all

other episodes of Krishna & Chaitanya and the places associated with Krishna’s life can

be depicted. The storyline of Nata Sankirtana is free from the time cycle and place. It

deals with such a theme which is eternal and timeless.

Improvisation

Improvisation can be done in Nata Sankirtana performance. If time permits the storyline

is extended or vice versa. The Gouranga Bhavi or vision of Brindavan in Gouranga’s

mind, imagining the Krishna leela and other events is used in the Nata Sankirtana

performance. This Gouranga bhavi technique enables the performer to narrate any event

exercising ample freedom without any barrier. The slokas (chants) are interspersed to

bring in a new story or to connect the new with the old or to shorten or lengthen the

storyline immaculately.

Nata Sankirtana conveys the rasa of the performance text through different mode of

acting of which the Angika abhinaya (bodily expression) or the bodily gestures and

expression forms the most important part. However Nata Sankirtana performance does

not conform to the minute classification and details of Natya Shastra’s Angika abhinaya.

The mode of Angika abhinaya adopted in Nata Sankirtana is purely body expression and

gestures to convey the text. Lead singer performs such abhinaya in baithya (sitting

posture). The complete form of Angika abhinaya however is seen in Pala cholom and

Pung cholom. The songs in Nata Sankirtana are narrative music and the audience are

able to understand the Nata Sankirtana from the songs.

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Theatrical elements of Nata Sankirtana

While singing or playing instruments or acting it is important for the actors to perform

in the correct mood and sentiments. From the choloms, songs and music of Nata

Sankirtana, the audiences attain ecstasy. It is generated through appropriate performance

of the raga and ragini. There was a strict supervision in the codification of Nata

Sankirtana by the royal court. The raga-ragini, rules of drumming, Taal or rhythm, cymbal

music etc are fixed by the gurus and scholars with the consent of the king. It was not

permitted to alter or change or cut without the consent of the court. But in its process

of development new editions are accepted which is one reason of its widespread and

firm root in the soil o f Manipur spreading the essence of Bhakti and ujjwal prem

(ultimate love).

Within Nata Sankirtana performance two important theatrical elements and elements

that determine the distinct characteristic of a total theatre form are Nata pala Cholom

and Nata pala Eshei or song. The songs, cholom or body gestures and movements with

subdued acting are the aspects that make the Sankirtana performances highly theatrical.

Cholom

The Nata Sankirtana pala perform the rhythmic dance movements accompanied by the

songs and music of drum and cymbals in specific time measures and rhythm. The rhythmic

movement and bodily gestures are commonly referred in Manipur as ‘ cholom’ and is an

integral part of Nata Sankirtana. Cholom is performed both by the cymbal and drum

players. The Manipuri word ‘Cholom’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Chalan’.40

Literally it means a composed movement in sequence. Generally it is taken as a distinct

dance performance for men. It connotes more of tandav bhava and from the word chalan

it is developed into cholom41. It is refered as Cholom Gathan because the beauty and

significance of cholom is seen due to the presence of Gathan or the structuralization in

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the movements and expression of hands, body, etc42. Gathan is the intricate manipulation

of the body movements which is more familiar in abhinaya cholom.

The Nata Sankirtana is theatrical as the various events, are expressed through body

movements. The actor acts or shows the gestures and expression depicting the ‘rasa’

(sentiments or emotions) of the songs. Each body part expresses a distinct abhinaya.

While performing Cholom the various movements are bind within the realm of bhakti

or devotion. Therefore in any movements or expression of the eyes or the body gestures,

it should denote bhakti and humility. As commonly told by gurus, “Nata cholm for the

meitei involves; three body movements, three glance styles, three Phireps, three

footworks, and three wrist movements”43.

Nata Pala cholom

Nata Pala Cholomis broadly classified into mel cholom, tanchap cholom and melkup

cholom. These Choloms reflect the meaning and the stages of the songs. Pala positions

are taken according to the events or sequence. During the execution of the cholom the

entire pala move either clockwise or anti-clockwise. The basic standing pose of the

Kartal cholom and the Pung cholom is almost the same. In both cases, the performers

stand erect with the heels apart at a distance approximately the width of three fmgers

and the toes point diagonally outwards. One leg will bend slightly when the other one is

kept erect bearing the whole body.

There is a fixed code regarding the position of the eyes. It is concentrated in the

instruments and on hands to enable them to express the involved rasa bhava. During the

abhinaya the hands are not allowed to rise beyond the eyesight. There is a proper

coordination of the eyes and the hands. In Kartal cholom the performers begin by striking

the Kartals against each other to the syllables or composition of the accompanying

drum. There is a fixed stroke for each syllable of the pung. The intrinsic beauty of the

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cholom comes from the movements which are vigorous and energetic yet performed

with grace, poise and delicacy. Though the movements seem forceful they are however

restrained maintaining exact tempo and yet flowing and continuous. The performers

cover the space forward and backward during the cholom. Beautiful gaits and gestures

are part of the repertoire in the chorus.

