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p a r t V
its effects on
e d u c a t i o n
sc ie nc e
c u l t u r e
an d i n f o r m a t i o n
u n e s c o
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Contents
Introduction
13
I
Education
1
A i m s
and
objec ts
27
2
Primary
and
s e c o n d a r yschools. Administration
30
3
Primary
and
s e c o n d a r yschools. Finance
34
4 School f e e s and textboo k supplies 43
5
Enrolments
an d syllabuses 46
6 Content of textboo ks 58
7
Mo the r tongueinstruct ion
66
8
Teachers
in
primary
and
secondary schools
69
9 School libraries 72
10
Technical
and
vocational
75
11 Adult edu cation 80
12
University education 83
II Science
1 Definit ionofscope 99
2 Patternsof tec hnical
em ploym ent
an dproblem so f
m a n po w e r
supply 100
3 E f fe c t s o f apartheid o n
scientific
organization in South
Africa
109
4 The
inf luence
of
apartheid
on soc ia l
field
research
114
5
E f f e c ts
o f
apartheid
o n
national
defence
an d
scientific
research 117
6
E f f e c ts
o f
apartheid
o n South African
international
scientif ic
and
technical co-operation
119
7 E f fe c t s o f
apartheid
on the
emigration
of
scientists
f r o m an d
the recruitment of scientists to work in South
Africa
120
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III
Culture
1 Definition of scope 127
2 The peoples o f South Afr ic a 128
3
Religion
141
4 Literature 149
5 Public libraries 160
6 Entertainment 166
7 Sport 173
8 Assumpt ions an d
reality
179
IV
Information
1 Thelegal f r a m e w o r k 185
2 Theapplication of the law 191
3 Thepress 192
4 Radio an d c i n e m a 198
5 International n e w s 201
Conclusion 204
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Introduct ion
South
Africa, a
society
in which Afr icans, Asians an d
E u r o p e a n s
co-exist
in the
s a m e territory,
has
b e e n
the
resul t
of a
longhistory
going back to the
first
European settlement in the Cape o f
Good
Hope
in
1652.
It is a
history
not
only
of
prolonged contact (some
of it
friendly) b e t w e e n
these
groups
o f
people,
but
also
a
history
o f
confl ic t
overland
an d
cattle
at
first, then overindustrial opportuni t ies when
t o w n s
grew
up.
There
were
also
confl ic ts
b e t w e e n
the Boers, descen-
dants of the
first
Dutch sett lers, and the
English-speaking
South
Afr ican conf l i c t s
which
terminated in theBoerWar and thed e f e a t o f
the
Dutch-speaking Afr ikane r
by the English colonizers.
A b o u t
the
mid-twentieth
century
then, the ingredients of the present alarming
South
Afr ican
situation
were
all
presentthe rivalry
be tween the
Afrikaner
and the English-speaking
South Africans
which split the
White population
into
tw o
main
groups, the suspic ion and f e a r
which
m o st
of the
White
group
fel t
fo r
Africans
w ho
we re
num erical ly
stronger,
against
whom
they had
fought
a ser i es of wars and whom
they
had
traditionally treated
as a
source
of
cheaplabour.There
was
also the Coloured group
f o rm e d
f r o m a m i x t u r e o fWhite,Hottentot
and Malay
e l e m e n t s
a n d a nAsian group brought to South Africa in
the
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
as
labour
f o r t h e n e w s u g a r
plantations
in
Natal.
At the end of the Second World War
there
wasanother f a c t o r on
the
South African
s c e n e . White
supremacy, threatened
occasionally
over
the 300
years
of
White se t t lement,
was
challenged
by the
e m e r -
gence o findependent states in
Africa
an d Asia. On thepolitical
f r o n t
the s t ruggle for independence was a s t ruggle for'onem a n -o n evote',
and had di rec t c o n s e qu e n c e s f o r S o u thAfr i can Whites,who, in f ra m -
ing the Const i tu t ion of 1910,had resisted any effect ive participation
13
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Apartheid
o fnon-Whitesin thepoliticalprocess. There was another challenge;
in all
countries there
arose a new
demand
for the implementationof
'Human Rights',ademand
encouraged
by the
United
NationsUniver-
sal
Declaration
of
Human Rights
of
1948.
In
South
Africa
thismeant
a dem and for equality of o pportunityin the sociala n d e c o n o m icf r o n t
and
was
thus
a
direct
threat toWhite
privileges.
The NationalParty came to power in 1948 on an appeal which
rested
almost
entirely on itspromiseto
safeguard
and,if necessary,
strengthen 'White
supremacy'. In its
public
statements the Govern-
ment ident i f ied this
political,
economic and social policy with the
ideology of'Apartheid', which was described in the 1947 Election
Mani fes to
of the
National
Party as
f o l l o w s :
In general terms our
policy envisages
segregating the
m o s t important e thnic groups
an d
sub-groups
intheirown areas
where every
group willbeenabled to
develop
intoa self-sufficient unit. We endorse the general
principle
of
territorial
segregationof theBantuand theWhites.. . theBantuin
, the u r b a n
areas
shouldberegardedasmigratory
citizens
notentitled
} topoliticalor social
rights
equaltothoseof theWhites.Theprocess
(
of
detribalization
should
be
arrested
....'.
From
the
beginning
there were
two co-existing c once pts o f
apart-
heid.
O n e w a s that the racessubdivided
into
tr ibesshould be
completely segregated
into
self-suff ic ient
territories.
The
other
was
thatapartheidwas not tomeancompleteterritorialsegregationbut a
more rigid e n f o r c e m e n t
of
non-White
social,
economic
andpolitical
infer ior i ty. From
1948 to 1965, the South Afr ic an Government has
m o v e dinbothdirections. On 4December 1963,the
then
PrimeMinis-
ter,
Dr. H. F.
V e r w o e r d
stated
that'...we
shall
be
able
to
prove
that
it is only by creating separate
nations
thatdiscrimination
will
in f a c t
disappear
in the long run'. It is certain that s o m e idealistic
White
South
Afr icans
hopedthattheincipientc onf l ic tin theSouthAfr ican
situation
w o u l d
beresolvedby
apartheid.
Further, m an yhopedthat
while the
political
and
e c o n o m ic
aspirations
of theAfr ic an m ajor i ty
andthe
Coloured
and
Asian
minoritieswouldbe met by 'separate
development',
the privileges of a White South
Africa would
be
guaranteed.
The cre at iono fBantustans'Black homelands 'from thescat tere d
reserves and the establishment of the Transkei as an example of a
semi-autonomous
state,
arestepsin this'separate development'.It is
not
n e c e s s a r y
here to gointothe
government's
case forindependent
B a n t u s t a n s o r
the caseagainst it. It is suff ic ient to note the
report
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Introduction
oftheUnitedNations'Spec ial C o m m itte eon thePoliciesofApartheid
in South Africa, 13 September
1963:
'These m o v e s are engineered by
a
Government
in
which
the
Afr icanpeople
concerned haveno
voice
and are
a i m e d
at the
separation
of the
races
and the denial o f rights
to the
Afr ican
populationin six-seventhso f theterritoryof theRepub-
lic of
South
Afr icainreturnforpromisesof sel f-government for the
Africans
in
scattered reserves which account
fo r
one-seventh
of the
territory. These
reserves c o n t a i n
less than two-fifths of the
African
populationof theRepublic, w hile m anyof theAfrican sin therestof
the c o u n t r yare largely
detribalized
and havelittle
attachment
to the
reserves...
The
creation
o f B a n tus t an s
may,
there fore ,
b e r e g a rde d a s
designed to re inforceWhite supremacy in the
Republic
bystrengthen-
ing the
position
o ftribal
chiefs,
dividing the African people
through
the o f f e r o fopportunitiesf o r alimitedn u m b e r o fAfr ican s an d
deceiv-
in g
publicopinion.'
Sinceseparationor apartheidis the ideological and legal basis for
the
inequalities in
access
to education and to culture, and
inter fe res
with
scientific
de ve l o p m e n t
an d
f r e e d o m
o f
i n fo rm a t i o n ,
it
would
be
u s e f u l to examine
briefly
at this
point
thelegislation which e n f o r c e s
separation.
Legislation affect ing
particular fields ofUnesco'scompe-
t e n c e
will
be
analysed
in
deta i l
in the
re levant
chapters.
On e
important
s tep in any
attemptedseparation
o f t h e ra c e s w a s
the e n f o r c e dremovalo fpeopleo f
differing
races who had lived closely
together.
