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Transcript of 1999 NZ Food: NZ People€¦ · NZ Food: NZ People ‘...are more likely to choose lower fat dairy...
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Key results of the1997 National Nutrition Survey
NZ Food: NZ People
‘...are more likely to choose lower fat dairy products’
‘35 percent of energy came from...’
‘Seventeen percent of thepopulation wereconsidered to...’
‘Contribution of energy to fat has...’
‘The vegetable guideline was met by...’
NZ Food: NZ PeopleKey results of the 1997
National Nutrition Survey
David Russell
Winsome Parnell
Noela Wilson
and the principal investigators of the 1997National Nutrition Survey:
Otago University Jim Faed
Elaine Ferguson
Peter Herbison
Caroline Horwath
Ted Nye
Papaarangi Reid
Rob Walker
Barry Wilson
Auckland University Colin Tukuitonga
Produced by theLINZ® Activity & Health Research Unit
University of Otagofor the
Ministry of Health.
Published in August 1999by the Ministry of Health
PO Box 5013Wellington, New Zealand
© 1999 Ministry of Health
ISBN 0-478-23572-0 (Document)ISBN 0-478-23573-9 (Internet)
This document is available on the Ministry of Health’s Web site:http://www.moh.govt.nz
iAcknowledgements
Acknowledgements
The National Nutrition Survey was funded by the Ministry of Health with ‘in kind’ support of theUniversity of Otago who conducted the Survey through its LINZ® Activity & Health ResearchUnit.
This survey would not have been completed without the dedication of the project staff who workedlong hours to meet the very tight deadlines, firstly for the development of the survey’s uniqueLINZ® Electronic Dietary Data Acquisition System (LEDDAS©), secondly in monitoring the qualityof the survey data to provide timely feedback to field staff and thirdly, analysing the data andpreparing this report. Throughout this demanding project our field staff consistently demonstratedtheir reliability and professionalism.
The valuable assistance of our NZ Måori and Pacific people support staff is also gratefullyacknowledged.
The importance of the planning, development and ongoing input into this survey by the Ministryof Health and its National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee (NNSTAC) isrecognised.
On technical matters, we are particularly grateful to our colleagues in Statistics New Zealand whoconducted the associated 1996/97 Health Survey and to Crop & Food Research Ltd, PalmerstonNorth who provided the nutrient database. Closer to home, the ongoing advice of our consultantswas essential to the success of the survey as inevitable issues were resolved in a timely fashion.Special thanks are due to Dr George Beaton for his help with the nutrient analysis which hasproduced the first probability analysis to determine dietary inadequacy in a national population.Alicia Carriquiry and Kevin Dodd at the Iowa State University, Des Moines, also providedinvaluable assistance with these nutrient analyses.
However, our most important acknowledgment is reserved for the nearly 5,000 New Zealanderswho welcomed us into their homes and made the 1997 National Nutrition Survey possible.
Suggested citationRussell DG, Parnell WR, Wilson NC et al. 1999. NZ Food: NZ People. Key results of the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. Ministry of Health:Wellington.
ii NZ Food: NZ People
Foreword
This report and the results of the National Nutrition Survey mark the outcome of four years ofdevelopment, field work and analysis, brought about by a successful collaboration between manyGovernment and non-Government agencies.
The report provides definitive information on the nutritional status of adult New Zealanders. Forthe first time, detailed food and nutrient information on the Måori population and indicative datafor the Pacific people of New Zealand are presented. The use of certain methods and analysespresented in this report lead the world in their application to surveys of this kind. Examples includethe fully computerised data entry system for collecting information from survey participants, andthe probability analyses undertaken to determine nutrient inadequacy in the population.
Up-to-date knowledge about the food and nutrient intakes and nutritional status of New Zealandersis critical in achieving the Government’s goal of improving the health of New Zealanders. TheNational Nutrition Survey represents a major investment in nutrition information, by theGovernment, at a time of rapid change in the food supply of New Zealand.
Ultimately, this report will help achieve the medium-term health policy goals as set out in TheGovernment’s Medium-Term Strategy for Health and Disability Support Services 1999. One of the 12policy goals is to place a greater emphasis on population health approaches by, among othermeasures, promoting healthier lifestyles and diets.
Hon. Tuariki DelamereAssociate Minister of Health
iiiContents
Contents
Acknowledgements i
Foreword ii
List of Tables iv
List of Figures vi
Executive Summary 1
Introduction 4
Section A Nutrients 9
Section B Dietary Sources 59
Section C Dietary Supplements 79
Section D Eating Patterns 89
Section E Frequently Eaten Foods 125
Section F Health 163
Section G Have We Changed? 177
References 187
Explanatory Notes 189
Appendix A Survey Methodology 195
Appendix B Technical Notes 199
Appendix C Glossary of Terms 211
Appendix D Pacific People and Community Nutrient Intakes 215
Appendix E Questionnaires 232
iv NZ Food: NZ People
List of Tables
Section A NutrientsA1 Energy and Protein 26A2.1 Total Fat and Cholesterol 28A2.2 Fatty Acids I 30A2.3 Fatty Acids II 32A3.1 Carbohydrate and Starch 34A3.2 Sugars I 36A3.3 Sugars II 38A4 Fibre 40A5 Alcohol 42A6.1 Vitamin A 44A6.2 Vitamins C and E 46A7.1 B Vitamins I 48A7.2 B Vitamins II 50A8.1 Minerals I 52A8.2 Minerals II 54A8.3 Minerals III 56
Section B Dietary SourcesB1 Energy Sources for New Zealand Population 70B2 Total Fat Sources for New Zealand Population 71B3 Available Carbohydrate Sources for New Zealand Population 72B4 Protein Sources for New Zealand Population 73B5 Dietary Fibre Sources for New Zealand Population 74B6 Calcium Sources for New Zealand Population 75B7 Iron Sources for New Zealand Population 76B8 Folate Sources for New Zealand Population 77B9 Alcohol Sources for New Zealand Population 78
Section C Dietary SupplementsC1 Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Use in the Last Year 84C2 Other Dietary Supplement Use in the Last Year 86
Section D Eating PatternsD1 Type of Diet 104D2 Dietary Changes Attempted Currently 106D3 Direction of Current Dietary Changes 108D4 Intended Dietary Changes 110D5 Direction of Intended Dietary Changes 112D6.1 Difficulties Involved in Eating More Fruits 113D6.2 Difficulties Involved in Eating More Vegetables 114
vList of Tables
D6.3 Difficulties Involved in Eating More Breads and Cereals 115D6.4 Difficulties Involved in Eating Less High Fat Foods 116D7.1 Food Preparation I 118D7.2 Food Preparation II 120D8 Household Food Security Over the Last Year 122
Section E Frequently Eaten FoodsE1 Dairy Foods 138E2.1 Breads and Cereals I 140E2.2 Breads and Cereals II 142E3.1 Meat and Fish I 144E3.2 Meat and Fish II 146E4.1 Vegetables I 148E4.2 Vegetables II 150E4.3 Vegetables III 152E5 Fruits 154E6 Beverages 156E7.1 Miscellaneous Food I 158E7.2 Miscellaneous Food II 160
Section F HealthF1 Body Size 170F2 Blood Pressure 172F3 Blood Analyses 174
Section G Have We Changed?G1.1 Frequency of Choice of Type of Food Consumed 180G1.2 Energy I 181G1.3 Energy II 182G2.1 Body Size I 184G2.2 Body Size II 185G2.3 Cholesterol 186
Explanatory NotesI Number of Respondents 192II Effect of Sample Size on Accuracy of Estimated Proportions 194
Appendix BI Analytical Techniques for Nutrients 202II Food Groups 204III Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) per day used in the Probability Analysis 207
Appendix D Pacific People and CommunitiesD1 Unadjusted Energy and Protein 216D2.1 Unadjusted Total Fat and Cholesterol 217D2.2 Unadjusted Fatty Acids I 218
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D2.3 Unadjusted Fatty Acids II 219D3.1 Unadjusted Carbohydrate and Starch 220D3.2 Unadjusted Sugars I 221D3.3 Unadjusted Sugars II 222D4 Unadjusted Fibre 223D5 Unadjusted Alcohol 224D6.1 Unadjusted Vitamin A 225D6.2 Unadjusted Vitamins C and E 226D7.1 Unadjusted B Vitamins I 227D7.2 Unadjusted B Vitamins II 228D8.1 Unadjusted Minerals I 229D8.2 Unadjusted Minerals II 230D8.3 Unadjusted Minerals III 231
List of Figures
Section A NutrientsA1 Fig A. Usual daily median energy intake: by age group and sex 11
Fig B. Usual daily median protein intake: by age group and sex 11A2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the fat guideline (≤ 33 percent):
by age group and sex 12Fig B. Mean percent contribution of fat type to energy: by sex 12
A3 Fig A. Mean percent contribution of carbohydrate to energy: by ethnic group and sex 14Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the carbohydrate guideline
(≥ 50 percent): by age group and sex 14A4 Fig A. Usual daily median dietary fibre intake: by age group and sex 16
Fig B. Usual daily median non-starch polysaccharide intakes: by type and sex 16A5 Fig A. Daily mean alcohol intake: by age group and sex 17
Fig B. Mean percent contribution of alcohol to energy: by age group and sex 17A6 Fig A. Usual daily median ß-carotene intake: by age group and sex 18
Fig B. Usual daily median vitamin C intake: by age group and sex 18A7 Fig A. Usual daily median thiamin intake: by ethnic group and sex 20
Fig B. Usual daily median vitamin B12 intake: by age group and sex 20A8 Fig A. Usual daily median calcium intake: by age group and sex 22
Fig B. Usual daily median zinc intake: by age group and sex 22
Section B Dietary SourcesB1 Fig A. Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to energy intake: by age group and sex 61
Fig B. Percent contribution of fruits to energy intake: by age group and sex 61B2 Fig A. Percent contribution of butter and margarine to total fat intake: by age group and sex 62
Fig B. Percent contribution of bread-based dishes to total fat intake: by age group and sex 62B3 Fig A. Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to carbohydrate intake: by age group
and sex 63Fig B. Percent contribution of breakfast cereals to carbohydrate intake: by age group and sex 63
B4 Fig A. Percent contribution to protein intake: by food groups and sex 64Fig B. Percent contribution of bread-based dishes to protein intake: by age group and sex 64
viiList of Figures
B5 Fig A. Percent contribution to dietary fibre intake: by food groups and sex 65Fig B. Percent contribution of fruits to dietary fibre intake: by age group and sex 65
B6 Fig A. Percent contribution to calcium intake: by food groups and sex 66Fig B. Percent contribution of milk to calcium intake: by age group and sex 66
B7 Fig A. Percent contribution to iron intake: by food groups and sex 67Fig B. Percent contribution of breakfast cereals to iron intake: by age group and sex 67
B8 Fig A. Percent contribution to folate intake: by food groups and sex 68Fig B. Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to folate intake: by age group and sex 68
B9 Fig A. Percent contribution of wine to alcohol intake: by age group and sex 69Fig B. Percent contribution of beer to alcohol intake: by age group and sex 69
Section C Dietary SupplementsC1 Fig A. Proportion of population who were regular users of vitamin/mineral supplements:
by ethnic group and sex 80Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed vitamin C supplements:
by age group and sex 80C2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who were regular users of other dietary
supplements: by age group and sex 82Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed other dietary supplements:
by type of supplement and sex 82
Section D Eating PatternsD1 Fig A. Proportion of population who ate a regular diet: by ethnic group and sex 91
Fig B. Proportion of population who avoided meats except chicken: by ethnic group and sex 91D2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who were currently attempting a dietary change:
by age group and sex 92Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who were currently attempting a dietary change:
by type of change and sex 92D3 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population attempting current dietary change and the
direction of change: by type and sex 93Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population attempting change to fat type eaten 93
D4 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change diet in the future:by age group and sex 94
Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change diet in the future:by type and sex 94
D5 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population intending to make dietary change and the directionof change: by type and sex 95
Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change type of fat eaten 95D6 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who had difficulties with eating more fruits:
by type and sex 96Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population happy with fat intake: by age group and sex 96
D7 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who cooked meat or chicken in fat or oil:by age group and sex 98
Fig B. Proportion of population who always or often removed chicken skin: by ethnicgroup and sex 98
D8 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who can afford to eat properly only sometimes:by NZDep96 quartile and sex 100
Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who use food grants/banks sometimes:by NZDep96 quartile and sex 100
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Section E Frequently Eaten FoodsE1 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed yoghurt at least once per week:
by age group and sex 127Fig B. Proportion of population who usually chose standard milk: by ethnic group and sex 127
E2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the breads and cereals guideline(6+ servings per day): by age group and sex 128
Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed cooked porridge at least onceper week: by age group and sex 128
E3 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed luncheon meat at least once perweek: by age group and sex 130
Fig B. Proportion of population who consumed shellfish at least once per week: by ethnicgroup and sex 130
E4 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the vegetables guideline(3+ servings per day): by age group and sex 131
Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed hot chips at least once per week:by age group and sex 131
E5 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the fruits guideline(2+ servings per day): by age group and sex 133
Fig B. Proportion of population who consumed kiwifruit at least once per week: by ethnicgroup and sex 133
E6 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed tea at least three timesper week: by age group and sex 134
Fig B. Proportion of population who consumed white wine at least once per week: by ethnicgroup and sex 134
E7 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed tomato sauce at least onceper week: by age group and sex 136
Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed chocolate at least onceper week: by age group and sex 136
Section F HealthF1 Fig A. Mean body weight: by age group and sex 164
Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population with a waist:hip ratio excess: by age groupand sex 164
F2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population with hypertension: by age group and sex 166Fig B. Proportion of population with high blood pressure: by ethnic group and sex 166
F3 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population with total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L:by age group and sex 167
Fig B. Proportion of population who met the National Heart Foundation lipid guideline: by ethnicgroup and sex 167
Section G Have We Changed?G1 Fig A. Mean contribution of fat to energy: by sex and survey 179
Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed selected food at least onceper week: by survey 179
G2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who were obese: by sex and survey 183Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population with total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L:
by sex and survey 183
1Executive Summary
Executive SummaryOverviewThis report represents an overview of the 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey (NNS97).This survey provides information on food and nutrient intakes, dietary habits and nutrition-relatedclinical measures of New Zealanders. NNS97 was based on a nationally representative sample of4,636 New Zealanders living in selected households and aged 15 years or above.
The survey data were collected in the homes of respondents and included: a 24 hour diet recall; aself-administered qualitative food frequency questionnaire which estimated the frequency of intakeof foods over the preceding 12 months and included questions on food preparation habits; questionson dietary supplements, barriers to dietary change and self assessment of household food security;physical measurements including weight, height, three circumferences, two skinfolds and elbowbreadth; blood pressure; and a blood sample for determining of cholesterol and iron status.
Key ResultsNutrients• The usual daily median energy intake was 11,631 kJ for males and 7,701 kJ for females.
• Thirty-five percent of energy came from fat in the diet of both males and females. Youngermales were less likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline forpercent energy from fat (≤ 33 percent) than younger females.
• Saturated fat was the predominant type of dietary fat contributing 15 percent of energy in bothmales and females. Monounsaturated fat provided 12 percent and 11 percent of energy in malesand females respectively, with 5 percent of energy from polyunsaturated fat in both sexes.
• Males 45–64 years were the least likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991)guideline for percent energy from carbohydrate (≥ 50 percent).
• The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre was 23 g/day in males and 18 g/day in femalescompared with the 25–30 g/day recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991).
• For males, alcohol intake was highest in those 45–64 years (daily mean 26g); and for females inthose 19–24 years (daily mean 13g).
• Dietary intakes of thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12 and vitamin E for the New Zealandadult population, appear to be satisfactory.
• Those living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) are at a greater risk of inadequateintake of vitamin A, riboflavin and folate than those in less deprived areas.
• Younger females compared to older females (45+ years) are more likely to have inadequateintakes of riboflavin and folate.
• Dietary intakes of phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, potassium, manganese and copper appear tobe satisfactory.
• Females have a low risk of inadequate iron intake when consideration is given to both dietaryintake and biochemical iron status.
• Estimates of inadequate intake of dietary calcium among females varied across age groupsfrom 21 percent to 37 percent and for males 15–18 years it was 33 percent.
2 NZ Food: NZ People
Dietary sources• Bread, of all food groups, provided the largest proportion (11 percent) of energy in the
adult New Zealand diet.
• Non-alcoholic beverages contributed approximately 10 percent of the energy intake in young adults15–24 years.
• Butter and margarine contributed 16 percent to total fat intake in the adult New Zealand diet.
• Bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and breakfast cereals provided three-quarters of thedietary fibre intake for adult New Zealanders.
• Milk and cheese together supplied almost half the calcium intake of the adult New Zealandpopulation.
• Almost one-third of iron from dietary sources in the adult New Zealand diet was estimated tobe the highly bioavailable haem iron.
• Vegetables, bread and breakfast cereals contributed about 40 percent of the dietary sources of folatein the adult New Zealand diet.
Dietary supplements• Half the adult New Zealand population consumed a vitamin and/or mineral supplement over
the previous year; 23 percent less than once a week and 28 percent at least once a week.
• Almost one-third of the adult New Zealand population consumed dietary supplements (otherthan vitamins and/or minerals) over the previous year; 12 percent less than once a week and 17percent at least once a week.
Eating patterns• Ninety-four percent of the adult New Zealand population consumed a regular (omnivorous)
diet.
• One-third of adult New Zealanders were currently trying to make dietary changes, with morefemales (39 percent) than males (28 percent) attempting change.
• Trying to alter the consumption of high fat foods was the most popular type of dietary change (22percent) in the adult New Zealand population, followed by trying to change the amount offruits eaten (14 percent).
• Over one-fifth of the adult New Zealand population intended to make dietary change in thenext six months, with fruits (11 percent) and high fat foods (9 percent) the most popular areasfor changes.
• Almost one-half of the adult New Zealand population (47 percent) was happy with fat intake and32 percent felt it would be hard to eat less high fat foods because they taste good.
• Excess fat was trimmed off red meat always or often by 67 percent of those who ate red meat,while 42 percent of those who ate chicken removed the skin always or often.
• Concern about household food security was more frequently expressed by individuals living inNZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) compared with those living in NZDep96 quartile Iareas (least deprived).
3Executive Summary
Frequently eaten foods• Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products than males.
• Only about one in five of the New Zealand adult population reached the New Zealand NutritionTaskforce (1991) guideline of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day.
• About two-thirds of the New Zealand adult population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce(1991) guideline of at least three servings of vegetables per day.
• Almost half of the New Zealand adult population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce(1991) guideline of at least two servings of fruit per day.
• Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day.
• Over half of males drank beer at least once a week, while almost one-quarter of females drankwhite wine at least once a week.
Health• Seventeen percent of the adult New Zealand population (15 percent males, 19 percent females)
were considered obese. An additional 35 percent were considered overweight (40 percent males,30 percent females).
• About 22 percent of males and 18 percent of females had high blood pressure (those takinghypertensive medication plus those with a systolic pressure ≥ 160 mmHg and a diastolic pressure≥ 95 mmHg).
• The mean total serum cholesterol of both males and females was 5.7 mmol/L. Twenty-threepercent of the adult New Zealand population had total cholesterol levels higher than 6.5 mmol/L.
• Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia affected 6 percent, 3 percent and 2percent of females, respectively.
Have we changed? (1989 to 1997)• Percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen from 37.5 percent to 35 percent.
• Mean body weight has increased by 3.2 kg. Associated with this increase was an increase inobesity levels from 11 percent to 17 percent.
• Mean total serum cholesterol has decreased from 5.9 mmol/L to 5.7 mmol/L. This was reflectedin the proportion of the adult New Zealand population with a serum cholesterol greater than6.5 mmol/L, decreasing from 30 percent to 23 percent.
4 NZ Food: NZ People
Introduction
BackgroundThe 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey (NNS97) was a voluntary cross-sectionalpopulation survey which provides information on food and nutrient intakes, dietary habits andnutrition-related clinical measures on a representative sample of 4,636 New Zealanders living inselected households and aged 15 years or above. Data were collected over the 12-month periodDecember 1996 to November 1997. NNS97 is the most comprehensive food and nutrition surveyever undertaken on the New Zealand population. It is possible to link NNS97 data with 1996/97Health Survey data (Ministry of Health 1999) to provide information on health status, factorsaffecting health status and health services utilisation as respondents in the NNS97 had completedthe 1996/97 Health Survey, although these analyses do not form part of this report.
Survey ObjectivesAs determined by the Ministry of Health, the objectives of the National Nutrition Survey were to:
1. ensure participation of NZ Måori at all levels through appropriate consultation, resourceallocation and the development of culturally appropriate practices for collection anddissemination of data;
2. monitor food and nutrient intakes against the Food and Nutrition Guidelines for HealthyNew Zealanders, compare nutrient intakes with the Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs)and assist in future revision of RDIs;
3. provide baseline data on the nutritional status and food security of the population, whichwould become a basis for comparisons with future surveys;
4. assess changes over time in dietary habits and provide a basis of comparison with futureregular surveys;
5. assist with the ongoing development of, and monitor the impact of New Zealand’s nutritionpolicy; monitor health goals and targets for nutrition and diet-related diseases; assist in therevision of future health goals and targets;
6. assist in the development of food policy and regulations related to food composition andsafety; assist in the provision of information related to food production, manufacture and sales;
7. provide data on nutrient and food intakes, that are suitable for risk assessment required forsetting and reviewing national and international regulatory food policies (such as fortificationand contaminant monitoring);
8. provide information on the inter-relationship of health, social, economic and nutritionvariables in selected population subgroups for policy development, including health promotion;
9. provide a basis for nutrition education and other strategies to improve nutrition, and to providea means of measurement for existing nutrition programmes;
10. facilitate the development of nutritional status and dietary intake indicators which could beused for more regular surveillance;
11. provide this much needed information to external users such as dietitians, nutritionists, thefood industry and NZ Måori health providers.
5Introduction
Personnel
NNS97 was funded by the Ministry of Health and conducted by the University of Otago throughits LINZ® Activity & Health Research Unit.