Pung Cholom

The pung cholom is performed by the two drummers to the punglort or drum beats

being played by themselves. The pung cholom performers are accessed to more freedom

as such the movements appear acrobatic with variety of spiral movements sometime off

the ground that demands a keen sense of balance and rhythm. Through pung syllables

and body movements the performers seek to imitate often reproducing sounds such as

that of drizzling rain or thunder and the graceful gaits of birds and animals

The intricate choreographed movements like Manipur’s Nata Sankirtana are missing in

the kirtan forms of other states. This difference adds uniqueness in Manipur’s pala. The

Nata Sankirtana Cholom of the state is very popular in other parts of the world too. “In

one of the composition of renowned teacher Premanand Thakur, offered at Sri Govinda

had incorporated cholom as apart o f the pala”.44 As Nata Sankirtana progresses different

forms of cholom are created and displayed. The present cholom forms were mainly

composed under the patronages from King Chandrakriti till King Churchand.

King Chandrakirti being a lover of art felt the need for refinement in cholom and insisted

his courtiers to improve it. Soraikhaibam Sengamba, an officer of rank offered to help

the King if he could be excused from the Lallup pana system of labour45. Under the

grace of king, Sengamba worked for two months. Guru Sengamba performed the cholom

series of Rajmel atingbi and menkup cholom at Govindajee complex in front of the

August gathering. The gathering appreciated the work and the King rewarded guru

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Sengamba generously. A complete form of Rajmel cholom and menkup cholom were

then introduced. In the Rajmel cholom of Guru Sengamba was added the Areiba sathek

by Guru HourokChamba Samu46, a renowned scholar of that time. His Areiba sathek is

performed till today by the name o f Rajmel areibi47. The hard work of Sengamba and

HourokChamba made Ralmel Atingbi and Rajmel Areibi the two integral parts of Rajmel

cholom. “The Meitei cholom was first brought out by Sri Sorokhaibam ojah Sengamba

and Hourok Chamba.. .’,48

The intricate Thang Ta (swords and Spear, a form of native martial arts) movements of

Manipur are incorporated in the Nata Sankirtana cholom too. Therefore the movements

ofthe cholom are quite similar to the footwork and body gestures of the Thang Ta. Even

there is a close resemblance of cholom’s form, position and structure with the ‘mukna ’

(an indigenous form of wrestling). The Nata pala Sankirtana during the reign of Narasingh

was called as Sana pala. The cholom of the Sana pala was active and energetic. It

resembled the movement and alertness o f soldiers and bodyguards of the King. The

footwork of swordsman and spearman was added. Such type of cholom are used during

the time of Rathyatra (kang chingba), when the fourpanas or divisions perform khubak

eshei.In the pala Cholom the beauties o f the natural movements like the dance of the

peacocks, the sliding of the snake, the ripples of the waves etc. are structured. The

modifications in the cholom thus gave a new life and meaning to the performance.

Some of the cholom movements are well choreographed which require practice to master

the art form. There are many intricate movements of head, shoulders, neck, torso, stomach,

thigh, waist, buttocks, knee, calf, feet etc. So each body part has its own corresponding

body movement or gesture that makes up a cholom. They are performed with proper

coordination of body movements and musical instruments. There are two main types of

striking the cymbals or kartals49. In Rajmel cholom, graceful and poised cholom ofthe

Duhar are seen highlighting the ‘Gat/’ or gaits which showed the shajat or movements

ofthe elephants, swan, horse, snake, etc. In Rajmel cholom the cymbals cannot be raised

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beyond the eyes. The raising o f the hand is signified as Krishna and putting it down as

Radha. The speed of the cymbals in certain episodes is increased tremendously.

Nata pala eshei or songs of Nata Sankirtana

Nata eshei originally is the songs o f the mahajan padavali based on local tune and rhythm.

Nowadays, singing Nata songs in Manipuri is widely popular. It started from King

Churchand’s reign, though some sections put up different opinions. The content of the

Nata songs are basically the love, prayer and devotion to the Lord in its corresponding

rasa. The Nata songs to the audience generate a blissful state of mind. Ardent devotees

shed tears out of love and completely surrender to the lord. The quality of the performer

or singer can be determined in the Rajmel episode. The earliest texts of the songs were

from Das avatar of Geet Govinda. Efforts were made to improvise and enrich the kirtan

songs50. The Nata pala songs has become vital for any events of life. The singing style

and techniques were greatly influenced by the traditional Pena singing forms51. The

Nata pala eshei being not entirely dependent on outside can trace its source or root in

the ancient singing forms and techniques of Manipur.

The contribution of Guru Rasananda was immense. He composed a new raga based on

“Aa” which was followed by “Ta” “Aa” “Ri” “ Ta” “Na” “Ta” “Na”.52 Besides Guru

Rasananda, many scholars not only wrote lyrics for the songs but they themselves

composed the tunes and techniques. Unfortunately scholars however have borrowed the

name of popular raga like malar, sindhu raga, etc. from outside but the style, techniques

and rhythm are all completely different. During the time of King Chandrakriti, there

were prominent Brahmins with major contributions in Nata songs. They also sang the

kirtans53 and popularized Manoharsai in the state.

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Performance Structure119

Many preliminary religious rituals are performed before the bigining of the Nata

Sankirtana performance mainly in shardha or death ceremony. The religious atmosphere

is built up. Normal preparation begins from 2-3 days before the actual day. On the

concerned day the family or host organizing the Sankirtana take bath in the morning, put

sandal tilak (sacred paste on the face - nose and forehead), and wear white dhoti for

men and white phanek (type of sarong) and white innafi (shawl) for women. Sitting

arrangements are made for the audience by spreadingphak (mat), arranging chairs, etc.

