2.1 Theoretical Fundamentals of Training - FIFA

25Theoretical Fundamentals of TrainingFootball Medicine Manual, ©F-MARC 2005

2.1 Theoretical Fundamentals of Training

2.1.1 Injury Prevention and Training

As mentioned elsewhere in this F-MARC manual, there is an extensive body of in-formation on injuries in football. We have learned many things, some obvious, some not so obvious. For example, two-thirds of all injuries occurred to the ankle, knee, head, lower leg and foot. One obvious con-clusion is first aid for games; be prepared to administer first aid for ankle and knee sprains, strained (pulled) muscles, contu-sions, lacerations and concussions.

Another interesting finding is the number of players with prior injuries. About half the players with ankle sprains had a prior sprain, many within the same season. The risk of a second ankle sprain increases by 3-5 times in players with a prior sprain. Very often, a major injury was preceded by an incompletely rehabilitated minor injury. Competitive sport is inherently risky, but we can support individual players to take appropriate precautions against injury or re-injury. For example:

• Poor flexibility and muscle tightness are often cited as risk factors in mus-cle strains, tendon injuries and re-inju-ries of strained muscles. The groin, hip flexors and ankle dorsi-flexors (pointing your toe up) are often tight in football players. Players should be encouraged, therefore, not to neglect stretching these problem areas.

• Ankle sprains often occur during tack-ling suggesting that technique may be an issue as well as fair play (many an-kle injuries are from late tackles from the side). In addition, over half of those with an ankle sprain will re-injure it and half of those do so within two months of the first injury. It is good advice to fol-low the doctor’s and therapist’s orders about rehabilitation. Most footballers see a sprained ankle as a nuisance, but returning too soon to play places the

player at a clear risk for another, possi-bly more serious, injury to the ankle or elsewhere. Protection of a sprained an-kle (e.g. taping, lace-up ankle supports) for 6 months to a year or more has been suggested for the unstable ankle. Do not to try to return to play too soon. Follow rehabilitation guidelines completely to protect prior sprains or any injury. The team needs its players on the field, not on the sidelines.

Risk factors of non-contact knee injuries include:

• Laxity - loose ligaments due to either prior injury or genetics

• Muscle imbalance - one leg being strong-er than the other or the quads and ham-strings being imbalanced.

• Flexibility - people with knee injuries have flexible hamstrings

• General motor skills - knee ligaments seem to tear during landing, stopping or cutting in an erect stance (straight knee and straight hip) and some valgus at the knee. This is especially true in female players, who need to play with a lower centre of mass and absorb the shock of landing by flexing the hips and knees;a soft and quiet landing means the shock of ground contact has been absorbed. For coaches, these are skills that should be taught when players are young. Pu-berty seems to be a reasonable age to start encouraging this technique.

• Low endurance has been cited as an in-jury risk. Injuries and goals are similar in that many occur late in games. In sur-veys of youth and professionals alike, a major fraction of all injuries occurred in the last 10-15 minutes of a game. Many training injuries occur during pre-season when players are unfit. So the main duty of each player is to arrive in shape, not to arrive in camp to get in shape. The

Football Medicine Manual, ©F-MARC 200526 Theoretical Fundamentals of Training

coach will then improve fi tness specifi -cally for the game so that players do not tire as much late in the game.

• Football skill is also a factor in injury. Less skilled players suffer more injuries. Skill work may seem dull, but we all know intuitively that the better skilled players are usually injured less frequently.

• Foul play has been implicated in injuries as up to 50% of traumatic football inju-ries were due to foul play; sometimes to the defensive player and sometimes to the offensive player. The most skilled and most fi t players are better able to avoid these collisions.

• Boys aged 11 to 14 are at a special risk. During puberty, height increases faster than muscle growth. The tall, weak boy gets injured more often than the short-er, less mature or the taller more ma-ture boy. That “in-between” period is a problem that deserves special attention from all involved. Notice the wide range of physical maturity in an U13 team (Fig. 2.1.1).

• Shin guards are required in football. While all guards will spread out the impact, they are not really helpful at preventing fractures. Shin guards that spread out the impact the most contain air/foam cell pads. Most players want the bare minimum guard to pass the referee’s inspection; however, the larger the shin guard, the more protection. As players get older, some even wear chil-dren’s shin pads because they are small and light, but pass inspection by the ref-eree (Fig. 2.1.2). Many contusion inju-ries from tackling are seen in the bottom third of the lower leg that is not protect-ed by the small children’s shin guards worn by adults. Law IV only states that a player must wear shin guards with no statements provided on size. Prevent lower leg contusions by wearing age-ap-propriate shin guards.

• Head injuries occur during head-head contact or head-ground contact, mostly in the penalty area and near the mid line (when competing for goal kicks, punts, etc.). Especially dangerous are head fl icks where a player fl icks the ball off the head, usually backwards. If the player who wants to head the ball does not separate from the defender, there is danger to the defender behind who

Fig. 2.1.1 US youth players

Fig. 2.1.3 Head-head contact

Fig. 2.1.2 Too small shin guards


jumps and gets hit on the chin or on the nose by the first player performing the flick (Fig. 2.1.3).

The female player on the far left (dark jer-sey) throws into a teammate who must head (flick) the ball over her own head. The defender (white jersey) jumps to head the ball. The player receiving the throw jumps slightly, impacts the ball and the oppo-nent’s face/nose leading to a fractured nose and cheek plus a concussion.

This action can lead to a whiplash type of injury. Perhaps a solution is to teach play-ers to take a step back to either control the ball on their chest/thigh/foot or head it back to a teammate they can see or to teach the person throwing the ball into play to throw the ball so that it can be con-trolled more easily (to feet, thigh or chest). This would protect both players and be tac-tically better. In youth play, players usually don’t know where the flick is going anyway so it is probably a wasted pass.

• A preventable goalkeeper injury in young players is a fractured wrist. This happens when an adult is shooting an adult size ball (size 5) at a younger goalkeeper. Al-ways use the age appropriate ball and only have players of the same age take real shots on goal. Common sense can eliminate this unnecessary injury.

• Another completely preventable injury is called a “de-gloving” injury of a finger. Before some games, nets need to be put on the goals and many goals have hooks in the bar for the nets. This injury hap-pens when someone jumps to put the net over a hook in the bar and catches a ring on the hook. Gravity then leads to this injury. Never jump. Always stand on a ladder or use other suitable support.

• Finally, goalpost injuries to children have led to catastrophic neck injuries and some fatalities. These happen when unsupervised children climb on portable goals and the goal tips over on a child.

Portable goals should always be secured to the ground and children should never be allowed to play on the goals. All fa-talities have occurred outside of games when the children were unsupervised. FIFA clearly states that no goal should ever be left unsecured.

Many injuries, especially re-injuries in football are preventable. Preparation prior to play is important as well as decisions made during play.

The main objective of any form of physical training is to elicit a physiological response that will permit the player to perform at a greater level than before and protect against injury. For any athlete attempt-ing to undergo a period of fitness training they must adhere to certain principles in order to gain maximum benefits from their training programme. This applies to all athletes, regardless of competency and is extremely important for the injured and deconditioned because training can be more varied and complex in comparison to the fit athlete who is more consistent in their training habits. The aim of this sec-tion is to provide a breakdown of the long established training principles and their importance to the athlete who, either due to injury or a period of inactivity, has not trained consistently for a sustained period of time.

2.1.2 The Individuality of Training

The predominant factor that governs an individual’s response to exercise training is genetics as everyone responds to exer-cise training differently even if the training performed is identical. Some individuals respond better to endurance type training whereas others respond to shorter, more power/strength biased activities.

Many research studies have examined the genetic response to exercise training and concluded that for maximal aerobic capac-ity, heredity can account for between 25%


- 50% of the variance in VO2 max values.

Improvements have been reported from 0% - 43% when a group of subjects fol-lowed the exact same endurance training programmes for up to 12 months. It has been said that “the best way to become an Olympic athlete is to be selective when choosing your parents.”

Athletics is a good example of how genet-ics can affect a person’s sporting ability. Athletes who perform the 100m have a very different physiological make up to athletes who perform the 10,000m. These revolve around differences in body habitus, cardi-ovascular system and in the muscle fibre type. Sprinters have predominantly fast twitch muscle fibres (type IIa and type IIb). The characteristics of these fibre types are, fast contraction speed, high power output, very high intensity exercise and anaerobic generation of energy. Consequently, fast twitch muscle fibres can support short-term explosive activities such as sprint-ing.