Project Director Professor David Russell, University of Otago
Project Coordinator Dr Noela Wilson, University of Otago
Nutrition Manager Mrs Winsome Parnell July 1996 – December 1996, June 1998 – August 1999Ms Sarah Zino January 1997 – May 1998
Principal Investigators Dr Jim Faed, Pathology, University of OtagoDr Elaine Ferguson, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoMr Peter Herbison, Preventive & Social Medicine, University of OtagoDr Caroline Horwath, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoDr Ted Nye, Medicine, University of OtagoMrs Winsome Parnell, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoDr Papaarangi Reid, Wellington School of Medicine, and Director of the TeRopu Rangahau Hauora a Eru PomareDr Colin Tukuitonga, Måori & Pacific Health, University of AucklandAssociate Professor Rob Walker, Medicine, University of OtagoDr Barry Wilson, Physical Education, University of Otago
Consultants Mr Len Cook, Government Statistician, Statistics New ZealandProfessor Rosalind Gibson, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoMs Penny Field, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoProfessor David Skegg, Preventive & Social Medicine, University of OtagoProfessor Murray Tilyard, General Practice, University of OtagoDr Wayne Sutherland, Medicine, University of OtagoMs Druis Barrett, President of the Måori Women’s Welfare LeagueProfessor Mason Durie, Måori Studies, Massey UniversityDr Michael Marfell-Jones, Tai Poutini PolytechnicDr Ian Morison, Biochemistry, University of Otago, and Southern CommunityLaboratoriesDr Murray Skeaff, Human Nutrition, University of Otago
Project Office Charles Blakey, Computer ScientistRachel Bolch, Food Composition NutritionistMaureen Foster, LINZ® SecretarySonya Gowans, Research NutritionistMichelle Hurdle, Field SecretaryIanthe Jones, Coding NutritionistLouise Mainvil, Senior NutritionistJoanne McKenzie, BiostatisticianCarol Murdoch, Research AssistantAntony O’Hagan, Computing AssistantFrances Okey, Project SecretaryJoanne Swanson, Research Assistant
6 NZ Food: NZ People
Maori Support
Ms Leah Couch, Wellington Mr Kaio Rivers, AucklandMrs Inez Kingi, Rotorua Mrs Maisie Taylor, NorthlandMrs Makuini McKerchar, Invercargill Mrs Makere Wano, New PlymouthMrs Hiki Pihema, Gisborne Mr Tom Webb, Gisborne
Pacific People Support
Dr Sitaleki Finau, Auckland Mrs Metua Faasisila, AucklandDr Debbie Ryan, Auckland Mr Henry Tuia, Wellington
National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee (NNSTAC)
The Ministry of Health received advice on the planning and development of the survey from thisCommittee:
Members
Glennys AdamsWendy AitkenBirnie AllenAdrienne BellJoanne BlackmanGeorge BlakeJosephine BrayDiana BrooksBobbi CampbellDiana ClearMaureen CliffordJennifer ColemanNicole CoupeRuth EdwardsEseta FinauGavin FoulshamKaren FukofukaPatricia Gould
Jean GraceRochelle GredigVera GreinerMelissa HackellRita HarderErika HarmanRosalind HerbisonRebecca HerderJudith JackDarron JayetJan JenkinsonKathryn JollyDineke KleynDorin KumarDeidre LatellChristina MacfarlaneMaetel MarshallCarol Murdoch
Jane OwersElaine PrakashMary ReidJacqueline RoySusan SchwartfegerVivienne ShepherdWendy SlatterSusan SmithSharyn StilwellJoanne SwansonMele TalamahinaKathryn TaylorAmanda TomlinsonLara TurnerJulia WestJulie WestKarin Wilkinson
Field Staff
Professor Jim Mann (Chair)Dr Barry BormanProfessor Rosalind GibsonDr Hunaara Kaa
Judith Ka’aiMakuini McKercharWinsome ParnellDr Robert Scragg
Susan SharpeDr Murray SkeaffDr Boyd SwinburnPatsy Watson
Ministry of Health Officials
Helen Wyn (Manager)Robert Quigley (Coordinator)Dr Gillian DurhamElizabeth AitkenDonnell AlexanderMaraea Bellamy
Mark ClementsLib CoubroughJill CoulsonMichele GriggJane McLennanDr Arbutus Mitikulena
Gail PowellJenny ReidTim RochfordMichelle Vanderlanh SmithCarolyn WattsHeather Wilson
7Introduction
This ReportThis report provides a ‘snapshot’ of the nutritional and health status of New Zealanders in 1997.Its purpose is to show the range of data available from NNS97 and to highlight the most significant findings.Only a limited number of independent variables have been selected for analysis for example, agegroup, sex, ethnicity etc. No account has been taken of the possible interaction between thesevariables for example, the relationship between age and NZDep96 quartile. It is acknowledgedthat these interactions may exist and, further, may be important for definitive interpretation of thedata. This report provides preliminary results only and further analyses may explore these andother more complex issues.
The seven sections covered by this report are subdivided into topics. Each topic is presented as abrief description of the major findings. This information encapsulates the tabulated data on thetopic which appears at the end of each section. The tables provide demographically related findingsfor each topic.
The seven sections are:
A Nutrients
B Dietary Sources
C Dietary Supplements
D Eating Patterns
E Frequently Eaten Foods
F Health
G Have We Changed?
A brief description of the methodology is provided in Appendix A.
This publication can be downloaded from the Ministry of Health Web Site: http://www.moh.govt.nz
Further InformationThe objectives of this report are to provide both an introduction to, and a systematic overview ofthe data; to answer basic questions; and to illustrate the potential for exploring more complexquestions.
Further analyses by the principal investigators are ongoing. Details of these analyses will bepublished in professional and scholarly journals in the fields of public health, medicine, nutrition,dietetics and epidemiology.
Details of the methodologies are included in the publication Food Comes First: Methodologies for theNational Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and Watts 1997). Food Comes First may be down-loaded from the Ministry of Health’s Web Site at http://www.moh.govt.nz
Further enquiries about the availability of data should be made to the LINZ® Activity & HealthResearch Unit at the University of Otago or the Ministry of Health. The Ministry of Health has alsomade the unit record data available to other major New Zealand universities and Måori HealthResearch Units on CD-ROM for the purpose of research on nutritional matters. Following guidancefrom Statistics New Zealand these universities and Måori Health Research Units must meet strictconditions to protect the confidentiality of respondents. Other applicants requesting access to theunit record data may contact the Ministry of Health.
8 NZ Food: NZ People
9Nutrients
Section ANutrientsIntroductionNew Zealanders obtain the energy and nutrients they require from a wide variety of foods andbeverages, and less frequently, from dietary supplements. The adequacy of energy and nutrientintake is important in examining the wider issue of nutritional status. (Nutritional status of a groupor individual also requires an assessment of anthropometric, biochemical and clinical parameters.)The intake of energy and 40 nutrients from food and beverages only is presented here, by sex, age,ethnicity, NZDep96 quartile and place of residence. Further, the adequacy of intake of somenutrients is presented in the light of published standards or recommended levels of intake.
Respondents were asked about their food consumption during the previous day only; this willnot reflect what they ‘usually’ eat. Thus, on any given day an individual may have an unusuallylow or unusually high intake of a particular nutrient. Therefore, the nutrient intakes presented inthis section have been adjusted to account for the effect of day-to-day variation in food intake.
Under-reporting food, and consequently nutrient intake, is widespread in dietary studies. Theseproblems are not unique to the 24 hour diet recall methodology. This limitation should be recognisedwhen interpreting the nutrient data. For further discussion of under-reporting refer to Appendix B.
The day to day variation in nutrient intake was estimated by repeating the 24 hour diet recall on asub-sample and adjusting the nutrient intakes reported using the C-SIDE programme to estimatethe distribution of ‘usual’ intakes in the population. While other national surveys of a similarnature such as NHANES III (Briefel et al 1995) and the Australian Nutrition Survey (AustralianBureau of Statistics 1998) have conducted repeat recalls, the data were not adjusted to estimate‘usual’ intake using the C-SIDE programme. The data for the NNS97 are the first national surveydata adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE to be published. Nutrient ratios (forexample, percent energy from fat) presented in this section were not adjusted for intra-individualvariation as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats.
The bases for determination of adequate intakes were:
a. Recommended levels of nutrient intakes from food formulated by the United Kingdom Panelon Dietary Reference Values (UK DRV) of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy(UK Department of Health 1991);
b. Targets/guidelines from the report of the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (Department ofHealth 1991).
Vitamin E, copper, manganese, selenium and potassium intakes could not be evaluated by formalprobability analyses as the UK DRV does not provide suitable estimates of mean requirements forthese nutrients. For some, it is possible to offer qualitative judgments about whether there is likelyto be a problem of inadequate intakes that might be a cause of public health concern. Intakes ofthiamin, riboflavin and vitamin B6 were not evaluated by probability analysis since requirementsare expressed as a ratio to energy or, in the case of B6, to protein intake. C-SIDE could not beapplied to ratios in the estimation of usual intakes and it was decided to defer these analysespending further development of C-SIDE.
Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas and the number of Pacificpeople who participated in the survey was small. This meant a reliable estimate of usual intakeusing the C-SIDE programme was unable to be made for either. Intakes for these two groups,which were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, are included in Appendix D.
10 NZ Food: NZ People
Key PointsEnergy and Protein• The usual daily median energy intake was 11,631 kJ for males and 7,701 kJ for females.
• Sixteen percent of energy for females and 15 percent for males was obtained from protein.
Fats• Thirty-five percent of energy came from fat in the diet of both males and females. Younger
males were less likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline forpercent energy from fat (≤ 33 percent) than younger females.
• Saturated fat was the predominant type of dietary fat contributing 15 percent of energy in bothmales and females. Monounsaturated fat provided 12 percent and 11 percent of energy in malesand females respectively, with 5 percent of energy from polyunsaturated fat in both sexes.
Carbohydrates• Carbohydrate provided 45 percent of energy for males and 47 percent for females.
• Males 45–64 years were least likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991)guideline for percent energy from carbohydrate (≥ 50 percent).
• Sucrose was the predominant sugar for both males (62 g/day) and females (45 g/day).
Dietary fibre• The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre was 23 g/day in males and 18 g/day in females
compared with the 25–30 g/day recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991).
Alcohol• For males, alcohol intake was highest in those 45–64 years (daily mean 26g); and for females in
those 19–24 years (daily mean 13g).
Vitamins• Retinol provided just under half the daily median vitamin A intake with the remainder coming
from carotenoids. The prevalence of estimated inadequate vitamin A intake for the New Zealandpopulation was low (1.9 percent).
• Usual daily median vitamin E intakes were 11.2 mg in males and 8.6 mg in females.
B-vitamins• Some females may have an inadequate intake of riboflavin. In particular, females 15-18 years,
NZ Måori females and females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas.
• Vitamin B12 intake appeared adequate for the New Zealand population.
Minerals• Estimates of inadequate intake of calcium among females varied across age groups from 21
percent to 37 percent and for males 15–18 years it was 33 percent.
• Females have a low risk of inadequate iron intake when consideration is given to both dietaryintake and biochemical iron status.
• Intakes of zinc appeared adequate for most groups of the New Zealand population.
11Nutrients
A1Energy and Protein Table A1
EnergyThe usual daily median energy intake for males (11,631 kJ) was higher than for females (7,701 kJ).Those aged 19–24 years reported the highest energy intake for both sexes (males 13,037 kJ, females8,783 kJ) thereafter decreasing gradually with age (Figure A).
Given that males on average have a greater proportion of lean body mass and greater averagebody weight than females, as a group they consume more food to maintain their bodies and meettheir requirements for exercise. Thus, not only is their daily mean energy intake above females,but most nutrients will be taken in greater amounts: both the nutrients supplying energy(macronutrients) and vitamins and minerals.
No clear trend in energy intake between the NZDep96 quartiles was evident although femalesliving in NZDep96 quartile IV areas showed a wider variation in energy intake (lower at the 10thand higher at the 90th percentile) than females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas. Females livingin NZDep96 quartile IV areas may have both higher and lower energy intakes, or there may begreater intra-subject variation.
In females 15–24 years, NZ Måori had higher median energy intakes (9,789 kJ) than NZ European& Others (8,426 kJ).
ProteinThe usual daily median protein intake for males was 105 g and 71 g for females. Both males andfemales 65+ years had the lowest intakes (Figure B). However, the percent energy from protein inthe diet was similar for both sexes (15 percent males, 16 percent females) and did not vary markedlywith age or NZDep96 quartile.
Given that the dietary intakes observed were almost double the Reference Nutrient Intake (fromthe UK DRV) for both males and females it can be concluded that the dietary protein intakes fromfood of New Zealanders are high.
Mean percent energy from protein increased in females with age (14 percent 15–18 years, 17 percent65+ years), but did not vary with NZDep96 quartiles.
Usual daily energy intake
Age group (years)
6
8
10
12
14
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
Med
ian
(kJx
103 )
Usual daily protein intake
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
Med
ian
(g)
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Figure A Figure B
malefemale
malefemale
12 NZ Food: NZ People
A2Fats Tables A2.1, A2.2, A2.3
Total fatThe usual daily median fat intake was 110 g for males and 72 g for females. As with protein, thelowest intake was among males and females 65+ years. Fat contributed the same amount to energyintake of both males and females (median 35 percent).
There was little variation among age groups and NZDep96 quartiles for mean percent energyfrom fat. However, in females, NZ Måori had a higher mean percent energy from fat (36 percent)compared to NZ European & Others females (34 percent) and the trend was similar, although notsignificant, for males (37 percent, 35 percent respectively).
More females (43 percent) than males (37 percent) met the 1991 New Zealand Nutrition Taskforceguideline for contribution of total fat to energy 1. Males 15–18 years were the least likely (31 percent)to meet this guideline across age and sex groups (Figure A).
It should be noted that the percent of energy from fat has not been adjusted for intra-individualvariation. Thus, the percent of those meeting the guideline may have been overestimated as thesedata will include some low percentages of energy from fat which have not been adjusted to reflectthe proportion of energy ‘usually’ contributed by dietary fat.
CholesterolThe usual daily median cholesterol intake, which reflects total fat intake, was 359 mg for malesand 243 mg for females. The highest consumption was for males 25–44 years (395 mg). Intake wassimilar across all NZDep96 quartiles. In females 25–44 years, NZ Måori had higher dietarycholesterol intakes (315 mg) than NZ European & Others (255 mg).
Types of Fat 2
In the New Zealand population saturated fat was the major contributor to the usual daily medianfat intake at 38 g, compared to 30 g of monounsaturated fat and 12 g of polyunsaturated fat.
Met fat guideline (≤33%)
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
NZ
popu
latio
n
Fat type
Category
Cont
ribut
ion
to e
nerg
y
malefemale
30%
34%
38%
42%
46%
50%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated
Figure A Figure B
malefemale
1 ≤ 33 percent energy from fat.2 Note: Total fat values do not equal the sum of the fatty acid subtotals because total fat is the sum of many lipid fractions, whereas
the subtotals represent only the sum of fatty acids (Quigley et al 1995).
13Nutrients
For the three types of fat, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated, intake for males washigher than for females: 47 g vs 30 g, 37 g vs 24 g and 15 g vs 10 g respectively. This reflects thehigher total fat intakes among males. However, the percent contribution to energy from thesethree fat types was similar across age and sex. Mean percent energy from saturated fat was 15percent (males and females) from monounsaturated fat (12 percent for males and 11 percent forfemales) and for polyunsaturated fat 5 percent (males and females) (Figure B). For all groups, thepercent energy from polyunsaturated fat is below the level recommended by the New ZealandNutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of 6-10 percent.
Neither the usual daily median intakes of the three fat types nor the mean percent contribution toenergy from the fat categories appear to be related to the NZDep96 quartile. Saturated andmonounsaturated fat intake was higher for NZ Måori females (36 g, 28 g) compared to NZ European& Others (30 g, 23 g).
14 NZ Food: NZ People
A3Carbohydrates Tables A3.1, A3.2, A3.3
CarbohydrateFor the New Zealand population the usual daily median intake of carbohydrate was over 40 percenthigher for males (305 g) than females (214 g). For both sexes the intake of carbohydrate was greatestin the younger groups (15–24 years) and decreased with age, reflecting the pattern of energy intakewith age.
The mean contribution to daily energy from carbohydrate was higher in females (47 percent) thanin males (45 percent). There was variation across age groups but no consistent pattern emerged.Among males, NZ Måori had a lower mean contribution to daily energy from carbohydrate (42percent) than NZ European & Others (45 percent) (Figure A).
Overall, 36 percent of New Zealanders met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelinefor carbohydrate intake 3 (females 40 percent, males 31 percent). Males 45–64 years were leastlikely (24 percent) and females 15–18 years (63 percent) were most likely of all New Zealanders tomeet the guideline (Figure B). The amount of carbohydrate consumed and the mean percentcontribution to energy intake showed little variability across NZDep96 quartiles (45 percent – 48percent). However, males living in NZDep96 quartile I areas were least likely (26 percent) to meetthe guideline for percentage energy from carbohydrate compared to those living in quartile IVareas (36 percent). In males 45+ years, NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others tomeet the guideline for carbohydrate intake (14 percent, 29 percent).
StarchStarch was the largest single contributor to carbohydrate intake, contributing just over half theusual daily median intake. Intake was higher for males (172 g) than females (112 g), parallelingcarbohydrate intake. Among males it was lowest in the 65+ years group (138 g) and lower forfemales 45+ years (100 g and 104 g).
SugarsTotal sugar intake, from all sources (usual daily median intake) was 114 g (131 g males, 99 gfemales). For both sexes, intake declined with age but was not affected by NZDep96 quartile. The
Met carbohydrate guideline (≥50%)Percent contribution of carbohydrate to energy
Ethnic group
Mea
n
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
NZ
popu
latio
n
malefemale
Figure A Figure B
42%
44%
46%
48%
NZ Maori NZ European & Others
malefemale
25%
35%
45%
55%
65%
3 ≥ 50 percent energy from carbohydrate.
15Nutrients
most significant sugar contributing to intake was sucrose (62 g males, 45 g females), followed byfructose, glucose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose intake, in parallel with total sugar, dropped formales and females in the groups 25 years and over but particularly for females. Fructose andglucose intakes declined with age in a similar way but to a lesser extent. Males from NZDep96quartile IV areas had a lower intake of glucose and fructose compared with the other quartiles,accounting for their lower total sugar intake.
16 NZ Food: NZ People
A4Dietary Fibre Table A4
The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre in the New Zealand population was 20 g, with 11 ginsoluble non-starch polysaccharides and 10 g soluble non-starch polysaccharides. Dietary fibreintakes were higher for males than for females across all age groups largely because of their higherenergy intake (Figure A). This was evident for both insoluble and soluble non-starchpolysaccharides (Figure B). Across age groups dietary fibre intake was similar. However, females65+ years had higher insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (10.4 g) than females 15–18 years (8.2 g).Males 15–18 years compared to males 65+ years had higher soluble non-starch polysaccharides(12.0 g, 10.0 g).
Dietary fibre intake for both sexes was higher for individuals living in NZDep96 quartile I areas(males 24.4 g, females 18.6 g) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (males 21.7 g, females16.6 g). This difference was most pronounced in insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (males 12.6 g,10.9 g; females 9.9 g, 8.6 g).
There were no ethnic differences in dietary fibre intake, however NZ Måori males had lowerinsoluble non-starch polysaccharides (10.8 g) than NZ European & Others (12.3 g).
For males the usual daily median intake of dietary fibre (23 g) was closer to the New ZealandNutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline 4 than the intake for females (18 g). For both sexes, solublefibre comprised more than the ‘approximately one-quarter of total dietary fibre’ recommended bythe Taskforce.
Usual daily dietary fibre intake
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
Med
ian
(g)
Usual daily non-starch polysaccharide intakes
Non-starch polysaccharides
Med
ian
(g)
malefemale
Figure A Figure B
malefemale
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
Insoluble Soluble0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
4 25-30 g per day.
17Nutrients
A5Alcohol Table A5
Alcohol was consumed by only some individuals on the day of recall. Therefore, the medianintakes of alcohol (0 g) do not provide information which is useful. The levels of 90th percentiles ofintake and mean intakes do provide useful information on the alcohol intakes of New Zealanders.
Unlike other nutrients, the intake data could not be adjusted for intra-individual variation sinceon any particular day zero consumption would not be uncommon. In addition, because of theextreme non-normality of the data no statistical tests were undertaken.
For the population as a whole the daily mean intake was 14 g. Intake was higher for males (20 g)than females (8 g).
For males, mean intake peaked for the 45–64 years group (26 g) and dropped by half in the 65+years group (13 g) (Figure A). A different pattern was seen for females, where the group 19–24years had the highest mean intake (13 g) and thereafter intake fell with increasing age (75+ years,4 g).
NZ Måori males had higher intakes mean (25 g) than NZ European & Others (19 g). Amongfemales, NZ Måori and NZ European & Others had similar intakes (8 g, 9 g respectively).
There appeared to be a trend for daily mean alcohol intake to be higher for individuals living inNZDep96 quartile I areas compared with those living in quartile IV areas (males 23 g, 17 g; females9 g, 6 g).
The mean proportion of energy from alcohol in the New Zealand population (4 percent) rangedfrom 1 percent for males and females 15–18 years to 6 percent for males 45–64 years (Figure B).
Daily alcohol intake
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Mea
n (g
)
75+
Percent contribution of alcohol to energy
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Mea
n
75+
Figure A Figure B
5
10
15
20
25
30 malefemale
malefemale
0
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
0%
18 NZ Food: NZ People
A6Vitamins Tables A6.1, A6.2
Vitamin AThe usual daily median intake of vitamin A equivalents for the New Zealand population was 939 µgretinol equivalents (RE), 400 µg of which was from retinol and the remainder from carotenoids. Asβ-carotene and retinol are concentrated in a few foods, estimates (even after adjusting for intra-individual variations) have very wide confidence intervals.
The intake from both sources was higher for males (1,076 µg RE) than females (842 µg RE). Therewas major variation among age groups for β-carotene (plant sources of vitamin A) compared to amore constant intake from retinol.
For males, the usual daily median intake of β-carotene in the 65+ years group (4,510 µg) was twicethat of the 19–24 years group (2,267 µg) (Figure A). For females, the highest reported intake wasagain for the 65+ years group (3,363 µg) and lowest in the 19–24 years group (2,014 µg). Thisimpacted on the overall lower vitamin A equivalents intake of males 19-24 years and females 15–24 years.
Patterns of intake were similar for NZ Måori and NZ European & Others.
The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake of vitamin A for the New Zealand population was1.9 percent (2.1 percent males, 1.6 percent females). Higher prevalances were seen in males andfemales 19–24 years (8.3 percent, 6.1 percent respectively) compared to older groups. Thesedifferences were not statistically significant. Individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas had ahigher prevalence of inadequate intake (males 8.3 percent, females 5.8 percent) than those fromquartile I and II areas (males 0 percent, females 0 percent – 0.3 percent).
As the requirement for vitamin A is established to cover functional needs and maintain stores, it isunlikely that intake is of concern in the New Zealand population as a whole. However, it is possiblethat there are sub-groups of the population, particularly the socioeconomically disadvantagedand young adults, whose dietary intake of vitamin A is of concern.
Usual daily β-carotene intake
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
Med
ian
(µg)
Usual daily vitamin C intake
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
Med
ian
(mg)
Figure A Figure B
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
malefemale
malefemale
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
19Nutrients
Vitamin CThe usual daily median intake of vitamin C for the New Zealand population was 102 mg (males111 mg, females 95 mg). The highest intakes were reported by males and females 15–18 years (141mg, 109 mg respectively) most likely reflecting their beverage choices (see Section E). Intakes wereconstant across other age groups of females and fell slightly with age for males (Figure B). Intakeswere similar for NZ European & Others and NZ Måori.
Overall, the estimated prevalence of inadequate intakes for the New Zealand population was lessthan one percent. The prevalence was marginally higher in the groups 25–44 years of the NewZealand population (males and females) and among NZ Måori females 15–24 years. However, noappreciable risk of inadequate intake is evident in any group assessed within the New Zealandpopulation, particularly given that the estimated average requirement from the UK DRV is inexcess of the amount needed to prevent scurvy.
Vitamin EThe usual daily median intake of vitamin E for the New Zealand population was 9.7 mg (males11.2 mg, females 8.6 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake with age, NZDep96 quartileor ethnicity for males or females.
Because vitamin E requirements depend on polyunsaturated fatty acid intake (and this can varywidely) the UK DRV do not specify a level of intake. Foods high in polyunsaturated fatty acidsusually, but not always, contain high amounts of vitamin E.
The UK DRV panel concludes ‘Daily intakes of 4 mg and 3 mg α-tocopherol equivalents can beadequate for men and women respectively’ (UK Department of Health 1991, p 129). Given that the10th percentile of usual daily intakes in this study are 7.4 mg for males and 5.6 mg for females, itwould appear that the vitamin E intakes of the New Zealand population are entirely satisfactory.