The Population
Registration
Act of
1950
with itslater a m e n d m e n t s
provided
for the
classification
of the
South
African
population
into
three
maingro ups: W hite , Colouredan d
Afr ican the
Asiansco ns t i tu-
ing a sub-group in the Coloured
group. This
classification w as
f u n d a -
mental
to the whole
g o v e r n m e n tpolicy
of '
Separateness'
for
each
'race'. As
f r o m
1August
1966
it b e c a m e
c o m p u l s o r y
for all cit izens
o ftherepublic
over
16 years of age to posse ssidentity cardsand to
produce these at the request of an authorized person. The racial
group
of
the
holder
is on thiscard.Itwasestimated
that
approximately
148,000
people
had not
applied
fo ride nti tycards
b e c a u se
the y f e a r e d
that they
might be placed in a
racial category which
would af fec t
their
socialstatus, lead
to dismissal
f r o m their
present
e m p l o y m e n t
an d
totheir
e n f o r c e d
r e m o v al
f r o m
theareain w hichthe yn o w
lived.
1
1. A Survey
o f
Race Relat ions in South
Africa, 1966,Johannesburg,
SouthA f r ic an
Institute
o fRace
Relations, 1967,
p.
123.
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Apartheid
C o n t r o l of the f r e e d o m o fm o ve m e n t o fAfrican s ha s been achieved
through
the'PassLaws'. A s y s tem of
pass
laws
was in
e f fec t b e f o r e
the National
Party
c a m e to
p o w e r ; however ,
these
laws
varied f r o m
province to province.
S o m e
classes o f Africans
were
exempted f r o m
carryingthem, and in the Cape,
while
they existed in
theory, they
were inpracticenolongerrequired.
The Natives (Abolition o f
Passes
an dCo-ordination o f Do c u m e n t s )
Act, 1952 repealed previous laws. H e n c e f o r t h
all
Africans
were
re -
quired to
possess
a 'r e f e re n c ebook'
which co nta insdetailed
i n f o r m a -
tion
aboutthe
holder,
includinga
space
for
efflux
and
influxcontrol
e n d o r s e m e n t s .
Failure
to
produce
the
' r e f e re n c e
book'
o n
d e m a n d
is
a criminal o f f e n c e .
B e t w e e n
1January and 30June 1964, 162,182
A f r i c a n s
had
been prosecuted
for
failing
to
register
or to
produce
these documents.
1
The Natives (Urban Areas)
Consolidation
A ct o f 1945 and its
a m e n d m e n t s
o f 1952, 1956 an d 1957, together
with
the
Bantu
Laws
A m e n d m e n t Act,
No. 42, of
1964, provided
for the
c o m p ul s o ry
residence
in
locations, nativevillages
o r
hostels
ofAfrican s within an
ur ba n
area.
It regulated the
e n t ry
o f
Africans
into
the
areas
and the
place of thei rsettlement. The p re s e n c e of a n African in a prescr ibed
a r ea f o r
m o re
than 72 h o u r s is
subject
to severerestrictions. Totake
u p
w o r k
he
m u st
get perm iss ion
f r o m
a
labour bureau
a nd to
visit
the
area
perm iss ion
m u stbe sought
f r o m
a
labour
off icer . S o m e
Afr icans
are exempted f r o m theserestrictions, fo r example,
those
cont inuously
resident in the
a re a sincebirth
(who m u s t
provide
proofthatthey are
entitled to b e
there).
Bu t
e v e n
Afr icans w ho
qualify
t o r e m a i n i n a
prescribed area
may be
d e e m e d'idle'
or
'undesirable'
and
then
be
orderedout of thearea, fo r fe i t i n g
their
residentialrights.Moreover,
there s e e m s
to be
s om e
c o n f u s i o n as to
what
the exemptions are and
to
whom they
apply.
The GroupArea Act has b e e n fol lowed by alist o fGroup Area
Declarationssett ing aside areas
for the
exclusive o cc u pa tion
o f o n e
or other population group. This act has
be e n
implemented in spite
o f
repeated resolutions
by the
Gener a l
Assem blyRe solution
395 (V )
of 2 D e c e m b e r 1950, 551(VI) of 12 January 1952, 615 (VII) of
5 D e c e m b e r 1952 and 719 (VIT) of 11
N o v e m b e r
1953.
The
proclamations issued
in Octob er
1963 involved,
in
Durban
alone,
the evic t ion of near ly
10,000 famil ies ,
the
great majori ty
o f
1. Annual
Report
of the Commissioner of the SouthA f r ic an
Police
for theyear
ended
30
June
1964.
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Introduction
them
Indians.
In
1964
the declarations
were designed
to resettle
virtuallyall of the
38,000Indians
on the
Rand.
Eviction
orders a r e n o t conf ined to situations in whichthere m ay
be a
degreehowever smallof mixed
residentialdistricts;
the
orders
w e r e f r a m e d
to
f o r c e non-Whites
out of the t o w n
centres
a n d to
resettle them
on the
outskirts.
Thus,
thejointministerial statement
ofFebruary1966
dec lared
District
Sixone
of the oldest sec t ions of
Cape Townwhich had.be e npopulated
by
Coloured residents
fo r
over
300 years, as a W hite area. A Colou redpopulationo f ove r 20,000 /
were
to bef o r c e d to m o ve . /
In
spite
of the ideology of
apartheid,
in
spite
of the
uprooting
of
tho usa n ds
o f families, the
comple te
separation of peoplesinto tribal
an d ethnic groupings in South Afr ica has proved
impossible.
The
closelyintegrated
e c o n o m i c
structure, the location of all the
m a j o r
industries,all the
m ineral weal th,
all theimportant
h a r b o u r
facilities
and all the best
arable land
in
that part
o f So uth Afr ica
which
w as
outside
the
reserves
in
White
ow ne rship
m e a nt
that
Afr icansas
well
as
Coloureds
an d
A sians re m ain de pe nde nt
on the
t ow n
an d
farm ing
com plex o f
White
South
Africa
f or alivelihood.
E ve n
the
go ve r n m e n t 's
attempt to
encourage
African-owned
small-scale industries in the
Transkei
has c o m eup against therelative
pover ty
of the
area,
the
comparat ive lack
o fnatural
r e so ur c e s
and the
lack
o f a c c um ul a te d
capital.For g o o dorill, Whiteand non-White
South
Afr ica r e m a i n
e c o n o m i c a l l yinterdependent. If thenon -W hites
n e e d
the job
opportu-
nities at
present
available in
White South
Africa,
White
South
Afr ica
could
notmaintainitspresent
industr ia l
and
agricultural pr o duc t io n
n o r the
p re se n thigh
standardo f livingwithoutnon-Whitelabour.
In f a c t , whatever the statedpolicy o f the G o ve r n m e n t ,therehasb e e n
an increas ing
n u m b e r
o f Afr icans a d mi t t ed to
urban areas.
Table 1give s t h e n u m b e r o f
Afr icans
a dm it t e d to the m a in
u r b a n
areas
and the
n u m b e r e n d o r s e d
o ut
during
1964
and for the
first
three m o n t h s of 1965.
Between
1962
an d
1964
the
African
population
of
Johannesburg
in -
creased
f r o m
609,100 to 706,389;then u m b e ro fAfr icanm e nem ployed
in
Durban
increased
f r o m 74,500
in
1946
to 136,000 in
1965.
In the
Western Cape, the n u m b e r o fAfr icans employed bylocal authorities,
the
Provincial
Administration, Public Service D e p ar t m e nt s ,
agricul-
ture
and
industry increased
f ro m
1963
to
1964
by 7.5 per
c e n t
(from
a l m o s t
77,000 to alittle u n d e r 83,000)an dincreasing n u m b e rs were
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Apartheid
TABLE 1.
Numbers
of Africans admitted to and
endorsed
f r o m
main
urban areas
in
1964
an d
first threemonths
o f
1965 *
Admit t ed
Y e a r
1964
First3 months of 1965
Men
156352
44409
W o m e n
18747
5133
E n d o r s e d
o u t
Men
84258
19159
W o m e n
13983
3855
1. House of AssemblyDebates, Hansard, Vol. 12, 1965, Col. 4430. Quoted f r o m A Survey of Race
Relations
in South
Africa, 1965,
Johannesburg,
South Afr ican
Institute
o fRace
Relations, 1966,
p.155.
being
recruited for employment through the labour bureauxin the
Transkei.
1
In the
Rand
the African population exceeds the White
by
morethan 500,000.