The muscle fibre characteristics of the 10,000m runner are the opposite. The run-ner’s muscles are predominantly made up of slow twitch muscle fibres (type I). These muscle fibres have a slow contraction speed, low power output, are recruited for low intensity exercise and generate energy aerobically. Because of these characteris-tics, the slow twitch (type I) fibres are fa-tigue resistant. Therefore, the type I mus-cle fibres can support medium intensity, long duration exercise in the absence of fatigue.

Most muscles contain a mixture of the vari-ous muscle fibre types and fibre type dis-tribution varies from individual to individ-ual. While each fibre type can be trained to a certain degree, the relative fibre type composition of muscles is a genetically determined attribute. Hence, athletic and sporting capabilities, are to a certain ex-tent genetically predetermined.

Initial fitness levels prior to a period of training can also govern the nature of the response. This is particularly true for the injured and deconditioned athlete. After a prolonged period of inactivity, fitness lev-els are lower for these individuals in com-parison to athletes actively participating in their sport. Consequently, when com-mencing a training programme in a decon-ditioned state or following an injury, the gains in fitness, whether they are in endur-ance, strength, power etc., will be fairly rapid in comparison to the gains that a con-ditioned athlete achieves in their regular programmes – despite their higher fitness levels. The higher the initial level of con-ditioning the smaller the relative improve-ment for the same training programme, i.e. if two people, one fit and one unfit, perform the same training programme the unfit person will demonstrate the greater relative improvement. The more one has to improve, the more one will improve.

2.1.3 Overload

In order to bring about adaptations that are enough to elicit an improvement in physi-ology and, ultimately, in performance, the programme must provide a sufficient over-load stimulus. This will provide the body with sufficient adaptations to training that will improve performance. Overload can only be achieved through performing exer-cise at a level above what the body is al-ready conditioned to perform. The overload stimulus must also be pro-gressive, otherwise improvements will be-gin to level off and performance will stag-nate. For example, an athlete attempting to improve their bench press may initially per-form 3 sets of 8 repetitions with a weight of 60 kilograms on the bar. As the number of training sessions performed increases, the athlete’s upper body strength will also increase and the 60 kg will feel lighter than when the exercise was first performed and the athlete will be able to perform more repetitions before fatigue sets in. There-


fore, as strength improves, the athlete will need to increase the weight at which the exercise is performed in order to elicit the same overload that 60 kg once represent-ed. As strength continues to increase, the weight used in the programme will also need to increase. Progressive overload is applicable to all forms of fitness training, aerobic and anaerobic.

Progressive overload is also a very impor-tant factor for injured and deconditioned athletes. The retraining process can oc-cur very quickly at first, but the overload must be continued in order to return the player to competitive fitness. Otherwise the responses/adaptations to training will be less and improvements in fitness will stagnate leaving the player ill-prepared to compete. The appropriate overload can be achieved by manipulating combinations of training frequency, duration and intensity (McArdle et al. 2001).

2.1.4 Frequency, Intensity and Duration of Training

All training programmes should contain and follow the principles of frequency, in-tensity and duration. Improvements in fit-ness will occur if any of these three factors are increased.

2.1.4.1 FrequencyThere appears to be no precise number of times to train in order to bring about physi-ological improvements. The frequency of

sessions depends entirely upon the goal of the training programme or session. Is the goal of the programme to improve endur-ance, strength, power etc.? Three non-con-secutive training days a week is typically considered as the minimum necessary to improve fitness. It is also known that do-ing the same exercise daily can lead to overuse injury (Fig.2.1.4). That is why it is important to have rest days as well as con-sidering a cross training day as a replace-ment for regular training.

2.1.4.2 Intensity The relationship between fitness improve-ment and exercise intensity is an S-shaped curve (Fig. 2.1.5). A small increase in inten-sity at the low end of the curve (left) will lead to small increases in fitness while the same relative increase in intensity at the moderate area of the curve (middle) leads to much larger increases in fitness. At the very high intensity level, an increase in intensity can lead to further, but small, gains in fitness but these are best left to the highly competitive elite athlete. 2.1.4.3 Duration Increasing the duration of training leads to increases in fitness up until about 45 minutes to 1 hour of work and then fur-ther increases in duration lead to smaller changes (Fig. 2.1.6). Again, long duration sessions are best left to the highly com-petitive athletes. Volume of work refers to the product of duration and frequency of training bouts, i.e., volume can be in-creased be either increasing the frequency

Fig. 2.1.4 Training frequency and injury Fig. 2.1.5 Training intensity and fitness

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or the duration of sessions. This is due to the various energy systems employed to support energy production during short, medium and long term exercise at varying intensities.

During high intensity training such as strength, speed or power work, where the exercise is performed at or close to maxi-mal levels, the energy systems employed to support the exercise are predominantly anaerobic. Energy for high power output at a fast rate provides instantaneous energy at the onset of exercise, but the capacity to prolong energy provision is poor. This is either the result of depletion of ATP–PCr stores or a build-up in lactic acid or other waste products in the muscles. In order for exercise to continue, intensity needs to be reduced so that the aerobic pathway becomes the major source of energy pro-duction, thus maintaining stores of ATP and PCr whilst also minimising lactic acid levels. Therefore, when intensity is high the volume of work that can be tolerated is brief and the benefits of the training are anaerobic adaptations.

The aerobic pathway of energy production has a much greater capacity and can sup-ply energy for a much longer period, but it cannot supply energy as fast as the anaer-obic pathways. Therefore, when exercise intensity is reduced to below approxi-mately ~80-90% of maximum, the volume of work that can be tolerated is increased and hence there is an increase in exercise

duration. The adaptations to which will be predominantly aerobic.

Which of the three elements, intensity, frequency or duration (volume), have the greatest effect upon fitness levels? It ap-pears that intensity is the critical factor. However, a structured training programme should feature all three elements.

Studies that have examined tapering, i.e. a reduction in training in order to peak for a particular event, have reported the impor-tance of exercise intensity when attempt-ing to maintain fitness levels. One study reported that after a reduction of 67% in training volume and frequency while main-taining intensity, fitness levels were main-tained for an amazing 15 weeks! This was achieved because the remaining exercise in the programme was performed at a high intensity and as soon as intensity levels were reduced, fitness levels began to fall. Other studies have produced similar find-ings which all lead to the conclusion that for frequency, duration and intensity, in-tensity is the critical factor of fitness dur-ing regular training.

2.1.5 Specificity of Training and Cross Training

The principle of specificity has a major role in the physiological responses to training, the adaptations that occur following train-ing and the mechanism of fatigue.

2.1.5.1 Specificity of exercise A specific exercise elicits a specific re-sponse. The heart rate response of run-ning 100m is different from the heart rate response of running 5,000m. In football, the best way to mimic the game is to play the game.

2.1.5.2 Specificity of training A specific training programme will lead to specific adaptations. The adaptation to a resistance-training programme will be different from the muscle adaptation to a Fig. 2.1.6 Duration of training and fitness

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distance running programme. In football, the best way to train for the game is to do activities of the game. Distance running during the season will train a player to be a distance runner, not a footballer.

2.1.5.3 Specificity of fatigueThe reason an athlete fatigues (fails to maintain a desired power output) when lifting weights is different from the rea-son an athlete fatigues when running a marathon. Fatigue in football arises from repeated short sprints depleting muscle glycogen as well as dehydration.

Ideally training should, as close as pos-sible, mirror the movements and energy systems necessary for the sport in order for peak performance to be achieved. This applies not only to the energy systems re-quired for the sport, but also the muscles and movement patterns of the sport.

The principle of specificity is not simply confined to aerobic or anaerobic forms of exercise training. Many research studies have demonstrated that training respons-es are specifically related to the nature of the training activity as little improvement is observed when the response is meas-ured during a dissimilar mode of exercise. For example, Magel et al. (1975) studied the aerobic improvements following swim-ming training when the subjects were measured during swimming and running tests. The swimming test demonstrated an 11.2% improvement in aerobic capacity whereas the running test only elicited an increase of 1.5%. Therefore, the specificity principle is most effectively achieved when the athlete trains the specific muscles and energy systems involved (McArdle et al. 2001).