Decoration of the mandap with mango leaves, cloth printed Harinam, Thakan (canopy

type) and pillars are wrapped with white cloth. The actors come quite early and dress up

observing all the rituals. The M oibung khongba or conch blower and Mandap Mapu

master of the ceremony take their respective seats. The Arangpham welcomes the invitees

with lei chandan (flower and sandle paste). Betel nut is distributed to the audience, even

in between the Nata Sankirtana performance. The preliminary rituals create a ritualistic

or sacred atmosphere to perform the Nata Sankirtana successfully. Meanwhile the Nata

pala or performers are prepared to begin the Nata Sankirtana performance.

The Nata Sankirtana follows strict rules and regulations in the performance of its rituals.

The host and the Nata Sankirtana pala are assembled in the mandap to begin the rituals.

The host and Arangpham offer ghot puja (offering of pots) to Smt. Radha with inscense

sticks and light. Flowers are offered to the decorated altar or asan of Lord Krishna.

According to the Brindavan Bhava, Lord Krishna is invited by Smt. Radha through her

Sakhis (companions). Lord Krishna who gets the invitation is believed to come and take

part in the Sankirtana. Smt. Radha gives invitation to Krishna for Brindavan leelas, due

to this the owner of the house or the host is identified as Radha. With this belief, the

Mandali or the exact performance space of the Nata Sankirtana is symbolically

transferred to the world of Brindavan. On the edge of one of the side of mandap, there is

a specific place called Khonghampham (a symbolical place to clean the feet).

Khonghampham is the place usually reserved in one comer before the entrance to the

Mandap of the Nata Sankirtana performance space. Two pieces of banana stem

symbolically represents it. In Khonghampham the soul sits on the two-piece banana

stem. The mandap mapu or in meitei pre-Hindu bhava the ‘ Amaibi’ symbolically takes

the soul ofthe dead soul inside the performance space and hands over to the lead singer.

The lead singer receives the soul inside the demarcated space and place it in the south

west comer of the mandap, north of the jatra post54.

Aperson is in charge of Khonghampham. According to the Brindavan bhava, Radha and

Sadashiv are believed to dwell in this area. In Nabadweep Bhava it is Kalidas, whereas in

the Meitei philosophy the reserved area is in charge of ThongakLairemma (the guardian

ofthe door), Sira Kondingnu55. Finally in the end of the Nata Sankirtana performance

the lead singer surrender the soul to the master of the ceremony in which the latter

sends the soul to heaven. The water that washes the feet in khonghampham is considered

to be that of Radha kunj and Shyam kunj, but in Meitei bhav it is referred as Khonghampat.

The sequence of the Nata Sankirtana performance can be broadly divided (1)

preliminaries (2) pung raga houba, (3) eshei raga houba, (4) Mel yeiba, (5) tanchap,

(6) menkup, (7) baithya and (8) conclusion56. The pung and kartal are placed in a white

cloth in the performance space and offered puja and prayers. Advaita is beleived to have

taken the pung or drum from the lord and beats it. The five main actors-two Pungyeibas,

Esheihanba, Duhar, Khonbangba show respect and prostrate to the Mandap mapu

and to the audiences. Finally, the five main actors along with the Arangpham and host

pay obeisance and homage by bowing to each other.

The Nata Sankirtana performance begins with a purva raga. The actors in their complete

Nata Sankirtana costume take out their musical instruments for puja. After bowing to

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Lord Gouranga, invitees and the host, the five main actors form the respective pala

position. The rest o f the khonbangba or assoicate pala performers enter the space in

their full dress and take their positions. When all the performers are seated in the

mandali, the lei chandan or gandha chandan or flower & sandle paste service is offered.

It is the serving and honouring with flowers and sandalwood paste to the performers by

the Arangpham. It is first served to the lead drummer, then to others in order of priority

i.e., Esheihanba, Duhar, Khonbangba, and other palas respectively. The performers

offer the flower and sandalwood paste service to their respective instruments and touch

it to their forehead while chanting hare hare and offer it to the lord. The flower is

picked up by the thumb and middle finger held together while the ring finger touches the

sandal paste. The flower cannot touch or dip on the chandan. While taking chandan the

left hand should hold the container. They are then offered to the Lord in mind, touch the

forehead and put it on the earlope.

After the end of the flower & sandle paste service to the main performers, it is offered

to conch shell bearer and master o f the ceremony. The palas take permission from ‘ghot

puja’ which is supervised by the Arangpham. These formalities are followed by pana

(betel nut) and boribaphi (offering cloth) service. It is the offering and presentation of

betel leaves and boriba to all the performers. It symbolically represents the handing of

the performance of Nata Sankirtana to the main actors. Gandha chandan and pana or

betel is also offered to the audience comprising both men and women57. There are

instances when two or three Arangpham perform the lei chandan simultaneously to the

pala and audiences. While giving the boriba phi the host bow to all the performers

(palas) then to the conch shell blower followed by the master of the ceremony. The host

is seated slightly behind the Duhar till raga taba or completion of a sequence of the

particular Raga. The pala with bowing of the head show bhakti to the soul of the Sankirtana-

Sri Gouranga and stand up with the musical instruments anticipating the jayadhwani

(inaugural verse/ extolment of the deity) call/shout o f Mandap mapu. The Mandap

mapu enters the mandap and chants the jayadhwani. With the call of jayadhwani the real

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performance of Nata Sankirtana begins with a punglon raga houba or beginning of a

drum vocabulary or composition.