2
The main push ofapartheidhas been
therefore
in thedirectionof
more rigid racialdiscrimination,
with growing
inequalities in
opportu-
nities. Table 2 illustrates this.
As
it
could
be
expected,
the policy of apartheid ha s
given
rise
to
opposition.
Therehave b e e nprotests,demonstrationsand riots f r o m
the
non-Whites,
whileamong Whitesopposition to the
Government's
policy
has
r a nged
f r o m
criticism
to
morepoliticalinvolvement.
A
minority can
hardly s uc c e e d
in preserving its
absolute
supremacy
in all
sphe reswithout
the use
o f f e r e e .
It is
the refo re
not
surprisingthat
the
implementation
of the
policy
ofapartheidhas b e e n
accompanied
by anabuse o fpolice power , adisregard for theintegrity of theindi-
vidual and by the
censorship
of the
press.
The real or
imagined f e a r
of counter-violence has led those in
p o w e r to a multiplication ofprocedures a i m e d at
strengthening
the
system o f apartheid by
destroying
opposition.
Again and
again
during the
post-war
period,
attention
has been
called
to the
situation
hi SouthAfric a
withregard
tocivil
rights.
3
One
n e e d
only briefly
draw attent ion to the
90-day
detent ion clause in the
GeneralL aw Am e n d m e n t Act, 1963,whic hwhenit was
withdrawn
on
1. Second Special Report of the Director-General on the Application of the Declaration concerning
the Policy of Apartheid of the Republic of South Africa, Geneva,ILO, 1966, p. 11.
2.
A
Survey
of
Race Relations
in
South
Africa,
1966,Johannesburg, SouthAfr icanInstitute o f Race
Relations,
1967, p. 168.
3. See in
part icular
The Report of the International Commission of Jurists, 'South
Africa
and the
Rules of Law , 1960, an d Tlie Reports of the
United
Nat ions
Special
Commi t tee on the Pol icy of
Apartheid in the
Republic
of
South
Africa, 10
D e c e m b e r 1964
(A/5825/Add.l) and 16
August 1965
(S/6005).
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Introduction
T A B L E
2.
Population
of South
Africa
by
racial
groups
Item
Distribution
x
A n n u a l in c o m e
(Rand )
per capita 1960
a
Average
salaries
3
Mining
Manufacturing
Public Service
Maximum
pension
4
city )
non-city
\
Infant
mortality
rate
u n d e r
1 yearold per 1,000live
births, 1965
B
Increase/decrease ofT.B.
rates
in 1963 over 1962, children
under 5
6
Incidence o f Kwashiorkor
rate
pe r
100,000, 1965?
Africans
12 465 000
87
152
422
346
44
T*T
n o
figures
given
+ 20.3%
980
Coloured
1 805 000
109
458
660
603
168
138
136.1
+ 7.5%
410
Asians
547 000
147
458
660
884
168
138
56.1
-16.8
40
Whites
3 481 000
952
2562
2058
1694
360
29.2
-7.0
negligible
1.
Estimates in mid-1966. Statistical
Yearbook 1966,
compiled
by t h e B ure au o f
Statistics,Pretoria,
Republic o f So ut h
Africa ,
TableAl 1.
2. A Surveyof
Race Relat ions
in South
Africa, 1965
o p.
cit.,
p.
205.
3. Figures takenf r o mA Survey of Race Relat ions in South
Africa,
1963 ,Johannesburg, 1964, p. 25 ff.
In mining,
Africans
receive
f re e f o o d , a c c o m m o d a ti o n
an d
m e d i c al
se rvices.
4.
Revised
Social Pensions in South Africa 1966,Johann esb u r g,1965,p. 5 (AFactPaper,n o .
17,1966).
5.
Estimates
inmid-1966.Statistical Y earbook
1966,Table C32.
6. Minister o fHealth in theHouse of Assembly
Debates,
21April 1964
(qu oted
f r o m
A Survey o f
Race Relations
in South
Africa,
1963,
Johannesburg,
1964,
p.
308).
7. ASurvey o f RaceRelationsinSouthAfrica, 1965,op.
cit.,
p.276.
11
J a n ua ry 1965,was inf a c treplacedby the 180-day
detention
m e a s u re
of the CriminalProcedure A m e n d m e n t A c t N o . 9 6 o f 1965.
U n d e r
this act the Attorney
General
m ay
issue
a warrant for arrest an d
detention
fo r a
m a x i m u m
of s ix
months (180 days)
a
person
who is
likely
to
give evidence
for the
State
in any
criminal proceedings with
respec t to
certain
o f f en ces , aslong asthat
detention
is
d e e m e d
to be
in the interest of suchap e rs o nor of the administration ofjustice.
1
The
International
Commiss ion
of Jurists
o b s e r v e d :
'This
m u s t
be
o n e o f t h e m o s t
extraordinary
powersthathave ever beengranted
outside
aperiodof em ergenc y.It authorizesthedetentionof an
inno-
c e n t personagainst w h o m
n o
allegations
a re m a de a n d n o s us p i c i o n
1. See A, S.
Mathew s
and R. C. Albino:
The p e r m a n e n c e
of the
t e m p o r ar y .
An exam inat ionof
the 90 and 180 daydetentionlaws'.The South African Law Journal ,
1966,
p. 16 ff.
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Apartheid
even exists;
it
authorizes de tent ion
in the absolute discretion of the
Attorney General.
It
denies
the
detainees access
to a
lawyer with-
o ut
special permission;
and i t precludes the
courts
from
examining
the validity of the
detention
evenwithin
the already
very wide powe rs
o f
the
Act.
It fur ther
authorizes
the
subject ion
of the de t a in e d witness
to
solitaryc o n f in e m e n t
fo r a
period
of s ix
months and,with
the
objec t ,
inter
alia
o f excluding tampering
with
o rintimidation o f a n yperson,
places him in asituationwherehe is in thealmostuncontrolled
po w e r
o f
the police who also have an
interest
in the evidencehe maygive.'
1
There
are
too,
the peculiar techniques of
banishing,
o r listing
per-
sons , a nd o f banning.
B a n i s h m e n t
is an
action which
c a n b e
taken against Afr icans .
Section 5(l)(b)of the Native
Administration Act, 1927,
a m e n d e d
1952
and 1956,e m po w e r stheStatePresident, w h e n e v e rhe d e e m sit expe-
d i e n t
in the
public
interest,
without
notice,to
o r d e r
any
tribe,portion
o ftribeor
individual
African to m o veto any
stated place. Banishment
has
b e e n
u s e d ,
i.e.,
to
r e m o vef r o m
thereserves
p e r s o n s
w ho
ha v e b e e n
active
opponents
o f chiefs o r o f government m e a s u r e s fo r 'Bantu
authorities',
or
land
betterment,or the
issuing
of
r e f e r e n c e b o o k s
to
w o m e n .
a
In addition,e m e rge n c yregulations for the Transkei (Proclamations
400 and
413) provide that
anyperson suspected of c o m m i t t i n g an
of f e nc e
under
theregulations o f a n y
law,
o r o fintending t o do s o , o r
o f possess ing in format ion about an
o f f e n c e
m a y b earrested
w i t h o ut
warrant
an d
held
in
custody until
the
police
o r prison
authorities
are
satisfied that they have
fully
an d truthfully answered all relevant
quest ions
put to
them.
The
o f f e n c e s
include:
holding
a m e e t i n g o f
m o r e than
te n
Africans
unless
withspecialperm iss ion(church
service s
an d funerals
are
exempted), m a k i n g
an y
statement
o r
p e r f o r m i n g
an y action likely to have the
e f f e c t
of in te r fe r ing with the
authority
o fthe
State,
one of its officials, or a chieforheadmanorboycotting
an official meeting.
Theperson
held
in c us t o dy
u n d e r
these
regulations may not c o n s ul t
with a legal
adviser
unless
with
t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e M i n i s t e r o f B a n t u
Administration
and
Development.
3
1.
Bulletin
of tile
International Commission
o f
Jurists,
G eneva , S eptem b er 1966. Here qu oted f rom
Report
of the United
Nations Special Commit tee
on the
Policies
o f
Apartheid
of the
Government
of th e
Republic
of
South Africa,
O c t o b e r1966,A/6486,p.121.
2. MurielHorrell,
Act ion, Reaction a nd Counteraction ,
Johannesburg 1963,p. 64. Seealso
A Survey
of Race Relations
in
South Africa, 1965,
o p.
cit.,p.