2.1.5.4 Cross trainingWhilst the adaptations that occur follow-ing exercise are greatest when the activity employed is specific to the activity which is being trained for, it may not be possible, either due to injury or poor fitness levels for an athlete to mirror their sport when

training. Consequently, cross training is a mode of exercise that aids training when a programme’s normal activities are not pos-sible and this is a popular mode of training for injured and deconditioned athletes.

Despite the principle of specificity of train-ing, athletes may improve performance in one mode of training by training in an-other. The benefits of cross training for the injured and deconditioned athlete allow for the participation in training even if the desired mode of training is not an option! For example, cycling enables an athlete to train aerobically even if an injury prevents them from being able to run. They can maintain the cardiovascular adaptations to their training even though an injured leg might prohibit running. Does cross train-ing have a sufficient benefit to be included in the training programme of injured and detrained athletes?

Numerous studies, employing various dif-ferent modes of exercise, have examined the physiological effects of cross training with varying results. It has been reported that runners were able to maintain actual running performances by running in deep water for a period of 4 weeks. Other stud-ies have also reported that deep water run-ning, in common with other aerobic activi-ties offers similar aerobic benefits when performed at the correct intensity, fre-quency and duration. It has been reported that even for the most serious of athletes, cross training could be a way to increase the amount of training without increasing the risk of injury. However, it has been sug-gested that cross training is not an activity for highly trained or serious athletes.

The majority of research concerning cross training arrives at the same conclusion – that whilst cross training may demon-strate some transfer effects of training, the size of the effects will be less than those which could be attained by increas-ing specific training by a similar amount. However, if specificity of training is not an option, cross training should be consid-


ered, some training is better than none at all. This is especially relevant to aerobic training. It appears that cardiac perform-ance improvements are general (McArdle et al. 2001). Anaerobic training is entirely specific as these adaptations occur within the muscle, if the muscle is not used dur-ing training, it will not produce a training response!

2.1.6 Reversibility of Training

If training is not performed due to either illness or injury, any adaptations that have occurred are lost in as brief a period as 10 days. This detraining process which oc-curs regardless of the pre-existing state of physical fitness, has varying effects upon aerobic and anaerobic fitness.

The reduction in aerobic adaptations is considerably greater than for other per-formance capacities such as strength, power and flexibility. In a study of the ef-fect of complete rest upon fitness levels, five subjects were confined to bed rest for 20 consecutive days and their VO

2 max

declined by 25% (approximately 1% per each day of rest). This decrease was largely brought about via a reduction in the per-formance of the heart.

A clear illustration of detraining is high-lighted in Fig. 2.1.7. Capillary density, aer-obic (Krebs cycle) enzymes and ultimately VO

2 max all reflect the efficiency of a per-

son’s aerobic capacity. The graph demon-strates that the adaptations that took al-most two years to achieve were lost within only six months of detraining.

Decreases in muscular endurance per-formance can occur very rapidly following the complete cessation of training. This appears primarily to be a function of an impaired ability of the muscles to generate energy, both aerobically and anaerobical-ly. Reductions can occur within two weeks if immobilisation has occurred, but if mus-cles are still able to move freely, a minimal amount of training stimulus should be suf-ficient to prevent any substantial drops in muscular endurance performance.

Adaptations that are lost during the de-training process are not regained during an equivalent period of retraining. If an athlete stops training for 12 days then only 75% of the enzymes responsible for aerobic metabolism are regained after 24 days of retraining. A study of the effect of 15 days detraining followed by 15 days retraining on aerobic enzymes, VO

2 max

and an endurance performance run time showed that the 15-day period of retrain-ing did not return any of the variables to the pre-existing levels. Finally, there was a two minute increase (i.e. slower) in endur-ance performance time.

The problems of retraining do not differ-entiate between fitness levels, as highly trained athletes and non-athletes both demonstrate a slower rate of return com-pared to the rates of loss. Therefore, de-training appears to far outweigh the ef-fects of retraining. The old coaching saying therefore appears to be true: “It’s easier to stay in shape than to get in shape.”

Now, the question arises as to what can be done to maintain fitness; what is the least an athlete can do and still keep most of their fitness? As has been mentioned else-where, training is a mixture of 3 factors: training frequency (days/week), training intensity (percentage of maximum capac-

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Fig. 2.1.7 Effect of detraining

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ity) and training duration (minutes/day). All three factors have been studied and all three have to be considered when figuring out how to maintain fitness.

2.1.6.1 Reduction in frequency If training days are reduced by a third or two-thirds (that is, from six training days per week to four or two days per week) while the training intensity and duration (work as hard and as long as before) are maintained, it is possible to maintain en-durance. 2.1.6.2 Reduction in intensity If training intensity is reduced by a third or 2/3 and the training frequency and dura-tion are maintained (work as frequently and as long), there are significant reduc-tions in endurance.

2.1.6.3 Reduction in durationIf the minutes per session are reduced by a third or two-thirds (or from 40 minutes/session to 26 or 13 minutes per session) while the training frequency and training intensity are maintained (work as hard and as often), it is also possible to main-tain endurance.

These results show that training frequency and duration can be reduced with little ef-fect on overall endurance, assuming inten-sity is maintained. However, the quickest way to lose endurance is to reduce training intensity. Therefore, it is important to keep practising at a training intensity similar to that during the season.

Following injury, joints and their surround-ing musculature are often immobilised. The detraining process occurs very rapidly to these muscles. Anyone who has ever had a relatively serious injury will have no-ticed a certain degree of muscle wasting (atrophy) following immobilisation.

Muscle size is reduced during periods of inactivity, with the loss in size conse-quently causing reductions in muscular strength and power. However, unlike aero-

bic capacity, reductions in neuromuscular performance are not as rapid following detraining. Reductions in muscle strength and power are relatively small during the first few months after training has been reduced. Research evidence demonstrates no loss of strength in the first three weeks after the cessation of a three week train-ing programme. Only 45% of the original strength gained from a 12-week training programme was lost after one year of no training.

If muscles are not immobilised, then large drops in strength following periods of in-activity can be minimised. This is due to athletes being able to move around free-ly, supporting their own body weight and providing an exercise stimulus to the mus-cles. Muscles apparently require minimal stimulation to retain the strength, power and size gained during training.

The detraining process appears to have a greater effect upon aerobic performance than it does upon anaerobic performance (strength, power and muscular endurance). The decrements are primarily due to a re-duction in the ability to generate energy aerobically. Strength, power and muscular endurance can all be maintained to a cer-tain degree via one high intensity training session per week. However, for aerobic ca-pacity to be maintained, two days a week of training are needed if the intensity of the exercise is high (85 – 100% VO

2 max).

2.1.7 Principles of Recovery

One of the most crucial factors of all train-ing programmes is that adaptations to training only occur during periods of rest. Good training programmes are all about balancing high quality work and quality rest periods. If rest and recovery are not built into a training programme, then ses-sion after session will soon become coun-ter-productive rather than beneficial. This also applies to competition. With players on multiple teams, league games, tourna-


ments and other competitions, the only time players get any quality rest is when they are injured. On the other hand, too much recovery will also not help to boost fitness levels, because training infre-quently will not provide sufficient overload to boost performance. Thinking back to the principle of overload, training must provide a workload above what the body is already accustomed to. Following exercise that has been per-formed to sufficient overload, the muscles and energy systems undergo physiological and structural changes that permit them to reset to a higher level, thus gaining the benefit of the exercise. This process of recovery involves the repletion of energy stores, repair of structural muscle damage and recovery for the nervous system which tends to take longer to recover than mus-cles. If the central nervous system is still in a fatigued state during subsequent train-ing bouts, nerve cells will fire at a slower rate, the number of muscle fibres recruited will be less and movements will become less coordinated.

The rate at which energy stores are replen-ished following exercise depends upon (1) the intensity at which the exercise bout was performed and (2) the energy systems that supported the exercise. Both of these factors go hand in hand. Muscle ATP and PCr stores are repleted within a matter of minutes following exhaustive exercise; however, carbohydrate stores may take up to 2 days to return to the pre-exercise level following exhaustive endurance exercise (distance running) which football is not. Glycogen replenishment following exhaus-tive intermittent running can be repleted within 24 hours. The rate at which muscle glycogen stores are resynthesised largely depends upon the timing and quality of carbohydrate (CHO) intake following exer-cise. It is recommended that CHO intake should begin immediately upon termina-tion of exercise, as the activity of the en-zymes that regulate this process is great-est in the first two hours after exercise is

completed. A high CHO diet should re-plenish muscle glycogen stores within 24 hours of exhaustive exercise. More details are found in the nutrition section (section 2.6) of this manual.