It is invocatory and spiritualistic. The sound of the raga should evoke joy and love in the

hearts of the audience. It is essential to begin the raga in the right place and form. The

lead drummer first chants Harinam and touch the pung manou (the left face of the pung).

The Esheihanba playing the role o f Srinivaas touches the kartals or cymbals strings

recite Harinam three times. Meanwhile the drummers in the role of Advaita beats the

drum chanting Chaitanya Nitya and the drummer (follower) or Govinda reply back.

Nityanand raises his hand and shouts haridhwani. The master of the ceremony shouts

to the audience to chant hari and bow down.

Raga is sung or used as a medium to build the form of Lord Gouranga in any of the

rituals like Shradha ceremony. From the five souls of lord Gouranga, the essence or

real form of Sankirtana is created. The ‘maan (puking - feelings) of the lord takes the

form of Srinivas and play the role of Esheihanba in the Sankirtana, Advaita from the

‘budhi ’ (intelligence) and enact the part of the pung yeiba with Govinda as his follower.

Murari Gupta from the ‘Indri ’, (wakhal - thoughts) as pala and takes part in the

performance, Mukund from the ‘pran ’ (thawai - soul) of the lord as Duhar and

Nityanand from the ‘chit ’ {ayouba - ultimate) of Gouranga as the head of the mandap

or audience or mandap mapu. They form the ‘punch tatwa’ or the five souls of the Nata

sankitana58.

Punglon Raga Achouba

The actors in their initial standing position begin the Nata Sankirtana performance with

the beginning ofpunglon raga achoubaby the two drummers. The punglon raga achouba

(a composition of the drum vocabularies) is performed with full concentration. Raga

achouba mainly divides in to four types as there are different kinds of Nata Sankirtana

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performances59. The conch blower blows the conch simultaneously. This raga achouba

or the major raga is known as Nata raga or mulraga60. It begins with ‘Ten Ten Tat Ta

Tang’ which means the utterence of Sri Chaitanya or ‘Eiti Chaitanya nityananda dui

dhai eiti tribaf signifying the building up of Sri Murti form. This beat is repeated three

times. After this, the drum beat ‘ginna gre dhe dhen ten... ’is played which represents

the drawing out of the panch rasa and panch tatwa or recitation of the jholmal mantra

to the drum invoking Sri Chaitanya, Nitya, Radha Krishna, etc., in Sankirtana. The jholmal

mantra is ‘Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare ’61.

When the drum begins nam prachar ‘ Ten Ten Ten Ten Ten Ten ’, the lead singer shouts the

ahari dhwani Sri Krishnapriti ananda bol, hari bol, hari bol”. The second lead singer

pala respond to it by chanting ‘'"hare hare ”. The drummers begin another beat which

represent the strangling of all evil spirits. From this stage the overall sound ofthe drums

accompanied by cymbal etc., express the process of forming the body of Sri Krishna

right in the centre of the mandali. The drum vocabularies depict the varied stage of the

Chaitanya’s Sri Murti. The process o f the formation of “Sri Murti from Sri Charan to

Shira (head) ” (from toes to head) is through the recitation of Hari nam. In completion

of forming shira (head) of lord Sri Krishna, the drummer, lead singer and other pala

bow their heads. The panch tatwa are then drawn out from Lord Krishna. In reaching the

guru ghat (signifying the body and soul of the Lord) episode the actors take one step

back showing the divine encounter of Lord Krishna form. The main actors and others

finally bow their heads by touching the ground to the imagined body of Sri Krishna built

up right in the centre of performance space. And with this the punglon raga achouba is

complete.

Eshei Raga

The forming of the body of Lord Krishna is fulfilled or shown non-realistically through

the composition ofthe drumbeats vocabularies. It is followed by panch tatwa episode

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where the drummers draw out the panch tatwa from the body of Lord Krishna to fulfill

the Sankirtana. The panch tatwa yet to be given life, the drummers signal the Esheihanba

to start the next important sequence o f the performance called eshei raga (raga song

composition). The master of the ceremony folds his hands together and pray to Lord

Gouranga. He keeps on standing till eshei raga taba (completion of the song

composition). The eshei raga houba or raga alap begins with the chosen raga ragini for

the occasion62. In bigger occasion like shradha ceremony the raga alap begins with

raga achouba (major raga) or raga punish.

The Nata Sankirtana raga alap which portrays the keynote of the melody begins with the

song syllable ‘Aa’. The raga then proceeds with sound pattern of Ta Ri Ta Na Ri Ta Na

TaNa163. The drum will accompany the eshei raga. The raga alap is normally carried out

with caution. The intrinsic importance o f raga alap is the process of infusing the soul or

life to the lord’s body. If any of the tunes goes wrong it is believed to have spoilt the rest

of the Nata songs. If both the performers and the audience are not satisfied, the

performance itself will fail to invoke the prem bhakti in the audience. It is inauspicious

for the performer too, as it may likely bring sorrows and physical deformities. During

the raga alap the host and audiences are restricted from any type of movements in and

around the mandap. No one can enter the mandap and no new audience can join the Nata

Sankirtana for the fear of disturbing the concentration of the pala. Each syllable of the

raga alap denotes a specific part o f the imagined body of the lord Krishna; Zor-chest, Ri-

navel, Tiz-waist, TVa-legs, Ri-arms, Ta-head, Na-eyes and ears, 7a-nose, Afar-face. The

Soul or spirit is infused to the imaginarily build image of the Lord by the unison of the

raga, drum, and cymbal with the drummer giving the jeeva sancharini (a digression).