52 .
3.
A Survey
o f
Race Relations in South Africa,
1965, o p.cit., p. 52.
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Introduction
Between January
an d
April 1966,
a
total
o f
sixty-twoTranskeians
were detainedby theSouth African
authorities.
1
U n d e r the Suppress ion of Communism
Act, 1950,
am e n d m e n ts
1962, a person might belisted as member or ac t ive
supporter
of the
C o m m u n i s t
Party o f
South Afr ica (banned
in
1950)
o r o f a n y
o t h e r
organization d e e m e d
unlawful
(as the
Afr ican
NationalCongress, the
Pan-AfricanCongress and theA f r i c a n
Resistance
Movement). In 1962
alist of 437n am e s ofpersons, 129 Whites and 308n on-Whites , w as
published
in the
Gazette*Laters o m e h a ve b e e n r e m o ve df rom
thelist,
others
have b e e n a d d e d .
Although, strictly speaking, the
publication
of
thenameshas no direct
legal
consequences, the Minister of Justice
is e m po w e re dto
take certain
ac t ions againsta
listed
person.Itshould
be m e nt i one d that the
same
act ions might be directed against certain
other
categories ,too,aspersons c o n vic t e d o factions d e e m e d to have
furthered the a ims of communism. Banning orders of t h e m ost vary-
ing c h a ra c t e r
might
be
served.
Thus, a p e r s o nmight be
prohibited
f r o m b e c o m i n g or be ing a m e m be r o f specified
organizations
o r
orga-
nizations
o f a
specified
nature.
Further,
a
p e rs o n
m a y b e
prohibited
f r o m at tending gather ings of anykind,
including
social
gatherings.
Such prohibitions are
rather
frequent. With certain exceptions it is
an o f f e n c e to r e c o r d ,publish, o r di s s e m in a t ean y speech,utterance o r
writingmadeanywhere at anytimeby a person under suchban.
In addit iona b a n n i n g
o r d e r
mayim plythatthe p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d
is
prohibited
f r o m
absenting
himself
f r o m
an y stated place o r
area,
he may be
c o n f i n e d
to a town or a
suburb,
he may be
conf ined
to
h o us e a r re s t
for a
c e r ta in n u m b e r
of
h o urs ,
andpublic
holidays.
It is
s o m e t i m e s r e qui re dthatthe
person
shallr e m a inat home for 24 hours
e a c h
day.
8
The publication o fparticulars in the Gazette contains the
date
o f
delivery
o f
notice
and the
date
o n
whichnotice expires.
The
per iod
varies,
o f t e n i t i s one or two
years,
an d s o m e t i m e s
five
years.
At the beginning of 1964, 257
persons were
subject to
restrictions
u n d e r
the
Suppression
o f C o m m u n i s mAct.
TheUnitedNationsSpecial
Committee
on the
Policy
of Apartheid
1.
Report
of the
Uni ted
Nations
Special
Committee on the
Pol ic ies o f Apartheid
of the
G o v e r n m e n t
of the Republic of SouthAfrica, October 1 9 6 6 ,A/6486,
quoted
from the ChiefMinisterof the
Transkei in a reply to aquestionin the
Legislative
A s s e m b ly
reported
in
The
World,
Johannesburg,
8 June
1966.
2.
Annua l Survey
o f Sou th
African
La w, 1962, p. 53.
3.
House
o fAssemblyDebates,Hansard, 28J a nua ry
1964,
Cols.
405-6.
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Apartheid
in the Republic o f
South
Afr ica gave the n u m b e r o f pe r s o n s'banned'
as approximately
600 in 1966.
1
While
U nes co
is not
direc t ly concerned with
the
e c o n o m i c
and
poli-
tical aspects
o f
apartheid
in the
Republic
of South
Africa,
the
policy
ofapartheidhas consequences foreducation,
sc ience ,
culture and the
dissemination o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h
follow
logically
f ro m the philosophical c onc e pt of man as conceived by the ideology
of 'Apartheid' , f ro m thee c o n o m ic
ine qualitie s
whichthepolic yc reates
an d
reinforces,
an d f ro m thepolitical
situation
which severelyc urtails
f r e e d o m
for all South
Africans,
and in
particular
for the
non-White
South
Afr icans
w ho f o r m the
majori ty
of thecountry'spopulation.
In conformity wi th the
ideal of'separateness',
Africans, Asians,
Coloureds and
Whites
are
ed u ca ted
asindependentgroups within the
population,the'separateness'emphasized by the administrative struc-
ture
ofeducation,bymethodsof f inance , by di f ferences insyllabus,
and by
di f ferent
levels of achievement deliberately imposed to fit in
with
di f fe re nt
expectations
in
employment. Ultimately education
is
geared
for the effect ive
preparation
of the Afr i cans f o r
their f u t u r e
occupations as unskilled
labourers. Higher training
is
intended only
for th e s ma l l nu mb er o f p er s ons wh o ca n b e emp l oy ed in
skilled
works in African 'homelands' or African 'development
schemes'.
The result of racial discrimination in educat ion and in the
pat te rn
of employment is seen clearly in the
field
of
science.
South Africa is
fac ing
a
chronicshortage
of
top-level
manpowerin
science
and
techno-
logy
as
well
as in m a n age m e n t. The
shortage cannot
be r em edied by
relying
on the Whitepopulation
alone. M o r e o v e r,
the
genera lrepres-
sive atmosphere is
inimical
to the development of a spirit of f r ee
inquiry and has led to the loss to South Afr ica o f
s o m e
scientists of
great e m i n e n c e , particularly
in the field of the social
sciences.
The
political
atmosphere ha s
also
a f f e c t e d recruitment o f
staff ,
particu-
larly
f r o m universities
in the United
Kingdom.
'
Se paratedevelopm en t'
in thefieldof
cu lture
hasreduce dto a
m ini-
m um
allcontacts
b e tw e e n
Whites
andnon-Whitesthatare not
purely
of
an
e c o n o m i c
nature.
As in all
other fields,
'separate
development'
is
in
f a c t s y n o n y m o us
with
'inequality
of
access',but,moreover,
cultural apartness, as opposed to cultural interaction for which
1. Report
of the
Special Com m i t t ee
on the Policies
o f Apartheid
of the
Government
of the
Republic
of South Africa,
October
1966, A/6486, p. 118.
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Introduct ion
Un e s c o stands, has limited the
creative possibilities
of all South
Africans.
That
policy c a n n o t
be
separated
from
principle
is illustrated
in Part IV, on informat ion. Whilst the South African G ov e rnm e nt
in its statements
continues
to
uphold
therightto
f r e e d o m
of
i n f o r m a -
tion,the need to enforce the policy ofapartheidha s af fected the
rele-
vant
legislationand itsapplication,theactions takenden yinginf a c t
the
principle
o f
f r e e d o m
of
informat ion.
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1
Aims
an d
objects
An
inquiryinto
the
e f f e c ts
of the
policy
o f
apartheid
in the
field
o f
South Afr i can e duc a t io n o f
necess i ty begins with
an
examinat ion
o f
the
basic objectives
of the
G o v e r n m e n t
o f
South Africa.
What d o e s
the government seek
f r o m
education?How
does
itspurpose compare
with that
generally
accepted by
other societ ies
of the
w o r l d ?
In 1945, three years before the Nationalists c a m e to power, two
statements w e r e m a d e
in the
House
o f Assembly by
m e m b e r s
w ho
were prominent
in the National
Party:
'As has
b e e n correctly stated here,educ ation
is the key to the
cre ation
o f
theproper relationship b e t w e e n European and non-European in
South
A f r i c a . . . .
Put
native
e d u c a t io non a
s o u n d basis
and
half
the
racial
questions
are
solved....
I say
thatthereshould
be
r e f o r m
of
the
whole
educational
system
a nd i t m u s t be
based
o n the
cul ture
an d
background
and the
whole
life
of the
native himself
in his
tribe....
This
whole
(present) policy is also a
danger
f o r o u r o w n W e s t e rn
civilization.'
1
Weshouldnot givethen ativesanaca d em iceducation,ass o m epeople
a r e to o prone to do. I f we do this weshalllater be b u rd e n e d with a
n u m b e r
o f
academical ly
trained E u r o p e a n s an dnon-Europeans, an d
w ho
is
going
to do the
manuallabour
in the
country?
... I am in
thorough
a g r e e m e n t
with
the view that w eshould so
c o n d u c t
o ur
schoolsthatthe nativewho a t tends those
schools
will k n o wthatto
agreatextent he m u s tbe the labourer in thecountry.'