A strenuous workout will cause a certain degree of muscle damage, or micro trau-ma, within the muscles. This damage is repaired as the muscles undergo the ad-aptations that occur following training. However, if another training session is performed before the muscles have had the chance to repair, the problem of in-sufficient rest occurs. Structural repair of damaged muscle, however, is one of the fastest adaptations to exercise and train-ing.

The amount of protein resynthesis can il-lustrate the extent to which muscle tis-sues rebuild following damage that has occurred during training. Studies have demonstrated that following extensive ex-ercise, the muscle protein synthesis rate increases by 50% four hours after exercise and can climb to a 109% after 24 hours. Finally, the rate of muscle resynthesis re-turns to baseline levels 36 hours following heavy training. This demonstrates that it can take a period of up to 36 hours for this recovery process within the muscles to be complete and it is important that this pe-riod of recovery not be interrupted by an-other bout of training unless a prolonged rest period is planned after back-to-back intense training sessions, i.e. a weekend of rest.

However, that is not to say that athletes must wait 36 hours in between every sin-gle training session. The recovery process will be specific to the nature of the prior training. It is common to see professional athletes training up to three times a day, but all the sessions will have a different objective, i.e. strength, power or aerobic exercise, therefore the recovery will be confined to the specific muscles and en-ergy systems incorporated with that par-ticular training session.


Following a strenuous resistance or a heavy aerobic training session, muscle soreness is commonplace. This soreness can show immediately after exercise and lasts for a few hours (acute soreness) or soreness can be delayed for hours or even days af-ter a training session (this phenomenon is termed ‘delayed onset of muscle soreness’ or DOMS). DOMS appears to be a result of structural damage to the muscle cells (mostly during eccentric or lengthening contractions) and not only does it produce soreness but has also been demonstrated to slow the rate at which muscle glycogen is resynthesised. However, DOMS, during the early phase of a training programme, is necessary as it maximises the training response (muscles are broken down and rebuilt to a higher level) and soreness will eventually be reduced during subsequent bouts of training.

Muscle soreness tends to be more promi-nent following resistance or power training than aerobic endurance training. Resist-ance training requires significant eccentric (lengthening) contractions that damage muscle fibres. The eccentric component of running is much less. Plus, the muscle fibre types involved in the activity have varying resistance to fatigue. Fast twitch muscle fibres are recruited during resist-ance training (short-term explosive exer-cises) and these fibres have a tendency to fatigue much faster than their slow twitch counterparts. Also during these types of training, the exercise is localised to spe-cific muscle groups whereas aerobic train-ing such as running spreads the work (and subsequent soreness) over a much larger muscle mass.

The recovery process initiates various mechanisms that permit subsequent bouts of training to be performed to a higher lev-el. New muscle proteins are formed which enable muscle to produce more force-ful and sustained contractions. Glycogen stores within the muscles are increased as are the amount of enzymes involved in the anaerobic and aerobic production of ener-

gy. There are many other adaptations that occur within the body during recovery fol-lowing exercise and this process is termed ‘compensation’. If the process of compen-sation involves the return of the body to its pre-existing state, then supercompensa-tion is a process where the body returns to a level above the pre-trained state. Over a sufficient period of time compensation eventually produces a fitter, stronger, fast-er and more powerful athlete.

Figure 2.1.8 illustrates the supercompen-sation effect of exercise training. If the ex-ercise has been performed to the correct intensity then fatigue occurs. Following training the body begins to compensate: energy stores are replenished, muscle damage repaired, etc.. If the training over-load has been sufficient the body compen-sates and adapts to a higher level than before (supercompensation). The adapta-tions that occur following aerobic, anaero-bic, power and resistance training will be discussed later. If too much time elapses between training sessions then the level of supercompensation is soon lost. If the recovery period is too short, sufficient time has not been allowed for compensation. If the recovery period is too long, the body can lose some of the compensation it has achieved.

Low intensity aerobic training can be struc-tured into a training programme in order to help boost recovery between strenu-ous training sessions. This light exercise is termed ‘active recovery’ and it aids the recovery process by increasing the blood flow through muscles that, in turn, ena-

Fig. 2.1.8 Time, fitness and length of recovery

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bles the efficient removal of any lingering waste products that may hinder the recov-ery process.

If recovery is not an integral part of the training programme then the body will not have a chance to build on the train-ing already performed, as physiological improvements only occur when the body is resting. In turn, subsequent bouts of ex-ercise will be performed before recovery is complete or in a fatigued state and will be counterproductive to the training session. If the principle of recovery is not followed, it is common for athletes to develop over-use injuries, mild viral infections or experi-ence the overreaching or overtraining syn-dromes.

To induce ‘supercompensation’ it is nec-essary that each training programme con-tains training sessions with a sufficient de-gree of variation alternated with sufficient rest. A training programme can consist of training cycles of three weeks. Each cycle starts with a priming week with moderate training volume and intensity, a ‘crash’ week of higher intensity training, then a re-covery-week where training intensity and volume are low.

2.1.8 Overtraining

The consequence of too little recovery between training sessions, or too many high intensity sessions performed within a short period of time, is a concept termed ‘overtraining’. This is a psychophysiologi-cal phenomenon whereby performance is reduced despite the continuation of training. Fatigue is an unavoidable conse-quence of exercise and, during periods of overtraining, increased levels of physical and psychological fatigue are inevitable consequences!

A reduction in performance in spite of in-creased training is the primary indication of overtraining. This can be a direct conse-quence of muscle damage as muscles do

not recover between training bouts and therefore work in a compromised state. The degree of muscle damage can mani-fest itself as muscle soreness, earlier on-set of fatigue, muscle pain, stiffness and a higher than normal blood lactate re-sponse. All of these factors will result in a loss of strength, power and efficiency of the work being performed. Muscle dam-age with overtraining will also impair the muscles’ ability to restore glycogen stores thereby reducing the amount of available energy for subsequent bouts of exercise. In short, the body begins to break down and fails to fully recover by the next train-ing overload.

Other symptoms of overtraining are sleep disturbances, nausea and higher than nor-mal heart rate and blood pressure. Along with detrimental performance, a good indicator of overtraining is the heart rate response to a standardised exercise ses-sion. In an overtrained state the heart rate response rate will be higher when com-pared to the response when the athlete is fit. As soon as the coach or athlete per-ceives that it becomes difficult to maintain the athlete’s heart rate in the high inten-

Get enough rest.

Take adequate time to recover be-tween work-outs.

Get a full night’s sleep.

Increase training load slowly.

Have the players keep a training di-ary of the type of work-out, duration and intensity. Also what was eaten that day, how they felt while exer-cising. Rate the training difficulty on a 1-10 scale.

Eat a balanced diet low in fat and high in complex carbohydrates.

Alternate intense work-outs with lighter exercise sessions. Perform a variety of exercises.

Fig. 2.1.9 Steps to prevent overtraining


sity target zone, they should be very care-ful to reduce or avoid the stress of training. Alternatively, a sudden but consistent de-crease or increase of the resting heart rate measured after waking up in the morning is another dangerous sign of infection or over-training. If any of these symptoms oc-cur, it is important to contact the coach im-mediately to modify the training. High in-tensity training is strongly discouraged in the presence of any of these symptoms be-cause high intensity training would cause a further deterioration in performance. The symptoms of overtraining are highly indi-vidualised and subjective and cannot be universally applied so the presence of any of the above symptoms should be enough to provide an indication that the athlete is either training too hard or having insuf-ficient recovery between exercise bouts. Athletes in an overtrained state are likely to experience an increased rate of infection as overtraining can also suppress the nor-mal immune function. Sometimes coaches need to question the athlete about how they are feeling; “Sleeping OK?”, “Feel rested when you wake up?”, “No? Must not be sleeping through the night, are you?”. In a game like football, a player that needs rest may not be truthful as they fear that days away from training might mean los-ing playing time to another player. Direct questions the player knows the ‘right’ an-swer to will not give the coach the informa-tion needed to help the athlete. Of course, their body may make the decision for them when they contract an illness due to the suppressed immune system. The treatment of overtraining consists of either a significant reduction in training in-tensity or complete rest, but the best cure for overtraining is prevention. Training should be structured to avoid overtrain-ing.