Reaching the sanchar the drum, cymbal and raga alap merged completely. The drum

syllables “Takhre Khratang Ghinta” signifies jeev Sancharini and its completion are

depicted by “Ghin Tenta Tan Ta Tenta Ten Ta With this the installation of the Lord is

complete.

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i he eshei raga taba is followed by the invocation of Radha Krishna and Gouranga. After

it. Guru Vandana and Sabha Vandana are performed. It is the bowing or salutation to the

iHirus by the performers, which is a kind of seeking blessings for the successful

performance of Sankirtana. After guru vandana the pala also bow to the audience in

vibha vandana. The pala now sing the indispensable part of the Nata Sankirtana called as

liourachandrika.

(iourachandrika deals with the life ofLord Gouranga at Nabadweep. The duration of this

performance also depends on the circumstances. It is sung based on the raga which

initiated the Sankirtana. The various aspects to be presented in the Nata Sankirtana of

the concern day are first and foremost highlighted in the Gourachandrika songs. The

varied aspect of the Krishna leelas shown in Gourachandrika indicates an idea imagined

in Lord Gouranga’s mind. It is also because of the philosophy that any kind of Krishna

leela sung in the Nata Sankirtana are taken as Lord Gouranga’s vision in his trance like

journey to Brindavan where he takes the role of all the characters of Krishna leela and

interplay in conformity with each other.

Hie lead singer while singing one pad of Gourachandrika sits down with the voice helper

or khongbangba. The Duhar pala repeat the same pad while sitting down in the usual

manner. With this the Sankirtana comes to the main part of the performance body,

comprising of Krishna Radha episodes mostly in the form of devotional padavali lyrics.

In big events like shradha ceremony, Radha Govinda Niti leela chapter is sung. The text

of Niti leela is highlighted in Gourachandrika and is performed in proper sequence. The

response singing continues for more than two hours till the rajmel performance.

The Krishna leela is divided into Asthakal or eight times sequence. The Niti leela consists

from prata leela (from sunrise to 7:39 a.m.) to Sayang leela (sunset to 7:39 p.m.).

This sequence deals with Krishna getting up, dressing up and milking of cows by the

(iopis. In PurvaBahu leela {1:39 a.m. to 10:03 a.m.), Krishna takes the cows for grazing

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(sansenba) in the forest. In Madharu leela (10:03 a.m. to 2:51 p.m.), Radha after long

anticipation meets Sri Krishna and rejoice the essence of love with Sakhis. They play by

moving the swing to and fro, jalakeli etc. Aparahu leela (2:51 p.m. till sunset) depicts

the return of Krishna with his Sakhas. In Sayang leela (sunset till 7:39 p.m.) Radha

sent food for Krishna through Sakhis. Sri Krishna eats the food, and the prasadi (leftover)

are brought back to Radha by the Sakhis. Radha then takes the prasadi with contentment.

Krishna reaches Gostha, takes bath, change and then enters the temple. All the episodes

are expressed in the form of songs, abhinaya and cholom by the drummers and singers.

After a short presentation of songs the Nata Sankirtana performance reaches the stage

of rajmel. Rajmel begins with a very slow tempo which fastens slowly till it reaches its

height of climax which is known as M el thaba or release of Mel. The whole process of

rajmel is classified in four parts:

1. Melhou.

2. Mel bung

3. Melawonbi.

4. Mel thaba.

To reach the stage of melhou rajmel the lead singer sings a pad (part) in the Mel tune,

after that all the performers repeat the same lines again and stand up together rendering

bhakti to the lord. With the drum beat the right foot is stepped out, and the actors circle

the centre of the mandap in a clockwise direction known as Berighat. The cymbals are

held together by the left hand and covered with the right hand kept on the navel area. It is

considered as the Nabadweep parikarma. After Berighat the performers reach their

positions, the drummers and lead singer prostrate towards one another. In the process

their musical instruments (drum and cymbal) come into contact with one another. This

touching of instruments is called as jantar Milan or the union ofthe instruments which

signify oneness of Radha Krishna.

126

The drummer then starts the Melhou, and simultaneously the lead singer begins the

Melhou songs. In M anipur Nata Sankirtana Mel signifies the correct union and

synchronization of songs, pung and dance bringing out a complete common form to its

fullest. Melhou also symbolizes the root o f the origin of rajmel in the process of Lord

Gouranga imbibing Radha bhava. The lead singer gives the signal for releasing the Ghat.

In accordance to it the drummers beat the tune of Ghat resulting to the release of Lumbi

ghat. Lumbi Ghat was Brindavan Parikarma in anticlockwise movement. The sequence

of Lumbi ghat is very enchanting. The body movements and gesture are graceful to the

slow rhythmic beats o f the pung. Fulfilling the prem bhakti rasa, the Duhar play the

role of a maestro, leads the pala and perform cholom. This part is called as Lumbi

(literal meaning a way). Ghat signifies the demarcation of boundary line. In the case of

Lumbi ghat, it represents the in between of the end of Melhou and beginning of Mel

bung. The drummer raise one of their hands after the end of the drum beat. It is a kind of

signaling the pala to take up the next Mel bung sequence.