2
1. Mr. M. D. C. de Wet
Net,
House of Assembly Debates, Hansard ,
Vol.
52, 2
April, 1945,
Cob.
4494-9.
2. Mr. J. N. leRoux,
ibid.,
Col.
4527.
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Apartheid
An important
inf luence
in
def ining
the
objectives
o f
education
in
South
Afr ica was the concept o f Christian National Education,
1
outlined
by the
Institute
ofChristian
National
Educationfor the
Fed-
eration
of Afr ikaner
Cultural Organizations
(FAK). The Christian
National
Education
policywaspublishedin a
pamphletissued
by the
FAK in
1960;
it stated:
'In full
preservation
of the
essential unity
of his tory webelievethat
God. . .
has
willedseparate nations
and peoples, and has
given
to
e a c hnation
andpeopleitsspecialcalling andtasksand
g i f t s . . . .
We
believe
that
n ext
to the mother tongue, the national history of the
people
is the
great m e a n s
of
cultivating
love
of
one's
own....'
2
ChristianNationalEducation did not
have
the support of all White
South
Afr icans.
English-speaking
teachers associations,
NUSAS,
the
English-speaking
press and
s o m e
Afrikane rs
opposed
it. They
claimed
that
it
overemphasizes
the
d i f f e r e n c e s
b e tween
peoples
and
could,
by
encou r a ging unilingualism and by
developing
divergentconceptions
o f
history,
dangerously
divide
Afrikaans-speaking
f r o m
English-
speaking South
Afr i cans .
M or eov er th ey m i s t rus t e d the Christian
NationalEducationopinion that
subjects
like sc ience ,history
should
be presented in the light of fixed belief.
3
E v e n a m o n g those w ho
supported
it,
t h e re w e re
s om ewho sawChristian
NationalEducation
not a s a meth od o f d eny ing eq u a l
rights
f o r
Afr i cans
inaccordance
with a pre-dest ined
pre-ordained plan,
bu trather a s a wa y
o fguaran-
teeing
the
Afr ikaner
heritage against
the
inf luence
of the
English-
speaking South African on the one
hand,
and on the
other,
guaran-
t e e ing
the same
separa tenesstogether with
intensi f ied
m i s s i o n a ry
e n d e a v o u r f o r
all groups within
South Africa. They
believed that
equali ty
both in
e d u c a t i o n
and in
cultural rights could
c o m e
about
onlythrough
separateness. Theypointed to the
c o n c e p t
o f
'negritude'
and the 'Afr ic an
personality'
inother
parts
o fAfr ica. In SouthAfr ica
1. Christian National
Education
which
first
appeared
in the Netherlands in
1860
was in
Afrikaner
circles
in
South
Africaseen as early as 1876 as a
means
of
restoring
theChurch's
i n f l u e n c eover
the
youth
and as protecting
them
against the
domination
ofEnglishculture. It wasfromthestart
linkedwiththe protection of the Dutch heritage and the
Dutchlanguage,
and was a
reaction
to
the
tendency
for
public
schools to use
English
as the
medium
of instruction. See T. R. H. Daven-
port,TheAfrikaner B o n d 1880-1911,CapeTown,London,New
York,
Oxfor dUniversityPress,
1966, p.30-3.
2. Quoted f r o m F. E.Auerbach,ThePower
o f
Prejudice in Sou th African
Educa t i on , Cape
Town,
Amsterdam,1965,
p.
112.
3. Seealso G w e n d o l e nM.
Carter,
ThePoli t ics o f
Inequali ty
in Sou th Africa s ince 1948, 2nd ed.,
London, Thames &Hudson, 1959, p.261-6.
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Educat ion
they
felt
thatthe uniquenesso f theAfrican
tradition
could be fostered
best bystrengthening or thereconstructing
where
this w asnecessary,
o f
o ld
triballoyalties
and the
re inforc ing
of the
mother
t o n g ue
which
they
saw as one of the basic necessities for separateness, while
permeating the whole
with
the Christian principles of the Dutch
R e f o r m e d
Church. Both in the Transvaal and in the Orange Free
State, ChristianNational
Education has b e e nadopted. It has had an
importantin f luenc e incertain sec t ions o f the
Cape
Provinc e while in
Natalthe Provincial Councilhas
re fuse d
to
accept
it. The principles
o fChristianNational E duc a t i o n a re
important
n o t only because they
have been
accepted
by
s o m e
provinces
withinthe
Republic
of
South
Africa,
but
b e c a u s e
the
interlockinginteres ts within
Afr ikane r
society
e n s u r e that therearec losetie sb e tw e e ntheInstituteof ChristianNatio-
nal Educat ion, the Federat ion of Afrikaaner Cultural
Organizations
an d
influential
m e m b e r s of the
Nationalist Party.
What the Africans w ant f r o m educat ion has been s u m m e d up as a
quest'for
integration
into
the
democratic structure
and
institutions
of the country. To
them
one of the
m o s t
effective
ways
of
achieving
this is by educat ionan education
essentially
i n n o w a y di f f e r en t
f r o m
o r in fe r ior to ,that o f
other
sect ions of thecommunity'.
1
1. D. G. S.
M'Timkulu
in' The
Af r i c a n
and
Education',Race
Relat ions
Journal ,Vol.
16, No.
3,1949.
Quoted
f r o m
Muriel
Horrell,A Decade
of B a n t u
Educat ion ,
Johannesburg,
South
A f r ic an Institute
ofRace
Relations,
1964,p.157.
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2 Prim ary and secondary
schools.
Administration
African schools.
The
Ban t u Educat ion
Act
Until 1953 African schools
wer e ,
with
regard
to
administration
and
controls,of
f o u r
types:privateschools
run by
religiouscommunities,
etc.,
which
could, if they wished, apply fo r
official
recognition an d
State
aid;subsidized m ission
sc hoo lsf o u n d e d
by
church organizations,
subsidized by the State an d whose syllabus w asprescribed by the
Provincial Education Departments;
government
schools
run by an
education
department;
c o m m u n ity
or
tribal schools, where
the
c o m -
mu ni t i e s or t r i b e s a s s um e d theresponsibility for themaintenance o f
the school.
The administrative control over Afr ican schools h a d b e c o m e very
complex.
Each
Provincial
Cou nc i l
legislated for i t s own areain the
Cape the Education
Department
dealt
with
the education of all children
but in allother
provincesthere were Departments
of
NativeEduca-
t ionthe control was shared with
Church
authorities, whileParlia-
m e n t
voted funds
fo r African education. In an at tempt to achieve
greater
co-ordination
aUnion AdvisoryBoard forNative Education
was
set up in
1945,
and in
1949
it had two
Afr icanmembers:Profe ssor
Z. K. Matthews and Dr. J. S.
Joroko.
In
1949,
the South African Gov e r nm e nt appointed a co mmi t t ee
which
had as
part
of itsmandate:
'(a)
The
f or mu l a t ion
of the
principles
and
a ims
of education for
Natives as an independent
race,
in
which
their past
and
present,
theirinherentracialqualities,
their
distinctive
characteristics and
aptitude, and their n e e d s u n d e r ever-changing socialconditions
are taken into consideration.
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Educa t ion
'(b)
Theextenttowhichtheexisting primary,s e c o n d a ryandvocational
educationalsystemfo rNativesand thetraining o fNative teachers
should
bem odif iedin
respect
of the
content
an df o r m o f
syllabuses,
in
order
to
conform
to the
proposed principles
and
aims,
and to
prepare Natives more effect ively
fo r
their
future
occupations.'
The m ain
pro posalsof this com m ittee ,k now nas the Eiselen Com m is-
sion,
were e m b o di e d in the Bantu Education Act of 1953,and as
amendedin1954,1956, 1959and1961. Thisact,whichaf fec t ed the
African population, represented the first m a j o r
application
of the
official
policy o fapartheid toeducation.
The
Bantu Education
Ac t o f
1953
provided
for the
direct control
o f African
schools by the Ministry o fBantu
Aff airs
and not by the
provincial
governments.
The aim was tointroducea
system
of
African
education
closelyco-ordinated with other aspectso fAfr ican develop-
ment, whichcould not beachieved withtheexistingsystemo fdivide d
control.
The Minister o fNativeAff airs introducingthebill
said:
'Education must
train
and teach people in accordance with their
opportunities in life according to the spherein
which
theylive....