• Adequate recovery is an integral part of a training programme.

• Mix low, medium and high intensity work.

• Try not to perform too many high inten-sity sessions back to back.

• Try to follow a high intensity session with a low - medium session.

• Ensure an adequate CHO intake.• Try to implement low intensity aerobic

sessions (some call this a regenerative session) into programmes to facilitate the recovery process.

Overtraining is a syndrome that coaches of individual sport athletes (e.g. swimming, distance runners, cross-country skiers, cyclists) must be constantly concerned about. Thankfully, this syndrome is rare in football and other team sports but can oc-cur in selected players on professional or other highly competitive teams.

2.1.9 Periodisation Concepts

Periodisation refers to the overall training plan of a team. The concepts can be ap-plied to a calendar year, season, week, or day and are built on the interaction of training volume, training intensity and technique training during the period. Fig-ure 2.1.10 shows the general relationship between these three factors.

The training year can be divided into four conceptual phases. Each year begins at the end of the previous year with a period called “Active Rest”. During this important period players stay active, but they do ac-tivities away from the game like cycling, swimming, hiking, tennis, rollerblading, or other non-football related activities. This keeps the player active and retains some of their fitness, but takes them away from the game where overexposure might lead to staleness. The next phase is called the “Preparatory Phase” where players slowly begin to build up their fitness. The em-phasis is on high volume, but low inten-sity training (e.g. jogging). With gradual increases in fitness, the running distance declines while the pace of running increas-es. The Transition Phase is the period be-tween the more aerobic preparatory phase and the initial training camp. Here, the vol-ume is reduced as the intensity is raised.


For example, in the early transition period; Fartlek running would be a good choice then moving into some long interval runs followed by shorter, harder intervals. The final few weeks prior to the team com-ing together might include a lot of repeat runs at a fast (but not sprint) pace, such as 90m in 15s with a 45s rest; the typical 1:3 work:rest formula for interval training. This running distance would be for male adult players. Decrease the running dis-tance as needed for younger players as well as females. The idea is to run for 15 seconds at a fast pace. Start out doing 10-20 of these and add a further 5-10 each week. The total number would be based on the age and playing expectations of the player and team. An U16 team might do 20-25 of these repeat runs while an adult, highly competitive player might work up to 40. The “Competition Phase” is where the coach will bring the players to match fit-ness with activities that closely mimic the game and give emphasis on technique, tactics and fitness. The total volume of run-ning will be less than that of the prepara-tion period, but the intensity will approach that necessary for the game.

The phase that is probably most poorly understood is active rest. This is a critical phase for the physical development of the player. During this phase, the player con-tinues to be active, but in different activi-ties such as other sports and leisure time activities. This accomplishes two things. First, the activity helps the player to main-tain a reasonable fitness level. Second,

this is the time for psychological and emo-tional rest away from the game. The body’s adaptation to training follows a predictable model; Figure 2.1.11. At the onset of training, there is a slight drop in performance due to things like muscle sore-ness and stiffness (the Alarm phase in the figure). Then the body begins to adapt to the new demands (the Resistance phase). Training is manipulated to maintain fit-ness (the Competition phase). Should the training stimulus continue to be increased while performance declines, the athlete may lapse into a detrained state (the ex-haustion or overtrained phase). Once an athlete’s performance has plateaued, however, backing off the training volume and intensity and then beginning to ramp the training up again (the transition and preparation phases) can eventually lead to performance at a higher level (the new, higher Competition phase).

2.1.9.1 Off-season training Football, like most sports, is seasonal - there are periods of preparation (pre-sea-son, or preparation/transition), competi-tion (in-season) and recovery (off-season or active rest). Pre-season and in-season training are the domain of the coach, but during the off-season it is the player’s re-sponsibility to complete the fitness pro-gramme the coach has put together. What players do in the off-season will impact on the next season. The old coaching adage says, “it is easier to stay in shape than it is to get in shape.” Most players however,

Fig. 2.1.10 Model of periodisation Fig. 2.1.11 General adaption syndrome

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do not know how to maintain their fitness without a coach to supervise them. Prop-er planning of a year-round training pro-gramme requires some understanding of the periodisation of training concept.

Cardio-respiratory endurance can be trained by specific endurance training, but it may also be challenged by non-specific endurance training; like jogging, cycling and swimming. These types of activities would be performed during the active rest phase and the beginning of the preparation phase. Non-specific endurance training is often neglected as a method for develop-ing fitness. In between two competitive seasons, players should be encouraged to participate in other endurance exer-cise modes such as cycling, in-line skat-ing, cross-country skiing and swimming in order to fully maintain and develop their fitness. Of course, the genetic component of maximal oxygen uptake is still predomi-nant. However, the impact of this training should not be neglected. These activities not only serve to better develop fitness levels, but also mentally distract the play-er from the ‘addiction’ to running and play-ing. For speed and agility, practising other ball sports on a recreational basis (such as badminton, tennis, squash and playing 5-a-side football) may result in an improved fitness level while maintaining agility. A key fact is that training activities are rec-reational, not competitive.

2.1.9.2 Other off-season considerations

Calorie intake During the off-season, if training volume is reduced (as days per week and/or minutes per day), the number of calories burned during exercise will be reduced. To main-tain weight during a period of reduced training, it is therefore a good idea to re-duce food intake.

There are some players who may need to lose weight to improve their performance. Do not make this decision without sound

advice on whether weight loss is desired and get advice on nutrition and weight loss goals. Once this decision has been made, the season for weight loss is the off-sea-son, not in-season. Trying to lose weight in-season is a quick way to poor perform-ance and possible injury. It is much better to save weight loss for the off-season.

Strength training Strength is one of the many factors that make up the concept of physical fitness and most athletes can become better in their sport if they are stronger. Strength training achieves some things, but not oth-ers. For example, the stronger player will be able to resist physical challenges better and be more resistant to injury. However, strength training is not really effective at adding distance to a goal kick or power to a shot.

The off-season is the best time to improve strength and power. In this regard, the coach should identify those activities that improve a player’s overall strength and not focus exclusively on the athlete’s legs on the notion that this will improve their shooting ability (to be a better shooter, go out and shoot). Once the season begins, the goal of strength improvement gives way to the goal of strength maintenance.

Rest There is a genuine concern among the football community that both youth and professional players compete in too many games each year. Games for school teams, club teams, in and out of season tourna-ments can mount up to the point where the only rest a player gets is when they get injured. For the professional players there is the suggestion that games be limited to 60 or fewer per year to avoid fatigue, which can lead to poor performance and injury. There is a need for planned periods of rest followed by a planned re-establish-ment of fitness for the next season. Rest is important, so take some time by being active, but refrain from playing football. Rest is valuable for “recharging the batter-


ies” in preparation for the push of the next season. While time away from the game is important, time off does not mean down time; it does not mean no exercise. As has been mentioned before, the fastest way to lose fitness is to reduce the intensity of training. And no player really wants to go into the early games of a season in poor shape or with rusty skills. They want to get on the field and start playing.

There is nothing more aggravating than to have to spend time off the field due to an injury. But most injuries can be prevented by some work prior to re-entering the field. Below some evidence is presented that both pre-season conditioning and ball skills are modifiable factors of injury pre-vention (not all injuries can be prevented, some injuries just happen).

2.1.9.3 Importance of preparatory and transition phases

Pre-season conditioning A recent report tracked injuries of 300 girls, aged 15-18 over two high school sea-sons (Heidt et al. 2000). Some of the girls participated in a 7-week pre-season condi-tioning programme and some did not. The training programme concentrated on en-durance, strength, agility and plyometric activities. An athletic trainer recorded all injuries according to location, type (sprain, strain, etc.) and severity. The results could not be more startling.

There were a total of 98 injuries with an overall injury rate of 0.3 injuries per player per season. However, of the 98 injuries, only seven were in the group that partici-pated in the conditioning programme. In the trained group, there was one ACL tear (vs. eight in the untrained group), two an-kle sprains (vs. 21) and one quad strain (vs. seven). Only one trained athlete had a season-ending injury (the ACL) while 11 of the untrained had season-ending injuries. Almost half of the injuries to the untrained players occurred in practice while five of the seven injuries to the trained players

occurred during games. Probably the easi-est and best way to prevent injuries is sim-ply to improve the fitness of the players prior to the season. Medical profession-als in multiple sports will say that fitness is one of the best ways to prevent injuries. Of course, in some sports (e.g. American Football), improved fitness has reduced some injuries while increasing others; the profile of injuries has therefore changed.