The pala moves anticlockwise, representing the Brindavan parikarma. The Taal (time

measures) remains the same. The performers then take the earlier position. In between

the end of Mel bung and start of M el bung awonbi is Setu ghat. The songs immediately

after Setu ghat are M el awonba. There is a change in the tune and rhythm of the songs

and is sung repeatedly. The rasa of the performance is depicted by the different styles of

clanging cymbals. Each has its typical postures and body gestures. The pitch of the

voice is increased and the kartals are played in quick succession. The movements,

drumbeats, clanging of kartals etc. slowly intensified. Mel awonbi is now sung in a very

fast speed and the moment it reaches its climax, the Mel is released also known as Mel

thaba. It represents the physical union of Radha and Krishna. After Mel thaba the tempo

and mood of Nata Sankirtana gradually slows down. The correct form of Mel thaba

brings a lot of pleasure and happiness to both the performers and audience. Rajmel is

thus the union or consummation of Radha and Krishna through symbolical representation.

It is also called Sambhog.

127

What brings in more uniqueness to Nata Sankirtana is the tanchap performance. The

drummers and lead singer in a masculine way jump to each other to the unifying sounds

of drums and songs. Their energetic and enthusiastic performance gives to the audience

a thrilling experience. The music o f the kartals is slowed with emphasis given to the

drums and songs. When the drummers beat the tanchap composition, the cymbals are

held in the left hand together, the rhythm is given by the tapping of the feet and hands.

Tanchap is released with the Ghat and is followed by menkup. Menkup songs are sung

to the music of menkup punglon. The Duhar performs different cholom and he encircles

the space in his performance. The pala bow to the lord and sit down taking their respective

position known as baithya.

The actors perform the baithya singing. Many scholars introduce Taal yeiba (beating to

the rhythm) to strengthen the baitha singing and the Taal should be in accordance with

the rasa timing and form of the rasa or sentiments depicted. It is important not to misuse

the Taal. After sometime the lead singer stand up and sings numerous songs with varied

tune and rhythm. He sings bringing out the ultimate abhinaya and the other performers

respond to it.

In the stage of singing Swadhin the Arangpham distributes turbans, shawls, and lengyan

or cloth drapped on shoulders to lead singer, second lead singer, voice helper of lead

singer and turbans only to the two drummers. In the Brindavan Leela, Swadhin is the

attire of Sri Radha. The Braja Leela episode ends with the changing of dry clothes and

resting after Jalakeli by Radha and Krishna. The distribution of new shawls is also known

as phiroi thaba that signifies symbolically the changing of new dress after sambhog or

union.

The lead singer then takes the permission of Mandap mapu to end the Nata Sankirtana.

After taking permission, Nityapad which is chanting the name and glory of Nityananda

and Chaitanya is performed. The departed soul is handed back to th& Mandap mapu by

128

the lead singer or Esheihanba. In this ending part the host of the event enters the mandap

and prostrate on the ground stretching out with their folded hands. They pray to cleanse

the family from any such misfortune and to seek blessing of the Lord. The Mandap

mapu chantes the ja i dhwani mentioning the name and whereabouts o f the departed

souls. It represents the lifting up o f the soul to the abode of the lord. This is shown

symbolically by cutting a bamboo strip and opening a little space in the roof of the

mandap towards south-west direction. The whole Nata pala postrate to the Mandap

mapu and audiences as a mark o f respect. The conch blower finally blows the conch

which represents the end of the performance of Nata Sankirtana. Here, the family

members pay obeisance before the presiding deity, praying for freeing the soul of the

dead towards ancestral abode, and for complete cleansing of the participants.

In the mortuary rites, there is a way or journey of the dead spirit towards ancestral

abodes and certain specific purificatory rites are supposed to be performed by spirits

and also by their living relatives in order to usher the spirits to the ancestral abode. The

performance of Nata Sankirtana as specific is an important intensificatory ritual to the

spirit to be freed from its bondage and shackles o f mundane consideration and his/her

way to heaven is purified through the ritual system organized at home. The Nata Sankirtana

is not only a sacrifice by the householder to enable the spirit of the dead relative to be

freed from its journey but in return, it also purifies the householder from any unsanctified

bondage from imperfect household considerations. Therefore, the Nata Sankirtana clears

the path both ways for the one who is dead (spirit) and for the one who performs this

sacrifice in its relationship with the dead. The community participates in this ritual

system through a collective ritual connection. Performance is itself not based on

entertainment. The householder after fifteen days o f ritual social oblivion will come

out in tiie society for ritual equilibrium and the community accepts the family. Thus,

Nata Sankirtana helps in easing the spirits journey.

129

Nata Sankirtana is a total ritual theatre form for the people. It expresses the inner motive,

desire, longings and a complete worldview. The musical instruments, choloms, actors,

performance, space, dress, audience and community involvement in Nata Sankirtana

performance cannot be studied in isolation. It gives sense only when all these elements

are taken as a composite whole. Therefore, the whole Nata Sankirtana performance

involves a total theatrical experience.