20 NZ Food: NZ People
A7B-Vitamins Tables A7.1, A7.2
ThiaminThe usual daily median intake of thiamin for New Zealanders was 1.4 mg (males 1.7 mg, females1.2 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake for males or females, with NZDep96 quartilesor between NZ Måori and NZ European & Others (Figure A). Males 65+ years had the lowestintake (1.4 mg) compared with other age groups (1.6 mg – 1.8 mg). This may be related to theirlower total energy intake compared with other age groups. Thiamin requirement is closely relatedto energy metabolism and hence energy intake. The UK DRV panel state that absolute intakeshould not fall below 0.4 mg/day in people on very low energy diets. Given the 10th percentile ofusual intakes in this study (males 1.1 mg, females 0.8 mg) it would appear that the intake ofthiamin in the New Zealand population is satisfactory.
RiboflavinThe usual daily median intake of riboflavin for the New Zealand population was 1.8 mg (males2.0 mg, females 1.5 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake with age or NZDep96 quartilefor either males or females.
While the estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was 3.4percent, it was higher for females 15–18 years (13.9 percent) compared with females 45+ years (4.0percent – 4.7 percent). Similarly, females living in quartile IV areas had higher levels of inadequateintake (11.6 percent) compared with those from quartile I and II areas (1.8 percent, 2.2 percent)and for NZ Måori females (10.5 percent) compared with NZ European & Others (2.9 percent). Thismay reflect both the type and amounts of particular foods chosen by females, especially youngfemales. As the requirement is based on the intake needed to maintain tissue saturation, it isunlikely that intakes not meeting this requirement would be associated with any functionalimpairment. However, biochemical data would be necessary to support this conclusion.
Niacin equivalentsThe usual daily median intake of niacin equivalents (NE) for the New Zealand population was35 mg (males 43 mg, females 29 mg). The higher level for males reflected both their higher energyand their higher protein intake and therefore higher intakes of niacin from tryptophan. Intakes
Usual daily vitamin B12 intakeUsual daily thiamin intake
Ethnic group
Med
ian
(mg)
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
Med
ian
(µg)
Figure A Figure B
NZ Maori NZ European & Others
malefemale
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
malefemale
0
21Nutrients
were lower for individuals 65+ years (males 33 mg, females 25 mg) compared with those 19–64years (males 42 mg – 46 mg, females 29 mg – 30 mg). There were no discernible intake trends withNZDep96 quartile. Intakes were similar for NZ European & Others and NZ Måori.
Niacin requirement is related to energy expenditure and hence energy intake. The UK DRV panelhas set a Reference Nutrient Intake of 6.6 mg NE per 1,000 kcal (4,200 kJ) for males and females. Asthe usual daily median intakes for males are approximately 15.5 mg NE per 4,200 kJ and for females15.8 mg NE per 4,200 kJ, the intakes of New Zealanders appear to be entirely adequate.
Vitamin B6The usual daily median intake of vitamin B6 for the New Zealand population was 1.4 mg (males1.7 mg, females 1.2 mg). Males 15–24 years have higher intakes (1.8 mg) than males 65+ years(1.4 mg). Intakes were similar across NZDep96 quartiles. These values are close to the ReferenceNutrient Intake from the UK DRV of 1.4 – 1.5 mg/day for males and 1.2 mg/day for females.These values have assumed a protein intake similar to New Zealand intakes which is significantbecause vitamin B6 requirement is related to protein metabolism. Some vitamin B6 from vegetablesis unavailable but intestinal flora synthesise some absorbable vitamin B6. On balance, it appearsthat intakes of vitamin B6 for the New Zealand population are more than adequate.
Vitamin B12The usual daily median intake of vitamin B12 for the New Zealand population was 4 mg (males5 mg, females 3 mg). Males 19–44 years have higher intakes (5.4 mg – 6.1 mg) than males 65+ years(4.0 mg) (Figure B). Levels varied little across NZDep96 quartiles. The overall estimated prevalenceof inadequate intake was 0.4 percent i.e. negligible risk of deficiency. Since the average requirementhas been calculated at a level to maintain liver stores, this indicates that the vitamin B12 intakesobserved in the population are sufficient to withstand periods of zero intake.
FolateThe usual daily median intake of folate from food for the New Zealand population was 242 µg(males 278 µg, females 212 µg). Intakes varied little across age group. Females living in NZDep96quartile I areas had higher levels of intake (227 µg) compared with those living in quartile IV areas(201 µg).
While the overall estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was7.1 percent, the prevalence was consistently higher among females than males (regardless of age).Among females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas there was a higher prevalence of inadequateintake (18.6 percent) compared to those living in quartile I areas (7.6 percent). Also, NZ Måorifemales had a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (23 percent) compared with NZ European &Others (11.5 percent). Females 15–24 years had a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (21.2percent – 22.2 percent) compared with females 45+ years (9.2 percent – 9.8 percent).
Interpretation of folate data must take account of the following. Firstly, the requirement estimateshave been set to maintain liver stores, thus intakes below these requirements will not necessarilybe associated with any functional impairment (this is not the level recommended for peri-conceptualfemales to reduce the risk of neural tube defects). Secondly, as determining folate levels in foods isinherently difficult, it is likely that the folate food composition data used in this survey may leadto an underestimate of folate intakes. In light of this, the prevalence of inadequate intake is likelyto be overestimated.
22 NZ Food: NZ People
A8Minerals Tables A8.1, A8.2, A8.3
CalciumThe usual daily median intake of calcium, from food for New Zealanders was 766 mg (males 857mg, females 691 mg). Intake was lowest for males and females 65+ years (751 mg, 636 mgrespectively) (Figure A). Individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (males 781 mg, females632 mg) had lower intakes compared with those from quartile I and II areas (males 885 mg, 922 mg;females 733 mg, 710 mg). NZ Måori males (761 mg) had lower intakes than NZ European & Others(885 mg).
The estimated average requirements from the UK DRV for calcium have been set acknowledgingthe difficulty in establishing true population requirements, largely because of the diversity offunctions of calcium in the body. For the New Zealand population the estimated prevalence ofinadequate intake has been assessed as 20 percent. Higher prevalences were observed amongfemales (25 percent) compared to males (14 percent). The youngest group (15–18 years) has thehighest prevalence of inadequate intake (males 33 percent, females 37 percent). NZ Måori hadhigher prevalences of inadequate intake (males 24 percent, females 34 percent) compared withNZ European & Others (males 11 percent, females 22 percent).
PhosphorusThe usual daily median intake of phosphorus for New Zealanders from foods and beverages was1,477 mg (males 1,761 mg, females 1,247 mg). The highest intakes were among the 19–44 yearsgroups (males 1,848 mg, 1,891 mg; females 1,305 mg, 1,295 mg), and the lowest intakes in the65+ years group (males 1,428 mg, females 1,112 mg). Intakes were higher in females living inNZDep96 quartile I areas (1,303 mg) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (1,188 mg).
These phosphorus intakes are relatively high and the calcium phosphorus (Ca:P) ratio is close to1:2. Neither the intake nor the ratio are in the ranges believed to alter calcium metabolism(P intakes 1.0-1.6 g/day and Ca:P molar ratio 1:3). It is extremely unlikely that there could be anyproblem of inadequate phosphorous intakes in New Zealand.
Usual daily calcium intake
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
Med
ian
(mg)
Usual daily zinc intake
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64 65
+
Med
ian
(mg)
Figure A Figure B
malefemale
malefemale
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
8
10
12
14
16
18
23Nutrients
MagnesiumThe usual daily median intake of magnesium for New Zealanders from foods and beverages was309 mg (males 365 mg, females 265 mg). Intakes were similar across age groups, NZDep96 quartilesand ethnic groups. These values are close to the Reference Nutrient Intake, based on the UK DRVestimated average requirement of 3.4 mg/kg/day, and appear to be adequate.
IronThe usual daily median intake of iron from all food sources for the New Zealand population was12.0 mg (males 14.6 mg, females 9.9 mg). For both sexes, the lowest intakes were for those 65+years. NZ Måori males and females had higher intakes of iron than NZ European & Others by1.2 mg and 0.6 mg respectively.
The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for males in the New Zealand population was low(1 percent), but higher for females at 26 percent. Females 45+ years included those both menstruatingand non-menstruating and hence with quite different iron requirements. Prevalence of inadequateintake of this group has been calculated assuming that all were not menstruating and this is reflectedin the lower prevalences of inadequacy. The highest prevalence of inadequacy (39 percent – 45percent) was in females 15–44 years (all assumed to be menstruating).
Among males and non-menstruating females estimates of the prevalence of inadequate intake aresimilar to those with low iron stores assessed by biochemical indicators (0 percent males, 6 percentfemales) (see Table F3). However, for menstruating females low iron stores range between fourand seven percent, considerably below the estimated prevalences of inadequate intake. Thisanomaly might be explained by one or more of: estimates of blood loss in menstruationinappropriate for New Zealand females (hence an inappropriately high Estimated AverageRequirement (EAR)); the possibility that food intake is under-reported; a higher percent of dietaryiron is absorbed in New Zealand. Given the picture of biochemical iron status (Table F3), it wouldappear that New Zealand females menstruating or non-menstruating have a low risk of inadequateintake.
ZincThe usual daily median intake of zinc from all food sources for New Zealanders was 11.9 mg(males 14.5 mg, females 9.8 mg). For both sexes, intakes were lowest in the group 65+ years (males11.6 mg, females 8.9 mg) (Figure B). Intakes were similar across NZDep96 quartiles and ethnicgroups.
The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was 1.2 percent.Among males the prevalence was highest in the 65+ years group (4.8 percent) and among 15–18years females (2.4 percent). Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas had the highest prevalenceof inadequate intake (4.8 percent) compared with those living in quartile I areas (0.2 percent).Given that the EAR for dietary zinc was set to be equivalent to daily losses and a significantproportion of zinc in the New Zealand diet is from animal sources (hence highly bioavailable), itcan be concluded that only a very small proportion of the New Zealand population is at risk ofinadequate intake.
PotassiumThe usual daily median intake of potassium for New Zealanders from all food sources was 3,378mg (males 3,922 mg, females 2,936 mg). There were no apparent trends in intake across age groups,NZDep96 quartiles or ethnic groups. These intakes appear to be adequate in comparison to theReference Nutrient Intake of 3,500 mg/day (UK DRV). It is extremely unlikely that any problemof inadequate intake exists in New Zealand.
24 NZ Food: NZ People
SeleniumEstimates of selenium intake derived from dietary intake data are not reliable due to difficulties inestablishing food composition data for selenium. Food composition data in New Zealand cannotbe satisfactorily compiled without knowledge of the origins of flour in all food products as importedflour (or wheat) has higher levels of selenium than the New Zealand grown equivalent. The usualdaily median intakes of males (56 µg), and females (39 µg), are higher than levels reported in asmall selected group of New Zealanders where duplicate diet analysis was used to assess intake(Duffield 1999). The distribution of intakes (10th and 90th percentiles), are not believed to be reliableindicators of variation in intake, given the uncertainties of the data on selenium concentration inNew Zealand foods. These data are insufficient to allow conclusions to be reached on the adequacyof selenium intake of New Zealanders. International agreement has not yet been reached on therequirements for selenium intake.
ManganeseThe usual daily median intake of manganese for New Zealanders was 4,327 mg (males 4,935 mg,females 3,891 mg). Intakes were lowest for the younger two groups (males 4,075 mg, 4,086 mg;females 2,888 mg, 3,168 mg) compared with 5,088 mg to 5,177 mg for males over 25 years and3,914 mg to 4,393 mg for females. Individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas had the lowestintakes (males 4,461 mg, females 3,503 mg) compared to individuals living in quartile I areas(males 5,241 mg, females 4,140 mg). Intakes of NZ Måori were below those of NZ European &Others. However, all intakes were well above the safe intakes designated by the UK DRV of1.4 mg/day, and appear to be entirely satisfactory.
CopperThe usual daily median intake of copper for New Zealanders from all food sources was 1.4 mg(males 1.7 mg, females 1.2 mg). For males, intakes were lower in the 65+ years group. There wereno apparent trends in intake across NZDep96 quartiles or ethnic groups. These intakes appearsatisfactory in light of the Reference Nutrient Intake of 1.2 mg/day (UK DRV).
25Nutrients
26 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
1EN
ERG
Y A
ND
PRO
TEIN
Ener
gy (k
J)1
Prot
ein
(g)1
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m p
rote
in2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
9884
70.3
6054
9441
1427
290
0.8
5786
130
160.
410
1522
Mal
es15
–18
1243
059
3.0
8103
1207
917
147
110
6.4
6910
715
715
0.7
1014
2219
–24
1324
747
0.0
9347
1303
717
421
110
4.6
7410
814
814
0.5
914
1925
–44
1290
420
6.0
8879
1263
217
263
117
2.3
8011
315
915
0.2
1014
2145
–64
1113
418
2.0
8190
1091
414
345
107
2.7
7510
314
316
0.3
1115
2265
+92
7419
0.0
6952
9161
1174
485
2.4
6183
111
160.
311
1522
Tota
l11
942
110.
082
7011
631
1603
710
91.
473
105
149
150.
410
1521
Fem
ales
15–1
888
6251
2.3
5251
8554
1291
272
4.2
4769
101
140.
59
1419
19–2
491
0228
5.6
6112
8783
1237
978
3.3
5576
104
150.
510
1421
25–4
484
1712
6.3
5647
8175
1144
877
1.3
5375
104
160.
210
1522
45–6
473
8612
5.6
5106
7227
9857
721.
552
7195
170.
211
1623
65+
6579
130.
348
5164
4984
7464
1.7
4661
8317
0.3
1116
23To
tal
7969
81.4
5301
7701
1094
473
0.8
5171
9916
0.4
1015
22N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
1207
424
0.0
9307
1188
115
124
107
3.2
8010
513
615
0.3
1014
21II
1216
626
4.0
8261
1184
516
487
110
2.9
7410
715
115
0.3
1115
21III
1186
727
2.0
8077
1159
215
983
111
3.6
7210
615
716
0.3
1015
22IV
1162
624
3.0
7520
1122
016
240
108
2.7
6710
315
516
0.3
1015
23Fe
mal
esI
7959
137.
556
8477
9410
436
731.
755
7292
160.
310
1522
II79
7320
4.9
6185
7872
9894
731.
857
7188
160.
310
1522
III78
9314
4.3
5111
7583
1105
074
1.7
5071
101
160.
211
1522
IV80
5514
1.3
4700
7611
1182
574
1.7
4670
107
160.
310
1522
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
.2
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for
intra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion,
as
the
only
met
hods
that
hav
e be
en d
evel
oped
for
ratio
s us
e m
ultip
le d
ay r
epea
ts. P
erce
nt e
nerg
y fro
m p
rote
in fo
r ea
chpa
rtici
pant
was
cal
cula
ted
as th
e en
ergy
from
pro
tein
(con
vers
ion
fact
or =
16.
7 kJ
/g) d
ivid
ed b
y th
e to
tal e
nerg
y in
take
.3
Perc
entil
es.
27Nutrients
Tabl
e A
1 co
nt.
ENER
GY
AN
D P
ROTE
INEn
ergy
(kJ)
1Pr
otei
n (g
)1Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
pro
tein
2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
411
912
776.
081
7711
575
1608
699
6.4
6997
132
140.
59
1420
25–4
413
261
759.
086
9312
808
1841
812
97.
978
122
187
160.
511
1524
45+
1088
570
8.0
7436
1079
614
441
120
14.2
7211
017
818
0.9
1016
26To
tal
1228
238
1.0
8250
1193
916
759
117
5.2
7311
017
016
0.4
1015
24Fe
mal
es15
–24
1031
762
8.0
6020
9789
1524
683
6.0
5080
119
130.
48
1319
25–4
490
9331
5.4
5464
8646
1324
082
3.1
5179
116
160.
510
1422
45+
7305
409.
043
7170
8510
520
725.
747
7099
170.
711
1724
Tota
l90
2924
3.8
5259
8545
1336
580
2.6
4977
113
150.
310
1421
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
413
163
448.
089
9712
994
1753
411
35.
570
110
158
140.
510
1420
25–4
412
900
227.
089
2012
630
1721
111
52.
480
112
155
150.
210
1421
45+
1052
514
7.0
7682
1028
713
659
981.
870
9513
016
0.2
1115
21To
tal
1192
012
3.0
8122
1157
916
186
107
1.4
7310
414
615
0.2
1015
21Fe
mal
es15
–24
8608
333.
756
0284
2611
859
753.
352
7398
150.
49
1421
25–4
483
1712
4.3
5791
8144
1106
676
1.3
5575
100
160.
210
1522
45+
7025
83.3
5099
6904
9107
681.
050
6789
170.
211
1623
Tota
l77
8987
.255
1676
2210
277
720.
953
7194
160.
210
1522
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
. Cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in th
e in
terp
reta
tion
of th
ese
data
for N
Z M
aori,
due
to th
e lim
ited
num
ber o
fre
peat
24
hour
die
t rec
alls
for t
his
ethn
ic g
roup
.2
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for
intra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion,
as
the
only
met
hods
that
hav
e be
en d
evel
oped
for
ratio
s us
e m
ultip
le d
ay r
epea
ts. P
erce
nt e
nerg
y fro
m p
rote
in fo
r ea
chpa
rtici
pant
was
cal
cula
ted
as th
e en
ergy
from
pro
tein
(con
vers
ion
fact
or =
16.
7 kJ
/g) d
ivid
ed b
y th
e to
tal e
nerg
y in
take
.3
Perc
entil
es.
28 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
2.1
TOTA
L FA
T A
ND
CH
OLE
STER
OL
Tota
l fat
(g)1
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m to
tal f
at2
Chol
este
rol (
mg)
1
Mee
ting
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
guide
line4
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
941.
051
8914
335
0.2
2335
4640
%31
95.
117
129
649
6M
ales
15–1
811
86.
471
114
171
351.
423
3545
31%
325
24.1
197
312
472
19–2
412
95.
682
126
178
360.
925
3647
36%
372
24.2
230
356
532
25–4
412
63.
177
121
181
360.
425
3646
33%
420
14.1
240
395
631
45–6
410
42.
268
101
144
350.
523
3546
40%
386
11.9
220
367
576
65+
872.
558
8511
834
0.6
2434
4547
%28
816
.817
827
641
3To
tal
114
1.6
7011
016
335
0.3
2436
4637
%38
111
.722
235
956
8Fe
mal
es15
–18
845.
843
8012
934
1.2
2634
4846
%23
619
.912
722
136
419
–24
844.
547
8012
634
1.0
2034
4647
%26
720
.515
525
239
825
–44
801.
546
7711
735
0.4
2335
4741
%27
87.
415
426
142
345
–64
701.
543
6710
035
0.4
2435
4642
%25
98.
614
824
339
065
+60
1.5
3958
8334
0.5
2333
4547
%23
114
.113
121
335
4To
tal
751.
043
7211
035
0.2
2334
4643
%26
14.
714
724
339
5N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
114
3.4
7911
115
335
0.6
2435
4537
%36
616
.724
135
450
5II
116
3.5
6911
116
935
0.6
2335
4537
%38
516
.122
736
756
5III
115
3.4
6911
116
435
0.7
2536
4636
%37
820
.922
835
955
3IV
113
2.7
6610
816
636
0.5
2436
4836
%39
614
.820
236
562
7Fe
mal
esI
742.
148
7210
134
0.5
2434
4547
%25
312
.115
224
037
2II
741.
748
7310
334
0.5
2234
4642
%25
77.
517
325
035
1III
751.
843
7111
335
0.5
2235
4741
%25
98.
113
723
740
7IV
771.
939
7112
035
0.4
2335
4641
%27
89.
114
025
544
51
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE.
2Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n, a
s th
e on
ly m
etho
ds th
at h
ave
been
dev
elop
ed fo
r rat
ios
use
mul
tiple
day
repe
ats.
Per
cent
ene
rgy
from
fat f
or e
ach
parti
cipa
ntw
as c
alcu
late
d as
the
ener
gy fr
om fa
t (co
nver
sion
fact
or =
37.
7 kJ
/g) d
ivid
ed b
y th
e to
tal e
nerg
y in
take
.3
Perc
entil
es.
4Th
e N
ew Z
eala
nd N
utrit
ion
Task
forc
e (1
991)
gui
delin
e re
com
men
ds fa
t pro
vide
s ≤
33.0
% o
f ene
rgy
inta
ke.
29Nutrients
Tabl
e A
2.1
cont
.TO
TAL
FAT
AN
D C
HO
LEST
ERO
LTo
tal f
at (g
)1Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
tota
l fat
2Ch
oles
tero
l (m
g)1
Mee
ting
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
guide
line4
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
411
28.
372
108
158
361.
526
3647
42%
312
32.5
197
300
442
25–4
413
611
.381
130
200
381.
126
3949
24%
489
37.5
265
459
753
45+
104
7.2
6510
114
936
1.2
2336
4633
%40
742
.623
038
162
3To
tal
122
5.2
7411
617
637
0.8
2538
4732
%41
319
.122
537
964
6Fe
mal
es15
–24
100
7.7
5093
158
351.
321
3548
40%
304
31.5
161
283
471
25–4
491
3.9
4885
139
370.
825
3749
33%
336
17.9
180
315
518
45+
744.
640
7211
037
1.2
2736
4831
%28
824
.815
326
645
0To
tal
903.
046
8413
936
0.6
2436
4934
%31
713
.117
129
549
0N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
127
5.1
7912
517
936
1.0
2535
4732
%36
022
.620
734
253
425
–44
125
3.4
7612
017
836
0.4
2536
4633
%40
516
.124
638
758
845
+98
1.7
6495
136
350.
423
3545
43%
349
10.0
209
334
508
Tota
l11
41.
769
110
163
350.
324
3545
37%
373
9.7
226
356
542
Fem
ales
15–2
480
4.6
4578
119
341.
022
3446
47%
244
18.0
139
234
363
25–4
478
1.4
4876
111
350.
422
3546
42%
266
7.4
164
255
384
45+
651.
042
6390
340.
323
3445
45%
243
6.5
142
225
369
Tota
l73
1.0
4671
102
340.
323
3446
44%
251
4.5
155
239
363
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
–ind
ivid
ual v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
. Cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in th
e in
terp
reta
tion
of th
ese
data
for N
Z M
aori,
due
to th
e lim
ited
num
ber
of re
peat
24
hour
die
t rec
alls
for t
his
ethn
ic g
roup
.2
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
–ind
ivid
ual v
aria
tion,
as
the
only
met
hods
that
hav
e be
en d
evel
oped
for r
atio
s us
e m
ultip
le d
ay re
peat
s. P
erce
nt e
nerg
y fro
m fa
t for
eac
h pa
rtici
pant
was
cal
cula
ted
as th
e en
ergy
from
fat (
conv
ersi
on fa
ctor
= 3
7.7
kJ/g
) div
ided
by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
3Pe
rcen
tiles
.4
The
New
Zea
land
Nut
ritio
n Ta
skfo
rce
(199
1) g
uide
line
reco
mm
ends
fat p
rovi
des
≤ 33
.0%
of e
nerg
y in
take
.
30 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
2.2
FATT
Y A
CID
S I
Satu
rate
d fa
t (g)
1M
onou
nsat
urat
ed fa
t (g)
1Po
lyun
satu
rate
d fa
t (g)
1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
400.
421
3863
310.
417
3048
130.
27
1221
Mal
es15
–18
513.
930
4876
402.
325
3958
161.
28
1525
19–2
455
2.6
3554
7744
1.9
2843
6017
1.0
1016
2625
–44
541.
331
5280
421.
226
4161
170.
59
1626
45–6
444
1.0
2742
6335
0.8
2334
4815
0.6
814
2365
+37
1.3
2336
5328
0.8
1827
3913
0.5
812
20To
tal
490.
729
4772
380.
623
3755
160.
38
1524
Fem
ales
15–1
836
2.9
1733
5928
1.8
1527
4311
0.8
611
1719
–24
362.