Good racial relations cannot exist
when the
education
is
given u n d e r
the
control
o f
people
w ho
createw r o n gexpectations
on thepart o f
the
Native
himself....
Native education should
be
controlled
in such
a way that it
should
be in
accordance
with
the
policy
of the
State
...
racial
relations cannot improveif theresulto fnative educationis the
creation o f f rus t ra ted
people.'
1
TheBantu Education
Act,
then,was not onlytoregulatethe system
of African education so
that
anomalies between provinces and
schools
should beremoved,it was to control it in accord with the
policy of the
State.
The
Bantu Education
Ac t t ransfe rred
administration
o f Afr ican
schools
from
the
provincial authorities
to the
Department
o f
Native
Affairs.
The
minister, acting under
wide
powers,
withdrew
grants
as
f rom 1957
to privateschoolsforAfricans. Private organizations
were
given
the
choice
o f
relinquishing control
o f
primary
o r s e c o n da ry
schools
an d sellingo r
letting
the building to the de partm e nt or
retain-
in g
theschoolsasprivate, unaided institutions.But
even
in the
latter
1 Houseof
Assembly
Debates,H an s ar d
Vol.
83,17September1953,Col.3575.
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Apartheid
case the y wo uld haveto accept departmental
syllabuse s
andregulations
regarding
appointmento f
teachers,adm ission
o fstudentsan d
media
o f
instruction. O n e o f t he a r g u m e n t s against the f o r m e r system was the
lack
of
consultation
b e t w e e n
school
principals and
Africans.
In the
n e w system
s o m e
re spon sibility was to bedelegated
f r o m
the
Central
Governm ent to
'Bantu'authoritie s
a nd
local
councils as far as control
o v e rprimary
schools w as
concerned,
an d
when
n o
s u c h authorities
existed
school bo a r ds
were
to be created. However , unlike White
schoolboards, the m e m b e r sto these school
c o m m i t t e e s
were to be
subjec t to theapproval of the Secre tary for
Bantu
Education himself ,
an d subsidies
f r o m
the
CentralGovernment
could b e wi th d r a wn on
a
month's
notice,
without
anyr e a so ngive nforthis withdrawal.
1
More-
over theUnion's Advisory Board for
Native
Educationhad had in
1949
tw o
African
members. Thisboard w asresponsible for advising
o n
important
policy
decis ions
as far as African
education
w ascon-
c e r n e d . These policy
dec is ions were
n o w b e i n g
taken
by theDepart-
m e n t o f
Bantu Administrat ion
sothat
African participation
at this
level ha b b e e n effectively abolished.
2
Secondary
school control was to remain
vested
in the
principal
or in
a s pec ia l com m it tee
w hile schools
o n
f a rm s ,
m i ne s o r
f a c t o ryproperty
could be managed by the o w n e r of thepropertyor his
representative.
The result wasthat all mission and church schools,
other
than
those
maintained by the Catholic Church
3
and the
Seventh-Day
Adventis ts , w e re t ra n s fe r re d to the Department of Ba ntu
Affairs,
o r
were f o r c e d to close.
4
Coloureds
The
Coloured Peoples
Act of 1963providedthat the control, until
then vested in the provinces , o f the educat ion for
Coloured
pe r so n s
should be vested in a Division o f Educat ion
within
the Depar tment
1.Ibid.,Vol.
89,13June
1955, p. 19,Col.7663;
Government
Notice No. 841 of 22
April1955.
2. In reply to a quest ion in the H o u s e o f Assembly, th eMinister o f
Bantu
E d u c a t i o n statedthat
of
the 28 higher
administrativeposts,
80
higher professional posts
and 42 administrative
posts
on the
salary scale
R.
2,280
x1202,760 in his department,
none
w e r e
occupied
by A fr i ca ns .
House ofAssemblyDebates, Hansard , 9April1965,
CoJs.
4084-5.
3. TheCatholic
Church
set
about establishing
a 1 million
f u n d
to f i n a n c e theirschools.
Murie
Horrell,A Decade of B an tu
Educat ion ,
Johannesburg,SouthA fr i ca n
Institute
ofRaceRelations,
1964,
p. 26.
4. The then Bishop of Johannesburg, the Rt.Rev. Ambrose Reeves d e c i d e d
that
he could not
co-operatewith
thegovernment
e v e n
to the extent of
leasing buildings
to the
Department
of Bantu
Affairs . Schools under his control
were
either
handed
over to the
owners
torun, or closed.
M. Horrell, op.cit.,p. 29.
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Education
fo r Coloured Affairs. Afte r thisact,
n o o n e
couldmanage
a
private
school at whichmorethan 14Coloured
pupils
were
enrolled
unless
the
school
was
registe red
with
the
de pa r tm e n t .
T h e a c t
provided
not only for the
t ransfe r
o f
schools,
but for the
control of conditions o f service for the
teachers,
o n e condition o f
service
being
thatteachers
could
n o t
belong
to a ny organization to
whichtheminister,in anoticein theG azette,declared
that
the yshould
n o t belong. AnEducation Cou nc i l f or Col ou r ed P er s ons would ac t
in
an
advisory
capacity.
Asians
The
Indians' Education
A ct o f
1965also provided
for the
control
o f education fo rIndians to be vested in the Central Government
under
the
Department
o fIndianAffairs. The act had
provisions
similar
to the ColouredPeoplesAct of1963,the minis ter b e i n g e m p o w e re d
to establish anIndian Education
Advisory
Council,schoolc o m m itte e s ,
etc.,he co uld
recognize
associationso fIndian
teachers,
and i t
def ined
what
could
b e cons id er ed
m i s c o n d u c t
on the
part
o f
teachers.
1
These
two acts, the
ColouredPeoples
A ct o f
1963
and the
Indians
Education
Act of
1965,would s e e m , therefore ,
to
follow
the
pattern
of the Bantu
Educat ion
Act of1953,and to
provide
the legal
basis
for a
control
o f educat ion in line with thegovernment's
policy
o f
'separatedevelopment'.
Whites
Ever
since
the
South
African
Ac t
(1909)
Article
85,
pr imary
an d
s e c o n da ryeducation fo r Whitepupils h a s b e e n adminis tered in the
provinces by the Provincial Council.With the exceptionof Natal,
each school has a
local
commit t ee , e l ec t ed b yparents,
whose
chief
f u n c t i o n is theselection o fteachers, subject to the final approval o f
the department. In Natalthe ProvincialDepartmentcontrols
every-
thingand
there
are no
p ar e n t
c om m it tee s . Withavie wto co-ordinating
the wo rk of the provinc es the
g o ve r n m e n t
ins t i tute din
1935
an
Inter-
provincial Consultat ive C o m m it te e in the field of White
Education.
Ninety- two per cent of European pupils receiving primary an d
se c ond ary
educat ion at tend State
schools.
2
The remainder at tend
1. House ofAssembly
Debates,
Hansard ,
Vol. 13,20
April
1965,
Cols.4434-6; op.
oit.,
21 April
1965,
Cols.4552,4554,4556; op.cit.,28
April
1965, Cols.4928,4967,5015.
2.
World
Survey
of Educat ion .I: Handbook of Educat ional Organizat ion and Statistics,Paris,Unesco,
1955,p.
612.
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Apartheid
private
schools,
mainlyrun by ch u r ch
bodies .
These
private schools
have
to be
registered
by the
school
authority
concerned,
but unlike
church
schools
c o n d u c t e d f o r
Africans,
they
are
f r e e
to
organize their
curricula as they
please.
Sinceallstudentsin
private
as
well
as State
schools
studyfor the samee xam ination
(Matriculation, Senior School
Certificate) the syllabuses are in fac t
very
similar.
Primary
an d
secondary
schools.
Finance
Africans
Financing African education w asintroduce d by Act No. 5 of
1921.
The
costs were
to be met partly by
taxation levied
on Africans and
partly
by
funds
dr a wn
from
general
revenue. The act
debarred
the
ProvincialCouncils
f r o m
imposing
specialdirecttaxation o nAfrican s
except undercertainconditions.
That
is, it was
provided that
every
province should expend annually
on the
educat ion
o f ' n a t i v e s ' a sum
not lessthanits expenditure on sucheducation duringthe f inancial
year
1921-22,
that
the Governor-General
might,
f r o m
t ime
to
t ime,
make
grants
to any province for the
extension
and improvement of
educational
fac ilities
among'natives',andthat
such grants
should be
m a d e
out of the
r e v e n u e s
derived
f r o m
'the
direct taxation
of the
persons, lands,
habitations o r i n c o m e s ofnatives'.