Skill levelMost injury studies focus on location, type and rate of injuries. Projects that inves-tigate other factors in injuries are rare. A group of Norwegians added a skill factor to their project (Poulsen et al. 1991). Each coach was asked to grade the overall skill level of each player and then look at inju-ries according to that player’s skill. Inter-estingly, the most skilled players were the least injured and those with the poorest skill levels were the most frequently and most severely injured. The possibility of fewer, less severe inju-ries clearly shows there is a reasonable trade-off for a little time in the weeks prior to training. So it is important for the up-coming season to improve endurance and body control by doing lots of activities that will improve both. The healthier the indi-vidual athletes and the team, the more likely the team is to have its best players on the field; this should hopefully trans-late to a more successful season.

How would these concepts be applied to the annual calendar year of a European professional team? (Fig. 2.1.12)The end of the long season might be at the end of May. The players might be given two to four weeks off and then be asked to start preparing on their own for the next season

Fig. 2.1.12 Typical European calender� �

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based on some prescribed programme by the trainer or manager. They would arrive at training camp and move into the begin-ning of the competition phase and games would begin in very early August. The first half of the season is played until the mid-dle of December. During this phase, there might be some small increases in fitness. Over the winter break, the players might have two weeks of active rest, two weeks of preparation and finally two weeks of transition training. Then the second half of the season begins in early February.

2.1.9.4 The dilemma of physical training and match scheduleAs the season approaches, more excited coaches start to plan out the season. Books and videos of skills, drills and games are studied, selected, discarded and recon-sidered until finally every minute of each training session is filled.

But more planning is needed. The prime variables of training are the frequency of training (days/week), the intensity of train-ing and the duration of training (min/day). In many cases, the frequency is somewhat fixed. A school programme might train/play daily (five days/week as three train-ing days and two games or four training days and one game) while a youth club team might train twice per week and plays 1-2 games over the weekend. The season does not have unlimited training time and somehow the coach must cram in techni-cal skill training, team tactics and fitness. The next question is how all this can and should be managed.

Probably, the first thing to do is to set up a calendar with game dates. The following shows a possible 4-week schedule of a professional team. Game dates are in red (Fig. 2.1.13).

Obviously, everyone knows it is better not to train hard on the day before a game, so the days before a game are coloured light blue (Fig. 2.1.14).

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Fig. 2.1.13 Match days (red)

Fig. 2.1.14 Light training (light blue)

Fig. 2.1.15 Sundays (yellow)

As many teams restrict training on Sun-days, these days may be coloured yellow (Fig. 2.1.15).

Most coaches know that it is important to conduct regenerative training on the day after a game. Therefore these days are col-oured green (Fig. 2.1.16).

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Fig. 2.1.16 Regenerative training (green)


Finally, most people who study training know that training hard on two consecutive days is very difficult to do. So, where there are two consecutive uncoloured days, one may be coloured dark blue before the lighter of the two days (Fig. 2.1.17).

‘game intelligence’ and minimises players standing around doing very little.

Restrictions can be technical (e.g. must trap and pass with the weak foot, always pass with the outside of the foot), tactical (e.g. on offense, attackers play with their back to the goal, which teaches midfield-ers to come forward to shoot at goal), or fit-ness (e.g. two-touch speeds up the game, run 10m in any direction after any pass). Coaching books and schools teach almost endless variations in format.

The coach could choose almost any drill or small group game and modify it to stress any combination of fitness, technique or tactics. For example, for low intensity train-ing the team could play 6v6 with goalkeep-ers on half a field with no restrictions for about 15 minutes (technical and tactical coaching should be offered throughout). For higher intensity, mark off a 20m zone across the middle of the field. The teams play six attackers v five defenders in one end of the field with the sixth player at the opposite end of the field. When the defen-sive team gets the ball, they pass directly to their far team-mate and all but one from the other team sprint across the midfield and play at the other end. The game con-tinues back and forth across the no-play zone (some call this the ‘no midfield’ game or ‘deep game’). Play this harder game for about 10 minutes. Finally, for very high in-tensity work, when the defenders get the ball and pass the ball across the midfield, they get two points for a goal (or one point for a shot on goal) if their entire team is in the new attacking area AND at least one opponent (other than the one who is sup-posed to stay) is left behind. Play this very high intensity game for maybe five min-utes. The volume (time played) is dropped for each game while the intensity is raised according to the periodisation concept.

Depending on the age and goals of the team, this series of games could be fol-lowed by small-sided activities then some skills and finally cool down. For more com-

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It becomes evident that because there are only three days to work on fitness (ignore the last Saturday), how can fitness be im-proved during the season? Not surprising-ly, when the endurance of football players is followed over a season, there is little change throughout the season. The bulk of the improvement in fitness happens in the first third of the season (beginning with the first day of pre-season training camp), then maintained for the rest of the season. Some studies have even shown a decrease in fitness towards the end of the season.

Fig. 2.1.17 Light training (dark blue)

While this example is based on a European professional season, most coaches should be able to manipulate these phases to their own calendar year of training and competition.

Suggestions on how to organise a single training session based on these concepts:

Begin the session by following the warm-up suggestions. These will help prepare the players for activity and also teach valuable lessons on controlling their body. Next, some individual ball skill training (very low intensity work) can be followed by small group work (e.g. 3v3, 4v4, 5v2, 6v4) that is at a higher intensity, then large group work (as big as your team allows up to perhaps 7v7 or 8v8). Restrictions should be placed on the format of games so the players have to run and think. This helps with their


petitive teams, after a break, the routine could be repeated before easier small-sid-ed games, skill work, then cool down.

The no-midfield game can be modified further. To make the transition to the other end of the field faster, make the midfield shorter (10m) for shorter, faster sprints. To encourage longer runs (and accurate long passes) increase the size of the midfield to 30 or 40 metres. Of course, other tech-nical or tactical restrictions can be added to make the game even harder. A game need not just have one restriction. Practice games of 11v11 with no restrictions are not good for fitness training. With a typi-cal possession in a football match being 4 players and 3 passes or less, small sided games (4v4) are very good for teaching general tactics with many ball contacts.

Special considerations to think of when planning a trainingRelationship between intensity and dura-tion: It is wrong to think footballers can train hard AND long. Intensity is inversely related to duration; the harder one works, the less time they can maintain that inten-sity. Trying to work long and hard without rest or low intensity days can lead to over-use injuries and possibly overtraining.

Rate of improvement in fitness (Fig. 2.1.18): A player can work their way up to peak condition in a short time, but the ul-timate level of fitness will be low and the length of time they can maintain that fit-ness will be brief. However, if the develop-

ment of fitness is slow, the higher the ulti-mate level of fitness will be and the longer this level can be maintained. Improvement in running (not sprinting) speeds: If one trains by walking, walking improves. If one jogs, ability to jog AND walk improves. If a person trains at pro-gressively faster speeds (but not sprinting speeds), they will improve their fitness at that speed and the lower speeds. That is why repeat 90m runs at a hard, but not maximal pace, are good because only about 800-1,000m (of 10,000m) are cov-ered at a sprint by a male professional in a game, so about 9,000m are covered at speeds below a sprint.

How often must high intensity training be performed? Remember the section on maintaining fitness. Intensity is the impor-tant factor. But how often? Most training specialists feel that three non-consecu-tive training sessions a week need to be scheduled. The competitive game should be considered as intense training. Playing one game a week means two intense ses-sions need to be scheduled. If there are two games, then one hard day would be scheduled. Many youth teams train twice a week and play one or two games over the weekend. The game is considered a train-ing stimulus, so in order to get three days of hard training, there must be some high intensity work scheduled for each training session.