020
3555
281.
715
2642
120.
86
1118
25–4
435
0.7
1933
5326
0.5
1525
3911
0.3
610
1645
–64
290.
716
2844
230.
515
2233
100.
36
1015
65+
250.
715
2537
190.
513
1927
90.
35
814
Tota
l32
0.5
1730
4925
0.4
1424
3710
0.2
610
16N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
491.
532
4868
381.
226
3751
160.
69
1524
II50
1.6
2948
7339
1.4
2237
5816
0.6
814
25III
481.
728
4671
381.
124
3854
170.
69
1626
IV48
1.3
2646
7439
1.0
2237
5715
0.5
714
24Fe
mal
esI
321.
018
3047
240.
916
2433
100.
38
1013
II32
0.8
1931
4525
0.6
1624
3411
0.4
610
17III
320.
817
3050
250.
714
2438
110.
46
1016
IV34
0.9
1631
5525
0.7
1323
3910
0.2
59
171
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
31Nutrients
Tabl
e A
2.2
cont
.FA
TTY
ACI
DS
ISa
tura
ted
fat (
g)1
Mon
ouns
atur
ated
fat (
g)1
Poly
unsa
tura
ted
fat (
g)1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
450
4.1
3248
7141
2.6
2539
5813
1.0
712
1925
–44
585.
633
5486
483.
827
4572
191.
89
1730
45+
433.
025
4262
373.
222
3653
151.
98
1423
Tota
l52
2.7
3049
7642
1.8
2541
6216
0.9
815
25Fe
mal
es15
–24
454.
120
4173
342.
417
3253
120.
96
1118
25–4
440
2.0
2037
6330
1.5
1628
4612
0.7
611
1945
+32
2.2
1630
5124
1.6
1323
3610
0.7
610
16To
tal
391.
519
3663
301.
015
2846
120.
46
1118
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
455
2.2
3253
7843
1.8
2742
6017
1.0
917
2725
–44
541.
532
5280
421.
325
4060
170.
69
1626
45+
420.
826
4060
320.
621
3145
140.
48
1322
Tota
l49
0.7
2847
7338
0.7
2337
5516
0.4
815
25Fe
mal
es15
–24
342.
118
3353
271.
615
2640
110.
86
1118
25–4
434
0.7
2033
5026
0.5
1625
3711
0.3
610
1645
+27
0.5
1626
4021
0.4
1421
3010
0.2
69
15To
tal
310.
518
3046
240.
415
2334
100.
26
1015
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
. Cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in th
e in
terp
reta
tion
of th
ese
data
for N
Z M
aori,
due
to th
e lim
ited
num
ber o
fre
peat
24
hour
die
t rec
alls
for t
his
ethn
ic g
roup
.2
Perc
entil
es.
32 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
2.3
FATT
Y A
CID
S II
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m s
atur
ated
fat1
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m m
onou
nsat
urat
ed fa
t1Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
pol
yuns
atur
ated
fat1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
150.
18
1521
120.
17
1116
50.
12
48
Mal
es15
–18
150.
610
1619
120.
57
1316
50.
42
47
19–2
416
0.5
1016
2212
0.3
812
175
0.2
34
825
–44
150.
29
1522
120.
28
1216
50.
12
48
45–6
415
0.3
914
2112
0.2
711
165
0.1
25
965
+15
0.3
814
2111
0.2
711
155
0.2
25
9To
tal
150.
29
1521
120.
17
1216
50.
12
48
Fem
ales
15–1
814
0.6
815
2012
0.9
811
175
0.3
24
819
–24
150.
58
1522
110.
46
1117
50.
32
49
25–4
415
0.2
815
2212
0.1
711
165
0.1
24
845
–64
150.
38
1421
110.
27
1116
50.
12
58
65+
140.
37
1421
110.
27
1015
50.
22
59
Tota
l15
0.1
815
2111
0.1
711
165
0.1
24
8N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
150.
39
1521
120.
27
1215
50.
22
48
II15
0.3
915
2212
0.2
712
165
0.2
25
8III
150.
39
1522
120.
28
1216
50.
22
59
IV15
0.3
916
2212
0.2
812
175
0.1
24
8Fe
mal
esI
150.
38
1421
110.
27
1116
50.
12
48
II15
0.3
815
2111
0.2
711
165
0.1
24
8III
150.
38
1422
120.
37
1217
50.
12
48
IV15
0.2
915
2211
0.2
711
165
0.1
24
81
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for
intra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion,
as
the
only
met
hods
that
hav
e be
en d
evel
oped
for
ratio
s us
e m
ultip
le d
ay r
epea
ts.
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m fa
t for
eac
h pa
rtici
pant
was
cal
cula
ted
as th
e en
ergy
from
fat (
conv
ersi
on fa
ctor
= 3
7.7
kJ/g
) div
ided
by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
33Nutrients
Tabl
e A
2.3
cont
.FA
TTY
ACI
DS
IIPe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
sat
urat
ed fa
t1Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
mon
ouns
atur
ated
fat1
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m p
olyu
nsat
urat
ed fa
t1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
416
0.8
916
2313
0.6
813
174
0.3
24
725
–44
160.
510
1622
130.
49
1318
50.
32
59
45+
150.
78
1523
120.
58
1217
50.
42
410
Tota
l15
0.4
916
2213
0.3
813
175
0.2
24
8Fe
mal
es15
–24
160.
86
1624
120.
66
1218
40.
22
47
25–4
416
0.4
1016
2212
0.4
712
175
0.2
24
945
+16
0.7
915
2312
0.5
712
165
0.4
25
10To
tal
160.
49
1523
120.
37
1217
50.
22
49
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
415
0.5
1015
2112
0.3
712
165
0.2
24
825
–44
150.
39
1622
120.
28
1216
50.
12
48
45+
150.
29
1421
110.
27
1116
50.
12
59
Tota
l15
0.2
915
2112
0.1
712
165
0.1
25
8Fe
mal
es15
–24
140.
58
1420
110.
66
1116
50.
32
49
25–4
415
0.2
815
2212
0.2
711
165
0.1
24
845
+14
0.2
814
2111
0.1
711
165
0.1
25
8To
tal
150.
28
1521
110.
17
1116
50.
12
48
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r in
tra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n, a
s th
e on
ly m
etho
ds th
at h
ave
been
dev
elop
ed fo
r ra
tios
use
mul
tiple
day
rep
eats
.Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
fat f
or e
ach
parti
cipa
nt w
as c
alcu
late
d as
the
ener
gy fr
om fa
t (co
nver
sion
fact
or =
37.
7 kJ
/g) d
ivid
ed b
y th
e to
tal e
nerg
y in
take
.2
Perc
entil
es.
34 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
3.1
CARB
OH
YDRA
TE A
ND
STA
RCH
Carb
ohyd
rate
(g)1
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m c
arbo
hydr
ate2
Star
ch (g
)1
Mee
ting
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
guide
line 4
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
267
2.0
163
255
385
460.
733
4658
36%
145
2.8
8913
820
9M
ales
15–1
835
115
.622
734
348
449
1.7
3848
6143
%18
910
.111
918
326
819
–24
362
14.9
239
356
492
461.
134
4561
36%
192
8.2
136
190
250
25–4
433
85.
622
833
145
745
0.5
3245
5831
%18
83.
513
218
525
045
–64
283
5.4
198
275
378
430.
530
4256
24%
164
3.8
123
162
209
65+
252
5.0
183
247
328
460.
634
4757
36%
140
3.1
107
138
175
Tota
l31
53.
521
030
543
445
0.9
3245
5831
%17
61.
912
417
223
2Fe
mal
es15
–18
264
14.3
163
257
377
511.
237
5262
63%
130
7.6
8212
318
919
–24
255
6.7
173
245
347
481.
235
4964
47%
122
3.9
8011
816
825
–44
229
3.3
152
223
315
460.
434
4659
35%
123
2.3
8012
016
945
–64
202
3.8
136
198
272
470.
435
4758
34%
107
2.2
7010
414
765
+18
94.
213
618
424
848
0.6
3649
6046
%10
22.
471
100
135
Tota
l22
22.
214
621
430
647
0.8
3547
5940
%11
61.
475
112
161
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I32
16.
122
331
143
445
0.6
3245
5526
%17
93.
312
617
523
7II
323
6.9
212
314
445
450.
732
4560
33%
180
3.8
123
176
242
III31
39.
022
230
641
145
0.9
3245
5730
%17
55.
111
917
123
4IV
305
7.2
188
294
436
450.
630
4558
36%
170
4.8
118
167
226
Fem
ales
I22
23.
615
821
629
348
0.6
3648
5942
%11
62.
779
112
156
II22
16.
216
821
727
847
0.6
3447
5939
%11
52.
985
114
147
III21
73.
714
121
230
047
0.5
3447
5938
%11
42.
577
112
155
IV22
64.
312
821
333
547
0.5
3547
6140
%11
93.
067
112
179
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
.2
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion,
as
the
only
met
hods
that
hav
e be
en d
evel
oped
for r
atio
s us
e m
ultip
le d
ay re
peat
s. P
erce
nt e
nerg
yfro
m c
arbo
hydr
ate
for e
ach
parti
cipa
nt w
as c
alcu
late
d as
the
ener
gy fr
om c
arbo
hydr
ate
(con
vers
ion
fact
or =
16.
7 kJ
/g) d
ivid
ed b
y th
e to
tal e
nerg
y in
take
.3
Perc
entil
es.
4Th
e N
ew Z
eala
nd N
utrit
ion
Task
forc
e (1
991)
gui
delin
e re
com
men
ds c
arbo
hydr
ate
prov
ides
≥ 5
0.0%
of e
nerg
y in
take
.
35Nutrients
Tabl
e A
3.1
cont
.CA
RBO
HYD
RATE
AN
D S
TARC
HCa
rboh
ydra
te (g
)1Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
car
bohy
drat
e2St
arch
(g)1
Mee
ting
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
guide
line 4
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
432
826
.820
431
546
745
1.7
3344
5834
%16
916
.011
216
622
925
–44
317
13.7
207
310
437
421.
525
4354
25%
186
9.1
126
183
251
45+
259
17.9
157
257
357
401.
624
4153
14%
143
11.6
9813
919
4To
tal
305
11.2
196
296
427
420.
928
4355
25%
170
6.3
114
166
230
Fem
ales
15–2
429
118
.017
028
242
550
1.4
3650
6547
%14
311
.478
134
219
25–4
424
38.
814
623
435
246
0.8
3345
5735
%13
15.
777
123
194
45+
189
12.3
116
183
271
451.
333
4556
36%
107
7.3
6310
115
7To
tal
247
7.8
142
235
364
470.
733
4659
39%
129
4.9
7412
119
5N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
367
12.5
245
362
496
481.
236
4761
40%
197
7.6
132
194
265
25–4
434
26.
523
633
346
345
0.5
3245
5832
%18
94.
013
318
524
945
+27
54.
319
026
537
044
0.4
3245
5729
%15
72.
911
215
320
5To
tal
318
3.5
207
307
441
450.
432
4558
32%
176
2.1
119
172
239
Fem
ales
15–2
424
58.
716
523
933
349
1.1
3550
6153
%11
74.
480
115
157
25–4
422
73.
615
522
130
546
0.5
3446
5934
%12
02.
282
118
160
45+
196
2.7
139
193
258
470.
436
4758
38%
104
1.6
7210
213
8To
tal
216
2.4
152
211
286
470.
335
4759
39%
112
1.4
7711
014
91
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE. C
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thes
e da
ta fo
r NZ
Mao
ri, d
ueto
the
limite
d nu
mbe
r of r
epea
t 24
hour
die
t rec
alls
for t
his
ethn
ic g
roup
.2
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion,
as
the
only
met
hods
that
hav
e be
en d
evel
oped
for r
atio
s us
e m
ultip
le d
ay re
peat
s. P
erce
nt e
nerg
y fro
mca
rboh
ydra
te fo
r eac
h pa
rtici
pant
was
cal
cula
ted
as th
e en
ergy
from
car
bohy
drat
e (c
onve
rsio
n fa
ctor
= 1
6.7
kJ/g
) div
ided
by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
3Pe
rcen
tiles
.4
The
New
Zea
land
Nut
ritio
n Ta
skfo
rce
(199
1) g
uide
line
reco
mm
ends
car
bohy
drat
e pr
ovid
es ≥
50.
0% o
f ene
rgy
inta
ke.
36 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
3.2
SUG
ARS
ITo
tal s
ugar
s (g
)1Gl
ucos
e (g
)1Fr
ucto
se (g
)1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
122
1.2
6311
419
021
0.3
920
3523
0.3
1021
38M
ales
15–1
816
07.
096
154
234
271.
912
2645
291.
913
2747
19–2
416
99.
588
162
259
312.
013
2853
322.
513
2955
25–4
414
93.
583
143
224
240.
611
2340
260.
712
2443
45–6
411
83.
363
111
182
210.
79
1936
220.
89
2038
65+
112
3.2
6510
716
620
0.8
918
3321
1.0
1019
35To
tal
139
2.1
7413
121
524
0.5
1022
4025
0.5
1123
43Fe
mal
es15
–18
134
8.7
7112
720
823
1.9
1121
3824
2.2
1123
4019
–24
131
5.2
7212
719
422
1.2
1021
3522
1.3
1021
3625
–44
106
2.3
5710
016
319
0.6
817
3120
0.7
919
3445
–64
942.
355
9113
718
0.6
917
2919
0.6
918
3065
+87
2.4
5284
125
160.
69
1625
180.
610
1727
Tota
l10
51.
458
9916
019
0.3
918
3120
0.4
919
33N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
141
3.9
8313
520
726
0.9
1425
4028
0.9
1427
43II
143
4.7
7513
522
125
1.0
1123
4327
1.2
1024
47III
138
5.2
9113
319
123
1.0
1222
3524
1.0
1323
37IV
135
3.8
5912
222
621
0.9
718
3922
0.9
719
40Fe
mal
esI
106
2.6
6310
215
420
0.6
1119
3021
0.7
1020
34II
106
3.8
7410
314
020
0.8
1119
3121
0.9
1220
32III
103
2.6
5398
159
180.
68
1730
190.
78
1832
IV10
62.
748
9617
617
0.5
716
2919
0.6
817
311
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
37Nutrients
Tabl
e A
3.2
cont
.SU
GA
RS I
Tota
l sug
ars
(g)1
Gluc
ose
(g)1
Fruc
tose
(g)1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
416
015
.288
146
249
252.
910
2343
273.
410
2547
25–4
412
98.
079
121
192
201.
59
1932
222.
110
2135
45+
113
10.7
5710
617
820
2.4
718
3522
2.4
721
39To
tal
135
6.5
7812
321
321
1.2
920
3623
1.5
922
40Fe
mal
es15
–24
151
10.5
7614
323
722
2.2
920
3823
2.2
921
4025
–44
113
5.8
5510
418
118
1.1
716
3120
1.2
718
3545
+82
10.2
3876
135
141.
96
1324
162.
27
1428
Tota
l11
75.
053
108
192
181.
07
1632
201.
17
1835
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
416
97.
998
163
247
311.
714
2951
321.
815
3053
25–4
415
43.
985
147
231
260.
712
2441
270.
812
2544
45+
117
2.6
6411
017
921
0.6
919
3622
0.6
920
37To
tal
141
2.4
7613
321
624
0.5
1122
4126
0.5
1123
44Fe
mal
es15
–24
126
5.4
7112
218
722
1.1
1121
3423
1.3
1122
3625
–44
107
2.8
6110
115
919
0.7
918
3121
0.8
919
3445
+92
1.6
5689
132
180.
49
1728
190.
510
1829
Tota
l10
31.
662
9915
019
0.4
1018
3020
0.4
1019
321
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE. C
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thes
e da
ta fo
r NZ
Mao
ri, d
ue to
the
limite
d nu
mbe
r of
repe
at 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls fo
r thi
s et
hnic
gro
up.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
38 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
3.3
SUG
ARS
IISu
cros
e (g
)1La
ctos
e (g
)1M
alto
se (g
)1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
591.
225
5310
115
0.2
513
264.
00.
061.
93.
66.
5M
ales
15–1
882
4.5
4277
128
192.
06
1735
4.9
0.52
2.3
4.6
8.0
19–2
483
5.8
3977
136
171.
55
1532
5.2
0.31
2.6
4.9
8.1
25–4
477
2.5
3571
125
170.
66
1529
5.5
0.20
2.7
5.0
8.9
45–6
455
1.9
2550
9215
0.6
513
275.
00.
162.
54.
77.
965
+53
2.2
2649
8514
0.7
613
244.
10.
232.
13.
76.
4To
tal
691.
331
6211
516
0.4
614
295.
10.
102.
54.
78.
2Fe
mal
es15
–18
695.
332
6311
315
1.5
413
283.
90.
341.
93.
56.
319
–24
693.
832
6511
115
1.2
513
263.
40.
271.
83.
15.
325
–44
501.
223
4682
140.
45
1325
3.2
0.14
1.7
3.0
5.1
45–6
442
1.5
2140
6712
0.4
411
222.
80.
101.
62.
74.
265
+37
1.4
1935
5713
0.6
512
222.
80.
211.
42.
54.
5To
tal
490.
823
4581
140.
35
1224
3.1
0.08
1.6
2.8
4.9
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I67
2.5
3161
109
150.
76
1426
5.1
0.23
3.6
5.0
6.6
II69
2.8
2861
120
170.
77
1628
5.4
0.21
2.6
5.0
8.6
III70
3.5
4267
103
160.
87
1527
4.8
0.24
2.3
4.5
7.8
IV71
2.3
2663
126
160.
84
1332
5.1
0.24
2.0
4.5
9.0
Fem
ales
I48
1.9
2645
7413
0.6
513
233.
20.
211.
62.
95.
1II
481.
931
4666
140.
75
1224
3.1
0.12
1.9
2.9
4.4
III49
1.8
2245
8014
0.6
412
243.
00.
141.
92.
84.
3IV
531.
818
4697
140.
75
1225
3.2
0.13
1.4
2.9
5.3
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
.2
Perc
entil
es.
39Nutrients
Tabl
e A
3.3
cont
.SU
GA
RS II
Sucr
ose
(g)1
Lact
ose
(g)1
Mal
tose
(g)1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
489
8.6
4181
149
162.
25
1429
5.0
0.74
2.0
4.6
8.5
25–4
468
5.3
3263
110
151.
36
1327
5.6
0.68
2.4
4.9
9.5
45+
556.
520
5094
121.
63
1024
5.0
0.70
2.1
4.5
8.6
Tota
l71
3.9
3365
117
150.
95
1327
5.4
0.40
2.3
5.0
8.9
Fem
ales
15–2
484
7.6
3777
140
172.
64
1434
4.1
0.55
1.6
3.7
7.1
25–4
457
3.7
2250
9915
1.5
513
293.
70.
411.
83.
36.
245
+40
6.4
1435
7210
1.2
49
183.
30.
421.
73.
15.
2To
tal
613.
322
5310
915
1.4
413
283.
70.
511.
73.
46.
2N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
814.
841
7612
619
1.7
717
355.
10.
322.
54.
88.
225
–44
782.
836
7312
817
0.7
715
305.
40.
192.
95.
08.
645
+55
1.6
2449
9215
0.5
613
274.
70.
132.
44.
37.
4To
tal
691.
531
6211
517
0.4
715
295.
10.
102.
54.
78.
1Fe
mal
es15
–24
643.
730
6010
214
1.1
513
263.
40.
291.
93.
25.
325
–44
491.
425
4678
140.
55
1324
3.1
0.11
1.7
2.9
4.8
45+
401.
421
3861
130.
45
1222
2.8
0.11
1.5
2.5
4.4
Tota
l47
0.9
2445
7414
0.3
513
243.
00.
071.
72.
84.
61
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE. C
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thes
e da
ta fo
r NZ
Mao
ri, d
ue to
the
limite
d nu
mbe
r of
repe
at 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls fo
r thi
s et
hnic
gro
up.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
40 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
4FI
BRE
Diet
ary
fibre
(g)1
Inso
lubl
e no
n-st
arch
pol
ysac
char
ides
(g)1
Solu
ble
non-
star
ch p
olys
acch
arid
es (g
)1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
210.
213
2030
110.
16
1116
100.
16
1014
Mal
es15
–18
251.
314
2436
120.
86
1219
120.
67
1218
19–2
423
1.1
1523
3312
0.6
711
1711
0.7
811
1625
–44
250.
517
2434
130.
38
1218
120.
28
1216
45–6
424
0.7
1523
3313
0.5
812
1911
0.2
811
1565
+22
0.6
1622
3012
0.3
812
1710
0.2
710
13To
tal
240.
316
2333
130.
28
1218
120.
18
1116
Fem
ales
15–1
817
1.0
1016
248
0.5
58
128
0.5
58
1219
–24
170.
610
1725
90.
35
813
80.
35
812
25–4
418
0.3
1118
2610
0.2
69
149
0.1
68
1245
–64
190.
412
1826
100.
26
1015
90.
26
812
65+
190.
513
1926
110.
37
1015
80.
26
811
Tota
l18
0.2
1218
2610
0.1
69
149
0.1
68
12N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
250.
617
2435
130.
48
1320
120.
38
1216
II25
0.7
1724
3413
0.4
813
1812
0.3
812
16III
230.
716
2331
120.
48
1217
110.
48
1115
IV22
0.6
1522
3011
0.4
711
1611
0.3
811
15Fe
mal
esI
190.
512
1927
100.
36
1015
90.
26
912
II18
0.4
1218
2510
0.2
610
149
0.2
69
11III
180.
412
1725
90.
36
914
80.
26
811
IV17
0.3
1017
259
0.2
59
138
0.1
58
121
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
41Nutrients
Tabl
e A
4 co
nt.
FIB
REDi
etar
y fib
re (g
)1In
solu
ble
non-
star
ch p
olys
acch
arid
es (g
)1So
lubl
e no
n-st
arch
pol
ysac
char
ides
(g)1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
421
1.8
1320
2910
0.9
610
1511
0.8
711
1425
–44
241.
615
2433
120.
77
1217
121.
28
1217
45+
201.
613
2029
110.
97
1015
100.
77
1014
Tota
l22
1.0
1422
3311
0.5
711
1611
1.4
711
16Fe
mal
es15
–24
181.
29
1727
90.
64
813
90.
75
914
25–4
419
0.7
1118
2810
0.4
59
159
0.3
59
1345
+15
1.0
914
238
0.7
58
137
0.4
57
11To
tal
180.
610
1727
90.
35
914
90.
35
813
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
425
1.1
1525
3513
0.7
712
1912
0.5
812
1725
–44
250.
517
2434
130.
38
1218
120.
28
1216
45+
240.
515
2333
130.
48
1219
110.
27
1115
Tota
l24
0.3
1624
3513
0.2
812
1912
0.1
811
16Fe
mal
es15
–24
160.
610
1623
80.
35
812
80.
35
811
25–4
418
0.4
1218
2610
0.2
69
149
0.2
68
1245
+19
0.3
1319
2610
0.2
710
159
0.1
68
12To
tal
180.
212
1825
100.
16
914
80.
16
812
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
. Cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in th
e in
terp
reta
tion
of th
ese
data
for N
Z M
aori,
due
to th
e lim
ited
num
ber o
fre
peat
24
hour
die
t rec
alls
for t
his
ethn
ic g
roup
.2
Perc
entil
es.
42 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
5A
LCO
HO
LAl
coho
l (g)
1Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
alc
ohol
2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
140.
70
046
40.
20
03
Mal
es15
–18
73.
20
014
10.
80
03
19–2
418
4.4
00
784
1.0
00
1625
–44
212.
00
066
40.
40
014
45–6
426
2.4
00
806
0.6
00
2065
–74
131.