1
This act w h i c h b e c a m e
important
in theNationalist
argument
in
favour of
financing African educat ion
mainlyf ro madditionalAfrican
1. Unionof
South
Africa,
Report
of the C omm ission o n Nat ive Educat ion,
1949-51,
p. 36(the
Eiselen
report).
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Education
taxation would seem
to lay the
p r e c e d e n t
that the c o s t of extens ions
in African educat ion should be carr ied by the African himself .
A s e c o n d
act,
No. 41 of
1925
(Native
Taxation
a nd D ev el op ment
Act) had changed the
taxation
o f Afr icans
f r o m
the provinces to the
Central G o ve r n m e n t ,
and the
provisions
o f f u n d s fo r A f r i c a n s ' edu-
ca t ion b e c a m e the responsibility of theCentral G o ve r n m e n t .
Both the principles, that
fur ther
expansion of
African
educat ion
shouldbefinanc iallybornebyAfricans, an dthatAfrican e duc a t io n a l
policy w as the respon sibility of the
Central
G o v e r n m e n t , wereinclu-
de d in the
Bantu
E duc a tio nA ct o f
1959
and the
budgetary
provisions
which
a ccomp a nied
it.
It is
true
that the
m o n e y
available
f r o m
the General Tax levied
up o n
the
Afric ans
increasedf r o m
233,348
in
1926-27
to
459,831
in
1944.
1
However, in
o r d e r
topermit
expansion
o f African
educat ion
the principleo f
having
a ce iling o n the contr ibut ions
f r o m
the
gene ral
revenue wasabolishedin 1945.
Afte r the introduction of the
Bantu
Education
Act, 1953,
the
g o v e r n m e n t rever ted to an
earlier
position that there should be a
ceiling to the
contributions
f r o mthe general revenues.
From
the
fiscal
year
1955-56
when
the BantuEducationA c c o u n t
c am e
intoo perat ion
there has
b e e n
t ransfe rred
f r o m R e ve n ue
A c c o u n t a fixed a n n u a l
a m o u n t
o f R.13
million.
To
this
ha s
b e e nadded
a s um f o r
un ive rsity
colleges
(500,000 in 1965-66).
The
Minister
o f
Native Affairs
in
pegging
the
subsidy
for
African
educat ion
said:
'I thinkit is a wise thingto do in theinterestsof thec o u n t ryand its
f inances ,
but also because
Ba ntu ed u c a tion
can only be
guide dalong
s ou ndlines w he n w e
build
u pthis
principle that
while the
E u r o p e a n
is prepared to m a k e heavy contributions to native education, the
native
c o m m u n ity
will
haveto
shoulde rtheirshare
o f the
responsibility
fo r
this d ev e lopm ent in f u t u r e . '
2
In o r d e r to
m e e t
the
increasing
c o s t
in
African
education
the
Native
Taxation
and
Development
Ac t (No. 41 of 1925) was a m e n d e d in
1958
sothat thebasic genera l tax for
which
only African m e n w e r e
eligible
co uld be ra ised f r o m R.2 to
R.3.50.From
1959 an d 1960 this
1. Muriel Horrell,
A
Decade
o f B an tu
Edu ca t ion , Johannesburg, South Afr ican Institute ofRace
Relations,
1964,
p. 31. (1 =
R.2.)
2. Minister of Native Affairs,
House
ofAssemblyDebates,H a n s a rd , 19S4, 3June, Col. 6211.
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Apartheid
basic
figure wa s inc r ea s ed
according
to theproportion of the
taxable
i n c o m e s
of
individual taxpayers while
in
1960 African
w o m e n , w h o
had not
b e f o r e
paid the
general
tax
became
liable if their
income
e x c e e d e d R.360 per annum.
Government Notice
No. 251 of 22
February 1957,
as
amended
by
R217 and 218 of 21
February
1964,
stated
the
regulations
fo r
school
f u n d s in'Bantu'
c o m m u n ity
schools. These f u n d s were to bederived
f ro m
bazaars,
c onc e r t s ,
etc.
In
addition there
were to
be ' volunt ary '
contributions f r o mpupils ranging
f r o m 10
c e n ts
in lowe r
primary
to
R.6 for s tudentsin vocational ortechnicalschools or
classes.
1
(See
also
Chapter
4,'School Feesand Textbook
Supplies'.)
School boards
were also require d to raisepart of the
m o n e y
towardscapital cos tso f
higher and post-primaryschools.Moreover, whenschools are
er ec t ed
i n t h e n e w African
urban
townships, the cos ts of th e l ower p r ima r y
schools m a y b eincluded in theloansfor housing
schem es,
an dSection
36
of theNative Laws
Am e n d m e n t
Ac t No . 36 of 1957
e m po w e r e d
the
Minister
of
Native
Affairs to
take
into
co nsideration
the costs of
providingeducational services whendeciding upon rentals
in
Afr i can
townships or hostels. During the
six-year
period,
1955-56
to
1960-61,
theNationalHousing
lent
R.1,177,556 to local authorities for building
lower
prim ary classroom s.
2
African te nants
were
e xpec ted
to gradually
repay these loans through rents.
The annualgrantf ro m the
Consolidated
RevenueFundf o r
African
education
w as fixed atR.13
million.
The South
Afr i can
Institute o f
Race
Relations, working
out the purchasing p o w e r of this amount
against
the
retail
price index,
c o n c l ud e d
that
1963
R.I3
million
would
purchase in1965 onlythe equivalent ofR.10.8 million.
3
In Table3 the
reven ue
fo r 1955-56
(the
first
year
ofoperationo f the
Bantu
Education Account)
is
compared
with that fo r
1960-61
an d
with
estimates o f r e ve n u e
f r o m
the s a me s o u r c e s in 1963-64.
The increase in the
total i n c o m e
available for Afr ican education
b etween
1955-56
an d 1963-64w a s d u e
mainly
to an
increase
inAfr i can
taxation,a n d to agreaterper ce n tage o f theAfricangeneral taxfour-
fifths
until
1961
an d
five-fifths
a f t erwardswhich
w as
allocated
to
African education.
4
1. M. Horrell, op.
cit.,
p. 16.
2.Ibid.,p. 15.
3. Secondary Educat ion
for Africans,
Johannesburg,
South A f r ic an Institute
of Race
Relations,
p. 12(RR.96/65).
4. Quoted f r o m M.Horrell,op.cit.,p. 34.
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Educa t ion
T A B L E 3.Com parisonof
revenues
for1955-56an d 1960-61
withestimates
ofrevenuesin1963-64(inRand)
1
Item 1955-56
1960-61 1963-64
Fixed s tatutoryappropriation
f rom
generalrevenue
Four-fif ths of African
general tax(andfive-
fif ths in
1963-64)
Miscellaneousreceipts
boarding
fees ,etc.)
13
12
13
3
932 566 5 459 33 7 8
121278 6655 8 73
TOTAL 17 53844 19124541 2153
1. Quotedf r o mM.
Horrell,
op.cit.,p.34.
The
relationship
b e t w e e n
n e tnationalincome an deducation c a n b e
seen f r o m
Table 4. It relates South
Africa 's
n e tnational income to
t o t a l
educational expenditure
a n d t o
expenditure
o n
Afr ican schools.
T A B L E
4.
Relationshipb e t w e e n
n e t
national
in c o m e a n d
education
1
Year
1953-54
1958-59
1961-62
1963-64
Net
national
income
(millions
o f
Rand)
2833
3710
4622
5651
Total
expenditure
on
education
(thousands
o f
Rand)
113418
149 189
188 390
Expenditure o n .
Bantu schools
(thousands
of Rand)
16032
18458
19207
22352
Total
expenditure
on education
as
percentage
o f net national
income
4.0
4.02
4.07
Expenditure
on Bantu
schools as
percentage of
net
national
income
0.57
0.50
(0.4975)
0.42
0.42
(0.39554)
1.
Taken
from SecondaryEducation
for
Africans
op.cit.,p.
12.
...
=
Data
not
available.
While
expenditure
on
education
in
general
had
risen
inproportion
to the netnational
income,
the
percentage
spenton
Afr ican schools
was decreasing.
The Minister fo rBantuEducation
explained
ho w
increased enrol-
m e n t w ashandled without a corresponding
rise
in
expenditure.