How much of a training session should be devoted to high intensity training? People who study training suggest that no more than about a third of the sports specific training (i.e. not the warm-up, cool-down etc.) should be devoted to high-inten-sity work. For example, assume that once warm-up and supplementary activities have been done, the plan is for 90 minutes of football training. That might mean that the coach would have the training divided into low, moderate and high intensity por-tions. Putting all the high intensity work into one 30-minute segment would tire the

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Fig. 2.1.18 Improvement of fitness


players so that during the final 10-15 min-utes of hard work, they would not be work-ing as hard as they should be. Therefore, divide the training time in half (two 45-minute periods). Now devote about 15-20 minutes of low intensity work (ball skills, small group activities. Then increase the intensity by some of the options suggest-ed above for about 15 minutes followed by 15 minutes of the highest intensity work planned that day. Now break for maybe five minutes then start the ramp all over again. The players will get far more out of the hard work from two 15-minute segments than from one 30-minute segment.

Other important ways to increase inten-sity: At any running speed, the physiologi-cal requirement of running is increased by 10-15% when the athlete is in control of the ball. Therefore, to increase intensity, add a ball because the more opportunities for a player to control the ball, the harder the work. Thus, small-sided games are the best format for this purpose.

Weight trainingWhen a player wishes to improve strength (a very valuable commodity in modern foot-ball), the major portion of the work would be done outside of the competition phase, still following the principles of periodisa-tion. During the season, weight training is continued, but as a maintenance pro-gramme, not an improvement programme.

Flexibility trainingRemember that a warm muscle is more receptive to flexibility training. Also, flex-ibility training should be continued even during the active rest period. Be sure that a warm-up is done before the flexibility work. Flexibility is not a warm-up. Once sweating starts, the body is warm enough to begin flexibility training.

Weight lossIn-season weight loss is the wrong time of year for weight loss. Using the periodisa-tion model, the competitive time of year is for weight maintenance, not weight loss.

Considerations for youthThere are a number of studies that dem-onstrate the trainability of children (i.e. un-der 10 years). In a ball game that requires skill development for some success, many coaches focus on skills. Plus, many leagues allow unlimited substitution, so the emphasis on match fitness is less im-portant. The very young would be losing valuable skill-time should special empha-sis be placed on fitness. Some concepts not to be forgottenIt is important to stress that no training programme will eliminate the perception of training intensity. The individual per-ception of a given training load is indeed important. By consequence, if signals of fatigue or over-training appear, the train-ing programme must be individually modi-fied. In particular, high intensity training should not be performed when the coach perceives signals of abnormal fatigue or over-training. Due to the high frequency of games, general fatigue and over-train-ing is a continuous threat to the fitness level of any player. Still, poor performance is sometimes thought to be due to a lack of training. In some cases this perception may indeed be correct, yet in other players the opposite is true. Rest days or low inten-sity regenerative training sessions often have a much better impact on fitness and performance level than an increased train-ing load. Therefore, if the player feels that they are unable to continue the prescribed training programme due to fatigue, the coach should be contacted. If this is not done, the training programme may actu-ally be detrimental to performance.

Some additional things to consider:• Always start each training session with

a regular warm-up and end the ses-sion with a cooling-down (including the stretching programme).

• For those athletes who have a mid-week game, it is very important to do a regen-erative training the day after a match and to do a light training session the day


before the game including a good warm-up, mobilisation exercises, stretching and speed exercises. This training ses-sion should ideally be done on the pitch that the game is to be played.

• When performing high intensity train-ing sessions, the running time should be such that the player can run at a high intensity but still be able to maintain the speed for several exercise periods. The coach should ensure that the exercise intensity during high intensity training sessions does not become so high that the training becomes exclusively speed-endurance training. If the intensity is too high, the player will not be able to keep a high enough work rate during subse-quent work periods and the desired ef-fect of this high intensity training will be lost. Access to a heart rate monitor is very helpful for determining intensity.

• For the same reason, it is essential that the recovery periods are determined according to the different fitness lev-els. Specifically, for the best runners, a recovery period can be used that is a third of the actual running time. For the intermediate fitness levels, the recov-ery period should still be less than the running time. Finally, for those athletes whose fitness is poor, the recovery peri-od should be as long, if not longer, than the running time.

• Give the players an off-season fitness programme so that they will show up for pre-season training camp at a degree of fitness that they can improve to a high-er level and be maintained for a longer time. If players can improve during the off-season each and every year, their ba-sic endurance will be a little better each year and this can make a substantial dif-ference to a player’s career.

• Train players as well as possible in the pre-season and try to maintain their pre-season level throughout the season. While fitness can be achieved in a short

pre-season period, the ultimate level of fitness can stay low and can only be maintained for a short period of time.

• Try to keep training the youth players harder as the season progresses. In or-der to do this, one has to plan the sea-son around the fitness plan while ignor-ing some parts of the game schedule, especially at the beginning of the sea-son.

• Competitive games count as a training day, but only for those who actually play. In this regard, equal opportunity should be provided for sports participation.

• Training leads to two major adaptations in the body. First is the ability of the car-diovascular system to deliver oxygen to the muscle cells and second is the abil-ity of the muscle cells to use the deliv-ered oxygen. Research shows that the central cardiovascular system’s ability to deliver oxygen to the muscles improves slowly while the muscle cells improve their ability to use the delivered oxy-gen quickly. When training is stopped, the muscle cells lose most of what they have gained fairly quickly (10 days to two weeks), but the cardiovascular sys-tem detrains slowly. Most athletes have probably experienced this when working out after being off for a short break. In this case, the first workout does not feel too bad. During that workout, the cardio-vascular system is capable of taking up the slack from the cells that detrained quickly. However, if athletes lay off for a month or more, then they start back from zero in terms of endurance fitness.

Career practice pattern, age adequate training - The comcept of deliberate practiceIt is difficult to watch players such as Luis Figo (of Real Madrid and Portugal), David Beckham (of Real Madrid and England), or Gianfranco Zola (of Chelsea and Italy) and not wonder how these players became so good. How long did it take them to devel-


op their talent? How many hours did they (and their parents) invest in their careers from the very first time they kicked a ball or played a game of street football?

The roles of talent, physical precocity and practice in the development of top players have been studied (Helsen et al. 2000). The goal was to take an objective look at the evidence for practice alone being responsible for the development of out-standing skill levels. Specifically, the “de-liberate practice” concept (Ericsson et al. 1993) must be examined in predicting the ultimate levels of expertise in football (i.e., professional, semi-professional, amateur). Deliberate practice is defined as any activ-ity designed to improve the current level of performance that requires effort and is not inherently enjoyable. It is contrasted to other activities that could erroneously be considered practice such as play, work and observing others performing the skill. Their primary prediction is that “the amount of time an individual is engaged in deliberate practice activities will be linearly related to that individual’s acquired performance.” (Ericsson et al. 1993).

Most of the research on deliberate practice in sport has focused on individual sports such as wrestling, figure skating, or karate (Starkes et al. 1996). An overview of the findings suggested that for individual ath-letes there is a linear relationship between amounts of accumulated practice alone and level of performance. This finding sup-ports the model of deliberate practice; practice activities most related to actual performance (such as sparring in wres-tling, or the practice of skating) are judged as strenuous and requiring concentration. Unlike Ericsson’s musicians however, ath-letes also find their most relevant practice activities highly enjoyable.

Across these individual sports the aver-age amount of practice per week varies by sport, but is consistently high (on average 26.4 hours/week). The data are also close to Ericsson and colleagues’ best musicians

who practised approximately 25 hours/week. Taken together, these findings have shown that the truly elite performers have put in around 10 years and 10,000 hours of practice in their pursuit of excellence. In addition, the top performers usually be-gan their journey very young, i.e. between three and six years of age. Those athletes starting later and who still put in the same amount of time will never equal the per-formance of those who began young. Ten years and 10,000 hours averages out to 1,000 hours a year. Divided by 50 weeks, gives 20 hours a week, or 3-4 hours a day. Not a full-time job, but obviously not what most kids can give. The professional play-ers spend many hours a day on the field and off in preparation. As kids, Pele, Ro-naldo, Zidane and other great players played for hours in the streets and parks and that obviously was beneficial.

Recently, the generalisability of the delib-erate practice theory in two team sports (e.g. football and field hockey) was stud-ied (Helsen et al. 1998). International, national and provincial football and field hockey players recalled the amount of time they spent in individual and team practice, sport related activities and eve-ryday activities at the start of their career and every three years since. These activi-ties were rated in terms of their relevance for improving performance, effort and con-centration required and enjoyment.

Biographic information showed that all groups began playing football at age six years and engaged in team practice begin-ning around age seven years, on average one year after starting. This information also revealed that it took professional players at least 10 years to eventually play for one of the top teams. The finding that it takes at least ten years of practice to attain what is considered an exceptional level of performance (“10 year rule”) has been confirmed in numerous domains (Helsen et al. 1998).