60
041
40.
50
012
75+
112.
70
043
40.
80
016
Tota
l20
1.2
00
665
0.3
00
16Fe
mal
es15
–18
31.
50
00
10.
30
00
19–2
413
2.8
00
464
0.8
00
1525
–44
111.
70
036
30.
40
013
45–6
47
0.7
00
232
0.2
00
965
–74
50.
90
018
20.
40
011
75+
40.
80
015
20.
30
06
Tota
l8
0.8
00
283
0.2
00
10N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
es I
232.
50
079
50.
70
018
II20
2.2
00
575
0.4
00
14III
182.
80
071
40.
60
016
IV17
2.4
00
564
0.5
00
15Fe
mal
esI
91.
10
035
30.
40
011
II10
2.4
00
313
0.6
00
11III
71.
10
025
20.
30
010
IV6
0.9
00
172
0.3
00
81
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion,
bec
ause
inta
ke c
lust
ers
at ze
ro.
2Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n, a
s th
e on
ly m
etho
ds th
at h
ave
been
dev
elop
ed fo
r rat
ios
use
mul
tiple
day
repe
ats.
Per
cent
ene
rgy
from
alc
ohol
for e
ach
parti
cipa
nt w
as c
alcu
late
d as
the
ener
gy fr
om a
lcoh
ol (c
onve
rsio
n fa
ctor
= 2
9.3
kJ/g
)di
vide
d by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
3Pe
rcen
tiles
.
43Nutrients
Tabl
e A
5 co
nt.
ALC
OH
OL
Alco
hol (
g)1
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m a
lcoh
ol2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
420
7.9
00
955
2.3
00
2325
–44
247.
20
066
40.
90
09
45+
338.
40
013
77
1.7
00
30To
tal
254.
50
080
50.
90
022
Fem
ales
15–2
410
3.6
00
432
0.7
00
1125
–44
82.
20
020
20.
60
07
45+
62.
10
019
20.
70
07
Tota
l8
1.6
00
202
0.4
00
7N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
123.
40
045
20.
70
09
25–4
420
2.0
00
654
0.4
00
1445
+21
1.9
00
696
0.5
00
17To
tal
191.
30
063
40.
30
015
Fem
ales
15–2
49
2.3
00
403
0.7
00
925
–44
112.
10
039
30.
50
013
45+
60.
50
021
20.
20
09
Tota
l9
0.9
00
303
0.2
00
111
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion,
bec
ause
inta
ke c
lust
ers
at ze
ro.
2Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n, a
s th
e on
ly m
etho
ds th
at h
ave
been
dev
elop
ed fo
r rat
ios
use
mul
tiple
day
repe
ats.
Per
cent
ene
rgy
from
alc
ohol
for e
ach
parti
cipa
nt w
as c
alcu
late
d as
the
ener
gy fr
om a
lcoh
ol (c
onve
rsio
n fa
ctor
= 2
9.3
kJ/g
)di
vide
d by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
3Pe
rcen
tiles
.
44 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
6.1
VIT
AM
IN A
Vita
min
A e
quiv
alen
ts (µ
g RE
)1, 2
Retin
ol (µ
g)1
β-ca
rote
ne (µ
g)1,
2
Inad
equa
te
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
inta
ke (%
) 4M
ean
SEM
10th
350
th 3
90th
3M
ean
SEM
10th
350
th 3
90th
3
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
1065
26.9
580
939
1646
1.9
524
100.
522
340
080
433
8979
.814
2829
8758
69M
ales
15–1
811
1011
8.3
572
1026
1771
6.0
505
54.9
268
469
786
3935
653.
710
2630
6580
0619
–24
926
64.8
523
882
1389
8.3
476
31.6
272
454
711
2702
324.
494
222
6749
9825
–44
1280
87.1
698
1105
2027
1.3
682
80.3
313
508
1092
3785
236.
814
5731
8768
5645
–64
1332
197.
874
612
0820
540.
954
534
.129
449
384
236
3417
7.6
1611
3254
6147
65+
1279
86.9
769
1199
1892
0.7
442
52.9
261
412
652
5056
373.
320
1045
1088
37To
tal
1233
56.1
669
1076
1939
2.1
638
66.0
295
485
1033
3745
121.
713
6731
7768
46Fe
mal
es15
–18
750
59.8
475
725
1060
3.7
342
27.9
145
318
566
2496
296.
313
1223
4038
8819
–24
737
40.7
443
698
1079
6.1
364
23.0
177
337
579
2232
224.
110
2820
1437
1125
–44
875
34.7
562
827
1248
0.7
406
26.9
200
349
603
2825
157.
415
7026
4443
1445
–64
993
48.6
556
902
1531
1.5
428
105.
519
031
971
135
5716
5.6
1644
3244
5878
65+
1149
166.
964
910
4817
731.
642
393
.218
631
964
235
9024
4.0
1992
3363
5511
Tota
l90
018
.954
184
212
841.
640
823
.718
533
460
530
3376
.415
4228
0048
31N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
1195
65.4
887
1168
1538
0.0
554
44.9
307
494
863
2977
163.
319
3028
7541
62II
1119
63.5
792
1072
1505
0.0
521
28.0
296
475
790
3588
278.
219
6133
2555
45III
1357
246.
160
910
7324
474.
367
215
6.2
333
518
1154
3641
249.
511
5330
4369
31IV
1374
143.
752
810
4324
228.
370
411
1.8
280
479
1130
3929
302.
386
928
9183
02Fe
mal
esI
884
53.5
657
840
1144
0.0
401
113.
619
732
454
931
1314
6.0
1988
2993
4395
II88
332
.661
185
811
880.
335
812
.521
233
752
829
9417
2.8
2100
2910
4000
III91
837
.453
284
513
921.
941
033
.816
932
868
030
8918
5.0
1480
2817
5049
IV92
554
.845
682
115
135.
843
738
.918
235
073
928
7015
6.3
1234
2549
4926
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
. As
this
nut
rient
is c
once
ntra
ted
in re
lativ
ely
few
food
s, o
ne d
ay in
take
dis
tribu
tions
are
hig
hly
skew
ed. T
here
fore
, the
se e
stim
ates
of u
sual
inta
kes
have
larg
e st
anda
rd e
rror
s.2
For c
onve
rsio
n fa
ctor
s to
vita
min
B e
quiv
alen
ts, s
ee A
ppen
dix
B, T
able
I: A
naly
tical
tech
niqu
es fo
r nut
rient
s.3
Perc
entil
es.
4Ca
lcul
ated
by
prob
abili
ty a
naly
sis
(App
endi
x B)
.
45Nutrients
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
. As
this
nut
rient
is c
once
ntra
ted
in re
lativ
ely
few
food
s, o
ne d
ayin
take
dis
tribu
tions
are
hig
hly
skew
ed. T
here
fore
, the
se e
stim
ates
of u
sual
inta
kes
have
larg
e st
anda
rd e
rror
s. C
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thes
e da
ta fo
r NZ
Mao
ri, d
ue to
the
limite
d nu
mbe
r of r
epea
t 24
hour
die
t rec
alls
for t
his
ethn
ic g
roup
.2
For c
onve
rsio
n fa
ctor
s to
vita
min
A e
quiv
alen
ts, s
ee A
ppen
dix
B, T
able
I: A
naly
tical
tech
niqu
es fo
r nut
rient
s.3
Perc
entil
es.
4Ca
lcul
ated
by
prob
abili
ty a
naly
sis
(App
endi
x B)
.
Tabl
e A
6.1
cont
. V
ITA
MIN
AVi
tam
in A
equ
ival
ents
(µg
RE)1,
2Re
tinol
(µg)
1β-
caro
tene
(µg)
1, 2
Inad
equa
te
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
inta
ke (%
) 4M
ean
SEM
10th
350
th 3
90th
3M
ean
SEM
10th
350
th 3
90th
3
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
410
4519
0.9
530
925
1701
7.7
464
56.0
272
432
694
4010
1509
.290
826
5984
0625
–44
1174
108.
972
411
0917
120.
653
737
.033
151
976
737
8685
2.4
1568
3310
6670
45+
1319
189.
673
812
4519
931.
752
478
.327
050
179
758
0721
63.2
1932
4721
1096
4To
tal
1283
112.
666
411
3820
722.
150
723
.031
048
673
044
8556
5.2
1298
3478
8835
Fem
ales
15–2
491
685
.949
885
814
064.
045
545
.718
639
479
727
9545
1.6
1219
2498
4744
25–4
491
953
.755
086
813
511.
644
030
.722
941
667
728
7829
3.3
1365
2611
4742
45+
901
82.5
548
853
1313
1.5
373
29.9
193
353
579
3216
735.
616
4529
4651
52To
tal
913
39.6
523
861
1368
2.7
432
20.5
202
398
696
2971
252.
913
8626
7849
22N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
1002
63.1
550
952
1520
6.9
490
32.0
262
460
759
3075
300.
810
8726
2656
6525
–44
1268
87.4
704
1100
1994
1.1
694
92.8
321
512
1119
3568
187.
514
4931
2362
6945
+13
7426
7.4
792
1263
2080
0.5
744
245.
428
249
012
2940
5617
3.7
1793
3653
6851
Tota
l12
3861
.471
210
9319
011.
168
696
.928
348
311
2836
9011
8.8
1573
3294
6332
Fem
ales
15–2
470
037
.346
267
896
84.
233
419
.616
032
152
221
8724
8.5
1108
2027
3474
25–4
488
040
.357
183
512
450.
743
152
.321
234
268
428
6617
4.3
1519
2659
4481
45+
1031
49.5
595
937
1569
0.6
453
94.4
188
321
645
3592
170.
419
8733
7254
94To
tal
907
19.0
567
841
1320
0.8
405
27.1
199
332
588
3083
82.5
1559
2846
4920
46 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
6.2
VIT
AM
INS
C A
ND
E V
itam
in C
(mg)
1Vi
tam
in E
(mg
)1
Inad
equa
te
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
114
2.1
5110
219
10.
810
.20.
116.
29.
714
.9M
ales
15–1
815
515
.965
141
264
0.3
11.0
0.74
6.4
10.6
16.2
19–2
413
79.
860
124
230
0.5
11.8
0.52
7.3
11.5
16.6
25–4
412
44.
553
109
211
0.9
12.4
0.29
7.6
11.8
17.8
45–6
411
44.
758
106
179
0.2
11.5
0.36
7.7
11.1
15.8
65+
102
4.4
5095
163
0.7
10.8
0.32
7.1
10.4
15.0
Tota
l12
22.
656
111
202
0.5
11.7
0.18
7.4
11.2
16.7
Fem
ales
15–1
812
012
.752
109
202
0.9
8.9
1.28
5.1
8.8
12.7
19–2
410
88.
245
9618
41.
18.
70.
505.
28.
312
.825
–44
105
5.1
4592
180
1.3
9.0
0.19
5.6
8.6
12.8
45–6
410
54.
152
9816
80.
68.
90.
215.
98.
512
.465
+10
14.
451
9416
10.
58.
50.
305.
98.
111
.5To
tal
105
2.7
4895
176
0.9
8.8
0.13
5.6
8.4
12.5
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I13
46.
180
128
196
0.0
11.7
0.31
7.6
11.3
16.5
II11
55.
147
100
200
1.6
11.9
0.30
7.0
11.3
17.5
III11
86.
452
106
198
0.9
12.0
0.37
7.5
11.6
16.9
IV12
05.
250
107
207
1.2
11.5
0.32
7.4
11.0
16.1
Fem
ales
I10
25.
451
9516
30.
69.
10.
326.
08.
712
.8II
113
7.4
5310
018
50.
58.
90.
246.
78.
811
.3III
983.
953
9115
10.
28.
70.
245.
78.
312
.3IV
109
4.1
4797
186
1.3
8.5
0.18
5.0
8.0
12.6
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
.2
Perc
entil
es.
3Ca
lcul
ated
by
prob
abili
ty a
naly
sis
(App
endi
x B)
.
47Nutrients
Tabl
e A
6.2
cont
. V
ITA
MIN
S C
AN
D E
Vita
min
C (m
g)1
Vita
min
E (m
g )1
Inad
equa
te
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
413
518
.253
116
241
0.7
9.6
0.65
5.9
9.0
14.0
25–4
415
719
.161
135
278
0.6
13.5
0.95
8.4
13.0
19.2
45+
133
20.3
5912
022
50.
611
.70.
997.
211
.316
.8To
tal
142
10.2
5712
524
80.
611
.80.
487.
211
.317
.1Fe
mal
es15
–24
125
15.0
4510
822
62.
18.
30.
525.
18.
111
.825
–44
105
7.1
4793
180
1.1
9.7
0.51
5.5
9.1
14.6
45+
9510
.445
8715
51.
18.
60.
585.
68.
311
.8To
tal
109
6.2
4698
188
1.4
9.0
0.28
5.4
8.6
13.2
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
414
99.
970
138
244
0.2
12.0
0.59
7.4
11.7
17.0
25–4
411
84.
855
107
195
0.6
12.1
0.29
7.5
11.7
17.2
45+
108
3.7
5210
017
50.
611
.20.
267.
010
.716
.1To
tal
119
2.8
5710
919
50.
411
.70.
187.
011
.117
.1Fe
mal
es15
–24
108
7.4
4897
181
0.9
8.8
0.47
5.1
8.4
13.0
25–4
410
56.
146
9218
01.
18.
70.
205.
88.
512
.045
+10
43.
751
9616
90.
68.
80.
195.
88.
412
.2To
tal
105
3.3
4894
175
0.9
8.8
0.14
5.8
8.4
12.2
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for
intr
a-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE. C
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thes
e da
ta fo
r NZ
Mao
ri, d
ue to
the
limite
d nu
mbe
r of r
epea
t 24
hour
die
t rec
alls
for t
his
ethn
ic g
roup
.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.3
Calc
ulat
ed b
y pr
obab
ility
ana
lysi
s (A
ppen
dix
B).
48 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
7.1
B V
ITA
MIN
S I
Thia
min
(mg)
1Ri
bofla
vin
(mg)
1N
iaci
n eq
uiva
lent
s (m
g N
E)1
Inad
equa
te
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
1.5
0.01
0.9
1.4
2.1
1.8
0.02
1.1
1.8
2.6
3.4
360.
323
3552
Mal
es15
–18
1.8
0.09
1.1
1.7
2.6
2.1
0.14
1.3
2.1
3.1
3.2
432.
528
4260
19–2
41.
80.
071.
21.
72.
42.
20.
091.
42.
13.
00.
745
2.0
3144
6025
–44
1.8
0.03
1.2
1.8
2.5
2.2
0.05
1.5
2.2
3.1
0.7
480.
934
4664
45–6
41.
70.
041.
11.
62.
32.
00.
041.
42.
02.
81.
343
1.0
3242
5765
+1.
50.
041.
01.
41.
91.
80.
061.
21.
82.
42.
134
0.9
2533
44To
tal
1.7
0.02
1.1
1.7
2.4
2.1
0.02
1.4
2.0
2.9
1.2
440.
630
4360
Fem
ales
15–1
81.
30.
080.
81.
21.
81.
50.
110.
81.
52.
313
.928
1.6
1827
3919
–24
1.2
0.04
0.8
1.1
1.7
1.6
0.07
1.0
1.5
2.3
5.6
311.
421
3041
25–4
41.
20.
020.
81.
21.
71.
60.
031.
01.
62.
35.
031
0.6
2130
4245
–64
1.2
0.03
0.8
1.2
1.7
1.6
0.05
1.0
1.5
2.2
4.7
290.
621
2938
65+
1.2
0.03
0.8
1.2
1.6
1.5
0.06
1.0
1.5
2.2
4.0
250.
718
2533
Tota
l1.
20.
010.
81.
21.
71.
60.
021.
01.
52.
25.
629
0.4
2029
40N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
1.8
0.03
1.3
1.7
2.3
2.1
0.05
1.5
2.0
2.7
0.2
441.
435
4353
II1.
80.
051.
11.
72.
62.
20.
061.
82.
22.
60.
044
1.1
3043
60III
1.7
0.05
1.0
1.6
2.5
2.1
0.06
1.3
2.0
3.0
1.7
441.
428
4262
IV1.
60.
041.
11.
62.
22.
00.
051.
21.
93.
14.
944
1.2
2742
63Fe
mal
esI
1.3
0.03
0.9
1.3
1.7
1.6
0.04
1.1
1.6
2.2
2.2
300.
723
2937
II1.
20.
030.
91.
21.
51.
60.
041.
21.
62.
11.
829
0.8
2429
34III
1.2
0.02
0.8
1.2
1.6
1.5
0.03
1.0
1.5
2.2
6.4
290.
720
2940
IV1.
20.
020.
71.
21.
81.
50.
040.
91.
42.
311
.629
0.7
1828
431
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.3
Calc
ulat
ed b
y pr
obab
ility
ana
lysi
s (A
ppen
dix
B).
49Nutrients
Tabl
e A
7.1
cont
.B
VIT
AM
INS
ITh
iam
in (m
g)1
Ribo
flavi
n (m
g)1
Nia
cin
equi
vale
nts
(mg
NE)
1
Inad
equa
te
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
41.
50.
161.
01.
52.
21.
90.
151.
31.
82.
61.
339
2.9
2738
5325
–44
1.9
0.22
1.1
1.8
2.9
2.2
0.13
1.3
2.1
3.1
1.6
513.
133
4973
45+
1.5
0.08
1.0
1.4
2.0
1.8
0.27
1.2
1.7
2.4
3.5
474.
130
4567
Tota
l1.
70.
141.
11.
62.
52.
00.
071.
31.
92.
81.
547
1.7
3045
65Fe
mal
es15
–24
1.4
0.11
0.7
1.3
2.2
1.7
0.17
0.9
1.6
2.8
11.6
322.
420
3146
25–4
41.
30.
050.
81.
31.
91.
60.
090.
91.
52.
48.
832
1.6
2031
4645
+1.
10.
240.
71.
11.
61.
40.
090.
81.
31.
914
.428
1.7
1827
38To
tal
1.3
0.05
0.7
1.2
1.9
1.6
0.07
0.9
1.5
2.4
10.5
311.
020
3044
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
41.
90.
071.
21.
82.
62.
20.
111.
42.
23.
21.
845
2.2
2944
6225
–44
1.8
0.03
1.3
1.8
2.4
2.3
0.05
1.6
2.2
3.0
0.2
471.
033
4663
45+
1.6
0.03
1.1
1.6
2.2
2.0
0.04
1.3
1.9
2.7
1.3
400.
728
3852
Tota
l1.
70.
021.
11.
72.
42.
10.
031.
52.
12.
90.
743
0.6
2942
59Fe
mal
es15
–24
1.2
0.04
0.8
1.2
1.6
1.5
0.06
0.9
1.5
2.2
8.2
291.
320
2939
25–4
41.
20.
020.
81.
21.
71.
60.
031.
11.
62.
23.
131
0.5
2230
4145
+1.
20.
020.
91.
21.
61.
60.
041.
11.
52.
23.
527
0.5
2027
36To
tal
1.2
0.02
0.8
1.2
1.6
1.6
0.02
1.1
1.6
2.2
2.9
290.
421
2838
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
. Cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in th
e in
terp
reta
tion
of th
ese
data
for N
Z M
aori,
due
to th
e lim
ited
num
ber o
fre
peat
24
hour
die
t rec
alls
for t
his
ethn
ic g
roup
.2
Perc
entil
es.
3Ca
lcul
ated
by
prob
abili
ty a
naly
sis
(App
endi
x B)
.
50 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
7.2
B V
ITA
MIN
S II
Vita
min
B6
(mg)
1Vi
tam
in B
12 (µ
g)1
Fola
te (µ
g)1
Inad
equa
teIn
adeq
uate
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2in
take
(%) 3
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
1.5
0.01
0.9
1.4
2.1
4.9
0.21
2.4
4.2
8.2
0.4
251
2.4
160
242
354
7.1
Mal
es15
–18
1.8
0.10
1.3
1.8
2.4
4.9
0.38
3.0
4.7
7.0
0.0
280
13.6
189
277
376
2.8
19–2
41.
80.
101.
31.
82.
45.
70.
463.
25.
48.
60.
128
117
.218
227
239
03.
425
–44
1.8
0.04
1.3
1.7
2.4
6.6
0.38
4.0
6.1
9.9
0.0
295
6.1
201
286
400
1.6
45–6
41.
70.
041.
21.
62.
26.
30.
582.
85.
010
.80.
128
65.
520
227
838
10.
865
+1.
50.
051.
01.
42.
04.
50.
392.
44.
07.
20.
326
27.
419
325
633
91.
0To
tal
1.7
0.02
1.2
1.7
2.3
6.0
0.30
3.0
5.2
9.7
0.0
286
4.1
200
278
381
1.3
Fem
ales
15–1
81.
10.
080.
61.
11.
73.
20.
212.
03.
14.
61.
120
313
.312
519
429
222
.219
–24
1.3
0.07
0.8
1.3
1.9
4.6
0.64
2.6
4.3
6.9
0.2
202
7.6
125
195
290
21.2
25–4
41.
30.
030.
81.
31.
93.
90.
142.
13.
56.
10.
622
03.
714
121
330
713
.445
–64
1.3
0.03
0.8
1.3
1.8
4.1
0.35
2.1
3.5
6.7
0.6
228
5.1
151
222
313
9.8
65+
1.2
0.05
0.8
1.2
1.8
3.9
0.61
1.8
2.9
6.4
1.3
227
7.2
152
217
313
9.2
Tota
l1.
30.
020.
81.
21.
83.
90.
122.
13.
46.
20.
622
02.
814
221
230
613
.1N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
1.7
0.04
1.3
1.7
2.2
5.4
0.65
3.4
5.1
7.6
0.0
290
5.5
224
287
360
0.1
II1.
70.
061.
21.
72.
45.
70.
273.
65.
38.
10.
029
78.
520
328
640
31.
1III
1.7
0.05
1.2
1.7
2.3
7.0
0.68
4.1
6.3
10.8
0.0
279
9.1
182
270
385
3.5
IV1.
70.
051.
31.
72.
16.
30.
412.
65.
111
.00.
627
78.
718
926
837
52.
0Fe
mal
esI
1.3
0.04
0.8
1.3
1.9
4.2
0.34
2.5
3.8
6.5
0.0
234
7.0
157
227
320
7.6
II1.
30.
040.
91.
31.
73.
50.
152.
03.
25.
51.
122
26.
114
621
630
511
.3III
1.3
0.03
0.7
1.2
1.9
3.7
0.17
2.1
3.3
5.6
0.5
212
4.6
134
203
299
16.9
IV1.
20.
030.
71.
21.
94.
10.
182.
13.
66.
60.
920
94.
613
120
129
618
.61
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.3
Calc
ulat
ed b
y pr
obab
ility
ana
lysi
s (A
ppen
dix
B).
51Nutrients
Tabl
e A
7.2
cont
.B
VIT
AM
INS
IIVi
tam
in B
6 (m
g)1
Vita
min
B12
(µg)
1Fo
late
(µg)
1
Inad
equa
teIn
adeq
uate
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2in
take
(%) 3
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
41.
60.
161.
11.
62.
15.
00.
493.
14.
97.
10.
123
321
.615
422
632
18.
725
–44
1.8
0.13
1.2
1.7
2.4
8.6
1.70
3.9
7.4
14.8
0.0
298
24.9
187
283
424
2.5
45+
1.6
0.09
1.1
1.5
2.0
7.9
1.29
3.8
7.1
13.1
0.0
265
14.2
198
260
338
1.0
Tota
l1.
70.
061.
21.
62.
27.
30.
723.
56.
412
.00.
028
040
.418
827
337
82.