It was
d o n e
by:
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Apartheid
1. Theintroductionof double sess ionsin the
sub-standards,
thatis,
the
first
two years of schooling. In
1958,45.6
per cent of the
children
w e r e
in
these standards,
2. The
policy
o fappointing as far aspossiblew o m e nteachers for the
lower
primary classes. The
majori ty
are
teachers with Standard
6 plus three years o f
teacher
training whose starting salary is
1013s.4d.per month.
3. The grading o f farm schools
into
junior an d senior schools with
a correspondingsavingon salaries since teachers in
junior
schools
are paid a very small salary.
4. The
conversion
of
school
feeding
f u n d s
for the
expansion
of
educational
facilities, whererequested by the schoolboards.This
last was already beingdone. In thepresent financial year school
f e e d i n g
is estimated to
cost
35,000. In
1954
it was
628,000.
1
This
isparticularly
serious
inviewof thehigh rateof
malnutrition
among
Afr icans .
'Several surveys
among Afr ican
school childrenrevealedthat60 to
70%
were
recognizably
malnourished;
50%
needed
nursing and
medical attention,
and
almost
10%
required hospitalisation
for
diseases
directly
o r indirectly
attributable
to
malnutrition.'
2
Rough
estimates
as to the a m o u n t
contributed
by Africans to the
costs of educating their children d u r i n g the year 1960-61 give the
following figures:R.5,459,033in
direct
taxation;R.
114,225
advanced
towards the
erection
o f schools (this sum includes
a mo un t s added
to
the rentals of
houses
inurban areas);
R.200,000
contributed towards
the salaries ofteachers;
R.2,860,632
on school
requisites,
f e e s , etc.;
in all,
R.8,633,890.
3
Coloureds
Colourededucationcontinued
to be f inanced
partly f r o m
the
Conso-
l ida ted Revenue
Fund
and part ly
f rom
provincial taxation.
For the
year 1966
it
amounted
to
R.23,640,500
of
which R.501,000
had
gone
1. House ofAssemblyDebates,Hansard ,Vol.1,1965,Col.3867.(R.2=-1.)
2. African Taxat ion: I ts Relation to African Social Services,Johannesburg, South Af r i c a n Institute
of
RaceRelations,1960,p. 27
(Fact
Paper No. 4). In 1943the
government
introduceda
school
feedingscheme forAfrican childrenon the
same
basisas for children of allracial
groups.
See
M.Horrell,
op.
cit.,
p.
154.
3. M.
Horrell,
op.cit.,p.161.
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Educat ion
to the
University
of theWe stern Cape, and
R.2,000
toFort Harefor
Coloured
students still attending classes
there.
1
In the
budget
speech
of 21
February
1963,
however,
the Minister
of ColouredAffairs said
that Coloured
peo plewould to an increasing
extentbeable to makea
direct
contr ibution to their e ducat ion and to
the costs connec tedwith
it.
2
Thisinfac t wasalre adybeing d o n e .The
Indianc o m m u n ityalone had contributed over R.2 million to building
their own schools during the period 1937-65. Indian teachers had
given 3 to 6 per c e n tof
their
basic salariesfor a
two-yearperiod.
3
Whites
White prim ary a n d s e c o n d a r y e duc a t io n isf i n an c e dpartly by
provin-
cial taxation
and partly by a
subsidy f r o m
the
Central
Go ver n men t
(see
Table
5). The general subsidy f r o m the Central G o v e r n m e n t
am ou nt s to about 50 per c e n t of the total provincial expenditure, to
which is added a special
subsidy
f o rthreepro vin c e s :theCape,Natal
andthe
Orange
Free
State.
T A B L E 5.
Provincial
expendi ture on educat ion ( in thousands of
Rand)
1
Year
Cape Natal Transvaal OrangeFree State
196
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
41968
439 3
45127
46248
51246
35451
13651
144 3
14893
155 9
18163
18732
33919
37 31
4 4
42482
4691
4818
8835
9227
965
1 174
11197
11781
1. From
State of
Sou th Africa Year B o o k ,
2 966 ,
p . 96 .
2.Yearending31
March.
Table
6
shows budgetarydetails
fo r
Afr i can, Coloured,Asian
an d
White
education
in the
year
1965-66.
1. Q u o t e dinA Survey o f Race
Relat ions
in South Africa, 196 5,Johannesburg, South
African
Institute
of
RaceRelations,
1966,p.258.
2.
House
ofAssembly Debates, Hansard , Vol.15, 21 February 1963,
Cols.
1739-45,
2193-204,
3997-8.
3. StanleyG.Osier,addressto theTeachers'E d u c a t io n a land ProfessionalAssoc iation, Cape Tow n,
28June
1965.
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Apartheid
TABLE 6.
Budgetary
details
for year
1965-66
Item
Budge tf o r
Coloured education
2
Schools
o findustries and r e fo r m
schools
Financial
assistance fo r
course
o f
instruction
Financial
assistance to State-aided
vocational
and
spec ial schools
Departmental technicalhighschools
Agriculturaltraining
Grants-in-aid
and bursaries
Provision
for
university colleges
Primary, secondaryan d high schools and
training
for teachers
T O T A L
Budget f o r Ind ian
education
3
Financial
assistance
to declared insti tutions and courses
for educationat tec hnical c olleges
Financial
assistance to State-aided vocational and special
schools
Financialassistance inrespect o f
buildings,
grounds,
equipment and
furni ture
Provision
for universi ty
colleges
T O T A L
Budgetfo r White education*
Ad u l t
e duc a t i on
Agricultural technicalservices
(regional
service s
an d
e duc a t i on)
Ed u cat io n ,
arts
an d
sciences
(from Revenue Account)
E d u c a t i o n ,
arts
and sc iences
(from
Loan
V o t e )
T O T A L
Rand
Budg et for African
educa t ion
1
African special
education:
estimate
o f
expenditures
from
Re v e nue
Account
Loan
V ot eAfricaneducation
Estimate
of expendi turesf ro m A f ri c a nEducation
A c c o u n t
T O T A L
14 200 000
1416000
23 400 OOP
39
016 000
360 000
22000
320000
30000
25000
382000
503000
3 543
OOP
5 185 000
289000
18000
24000
857000
1 188 000
1 489 590
12 080 000
35
523 000
4 667
OOP
53 759 590
1. Republico f
South
A f r ic a ,E s tima tes
of th e
E xpenditure
to be
defrayed
f rom
Revenue Accoun t
dur ing
th e Year
ending
31 March 1966, p. 139.
2.Ibid.,p. 249.
3.Ibid.,p.
143.
4.
Ibid.,
p. 74, 84 and
117.
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Education
Pe r capita expenditure. Comparison
between
racial
groups
Table
7
gives
the
per
capita
expenditure o n
African
pupils
over the
pe rio d 1953-61 in
State
and State -aided schoo ls.Thisin c l ude s a m o un t s
spent on
redemption
of
loans,
but
excludes expenditure
on the
main-
tenance of univers i ty col leges and capital expendi ture on the Loan
A c c o u n t .
TABLE
7. Per
capita
expenditureon Africanpupils,1953-61
1
Year
1953-54
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1959-60
1960-61
Amount
(Rand)
16032494
15 769 550
17277660
18036350
17 990 126
18 457 830
19473 200
18
852 514
Enrolment
938211
1 005 774
1 090 601
1 143 328
1 259 413
1 308 596
1 411 157
1 513 571
Cost per pupil
Oland)
17.08
15.68
15.88
15.78
14.28
14.10
13.80
12.46
1. Qu otedin M. Horrell, op.
cit.,
p. 41,f r om e s t imate sgivenby Mr. F. J. deV illiers,
th en
Secretary
fo rBantuEducation.
The latest
year
fo r whichover-allfigure s fo r
per
capita expenditure
isavailableis
1953
whenit was R.127.84for White
pupils,
R.40.43for
C o l o ure d.
Table
8
shows
comparative unit
costs
o f
ed u ca t ion
in
1962,
here
reproduced with explanations from Stanley Osier's address to the
Teachers' Educational and Profess ional Association, Cape
T o w n ,
1965.
It
should
be
n o t e dthatw hile
the
c e ntralize dcharacter
o f
Afr ic an
e duc a t i o n permits a single
over-all
figure f o r
Afr ican
e duc a t i o n to be
relevant,
in the
case
o f Coloureds ,
Indians
an d
Whites, per
capita
expenditure
varies
considerably
f rom province to province.
This
table indicates
the
inequality
that
exists
in the
financing
o f
ed u ca t ion
for the various
racial groups.
Theestimated
cost
pe r
head