One way to look at how much athletes prac-tise is to consider the number of hours per week typically practised at varying ages (Fig. 2.1.19). Overall significant differenc-es between each and every skill level were shown from 12 years into career (Int., = 9.2 hr/week; Nat., = 6.9 hr/week; Prov., = 4.1 hr/week). Across years into career, team practice only increased significantly and progressively for the international players from 9 (5.9 hr/week) to 12 (9.2 hr/week) to 15 years (11.5 hr/week).

Mean hours per week spent in team practice as a function of the number of years into careerVery important career decisions are made around 10 years into career. Nine to twelve years into career (age 19 years) seems to be a career watershed when the interna-tional players steeply increase the amount of time spent in team practice. Part of this change relates to the professional devel-opment system in football. In future, will the youth player have to decide at an even younger age (e.g. at 16 or less years) to be-come involved professionally in football? Likewise, when players recognise they will not succeed in advancing to the profes-sional leagues, their practice patterns re-flect this reduced expectation. It is also a time when students are entering university

or the workforce and they may have less time to devote to practice.

Accumulated practice hours as a function of the number of years into careerAcross skill level, at 10 years into career there was a remarkable difference be-tween international players (4587 hr) and provincial players (3306 hr). Overall dif-ferences according to each and every skill level were shown from 13 years into career on (Int., =6328 hr; Nat., = 5220 hr; Prov., = 4081 hr). At 18 years into career, interna-tional, national and provincial players had accumulated 9332, 7449 and 5079 prac-tice hours respectively (Figure 2.1.20).

Regarding the assessment of the practice and everyday activities, the most enjoyable aspects of practice for the football players were team related and included work on technical skills, games and tactics. For eve-ryday activities, players enjoyed watching football and active and non-active leisure. The things they least liked were running, game analysis, reading books, studying and cycling. These findings are consistent across skill levels.

When asked what aspects of practice were most relevant to their football per-formance, the players stated that working with a coach one-on-one, running, game and tactics, technical skill work and ad-equate sleep were all precursors to good performance. They also ranked the most

Fig. 2.1.19 Level of individual practice Fig. 2.1.20 Accumulated practice

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effortful/concentration demanding parts of their practice and everyday activities as: running, strength training, working with a coach one-on-one, working on tactics and technical skills and studying. It becomes obvious that the most enjoyable aspects of practice are those that are most relevant to the real game and, demand the most effort and concentration. Weight training and stretching were not rated highly.

Practical applicationsAs football players develop, they con-sequently put in more hours per week in deliberate practice. Research shows that players performing at the highest competi-tive level peak at about 17 hours of total training per week. In comparison with indi-vidual sports this is relatively low (on aver-age 25 hours/week). Perhaps an increase of the absolute amount of practice time per week from an earlier age (e.g. 16 years of age) and throughout a player’s career might be desirable. But, it could be that football is such a physically demanding sport, that there must be a trade-off be-tween the hours spent in physical practice and rest, if only to avoid injury, illness and overtraining.

From a coaching standpoint, if one were to speculate on the possible impact of the concept of deliberate practice, several op-tions emerge. If training history is indeed directly related to performance level at-tained, then one could always recommend that more hours practice might improve performance. In football, long hours are already spent in team practice but as com-mitment to a professional career deepens, individual practice clearly suffers. Once players become involved professionally and, by consequence, have more time for their ‘job’, high levels of individual training could more readily be maintained. Individ-ual practice sessions on each of the play-ers’ physical, technical, or tactical weak points in future should go hand-in-hand with efficient team practice sessions.

The relative age effect in youth football competitionWhen children are separated into age groups, there are physical, cognitive and psychological differences between the youngest and the oldest children. The ‘youngest’ children are boys or girls who are born far from the cut-off date while the ‘oldest’ children are born close to the cut-off date. There can be an age difference of one year between the ‘oldest’ and ‘young-est’ participants within any age group, re-sulting in huge differences in development and maturation. The relative age effect (RAE) refers to the difference in age be-tween individuals in the same age group. In professional sports, it has been shown that asymmetries in birth date distribu-tions are apparent in various professional sports, including American college foot-ball, baseball, cricket, ice hockey, football and swimming.

Recent studies in youth sport (Helsen et al. 2000) clearly showed the impact of the RAE when, in line with the FIFA guidelines the selection-date changed in 1997 from August 1st to January 1st. With August 1st as the selection-date there was an over-repre-sentation of players born in the months of August, September and October. One year after the cut-off date moved to January, the over-representation moved to the months of January, February and March. This clear-ly shows that the selections are made on the basis of ‘older’ and physically more mature and stronger players (Helsen et al. 2000). Some players that are older and physically well developed, but less talent-ed will therefore be chosen. They only play at a higher level because they are more mature. When all players are mature, the physical advantages of these older players disappears making it difficult for that early mature, but less skilled player to maintain the level they had before, meaning the RAE decreases after maturation.

Significant effects have been found for many countries. In Germany, 50.5% of players were born in the first quarter while


only 4.4% were born in the last quarter. This RAE even extended to youth national teams.

There are three main findings. First, there is an RAE that is similar to the one of national youth selections. Second, it is shown that the RAE comes mostly into play from the U-13’s onwards, the age at which the physi-cal differences between players of the same age category are most pronounced. Finally, from the results for the U-17’s, it becomes clear there is a drop out effect as there is no longer any player born May to August.

As the primary function of a football club in general and an academy in particular, is to guide young players in their develop-ment, the consequences of these findings should be taken into account. Selecting players because of their relative physical advantage is not the best long-term option because after maturation this advantage is no longer present and the chances of drop out increase. Unfortunately, physical size seems to be a real pitfall in identify-ing future elite performers. As a result, a lot of talent is not detected. Players who are less physically developed because of their younger relative age in a category, but who are talented, are clearly not selected to the same extent. These players are de-nied access to professional training and the opportunity to fulfill their potential. In the long term, this results in a devaluated selection.

There seem to be three possible explana-tions for the relative age effect. First, the physical component mentioned above is the most important factor. To solve maturi-ty mismatches in size, strength and power, changing the rules is an option. As it has been shown in other sports, eliminating physical contact (e.g. tackles, body checks, etc.) clearly reduces the relative age effect and this can also prevent injuries in those players who are ‘less equipped’ to play the game.

A second explanation for the relative age effect is found in the psychological com-ponent. An ‘older’ player will experience more success than a ‘younger’ one be-cause of the physical advantage and this may increase the motivation of older play-ers. Because of this increased motivation, the player will commit more effort to prac-tice. The opposite process might appear in the ‘younger’ players, who, in many cases, may drop out of football entirely.

A third factor to explain the relative age effect is the experience component. Play-ers born in January are not only older than players born in December of the same year, but they also are more experienced because they have been able to practice and compete more. For two players with the same physical characteristics, a coach will choose the more experienced (older) one if a choice has to be made.

Several possible solutions have been sug-gested. The first, is to rotate the yearly cut-off date, (Boucher and Mutimer 1994), which gives all players the advantage of being ‘older’ at some point in their foot-ball career. A second possible solution is to make more categories with a smaller bandwidth (e.g. one year instead of two). This results in a narrower age range, which reduces the relative age difference within age groups.

A third solution stresses the importance of a change in mentality of youth team coach-es. (Helsen and Starkes 1999a, b). Coach-es should pay greater attention to techni-cal and tactical components when making selections and not only physical compo-nents such as height or physical maturity. Therefore, select the most talented play-ers instead of choosing less talented but ‘physically better equipped players’.

Finally, the approach of the youth coach needs to be addressed. The statement ‘winning isn’t everything, it’s the only thing’ unfortunately represents the phi-losophy of many youth coaches. In this ap-


proach, the ‘youngsters’ of the age group won’t experience success enough and will drop out. That is why a coach has to be task-oriented and focus on development rather than wins and losses; the result of a game should be of minor importance.

In the light of information presented here, it seems that players born late in the se-lection year almost do not exist. Hopefully, Football Associations and club teams will take these recommendations into consid-eration and provide an equal chance for each and every child to support the idea that ‘learning isn’t everything, it’s the only thing.’

2.1 Theoretical Fundamentals of Training - FIFA

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