Normally the kind o f theatrical practices which is seen with Nata Sankirtana form is a

deep symbolic gestures accompanied with true naturalism and naturalistic interpretation

of the historicity o f events by the actor. For e.g. the act of union between male and

female principle is accentuated by song, music and movement and the release of energy

after the act of union and the changing of the body through imaginary ablution is physically

symbolized by the changing of the actor’s dresses. The Arangpham or arranger comes in

with new sets of cloth along with householder and ritual act of offerings of cloth to the

actors signify beginning o f new chapter and at the same time the cleansing of the ritual

participants from the imaginary act o f the physical union of the protagonist in the story.

Internal symbolism and external naturalism do combine to signify a distinctive code of

expression, which is loud, secular combination, nor complete ritualistic non-expression

of the principles in performance. The nature of theatrical expression in Nata Sankirtana

therefore is ritualistic participatory yet subdued communication through a very strict

and elaborate performance code. The uniqueness of Nata Sankirtana therefore lies in its

complete physicalization of a participatory ritual.

130

End Notes:131

1 Kh. Yaima, Kangla Leiyat, (Imphal), p. 3 5.

2 Aribam Chitreswar Sharma, Nata Sankirtana 2nd part, (Imphal, 2002), p. 13.

3 Elangbam Nilakanta singh, “Ariba Pala (Bangdesh)” in Sahitya 60/61, (Imphal 1985), pp.

1-5.

4 M. Tomcha, Sankirtan Vi char Sangraha, (Imphal: Tomson Enterprises, 1987), pp. iv & v.

5 Sougaijam Thanil, “Bangdesh and Nata Changdamnaba” a seminar paper presented on

Mcmipuri Bangdesh Palagi Seminar, (Imphal: Manipur State KalaAkademi, 1974), p.

73.

6 F or Leibak Chaba pala the khwangnup is a green colour cloth with flower patterns of red

silk threads on which the Pakhangba symbol (pre-Hindi motif) is knitted with white silk. And

for Sevak pala the Pakhangba symbol is embroidered on black cloth with white silk threads

on the background of small yellow flowers. The drummer wears a white turban.

7 M. Tomcha, op. cit., p. viii.

8 Kh. Yaima, Meitei Jagoi: Anoirol, Vol. 1, (Imphal: 1973), 21. The congregational singing

was also mentioned in Y. Budhichandra (ed.). Thaloi Nongkhailem Ptiya, (Imphal: 1986),

p. 57.

9 N. Ibomcha Singh, “Nata Sankirtana Eshei: origin and changing trends”, in L.Lakpati Singh

(ed). Meitei Nata Sankirtana Nainaba Vol. 1., (Imphal: Guru Gulapi Nata Sankirtana

Academy, 2002), pp. 259-263.

10 Kshetrimayum Amuyaima Singh, Hongnemba Shillon, (Nagaon, Assam: Hema Printers,

2000), pp. 1&9.

11 As refered in ancient puya, “Ariba Sinthongn. During King Kangba, Ukhrong Festival was

held and offered Ahonglon.

12 Kshetrimayum Amuyaima Singh, Hongnemba Shillon, op. cit., p. 1.

13 Manmohan Ghosh (ed), Natya Shastra Vol. II, (Calcutta: Manisha Granthalaya, 1951),

p. 95.

14 Manmohan Ghosh, Nandi Kesvara’s AbhinayaDarpana (Calcutta: Metropolitian Printing

& Publishing House Ltd., 1934), p. xxi.

15 Waikhom Damodar, Manipurgi Nata Sankirtana Pala Eshei, (Imphal: Iboyaima Printers,

2000), p. 1.

16 G. H. Tarlekar, Studies in Natyasastra, (Delhi: Motilal Banari Sardars, 1975), p. 5.

>7 Bhagavata Mahapurana as cited in Aribam Chitreswar Sharma, Manipuri Nata

Sankirtana Vichar, Part 2, (Imphal: 2002), p. 23.

18 Nowadays there is a practice of segmenting a display of some parts of the Dhrumel even

for stage purpose. Earlier it was part of the entire ritual system.

19 Surchand Sharma,MeiteiJagoi Vol. 6, (Imphal: 1983), pp. 2-57.

20 Believed to have started at the death of King Garibaniwaz.

21 Aribam Chitreshwar Sharma, Sankirtana Vichar: Meitei Nongarol, (Imphal: 1988),

p. 13.

22 The significance of this mode of wearing dhoti resembles the amaiba and amaibi costume of

the Lai Haraoba.

23 In the Meitei philosophy the two parts of khwangchet signify Lainingthou and Lairemma

(father sky and mother earth).

24 Elangbam Choubhal Singh, Cholom, (Imphal: 2002), p. 25.

25 Surchand Sharma, “Nata Cholom” in Elangbam Nilakanta Singh (ed.) Proceedings of the

Manipuri dance Seminar 1971, (Imphal: Manipur StateKala Akademi, 1975),

p. 134-135.

26 Aribam Chitreswar Sharma, “Nata Sankirtana Meitei Nongarol”, op. tit., p. 31.

27 The formal invitation is also known as Chai Thaba.

28 The profession of the pala as such is not to earn money or for entertaining people. At

present there is a threat on popularising it as a means of earning and less observance of the

values behind it.