3Fe
mal
es15
–24
1.2
0.10
0.6
1.2
1.9
4.0
0.27
2.3
3.9
5.8
0.6
206
17.4
105
194
324
28.6
25–4
41.
40.
070.
81.
32.
14.
60.
372.
64.
46.
90.
321
57.
912
820
731
118
.445
+1.
20.
130.
71.
11.
74.
10.
412.
23.
86.
30.
619
812
.611
219
628
026
.0To
tal
1.3
0.05
0.7
1.2
1.9
4.3
0.22
2.5
4.1
6.4
0.2
208
7.7
119
198
309
23.0
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
41.
90.
101.
41.
92.
55.
40.
543.
05.
28.
20.
229
716
.120
129
140
11.
725
–44
1.8
0.04
1.3
1.7
2.4
6.6
0.49
4.1
6.2
9.7
0.0
298
6.5
211
290
394
0.8
45+
1.6
0.03
1.1
1.6
2.2
5.5
0.46
2.5
4.4
9.3
0.3
281
5.4
192
272
382
1.5
Tota
l1.
70.
031.
21.
72.
35.
80.
233.
15.
19.
10.
029
14.
719
828
239
31.
7Fe
mal
es15
–24
1.2
0.06
0.7
1.2
1.7
4.0
0.60
2.4
3.7
5.9
0.4
200
7.9
131
197
271
18.7
25–4
41.
30.
030.
81.
31.
83.
70.
172.
23.
45.
60.
322
24.
614
621
530
711
.545
+1.
30.
030.
81.
21.
83.
90.
262.
03.
36.
50.
623
04.
615
122
231
89.
5To
tal
1.3
0.02
0.8
1.2
1.8
3.8
0.13
2.2
3.4
5.7
0.2
222
3.0
146
215
307
11.5
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for
intra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
. Cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in th
ein
terp
reta
tion
of th
ese
data
for N
Z M
aori,
due
to th
e lim
ited
num
ber o
f rep
eat 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls fo
r thi
s et
hnic
gro
up.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.3
Calc
ulat
ed b
y pr
obab
ility
ana
lysi
s (A
ppen
dix
B).
52 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
8.1
MIN
ERA
LS I
Calc
ium
(mg)
1Ph
osph
orus
(mg)
1M
agne
sium
(mg)
1
Inad
equa
te
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
819
10.3
445
766
1257
2015
3711
.697
214
7721
7932
32.
821
030
945
2M
ales
15–1
895
775
.251
189
414
7433
1824
91.5
1183
1779
2521
362
17.6
240
356
493
19–2
493
850
.050
387
514
5412
1889
81.1
1280
1848
2554
385
15.4
273
380
505
25–4
495
920
.354
690
814
359
1929
30.0
1373
1891
2533
398
7.1
293
388
513
45–6
486
421
.948
180
913
1514
1757
38.1
1250
1712
2320
375
8.9
287
367
473
65+
799
35.3
454
751
1204
1814
5341
.610
3914
2819
0030
97.
523
530
638
8To
tal
908
13.5
504
857
1379
1418
0620
.412
4817
6124
2237
54.
927
336
549
0Fe
mal
es15
–18
783
56.6
371
740
1258
3712
9170
.381
812
4118
3426
513
.916
725
437
819
–24
760
40.7
419
713
1157
2213
6664
.590
513
0519
0427
29.
318
226
137
425
–44
759
18.1
436
714
1133
2113
3421
.089
512
9518
2128
64.
719
127
539
245
–64
712
18.9
392
676
1080
2712
6723
.985
612
3917
1527
85.
018
627
137
965
+67
022
.439
263
698
830
1151
30.2
820
1112
1530
251
6.3
178
241
337
Tota
l73
512
.340
969
111
1225
1288
13.8
865
1247
1761
275
2.7
183
265
378
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I91
528
.459
088
512
79#
1817
40.4
1385
1794
2281
388
8.2
276
378
514
II94
830
.963
892
212
92#
1872
45.4
1371
1834
2424
385
8.7
296
378
481
III92
733
.148
486
214
25#
1803
47.7
1214
1758
2445
370
10.9
265
362
485
IV84
824
.642
678
113
55#
1731
40.8
1099
1667
2442
358
16.3
264
352
457
Fem
ales
I76
219
.846
673
310
94#
1337
33.9
930
1303
1790
289
5.0
189
279
400
II74
126
.344
671
010
77#
1295
30.9
933
1270
1689
273
6.6
199
267
356
III73
221
.739
168
311
34#
1271
24.4
855
1227
1742
275
6.1
198
267
362
IV69
421
.835
263
211
12#
1242
24.5
786
1188
1764
262
4.4
161
249
378
#N
ZDep
96 Q
uarti
les
cons
ist o
f a ra
nge
of a
ge g
roup
s. A
s th
e re
quire
men
ts d
iffer
for e
ach
age
grou
p, a
n ov
eral
l fig
ure
coul
d no
t be
calc
ulat
ed.
1Us
ual i
ntak
e. T
hese
dat
a w
ere
adju
sted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion
usin
g C-
SIDE
.2
Perc
entil
es.
3Ca
lcul
ated
by
prob
abili
ty a
naly
sis
(App
endi
x B)
.
53Nutrients
Tabl
e A
8.1
cont
.M
INER
ALS
ICa
lciu
m (m
g)1
Phos
phor
us (m
g)1
Mag
nesi
um (m
g)1
Inad
equa
te
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–1
8443
*19
–244
27 *
15–2
482
281
.648
275
112
3415
7010
3.8
1147
1537
2034
325
21.4
236
319
423
25–4
489
152
.450
484
113
4112
1963
112.
912
8419
3626
4037
417
.526
136
849
245
+69
848
.737
964
810
8031
1682
141.
911
1216
0823
3534
118
.025
233
643
6To
tal
814
39.0
467
761
1224
2417
6155
.111
9116
9624
0835
110
.125
334
545
5 F
emal
es15
–184
40 *
19–2
4428
15–2
482
682
.535
172
214
2914
1510
3.4
765
1331
2174
270
18.9
157
253
404
25–4
474
356
.239
668
411
5326
1391
54.9
845
1344
1998
283
14.7
168
275
405
45+
567
49.4
315
512
890
5311
3269
.368
911
0116
1423
818
.814
423
034
2To
tal
732
43.6
364
658
1183
3413
3944
.478
912
7219
7526
88.
715
725
639
2N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–184
25
19–2
449
15–2
410
0858
.853
395
415
4319
5088
.112
5219
1926
8539
316
.426
938
952
325
–44
990
23.3
586
938
1455
619
4233
.114
1719
0525
1239
76.
629
738
851
045
+86
123
.649
281
012
9513
1662
30.8
1170
1628
2191
351
6.9
253
340
462
Tota
l93
616
.052
988
514
0811
1821
21.7
1261
1776
2440
377
4.7
262
365
506
Fem
ales
15–1
8432
19–2
4418
15–2
477
837
.741
774
211
9113
3758
.289
512
9818
2926
66.
718
025
736
325
–44
781
21.1
471
745
1131
1613
3823
.593
413
0517
8228
44.
919
527
638
445
+71
314
.340
667
810
6425
1228
17.4
859
1195
1638
269
3.9
185
261
363
Tota
l74
913
.244
271
610
9622
1289
14.7
906
1256
1712
275
2.9
187
266
372
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE. C
autio
nsh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thes
e da
ta fo
r NZ
Mao
ri, d
ue to
the
limite
d nu
mbe
rof
repe
at 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls fo
r thi
s et
hnic
gro
up.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
3Ca
lcul
ated
by
prob
abili
ty a
naly
sis
(App
endi
x B)
.4
The
15–2
4 yea
rs g
roup
was
subd
ivid
ed fo
r ina
dequ
ate
inta
ke, a
s the
cal
cium
requ
irem
ents
diffe
r for
the
15–1
8 an
d 19
–24
year
s gr
oups
(ref
er T
able
III,
Appe
ndix
B).
54 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
8.2
MIN
ERA
LS II
Iron
(mg)
1Zi
nc (m
g)1
Pota
ssiu
m (m
g)1
Inad
equa
teIn
adeq
uate
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2in
take
(%) 4
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
12.6
0.12
7.8
12.0
18.2
1412
.60.
137.
911
.918
.21.
234
7226
.223
6533
7847
02M
ales
15–1
815
.20.
899.
614
.721
.56
15.8
1.01
9.5
15.2
23.0
3.1
3874
220.
327
0338
3750
9319
–24
15.4
0.63
11.1
15.3
19.8
015
.20.
6410
.515
.020
.11.
039
5416
2.4
2936
3915
5025
25–4
416
.10.
3811
.015
.521
.90
16.7
0.48
11.2
15.9
23.2
0.2
4180
71.3
3068
4116
5378
45–6
414
.60.
4710
.114
.119
.60
14.5
0.31
10.1
14.0
19.4
0.5
3945
63.1
3043
3896
4912
65+
12.5
0.35
9.1
12.2
16.4
112
.10.
408.
211
.616
.64.
835
4296
.026
5834
8245
03To
tal
15.1
0.22
10.3
14.6
20.4
115
.20.
2410
14.5
21.4
1.1
3978
46.2
2983
3922
5048
Fem
ales
15–1
810
.40.
636.
710
.114
.545
10.2
0.69
6.7
9.8
14.3
2.4
2854
155.
918
6127
7839
5519
–24
10.8
0.55
6.9
10.4
15.3
3910
.60.
587.
310
.314
.40.
930
3611
8.1
2126
2964
4036
25–4
410
.50.
186.
810
.114
.642
10.7
0.21
7.1
10.1
14.8
1.6
3045
51.8
2101
2975
4075
45–6
410
.30.
217.
010
.113
.92
10.0
0.24
7.1
9.7
13.2
1.1
3054
57.3
2181
3009
3986
65+
9.6
0.38
6.7
9.2
12.8
39.
20.
316.
78.
912
.11.
328
5170
.520
6027
8337
21To
tal
10.3
0.11
6.8
9.9
14.2
2610
.20.
137.
19.
813
.81.
330
0030
.720
9929
3639
79N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
15.0
0.58
11.6
14.8
18.7
#14
.90.
4810
.814
.419
.80.
240
6211
4.5
2993
3994
5226
II15
.20.
3810
.414
.820
.5#
15.4
0.52
10.4
14.8
21.1
0.5
4010
90.7
2902
3919
5243
III15
.60.
5611
.015
.220
.8#
15.1
0.56
10.2
14.5
20.8
0.9
3935
101.
628
7638
7250
79IV
14.6
0.39
9.7
14.1
20.2
#15
.50.
469.
314
.422
.92.
738
9793
.532
3938
8045
77Fe
mal
esI
10.7
0.31
7.5
10.2
14.3
#10
.10.
247.
69.
912
.80.
230
5564
.222
4530
0139
33II
10.3
0.24
7.7
10.2
13.1
#10
.20.
278.
410
.112
.10.
030
3075
.823
2630
0037
74III
10.1
0.25
6.7
9.7
13.8
#10
.10.
326.
99.
613
.81.
529
5463
.820
5728
8339
43IV
10.2
0.19
6.0
9.7
14.9
#10
.50.
286.
39.
815
.54.
829
5249
.419
1328
6641
04#
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
s co
nsis
t of a
rang
e of
age
gro
ups.
As
the
requ
irem
ents
diff
er fo
r eac
h ag
e gr
oup,
an
over
all f
igur
e co
uld
not b
e ca
lcul
ated
.1
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.3
Calc
ulat
ed b
y pr
obab
ility
ana
lysi
s (A
ppen
dix
B). I
t was
ass
umed
all
fem
ales
45+
yea
rs w
ere
not m
enst
ruat
ing.
4Ca
lcul
ated
by
prob
abili
ty a
naly
sis
(App
endi
x B)
.
55Nutrients
Tabl
e A
8.2
cont
.M
INER
ALS
II Ir
on (m
g)1
Zinc
(mg)
1Po
tass
ium
(mg)
1
Inad
equa
teIn
adeq
uate
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
inta
ke (%
) 3M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2in
take
(%) 4
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–1
857*
19–2
450*
15–2
414
.20.
949.
613
.919
.313
.90.
899.
013
.519
.23.
034
3422
6.5
2660
3406
4242
25–4
417
.91.
3111
.317
.125
.70
18.5
1.46
11.0
17.2
27.7
0.6
4285
282.
430
1441
9156
8645
+15
.01.
1610
.714
.819
.40
14.5
0.98
9.5
14.0
20.1
2.0
3696
214.
626
6236
3648
07To
tal
16.
30.
8311
.115
.722
.11
16.1
0.72
9.8
15.2
23.5
1.7
3885
142.
228
6038
1450
02Fe
mal
es15
–185
45*
19–2
4536
15–2
411
.20.
776.
310
.916
.511
.60.
917.
211
.416
.42.
729
2922
8.2
1763
2809
4240
25–4
411
.00.
386.
410
.616
.140
11.0
0.71
6.9
10.6
15.7
2.9
3219
123.
420
7031
0445
0645
+10
.62.
016.
310
.215
.66
10.4
0.89
6.6
10.0
14.8
4.3
2752
213.
917
8926
8138
08To
tal
10.9
0.35
6.2
10.5
16.1
3211
.10.
456.
810
.716
.03.
230
2399
.319
1429
1942
60N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–185
419
–245
015
–24
15.7
0.79
10.7
15.5
21.0
15.9
0.81
10.2
15.4
22.2
1.8
4106
176.
429
6740
7752
8025
–44
15.8
0.37
10.9
15.4
21.3
016
.30.
4911
.215
.622
.10.
241
5772
.930
6540
9153
3445
+13
.90.
319.
513
.418
.91
13.6
0.26
9.0
13.0
18.9
2.4
3830
62.4
2864
3763
4881
Tota
l 1
5.0
0.23
9.9
14.5
20.7
115
.00.
249.
814
.321
.21.
540
0549
.028
7539
3252
31Fe
mal
es15
–185
4519
–245
4215
–24
10.4
0.59
6.6
10.1
14.7
10.1
0.55
7.2
9.8
13.5
1.0
2943
106.
720
7128
9438
7925
–44
10.4
0.20
7.1
10.1
14.0
4110
.40.
217.
510
.113
.60.
630
3055
.521
4229
7439
8945
+9.
90.
167.
09.
613
.22
9.6
0.15
7.1
9.3
12.3
0.7
2981
44.0
2135
2921
3900
Tota
l10
.20.
137.
19.
913
.624
10.0
0.14
7.5
9.8
12.7
0.3
2993
34.0
2131
2938
3925
* Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE. C
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thes
e da
ta fo
r NZ
Mao
ri, d
ue to
the
limite
d nu
mbe
r of
repe
at 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls fo
r thi
s et
hnic
gro
up.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.3
Calc
ulat
ed b
y pr
obab
ility
ana
lysi
s (A
ppen
dix
B). I
t was
ass
umed
all
fem
ales
45+
yea
rs w
ere
not m
enst
ruat
ing.
4Ca
lcul
ated
by
prob
abili
ty a
naly
sis
(App
endi
x B)
.5
The
15–2
4 ye
ars
grou
p w
as s
ubdi
vide
d, a
s th
e iro
n re
quire
men
ts d
iffer
for t
he 1
5–18
and
19–
24 y
ears
gro
ups
(refe
r Tab
le II
I, Ap
pend
ix B
).
56 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e A
8.3
MIN
ERA
LS II
ISe
leni
um (µ
g)1,
2M
anga
nese
(µg)
1Co
pper
(mg)
1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
521.
328
4782
4599
44.7
2508
4327
7026
1.5
0.02
1.0
1.4
2.2
Mal
es15
–18
554.
631
5183
4597
367.
920
8740
8676
981.
70.
081.
21.
72.
219
–24
564.
734
5383
4368
314.
023
8540
7567
241.
80.
071.
31.
72.
225
–44
652.
643
6292
5295
117.
431
7650
8876
691.
90.
061.
31.
82.
645
–64
644.
534
5610
154
6615
2.3
3057
5177
8234
1.8
0.36
1.2
1.7
2.4
65+
462.
429
4368
5231
140.
534
3251
0471
971.
40.
031.
11.
41.
8To
tal
601.
836
5691
5162
73.4
2943
4935
7644
1.8
0.03
1.3
1.7
2.4
Fem
ales
15–1
835
2.5
2333
5030
5520
5.0
1700
2888
4626
1.2
0.08
0.8
1.2
1.7
19–2
444
3.9
2841
6333
8419
7.8
1777
3168
5325
1.3
0.06
0.8
1.2
1.8
25–4
447
3.3
2541
7640
9372
.022
8339
1461
351.
30.
020.
81.
21.
845
–64
462.
525
4171
4326
108.
425
2341
7063
331.
30.
030.
91.
21.
865
+38
2.6
2436
5645
6312
6.2
2962
4393
6322
1.2
0.05
0.8
1.1
1.8
Tota
l44
1.1
2539
6840
7154
.722
9338
9160
701.
30.
020.
81.
21.
8N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
562.
045
5669
5551
130.
632
0252
4182
831.
80.
051.
21.
72.
4II
602.
737
5688
5399
199.
442
6453
3766
141.
80.
041.
31.
72.
3III
695.
838
6210
748
9217
3.6
2899
4701
7136
1.8
0.08
1.2
1.7
2.6
IV59
3.4
2952
9646
9612
0.5
2530
4461
7167
1.7
0.06
1.4
1.7
2.1
Fem
ales
I46
3.3
3144
6543
3714
9.7
2451
4140
6483
1.4
0.04
0.9
1.3
1.9
II39
1.3
2737
5442
0811
7.1
2395
4039
6223
1.3
0.03
1.0
1.2
1.6
III43
2.3
2237
6939
7710
6.1
2318
3832
5825
1.2
0.03
0.9
1.2
1.7
IV47
4.1
2340
7837
0060
.620
2735
0356
111.
20.
030.
71.
11.
81
Usua
l int
ake.
The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE.
2Th
ese
data
are
unr
elia
ble,
ple
ase
refe
r to
the
text
.3
Perc
entil
es.
57Nutrients
Tabl
e A
8.3
cont
.M
INER
ALS
III
Sele
nium
(µg)
1,2
Man
gane
se (µ
g)1
Copp
er (m
g)1
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
447
6.3
2844
7033
0532
1.6
1773
3149
5040
1.6
0.10
1.2
1.6
2.1
25–4
468
5.9
3964
102
4682
260.
124
9947
2366
251.
70.
201.
21.
62.
345
+61
6.0
3557
9347
2237
2.2
2641
4423
7181
1.5
0.13
1.1
1.4
1.9
Tota
l67
8.2
3458
109
4216
189.
323
4640
2063
381.
60.
091.
21.
62.
2Fe
mal
es15
–24
362.
921
3554
2965
215.
214
5927
8047
111.
30.
110.
71.
21.
925
–44
494.
828
4674
4190
189.
920
6638
8567
091.
30.
080.
81.
22.
045
+43
3.5
2741
6337
8329
4.1
2062
3617
5720
1.1
0.11
0.7
1.0
1.5
Tota
l48
5.0
2643
7637
3012
6.1
1852
3476
5938
1.2
0.05
0.7
1.2
1.9
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
456
4.8
3453
8347
9933
3.2
2477
4401
7594
1.8
0.06
1.3
1.8
2.3
25–4
464
2.4
4261
8954
4614
0.2
3236
5223
7945
2.0
0.06
1.4
1.9
2.7
45+
552.
132
5085
5470
135.
431
4351
9681
501.
60.
051.
11.
52.
2To
tal
591.
735
5587
5333
83.8
3025
5032
8041
1.8
0.04
1.2
1.7
2.5
Fem
ales
15–2
442
3.2
2839
5933
1716
9.0
1777
3187
5034
1.3
0.05
0.8
1.2
1.8
25–4
444
3.4
2539
7041
0786
.123
4039
4360
851.
30.
030.
91.
21.
845
+42
1.8
2438
6544
9587
.827
9243
3063
881.
30.
030.
91.
21.
8To
tal
421.
425
3865
4149
62.8
2403
3984
6100
1.3
0.02
0.9
1.2
1.8
1 Usu
al in
take
. The
se d
ata
wer
e ad
just
ed fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n us
ing
C-SI
DE. C
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thes
e da
ta fo
r NZ
Mao
ri, d
ue to
the
limite
d nu
mbe
r of
repe
at 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls fo
r thi
s et
hnic
gro
up.
2Th
ese
data
are
unr
elia
ble,
ple
ase
refe
r to
the
text
.3
Perc
entil
es.
58 NZ Food: NZ People
59Dietary Sources
Section BDietary SourcesIntroductionIn the context of nutrition education it is often useful to either encourage or discourage theconsumption of groups of foods because they are important sources of nutrients. For example,milk is an excellent source of calcium so the consumption of this group would be encouraged toaugment calcium intake. Therefore, food items have been assigned into food groups on the basisof their role as a dietary source of a nutrient or nutrients (see Appendix B). This section providesan insight into the groups of foods which are sources of selected nutrients for the New Zealandpopulation. As food choices differ with sex and age (see Section E), the contribution of each foodgroup to nutrient intake is presented for these variables.
It should be noted that the data presented in this section are percentages of nutrient intake obtainedfrom the various dietary sources. They do not indicate the bioavailability of nutrients from thedietary sources.
Details of the food groups used and the types of foods included within each food group arepresented in Appendix B (Table 2). This should be studied prior to reading this section.
Key PointsEnergy• Bread, of all food groups, provided the largest proportion (11 percent) of energy in the New
Zealand diet.
• Non-alcoholic beverages contributed approximately 10 percent of the energy intake in young adults15–24 years.
Total fat• Butter and margarine contributed 16 percent to total fat intake in the New Zealand diet.
Carbohydrate• Bread, non-alcoholic beverages and potatoes and kumara contributed 40 percent of carbohydrate
intake of the New Zealand population.
Protein• Animal products (beef and veal, poultry, fish/seafood, milk) and bread accounted for about half the
dietary sources of protein in the New Zealand population.
Dietary fibre• Bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and breakfast cereals provided three-quarters of the
dietary fibre intake for New Zealanders.
Calcium• Milk and cheese together supplied almost half the calcium intake of the New Zealand population.
60 NZ Food: NZ People
Iron• Almost one-third of iron from dietary sources in the New Zealand diet was estimated to be the
highly bioavailable haeme iron.
Folate• Vegetables, bread and breakfast cereals contributed over 40 percent of the dietary sources of folate
in the New Zealand diet.
Alcohol• The predominant source of alcohol for females was wine (65 percent), while beer was the
predominant source for males (69 percent).
61Dietary Sources
B1Energy Table B1
Bread (not including bread-based dishes) was the principal source of energy for the New Zealandpopulation as a whole (11 percent) for all ages and sexes. Potatoes and kumara contributed 7 percent,butter and margarine 6 percent, and milk, alcoholic beverages, cakes and muffins, non-alcoholic beveragesand sugar/sweets each contributed 5 percent. Bread was the largest source of energy for males andfemales of all age groups, except for males 19–24 years for whom bread, potatoes and kumara, non-alcoholic beverages and bread-based dishes all contributed equally at about 9 percent. The contributionof other food sources varied according to age and sex.
For males, bread (11 percent), potatoes and kumara (8 percent), butter and margarine (6 percent) andalcoholic beverages (6 percent) were the highest sources of energy. Among females, bread (12 percent),potatoes and kumara (7 percent) and butter and margarine, milk, cakes and muffins and fruits (all 6percent) were important sources of energy. There were some age differences in important sourcesof energy. For young (15–24 years) males and females non-alcoholic beverages provided 8 percent–10 percent of energy, but this dropped to 2 percent or less in males and females 65+ years (FigureA). Fruits provided about twice the proportion of energy in older males and females than youngermales and females (Figure B). The largest contribution of alcoholic beverages to energy intake was inmales 45–64 years (9 percent), while females 15–18 years obtained the smallest percentage of energyfrom alcoholic beverages (1 percent).