29 In some kirtan discourses the Mandap mapu is known as Madhavendrapuri or Nityanand in

Kumari Ranjana Devi, Manipuri Nata Sankirtana, (Imphal: R.B. Printing House, 1983),

p. 42. He is also known as Sri Krishna or Sri Ishwarpuri as cited in W. Tomcha,

Sankirtana Vichar Sangraha, (Imphal: TomsonEnterprises, 1987), p. 41.

132

30 K apilaV atsyayan, “Introduction” in SaryuDoshi (ed.), Dances of Manipur (The Classical

Tradition), (Bombay: Marg publication, 1989).

31 Different types of drum had been used. They areyaipung, tanyeipung, khong,

langdeipung, khun pung, pung used in entertainments, paojelpung (drum used for

conveying messages) etc. They differ in appearance as well as in the sound.

32 Kshetrimayum Amuyaima Singh, “Sankirtangi pung” in ElangbamNilakanta Singh (ed.),

Proceedings ofManipuri dance seminar 1971, (Imphal: Manipur State Kala Akademi,

1975), p. 142.

33 It is also mentioned that panch rasa and panch tatwa are combined to make up the pung.

34 Before picking up the pung gayatri mantra is recited first of all and worshiped by leibak katpa

(by touching the pung with the fingers and the forehead simultaneously) in reverence.

35 Moirangthem Chandra singh, Panthoibi Khongul, (Imphal: Manipur SahityaParishad, 2nd

ed., 1972), p. 112.

36 Shrilrungbamlbotombi Singh, “Sankirtana Vichaf ’ inL. Lakpati (ed.), Meitei Nata

Sankirtana Nainaba, (Imphal: Guru GulapiNata Sankirtana Academy, 2002), p. 101.

37 They signify Lalita, Bisakha, Chitra, Champaklata, Tungavidya, Indurekha, Rangadevi, and

Sudhini respectively. Waikhom Damodar Singh, Manipurgi Nata Sankirtana Pala Eshei,

p. 6.

38 M. Tomcha, op. cit., p. 9-10.

39 Waikhom Damodar, op. cit., p. 6.

40 Surchand Sharma, “Nata Cholom”, op.; cit., p. 111.

41 Ibid, pp. 111-112.

42 Ibid, p. 113.

43 Aribam Chitreswar Sharma, £CNata Sankirtana 2nd part”, op. cit., p. 76.

44 KumariRanjanaDevi, op. cit., p. 125.

45 Ibid, p. 126.

46 Ibid, p. 125-126.

47 M. Tomcha, op. cit., p. xiv.

48 Ibid, p. 20.

133

49 Kartal mapum (striking the whole face of the cymbals) and kartal mashek (striking only the

sides of the cymbals).

50 They were gurus like Premanand, Thakur Shyam, Tensuba, Sougaijamba, Dhaniram and

SwarupaNanda, Who were contemporaries in the time of King Garibaniwaz.

51 There are about seven forms of Pena music; Naheirol, Sikaplol, Huikaplon, Heripabot, Jaat,

Lamin and Hirithangyei.

52 Ningthoujam Shyamchand Singh, “Nata Sankirtanda Shijinariba Ragashingi Rasd\ paper

presented in Nata Sankirtana seminar (Palace compound, Imphal, September 2000).

53 They were Gourachand, Brahmananda, Khetramohan, and Gadadhar.

54 M. Tomcha, op. cit., 20.

55 Aribam Chitreshwar Sharma, “Sanldrtan Vichar (Meitei Nongarol)”, op. cit., p. 14.

56 Khagembam Gulapi, Sri Sri Govinda Thouram ParengNata Eshei, (Imphal: 1972), p.

Introduction and Surchand Sharma, Meitei Jagoi Vol. 3 (Imphal: 1969), pp. 86-93.

57 In few occasions or in the presence of the king during monarchial times, the lei chandan

service is performed in a different elaborate way. A separate plate is arranged for the king or

higher nobles.

58 Elangbam Choubhal Singh, op. cit., p. 35.

59 Raga Achouba is mainly divided into four types as there are different kinds ofNata

Sankirtana performances, for eg. Shradha of king, shardha of dead without kamaveda,

upnayan, marriage, etc.

60 SougaijamThanil, “Sankirtangi Raga Achouba Punglon”, in LeimapokpamLakpati Singh

(ed.), Meitei Sankirtana Nainaba, (Imphal: Guru Gulapi Nata Sankirtana Academy,

2002), 1.

61 SougaijamThanil, “Sankirtangi Raga Achouba Punglon”, op. cit., p. 4.

62 The duration of the raga depends on the occasion and the situation. A raga alap may even

take almost one hour.

63 Sri Ningthoujam Shyamchand Singh, ‘"Nata Sankirtanada Shijinariba Ragashingi Rasd\

paper presented in Seminar ofNata Sankirtana, (Palace Compound, Imphal, September

2000).

134

Photo 5 : Mandap mapu pays obeisance (body prostrate) to Sankirtana.

Photo 6 : Drum Sanchar after Raga Taba.

Photo 7 : Drum sequence of Mel along with the chorus.

Photo 8 : The lead singer (Esheihanba) introduces the Tanchap sequence after the Mel.

Photo 10 : The lead singer gestures during the last stage (Baithya) of the sankirtana in the sitting posture.