Non-alcoholic beverages
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to e
nerg
y in
take
75+
Fruits
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to e
nerg
y in
take
75+
Figure A Figure B
malefemale
malefemale
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
0% 0%
62 NZ Food: NZ People
B2Total Fat Table B2
Butter and margarine (16 percent) made the largest contribution to total fat intake in the populationas a whole and for all age groups and both sexes. The contribution from butter and margarineincreased with age in both sexes although the magnitude of the increase was greater in females. Inthe 15–18 years group 12 percent of total fat (males 13 percent, females 11 percent) came frombutter and margarine, increasing to 21 percent and 25 percent for males and females respectively inthe 75+ years group (Figure A).
Potatoes and kumara, beef and veal, milk and cakes and muffins each provided 6 percent of total fat,followed by pies and pasties, bread-based dishes and sausages and processed meats, at 5 percent.
Across age and sex groups, young males 19–24 years had the highest total fat intake from potatoesand kumara (10 percent), pies and pasties (9 percent) and bread-based dishes (11 percent) (Figure B).Older females 75+ years, had the highest total fat intake from milk (9 percent).
Butter and margarine
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to to
tal f
at in
take
75+
Bread-based dishes
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to to
tal f
at in
take
75+
Figure A Figure B
malefemale
malefemale
11%
14%
17%
20%
23%
26%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
63Dietary Sources
B3Carbohydrate Table B3
The principal sources of carbohydrate were bread (20 percent), non-alcoholic beverages (10 percent),potatoes and kumara (10 percent), sugar/sweets (9 percent) and fruits (8 percent). In the 15–24 yearsgroups non-alcoholic beverages provided slightly more (18 percent males) or an equivalent proportion(17 percent – 18 percent females) of carbohydrate as bread. Bread emerged as the predominantsource of carbohydrate in males and females 25+ years (20 percent – 24 percent) with a concomitantdecrease in the contribution of non-alcoholic beverages (Figure A). The decrease in carbohydratefrom non-alcoholic beverages with age was counterbalanced by an increase in fruits and breakfastcereals as carbohydrate sources (Figure B). The proportion of carbohydrate from cakes and muffins,and sugar/sweets increased with age in males, while carbohydrate from bread was greatest in oldergroups. Grains and pasta (5 percent) although not a major source, and bread-based dishes (3 percent),contributed a greater percentage of carbohydrate in younger groups. Fruits was consistently amore important source of carbohydrate for females (10 percent) than males (7 percent), whilepotatoes and kumara contributed a larger percentage for males (11 percent, 9 percent respectively).
Non-alcoholic beverages
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to c
arbo
hydr
ate
inta
ke
75+
Breakfast cereals
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to c
arbo
hydr
ate
inta
ke
75+
Figure A Figure B
malefemale
malefemale
0%
4%
8%
12%
16%
20%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
64 NZ Food: NZ People
B4Protein Table B4
Animal products (beef and veal, milk, poultry and fish/seafood) and bread were the principal dietarysources of protein contributing about half of the total (Figure A). Beef and veal was generally thelargest contributor to protein intake, providing 12 percent in females and 15 percent in males. Thebread and milk groups also supplied a substantial portion of dietary protein, 10 percent and 9percent respectively in males, and 11 percent from both groups in females. Poultry and fish/seafoodsupplied 7 percent–8 percent of protein for males and females. Deviations from this pattern wereseen in young females (15–18 years) where bread (12 percent) was the highest contributor to proteinintake, followed by milk (10 percent), beef and veal (9 percent), and bread-based dishes (8 percent);and in males 19–24 years 13 percent of protein was obtained from bread-based dishes. Poultry (10percent), milk (9 percent) and bread (9 percent) were the next largest contributors.
Although there were few age-related trends in the major sources of protein the relative importanceof bread-based dishes as a source of protein was higher in the younger groups (Figure B). Whilegrains and pasta were not a major source for the population (3 percent), intakes were higher inyounger groups (5 percent, 15–18 years) compared with older groups (1 percent, 75+ years).
Bread-based dishes
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to p
rote
in in
take
75+
Protein
Food group
Cont
ribut
ion
to in
take
Figure A Figure B
malefemale
malefemale
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
Beef &veal
Bread Milk Poultry Fish/seafood
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
65Dietary Sources
B5Dietary Fibre Table B5
There were five major sources of dietary fibre: bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara andbreakfast cereals (Figure A). Together these sources provided three-quarters of dietary fibre intake.Vegetables, including potatoes and kumara, were the greatest source of fibre (28 percent). For femalesthe main sources of dietary fibre were bread (22 percent), vegetables (18 percent), fruits (16 percent),potatoes and kumara (10 percent) and breakfast cereals (10 percent). For males, the major sourceswere bread (22 percent), vegetables (16 percent), potatoes and kumara (13 percent), breakfast cereals(12 percent) and fruits (10 percent). The proportion of fibre from fruits increased with age in bothsexes to 20 percent for females and 17 percent for males in the 75+ years group (Figure B). However,fruits was consistently a more important source of dietary fibre for females (16 percent) comparedwith males (10 percent). Breakfast cereals contributed about twice the proportion of dietary fibre inmales 15–24 years (12 percent and 15 percent) compared to females of the same age (6 percent).The lowest contribution by vegetables to dietary fibre intake was in males 15–24 years (13 percentand 10 percent).
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Fruits
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to d
ieta
ry fi
bre
inta
ke
75+
Dietary fibre
Food group
Cont
ribut
ion
to in
take
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
Bread Vegetables Fruits Potatoes &kumara
Breakfastcereals
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
malefemale
malefemale
66 NZ Food: NZ People
B6Calcium Table B6
Almost half of the population’s calcium intake was from milk and cheese (37 percent, 11 percentrespectively) (Figure A). Other sources of calcium, although relatively small, were bread (6 percent),vegetables, non-alcoholic beverages and dairy products (all 5 percent). The predominance of milk as asource of calcium increased with age in females (Figure B). For males, the percentage of calciumfrom milk decreased with age until 25–44 years and increased in older groups (Figure B). Thepercentage of calcium from cheese was fairly constant at about 11 percent across all age groups,except in the 75+ years group where there was a notable decrease to 6 percent and 7 percent inmales and females respectively.
Overall, milk was a greater source of calcium for females (39 percent) than for males (36 percent)with the exception of the 15–18 years group (males 38 percent, females 31 percent). However, inthe groups 19–24 and 65–74 years the proportion of calcium from milk was similar between sexes.Dairy products contributed a slightly larger proportion of calcium intake in females (6 percent)than in males (4 percent). Conversely, more calcium was obtained from bread-based dishes in males(4 percent) than in females (2 percent). The latter was largely explained by a large contribution ofbread-based dishes to the diet of 19–24 years males. The proportion of calcium obtained from vegetablesincreased with age (3 percent–4 percent to 7 percent–8 percent) while the contribution to calciumof non-alcoholic beverages was inversely related to age in both sexes (7 percent to 2 percent–3 percent).
While grains and pasta were not a significant source of calcium in the population (2 percent), thecontribution to calcium was higher in the younger groups (4 percent–5 percent, 15–18 years) thanin the older groups (1 percent or less in 75+ years).
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Milk
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to c
alci
um in
take
75+
Calcium
Food group
Cont
ribut
ion
to in
take
malefemale
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
Milk Cheese
malefemale
30%
34%
38%
42%
46%
67Dietary Sources
B7Iron Table B7
Bread and beef and veal provided the greatest proportions of iron intake, followed by breakfastcereals, vegetables and potatoes and kumara. Together these contributed about half of the iron intake(Figure A).
For both males and females almost one-third of the iron comes from groups which include meatand fish (males 33 percent, females 29 percent); 23 percent from all the meat groups combined(males 24 percent, females 22 percent); 4 percent from bread-based dishes, which include meat (males5 percent, females 3 percent); and 4 percent from fish/seafood. Therefore, just under one-third of thedietary iron intake would be haem iron (highly bioavailable) and two-thirds non-haem iron (lessbioavailable).
For females, bread (13 percent) was the single greatest dietary source of iron, supplying an increasingproportion with age (12 percent 15–18 years, 16 percent 75+ years). Beef and veal was ranked secondfor females (11 percent). Conversely, for males, beef and veal was generally the largest dietarysource of iron (14 percent) followed by bread (12 percent). Exceptions were 19–24 years males forwhom breakfast cereals and bread-based dishes made the most substantial contribution to iron intake(both 12 percent), and for males 75+ years for whom breakfast cereals (15 percent) and bread (14percent) made the greatest contributions. Breakfast cereals also provided a larger percentage of ironintake for males in the younger groups (15–24 years) than for females (Figure B).
Non-alcoholic beverages supplied 7 percent of dietary iron for females and 8 percent for males anddeclined with age to 75+ years (males 3 percent, females 4 percent). On the other hand, fruitssupplied 6 percent of the dietary iron for males 75+ years, declining to 2 percent in the 15-18 yearsgroup.
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Breakfast cereals
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to ir
on in
take
75+
Iron
Food group
Cont
ribut
ion
to in
take
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
Bread Beef &veal
Breakfastcereals
Vegetables Potatoes &kumara
malefemale
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
malefemale
68 NZ Food: NZ People
B8Folate Table B8
The principal dietary sources of folate were vegetables (18 percent), bread (13 percent) and breakfastcereals (11 percent). Additional sources included fruits and potatoes and kumara (Figure A). Formales 15–24 years, breakfast cereals were the largest contributor to folate intake (16 percent) followedby vegetables and bread contributing similar proportions (about 12 percent each). For all other agegroups (both sexes) vegetables were the main dietary source of folate. For females, in comparisonwith males, a larger proportion of folate came from vegetables (20 percent, 17 percent respectively)and fruits (10 percent, 6 percent) with less from potatoes and kumara (6 percent, 9 percent).Consequently, the proportion of folate from vegetables, together with potatoes and kumara, wasequivalent in males and females (26 percent). There were no major age-related patterns in folatesources although the percentage from non-alcoholic beverages increased with age in both sexes (FigureB). This was most likely due to the presence of fruit juices in this food group. The latter is incontrast to the negative association seen between the contribution of non-alcoholic beverages andage for other nutrients presented (e.g. carbohydrate) and indicated a change in type of non-alcoholicbeverages as a dietary source of folate with age.
Vegetables as a source of folate had the lowest contribution in males 15–24 years (12 percent and 13percent) and females 15–18 years (15 percent). For other age groups vegetables contributed from 18percent – 24 percent to folate intake. Bread-based dishes contributed higher amounts of folate (3percent – 6 percent) in the 15–24 years groups, declining to 1 percent or less in the 75+ yearsgroups.
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Non-alcoholic beverages
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to fo
late
inta
ke
75+
Folate
Food group
Cont
ribut
ion
to in
take
malefemale
malefemale
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
Vegetables Bread Breakfastcereals
Fruits Potatoes &kumara
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
69Dietary Sources
B9Alcohol Table B9
Wine was the predominant source of alcohol for females other than those 15–18 years (Figure A).Among females 15–18 years approximately half the alcohol consumed was beer, one-quarter spiritsand one-fifth wine. In females, the proportion of alcohol from beer decreased with age comparedwith an increasing contribution from spirits. The contribution to alcohol intake of other alcohol 5
generally increased with age, peaking in the 75+ years males and the 65–74 years females.
For males, beer was the predominant source of alcohol, although there was a decrease in thepercentage of alcohol obtained from beer in males and females over 65 years (Figure B). This resultedfrom a greater contribution of wine and spirits to alcohol intake in males 65+ years and the 22percent of alcohol which came from other alcohol in the 75+ years group.
Liqueurs and cocktails were not major sources of alcohol in any age groups although in young malesthese contributed almost 10 percent. Unreported data from the Qualitative Food FrequencyQuestionnaire suggests the contribution of other alcohol to total alcohol intake was most likelyexplained by sherry consumption in the older age groups.
Figure A Figure B
Beer
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to a
lcoh
ol in
take
75+
Age group (years)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Wine
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
Cont
ribut
ion
to a
lcoh
ol in
take
75+
Age group (years)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
malefemale
malefemale
5 For example, sherry, cider, alcoholic sodas.
70 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e B
lEN
ERG
Y SO
URC
ES F
OR
NEW
ZEA
LAN
D P
OPU
LATI
ON
NZ
Pop’
nM
ale
Fem
ale
Food
Gro
ups
(Age
15+
)Al
l15
–18
19–2
425
–44
45–6
465
–74
75+
All
15–1
819
–24
25–4
445
–64
65–7
475
+Br
ead
(incl
udes
rolls
an
d sp
ecia
lty b
read
s)11
%11
%10
%9%
11%
12%
12%
12%
12%
11%
10%
12%
12%
14%
14%
Pota
toes
and
kum
ara
78
99
77
88
77
77
66
7Bu
tter a
nd m
arga
rine
66
54
56
77
64
45
67
9M
ilk5
56
55
56
66
56
66
68
Alco
holic
bev
erag
es5
62
56
95
54
15
43
22
Cake
s an
d m
uffin
s5
43
45
45
66
64
66
65
Non
-alc
ohol
ic b
ever
ages
55
99
53
21
510
85
32
2Su
gar/s
wee
ts5
55
45
46
55
66
44
34
Beef
and
vea
l4
54
25
56
34
33
44
44
Frui
ts4
32
33
45
66
45
57
88
Brea
d ba
sed
dish
es4
56
94
4<1
33
54
42
<12
Grai
ns a
nd p
asta
33
54
43
11
35
34
22
1Br
eakf
ast c
erea
ls3
34
33
34
63
22
34
45
Bisc
uits
33
32
33
45
42
34
44
4Pi
es a
nd p
astie
s3
33
53
32
23
35
32
21
Poul
try3
34
32
32
23
23
33
22
Saus
ages
& p
roce
ssed
mea
ts3
33
33
22
22
33
22
22
Vege
tabl
es2
22
22
23
33
32
33
33
Fish
/sea
food
22
21
33
32
21
23
33
2Da
iry p
rodu
cts
22
32
22
33
34
32
23
3Ch
eese
22
22
22
21
22
22
22
2Sa
uces
22
11
21
11
22
12
22
1Po
rk2
2<1
22
21
22
22
22
11
Fats
and
oils
22
11
21
21
11
21
21
1Pu
ddin
gs1
1<1
11
12
21
22
11
32
Eggs
and
egg
dis
hes
11
<1<1
<11
21
1<1
<11
22
2La
mb/
mut
ton
11
1<1
1<1
21
<1<1
1<1
1<1
1N
uts
and
seed
s<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
11
<11
<1<1
Soup
s an
d st
ocks
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<11
<1<1
<1<1
<11
<1Sn
ack
food
s<1
<12
1<1
<1<1
<1<1
3<1
<1<1
<10
Othe
r mea
t<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
Diet
ary
supp
lem
ents
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<10
<1<1
<1<1
<1To
tal%
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
71Dietary Sources
Tabl
e B
2TO
TAL
FAT
SOU
RCES
FO
R N
EW Z
EALA
ND
PO
PULA
TIO
NN
Z Po
p’n
Mal
eFe
mal
eFo
od G
roup
s(A
ge 1
5+)
All
15–1
819
–24
25–4
445
–64
65–7
475
+Al
l15
–18
19–2
425
–44
45–6
465
–74
75+
Butte
r and
mar
garin
e16
%16
%13
%12
%15
%18
%20
%21
%16
%11
%13
%14
%18
%21
%25
%Po
tato
es a
nd k
umar
a6
78
107
54
56
88
64
33
Beef
and
vea
l6
66
37
78
45
44
55
65
Milk
65
75
55
67
65
76
66
9Ca
kes
and
muf
fins
65
36
55
56
76
47
77
6Pi
es a
nd p
astie
s5
65
96
53
45
59
54
32
Brea
d ba
sed
dish
es5
68
115
5<1
44
65
43
<12
Saus
ages
& p
roce
ssed
mea
ts5
56
66
45
44
65
35
43
Fats
and
oils
45
44
54
63
43
54
54
3Ch
eese
44
43
44
43
54
55
55
4Po
ultry
44
65
45
32
42
45
43
4Bi
scui
ts3
33
23
34
54
24
44
45
Dairy
pro
duct
s3
34
23
44
74
54
33
44
Fish
/sea
food
33
22
34
42
3<1
23
34
3Sa
uces
32
22
32
22
32
23
43
2Po
rk2
2<1
22
32
32
22
23
22
Eggs
and
egg
dis
hes
22
<12
22
32
21
13
33
3Br
ead
(incl
udes
rolls
and
spe
cial
ty b
read
s)2
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
Nut
s an
d se
eds
22
22
22
2<1
23
22
32
1Gr
ains
and
pas
ta2
24
22
2<1
<12
42
2<1
<11
Suga
r/sw
eets
22
32
2<1
2<1
25
32
11
<1La
mb/
mut
ton
22
2<1
21
33
2<1
21
22
2Pu
ddin
gs2
1<1
21
12
22
22
21
42
Brea
kfas
t cer
eals
11
21
12
23
1<1
<11
22
2Fr
uits
1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
23
12
22
2Ve
geta
bles
1<1
<11
<1<1
<12
12
<11
11
1Sn
ack
food
s<1
<12
2<1
<1<1
<1<1
41
<1<1
<10
Soup
s an
d st
ocks
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<11
<1N
on-a
lcoh
olic
bev
erag
es<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Othe
r mea
t<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
Alco
holic
bev
erag
es<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Diet
ary
supp
lem
ents
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<
1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
Tota
l%10
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
0
72 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e B
3A
VAIL
AB
LE C
ARB
OH
YDRA
TE S
OU
RCES
FO
R N
EW Z
EALA
ND
PO
PULA
TIO
NN
Z Po
p’n
Mal
eFe
mal
eFo
od G
roup
s(A
ge 1
5+)
All
15–1
819
–24
25–4
445
–64
65–7
475
+Al
l15
–18
19–2
425
–44
45–6
465
–74
75+
Brea
d (in
clud
es ro
lls
and
spec
ialty
bre
ads)
20%
20%
16%
16%
21%
23%
21%
20%
21%
18%
18%
21%
22%
24%
24%
Non
-alc
ohol
ic b
ever
ages
1010
1818
106
32
1018
1710
64
4Po
tato
es a
nd k
umar
a10
1112
1010
1112
129
89
99
1011
Suga
r/sw
eets
99
87
109
1211
88
108
86
7Fr
uits
87
45
68
911
107
99
1314
14Ca
kes
and
muf
fins
65
34
56
67
66
47
86
5Br
eakf
ast c
erea
ls5
56
54
57
95
33
55
67
Grai
ns a
nd p
asta
55
76
63
22
56
56
33
2M
ilk4
44
54
44
44
34
45
56
Bisc
uits
44
32
44
56
42
44
55
5Ve
geta
bles
43
22
33
54
43
34
54
4Br
ead
base
d di
shes
34
56
44
<12
34
33
2<1
1Da
iry p
rodu
cts
22
31
22
22
23
22
22
2Al
coho
lic b
ever
ages
23
12
24
22
<1<1
21
<1<1
<1Pi
es a
nd p
astie
s2
22
32
21
<11
12
21
<l<l
Pudd
ings
22
<12
22
22
21
21
14
2Sa
uces
11
11
11
11
11
12
11
1Fi
sh/s
eafo
od<1
1<1
<11
11
<1<1
<1<1
11
<l<l
Soup
s an
d st
ocks
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
12
<1<1
<1<1
12
<1Sn
ack
food
s<1
<12
1<1
<1<1
<1<1
3<1
<1<1
<10
Saus
ages
& p
roce
ssed
mea
ts<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Poul
try<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Beef
and
vea
l<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Pork
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1N
uts
and
seed
s<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Eggs
and
egg
dis
hes
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Di
etar
y su
pple
men
ts<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<l<1
Lam
b/m
utto
n<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Chee
se<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Butte
r and
mar
garin
e<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Othe
r mea
t<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
00
<1<1
<1<1
Fats
and
oils
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1To
tal%
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
73Dietary Sources
Tabl
e B
4PR
OTE
IN S
OU
RCES
FO
R N
EW Z
EALA
ND
PO
PULA
TIO
NN
Z Po
p’n
Mal
eFe
mal
eFo
od G
roup
s(A
ge 1
5+)
All
15–1
819
–24
25–4
445
–64
65–7
475
+Al
l15
–18
19–2
425
–44
45–6
465
–74
75+
Beef
and
vea
l14
%15
%14
%8%
16%
15%
17%
13%
12%
9%12
%12
%13
%14
%13
%Br
ead
(incl
udes
rolls
an
d sp
ecia
lty b
read
s)11
109
910
1111
1211
1210
1111
1313
Milk
109
109
89
1111
1110
1011
1213
14Po
ultry
77
910
68
56
85
89
86
7Fi
sh/s
eafo
od7
74
46
88
67
48
77
76
Brea
d ba
sed
dish
es5
69
135
4<1
34
85
42
<12
Pork
55
25
57
35
56
45
54
3Po
tato
es a
nd k
umar
a4
45
44
45
54
44
43
44
Saus
ages
& p
roce
ssed
mea
ts4
45
55
33
33
54
23
22
Chee
se4
33
34
33
24
44
44
43
Vege
tabl
es3
32
23
34
44
34
34
45
Lam
b/m
utto
n3
34
14
26
33
14
23
23
Grai
ns a
nd p
asta
33
54
32
11
35
33
22
1Br
eakf
ast c
erea
ls3
34
32
34
63
21
33
45
Pies
and
pas
ties
33
36
32
22
23
52
21
<1Ca
kes
and
muf
fins
32
13
22
23
33
23
33
2Eg
gs a
nd e
gg d
ishe
s2
2<1
22
23
22
11
33
33
Non
-alc
ohol
ic b
ever
ages
21
21
11
11
22
22
22
2Da
iry p
rodu
cts
21
21
11
21
23
22
22
2Bi
scui
ts1
11
<11
11
21
<11
12
12
Frui
ts1
<1<1
<1<1
<11
12
12
12
22
Sauc
es1
11
11
<1<1
11
1<1
11
11
Nut
s an
d se
eds
<1<1
11
<1<1
1<1
<11
1<1
<1<1
<1Al
coho
lic b
ever
ages
<11
<11
12
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1So
ups
and
stoc
ks<1
<1<1
<1<1
<11
2<1
<1<1
<1<1
2<1
Suga
r/sw
eets
<1<1
1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<12
<1<1
<1<1
<1Pu
ddin
gs<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
2<1
2<1
<1<1
1<1
Othe
r mea
t<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
2<1
Snac
k fo
ods
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<11
<1<1
<1<1
0Bu
tter a
nd m
arga
rine
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Di
etar
y su
pple
men
ts<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
Fats
and
oil
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1To
tal%
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
74 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e B
5D
IETA
RY F
IBRE
SO
URC
ES F
OR
NEW
ZEA
LAN
D P
OPU
LATI
ON
NZ
Pop’
nM
ale
Fem
ale
Food
Gro
ups
(Age
15+
)Al
l15
–18
19–2
425
–44
45–6
465
–74
75+
All
15–1
819
–24
25–4
445
–64
65–7
475
+Br
ead
(incl
udes
rolls
an
d sp
ecia
lty b
read
s)22
%22
%18
%18
%22
%25
%22
%21
%22
%22
%20
%22
%21
%23
%23
%Ve
geta
bles
1716
1310
1717
2217
1815
1816
2019
20Fr
uits
1310
78
1011
1217
1614
1615
1720
20Po
tato
es a
nd k
umar
a11
1316
1512
1213
1210
1112
109
910
Brea
kfas
t cer
eals
1112
1512
1112
1114
106
610
1010
13Gr
ains
and
pas
ta4
46
65
32
24
65
52
31
Cake
s an
d m
uffin
s4
32
33
43
44
43
45
42
Brea
d ba
sed
dish
es3
44
64
4<1
22
44
32
<11
Non
-alc
ohol
ic b
ever
ages
33
23
33
21
32
23
32
1Bi
scui
ts2
22
12
22
32
13
33
22
Pies
and
pas
ties
22
24
22
1<1
12
22
<1<1
<1So
ups
and
stoc
ks1
1<1
1<1
12
21
<1<1
12
21
Saus
ages
& p
roce
ssed
mea
ts1
12
32
<1<1
1<1
11
<11
<1<1
Sauc
es<1
<l1
11
<l<l
<l<1
1<1
1<1
<1<1
Nut
s an
d se
eds
<1<l
<11
<l<l
<l<l
<11
1<1
1<1
<1Pu
ddin
gs<1
<l<1
1<l
<l1
<l<1
<1<1
<1<1
2<1
Snac
k fo
ods
<l<1
22
<1<1
<1<1
<14
<1<1
<1<1
0Su
gar/s
wee
ts<l
<l1
<1<l
<l<l
<l<1
2<1
<1<1
<1<1
Fish
/sea
food
<l<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Be
ef a
nd v
eal
<1<l
1<1
<l<l
<l<l
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Po
ultry
<1<1
2<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Da
iry p
rodu
cts
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<l1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Po
rk<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<l<l
<l0
Eggs
and
egg
dis
hes
<l<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1M
ilk<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Lam
b/m
utto
n<1
<l<1
0<l
<l<l
<l<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Alco
holic
bev
erag
es<1
<l0
<1<l
<l<l
0<l
00
<l0
0<l
Diet
ary
supp
lem
ents
<1<l
0<1
00
00
<l0
<l0
<l0
0Ot
her m
eat
<1<l
<10
<l<l
<l0
<10
0<1
<10
<1Ch
eese
<l<l
00
0<l
0<l
<l0
<l<l
<l<l
0Bu
tter a
nd m
arga
rine
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0Fa
ts a
nd o
il0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Tota
l%10
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
0
75Dietary Sources
Tabl
e B
6CA
LCIU
M S
OU
RCES
FO
R N
EW Z
EALA
ND
PO
PULA
TIO
NN
Z Po
p’n
Mal
eFe
mal
eFo
od G
roup
s(A
ge 1
5+)
All
15–1
819
–24
25–4
445
–64
65–7
475
+Al
l15
–18
19–2
425
–44
45–6
465
–74
75+
Milk
37%
36%
38%
37%
34%
36%
42%
38%
39%
31%
36%
38%
40%
42%
45%
Chee
se11
1110
1013
119
611
1111
1110
107
Brea
d (in
clud
es ro
lls
and
spec
ialty
bre
ads)
66
56
77
66
66
56
66
6Ve
geta
bles
55
43
56
88
54
45
67
7N
on-a
lcoh
olic
bev
erag
es5
57
75
42
25
77
65
33
Dairy
pro
duct
s5
46
35
45
46
75
55
66
Brea
d ba
sed
dish
es3
45
84
3<1
32
53
32
<11
Cake
s an
d m
uffin
s3
32
23
32
33
23
33
32
Fish
/sea
food
33
11
34
32
31
42
32
2Po
tato
es a
nd k
umar
a2
32
23
32
32
23
22
22
Frui
ts2
22
12
22
33
23
23
45
Brea
kfas
t cer
eals
22
32
22
36
22
<12
23
4Gr
ains
and
pas
ta2
25
32
2<1
<12
42
2<1
<11
Sauc
es2
2<1
<12
11
22
2<1
22
21
Suga
r/sw
eets
22
22
21
2<1
13
21
1<1
<1Eg
gs a
nd e
gg d
ishe
s2
2<1
11
25
11
<1<1
22
22
Pudd
ings
11
<11
<11
14
24
21
<12
2Al
coho
lic b
ever
ages
12
<11
12
<1<1
<1<1
1<1
<1<1
<1Bi
scui
ts1
<11
<11
<1<l
11
<11
1<1
<1<1
Pies
and
pas
ties
11
12
1<1
<1<1
<1<1
2<1
<1<1
<1So
ups
and
stoc
ks<1
<1<1
<1<1
<11
1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Saus
ages
& p
roce
ssed
mea
ts<1
<1<1
1<1
<1<l
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Poul
try<1
<11
<1<1
<1<l
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Beef
and
vea
l<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Butte
r and
mar
garin
e<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Snac
k fo
ods
<1<1
1<1
<1<1
<l<1
<12
<1<1
<1<1
0Po
rk<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Nut
s an
d Se
eds
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1La
mb/
mut
ton
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Di
etar
y su
pple
men
ts<1
<10
<1<1
<1<l
<1<1
0<1
<1<l
<l<1
Othe
r mea
t<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<l
<l<1
Fats
and
oil
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1To
tal%
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
76 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e B
7IR
ON
SO
URC
ES F
OR
NEW
ZEA
LAN
D P
OPU
LATI
ON
NZ
Pop’
nM
ale
Fem
ale
Food
Gro
ups
(Age
15+
)Al
l15
–18
19–2
425
–44
45–6
465
–74
75+
All
15–1
819
–24
25–4
445
–64
65–7
475
+Br
ead
(incl
udes
rolls
an
d sp
ecia
lty b
read
s)13
%12
%10
%10
%12
%14
%12
%14
%13
%12
%11
%13
%14
%16
%16
%Be
ef a
nd V
eal
1214
137
1514
1511
119
1111
1112
11Br
eakf
ast c
erea
ls9
912
127
911
159
86
99
1014
Vege
tabl
es8
75
48
89
89
711
89
1010
Pota
toes
and
kum
ara
78
109
77
78
68
87
66
7N
on-a
lcoh
olic
bev
erag
es5
48
54
34
35
76
55
34
Fish
/sea
food
44
22
56
63
44
54
43
3Br
ead
base
d di
shes
45
812
44
<12
36
44
2<1
1Fr
uits
43
23
33
46
55
55
67
6Sa
usag
es &
pro
cess
ed m
eats
33
44
43
22
34
32
32
2Eg
gs a
nd e
gg d
ishe
s3
31
33
33
33
22
43
34
Cake
s an
d m
uffin
s3
32
23
32
44
32
44
32
Pies
and
pas
ties
33
37
33
22
23
43
21
<1Po
rk3
31
33
42
33
32
33
22
Poul
try2
23
32
32
23
13
32
22
Lam
b/m
utto
n2
23
<13
23
22
<13
22
12
Sauc
es2
22
32
12
12
22
22
21
Grai
ns a
nd p
asta
22
32
22
11
23
22
12
<1Su
gar/s
wee
ts2
22
22
12
22
32
21
12
Milk
22
12
12
32
21
22
32
2Bi
scui
ts2
11
<12
12
22
12
22
22
Othe
r mea
t<1
<1<1
0<1
2<1
<11
0<1
<11
42
Soup
s an
d st
ocks
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
11
<1<1
<1<1
12
1N
uts
and
seed
s<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
2<1
<11
<1<1
Alco
holic
bev
erag
es<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
1<1
<12
1<1
<1<1
Pudd
ings
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<11
<1Da
iry p
rodu
cts
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Bu
tter a
nd m
arga
rine
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Sn
ack
food
s<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
1<1
<1<1
<10
Chee
se<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Fats
and
oils
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Di
etar
y su
pple
men
ts<1
<l0
<1<1
<1<1
<1
<10
<1<1
<1<1
<1To
tal%
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
77Dietary Sources
Tabl
e B
8FO
LATE
SO
URC
ES F
OR
NEW
ZEA
LAN
D P
OPU
LATI
ON
NZ
Pop’
nM
ale
Fem
ale
Food
Gro
ups
(Age
15+
)Al
l15
–18
19–2
425
–44
45–6
465
–74
75+
All
15–1
819
–24
25–4
445
–64
65–7
475
+Ve
geta
bles
18%
17%
13%
12%
18%
18%
24%
18%
20%
15%
20%
18%
22%
22%
22%
Brea
d (in
clud
es ro
lls
and
spec
ialty
bre
ads)
1313
1211
1414
1214
1315
1213
1313
12Br
eakf
ast c
erea
ls11
1216
1610
1012
1410
109
1110
1013
Frui
ts8
65
66
66
810
911
910
1110
Pota
toes
and
kum
ara
89
1110
88
89
68
87
66
6N
on-a
lcoh
olic
bev
erag
es6
64
45
77
87
55
78
89
Sauc
es5
57
56
45
35
64
55
65
Milk
44
44
44
44
44
55
44
5Br
ead
base
d di
shes
33
56
33
<11
24
32
1<1
<1Be
ef a
nd v
eal
23
42
33
32
22
22
22
2Eg
gs a
nd e
gg d
ishe
s2
21
22
34
22
12
33
22
Fish
/sea
food
23
22
33
32
21
22
22
2Ca
kes
and
muf
fins
22
12
22
12
22
23
22
1Al
coho
lic b
ever
ages
23
13
34
11
<1<1
1<1
<1<1
<1Po
ultry
22
32
12
<11
21
22
1<1
1Gr
ains
and
pas
ta2
22
22
2<1
<12
32
2<1
1<1
Bisc
uits
11
1<1
11
11
1<1
11
11
1Da
iry p
rodu
cts
1<1
1<1
1<1
11
12
11
12
1N
uts
and
seed
s1
11
21
<11
<11
22
<11
<1<1
Soup
s an
d st
ocks
1<1
<12
<11
11
1<1
<11
11
<1Pi
es a
nd p
astie
s1
11
21
<1<1
<1<1
<11
<1<1
<1<1
Chee
se<1
<1<1
<11
<1<1
<11
<11
1<1
<1<1
Lam
b/m
utto
n<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Snac
k fo
ods
<1<1
11
<1<1
<1<1
<13
<1<1
<1<1
0Su
gar/s
wee
ts<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Othe
r mea
t<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
<1<1
0<1
<1<1
1<1
Pudd
ings
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Sa
usag
es &
pro
cess
ed m
eats
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1Po
rk<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Butte
r and
mar
garin
e<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Diet
ary
supp
lem
ents
<1<1
00
<1<1
<1<1
<10
<1<1
<1<1
<1Fa
ts a
nd o
il<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
<1<1
Tota
l%10
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
0
78 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e B
9A
LCO
HO
L SO
URC
ES F
OR
NEW
ZEA
LAN
D P
OPU
LATI
ON
NZ
Pop’
nM
ale
Fem
ale
Food
Gro
ups
(Age
15+
)Al
l15
–18
19–2
425
–44
45–6
465
–74
75+
All
15–1
819
–24
25–4
445
–64
65–7
475
+Be
er53
%69
%81
%76
%70
%72
%43
%45
%16
%48
%24
%16
%6%
5%5%
Win
e32
1710
1518
1730
1765
2164
6967
5956
Spiri
ts10
10<1
711
818
1612
265
1118
1324
Othe
r alc
ohol
33
0<1
13
822
50
62
819
14Li
queu
rs a
nd c
ockt
ails
1<1
90
<1<1
<10
25
23
14
0To
tal%
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
79Dietary Supplements
Section CDietary SupplementsIntroductionWhile New Zealanders obtained most of the nutrients they needed from foods, some chose toconsume ‘supplements’ on a regular or occasional basis. This included prescribed and self-selectedsupplements from a variety of sources: tablets; powders or liquid preparations of vitamins and/or minerals; herbal and botanical preparations; and combinations of these substances.
In this section the patterns of consumption of categories of supplements, by sex, age, ethnicity,community and NZDep96 quartiles are presented. Nutrients obtained from supplements are notreported because of the small number of participants reporting supplement consumption in theprevious 24 hours.
Key PointsVitamin / mineral supplement use• One-half of the New Zealand population consumed a vitamin and/or mineral supplement over
the previous year; 23 percent less than once a week and 28 percent at least once a week.
• Multi vitamins and/or minerals were the most frequently chosen supplement preparationsover the previous year (19 percent).
Other dietary supplement use• Almost one-third of the New Zealand population consumed dietary supplements over the
previous year; 12 percent less than once a week and 17 percent at least once a week.
• Garlic preparations (9 percent), oils (6 percent) and botanical products (5 percent) were thosemost frequently chosen.
80 NZ Food: NZ People
C1Vitamin / Mineral Supplement(s) Table C1
Use in the last yearAbout half the New Zealand population (51 percent) used vitamin and/or mineral supplementsduring the last year. Twenty-three percent of the population used supplements on an occasionalbasis and 28 percent on a regular basis. A greater proportion of females (59 percent) than males (42percent) reported taking vitamin and/or mineral supplements (regular and occasional use combined).The highest use was reported by females 19–24 years (69 percent regular and occasional use combined)and the lowest use by males 75+ years (24 percent). While there was a trend for occasional use todecline with age, regular use remained relatively constant across age groups.
NZ Måori were less likely to consume vitamins and/or minerals regularly than NZ European &Others (Figure A). Pacific males were least likely of the three ethnic groups to use supplementsoccasionally and Pacific females were least likely to use supplements regularly. For NZ European& Others and male NZ Måori, occasional use declined with age. Regular use was higher in femalescompared with males for both NZ Måori and NZ European & Others.
Frequency of regular use declined with NZDep96 quartile for both males and females. Combined(regular and occasional) supplement use was highest in individuals living in NZDep96 quartile Iareas (46 percent males, 68 percent females) and lowest by those living in quartile IV areas (32percent males, 49 percent females).
Provincial males reported lower use of supplements (regular and occasional use combined) thanmetropolitan males (35 percent, 44 percent respectively), whereas provincial and metropolitanfemales reported similar use (59 percent, 60 percent).
Type consumed in the last yearMost consumers of supplements chose combinations rather than single vitamins or minerals. Multivitamin and/or mineral supplements were the most frequently chosen (19 percent), followed byvitamin B complex (10 percent). Individual vitamins or minerals were consumed by a relativelysmall proportion of the population, with vitamin C (7 percent) and iron (4 percent) supplementsthe most common.
Figure A Figure B
Vitamin C supplements
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
Age group (years)
Regular use of vitamin/mineral supplements
Popu
latio
n
Ethnic group
malefemale
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
NZ Maori NZ European & Others
malefemale
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
81Dietary Supplements
Females were more likely than males to take multi vitamin and/or mineral supplements, anti-oxidantand other multi nutrient preparations, iron and calcium; whereas males were more likely than femalesto take vitamin C. Females 25–44 years were the highest consumers of iron supplements (10 percent),with use declining after this age to 2 percent in females 75+ years. Calcium supplement use peakedin the 65–74 years group (9 percent), with 0 percent to 3 percent intake in the 19–44 years groups.
There was no significant variation in use across NZDep96 quartiles or between metropolitan andprovincial groups, for either male or female supplement use.
Vitamin C use was highest in the 15–18 years group and declined with increasing age (Figure B).This corresponds with the age-related decrease in occasional vitamin and/or mineral supplementuse.
82 NZ Food: NZ People
C2Other Dietary Supplements Table C2
Use in the last yearAlmost one-third of the adult New Zealand population (29 percent) used other dietary supplementsduring the last year, 17 percent on a regular and 12 percent on an occasional basis. As with vitaminand/or mineral supplements (Section C1), females (34 percent) reported that they were more likelyto be regular or occasional users than males (22 percent). The proportion of consumers of otherdietary supplements (regular and occasional) were relatively consistent across age groups. However,more females 45+ years and males 65–74 years were regular consumers compared with youngergroups (Figure A). On the other hand, more females 15–18 years and males 15–64 years wereoccasional users compared to other groups.
NZ Måori females were less likely to have taken other dietary supplements on a regular basis thanNZ European & Others. Pacific females were least likely to have taken other dietary supplementson a regular basis compared to the other ethnic groups. Females from NZDep96 quartile IV areaswere least likely to report taking other dietary supplements (28 percent) compared with femalesliving in quartile I areas (41 percent).
Type used in the last yearA wide variety of other dietary supplements were chosen. The three most commonly chosencategories were garlic preparations (9 percent); oils such as evening primrose (6 percent); andbotanical products (5 percent). Females were more likely than males to have chosen from the groupsof oils and botanical products, while garlic supplement use was equal for both sexes (Figure B). Beeproducts use was highest in males 75+ years (5 percent) and in females 65+ years (4 percent and 6percent). The highest use of sports supplements was in males 19–24 years (5 percent).
Figure A Figure B
Regular users of other dietary supplements
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
Age group (years)
Consumption of other dietary supplements
NZ
popu
latio
n
Type
malefemale male
female
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
Botanical Garlic Oils
83Dietary Supplements
84 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e C1
VITA
MIN
AN
D M
INER
AL
SUPP
LEM
ENT
USE
IN T
HE
LAST
YEA
R C
onsu
mpt
ion
Perc
ent o
f the
pop
ulat
ion
cons
umin
g su
pple
men
t 2
frequ
ency
(%) 1
Mult
i vita
min
Ant
i-oxid
ant
Fat s
oluble
Othe
r&/
or&
othe
r mult
iVi
tam
in B
Sing
le B
vitam
ins &
indivi
dual
Regu
lar 3
Occa
siona
l 4m
inera
lnu
trien
ts 5co
mple
xvit
amins
6Fo
lic ac
idVi
tam
in C
ß-ca
rote
ne 7
Iron
Calc
ium m
inera
ls 8
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
2823
193
101
17
24
22
Mal
es15
–18
1936
171
80
026
02
00
19–2
418
3315
217
00
102
20
125
–44
2126
163
150
07
21
11
45–6
422
1310
210
10
52
01
465
–74
214
84
10
04
20
15
75+
195
132
01
01
24
02
Tota
l21
2114
212
00
82
11
2Fe
mal
es15
–18
2937
163
60
018
76
61
19–2
433
3632
510
00
64
80
325
–44
3727
274
121
24
110
31
45–6
436
2024
66
30
51
35
265
–74
3515
163
81
14
33
94
75+
268
113
30
02
62
34
Tota
l34
2524
49
11
52
74
2N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
2620
143
120
010
11
13
II22
2516
413
10
63
11
2III
1725
142
130
08
22
11
IV16
1611
18
00
81
01
2Fe
mal
esI
4028
265
112
15
57
52
II34
2728
49
12
41
64
2III
3523
215
72
18
26
32
IV29
2019
38
01
51
82
1Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an22
2215
311
00
92
10
2Pr
ovin
cial
1718
102
120
06
10
13
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
3426
244
91
15
27
42
Prov
inci
al36
2323
59
11
72
63
2
1Co
nsum
ers
of v
itam
in/m
iner
al s
uppl
emen
ts w
ere
clas
sifie
d to
eith
er ‘r
egul
ar’ o
r ‘oc
casi
onal
’ cat
egor
ies
base
d on
thei
r mos
t fre
quen
tly u
sed
supp
lem
ent.
2In
clud
es a
ny s
uppl
emen
t use
(eith
er re
gula
r or o
ccas
iona
l).3
‘Reg
ular
’ inc
lude
s al
l tho
se w
ho u
sed
any
supp
lem
ent a
t lea
st o
nce
per w
eek,
dur
ing
the
last
yea
r.4
‘Occ
asio
nal’
incl
udes
all
thos
e w
ho u
sed
any
supp
lem
ent,
no m
ore
than
3 ti
mes
per
mon
th, d
urin
g th
e la
st y
ear.
5In
clud
es p
rodu
cts
cont
aini
ng m
ultip
le n
utrie
nts,
but
not
cla
imin
g to
be
a m
ulti
vita
min
or m
iner
al. F
or e
xam
ple,
the
prod
ucts
: Im
mun
e Su
ppor
t; PM
T; a
nd P
rost
agua
rd.
6In
clud
es in
divi
dual
sup
plem
ents
of t
hiam
in, r
ibof
lavi
n, n
iaci
n, p
anto
then
ic a
cid,
vita
min
B6,
and
vita
min
B12
.7
Incl
udes
indi
vidu
al s
uppl
emen
ts o
f vita
min
A, D
, and
E.
8In
clud
es in
divi
dual
sup
plem
ents
of m
agne
sium
, pot
assi
um, s
elen
ium
, zin
c, a
nd o
ther
s (e
.g. s
odiu
m, f
luor
ide,
and
iodi
ne).
Supp
lem
ent i
ntak
e qu
estio
nnai
re.
85Dietary Supplements
Tabl
e C1
con
t.VI
TAM
IN A
ND
MIN
ERA
L SU
PPLE
MEN
T U
SE IN
TH
E LA
ST Y
EAR
Con
sum
ptio
nPe
rcen
t of t
he p
opul
atio
n co
nsum
ing
supp
lem
ent 2
frequ
ency
(%) 1
Mult
i vita
min
Ant
i-oxid
ant
Fat s
oluble
Othe
r&/
or&
othe
r mult
iVi
tam
in B
Sing
le B
vitam
ins &
indivi
dual
Regu
lar 3
Occa
siona
l 4m
inera
lnu
trien
ts 5co
mple
xvit
amins
6Fo
lic ac
idVi
tam
in C
ß-ca
rote
ne 7
Iron
Calc
ium m
inera
ls 8
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
410
3811
018
00
150
20
025
–44
1516
101
61
010
30
00
45+
113
31
50
01
00
04
Tota
l13
209
19
10
91
10
1Fe
mal
es15
–24
2220
92
70
04
016
11
25–4
429
2520
48
11
30
113
145
+22
1418
07
10
11
41
1To
tal
2521
163
71
03
011
21
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
48*
13*
10*
0*3*
0*0*
8*0*
0*0*
0*25
–44
92
53
00
02
00
00
45+
6*2*
0*0*
2*0*
0*4*
0*0*
0*3*
Tota
l8
55
21
00
40
00
1Fe
mal
es15
–24
10*
12*
6*0*
3*0*
0*6*
0*7*
0*0*
25–4
411
149
05
00
00
91
045
+12
*8*
11*
0*1*
0*0*
6*0*
0*1*
0*To
tal
1112
90
40
03
06
10
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
421
3517
213
00
181
30
125
–44
2329
183
180
07
21
12
45+
2211
113
71
04
21
14
Tota
l22
2215
312
00
82
11
2 F
emal
es15
–24
3543
315
90
013
75
32
25–4
439
2929
413
13
41
103
145
+35
1720
56
20
53
36
3To
tal
3726
265
91
16
36
42
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Su
pple
men
t int
ake
ques
tionn
aire
.1
Cons
umer
s of
vita
min
/min
eral
sup
plem
ents
wer
e cl
assi
fied
to e
ither
‘reg
ular
’ or ‘
occa
sion
al’ c
ateg
orie
s ba
sed
on th
eir m
ost f
requ
ently
use
d su
pple
men
t.2
Incl
udes
any
sup
plem
ent u
se (e
ither
regu
lar o
r occ
asio
nal).
3‘R
egul
ar’ i
nclu
des
all t
hose
who
use
d an
y su
pple
men
t at l
east
onc
e pe
r wee
k, d
urin
g th
e la
st y
ear.
4‘O
ccas
iona
l’ in
clud
es a
ll th
ose
who
use
d an
y su
pple
men
t, no
mor
e th
an 3
tim
es p
er m
onth
, dur
ing
the
last
yea
r.5
Incl
udes
pro
duct
s co
ntai
ning
mul
tiple
nut
rient
s, b
ut n
ot c
laim
ing
to b
e a
mul
ti vi
tam
in o
r min
eral
. For
exa
mpl
e, th
e pr
oduc
ts: I
mm
une
Supp
ort;
PMT;
and
Pro
stag
uard
.6
Incl
udes
indi
vidu
al s
uppl
emen
ts o
f thi
amin
, rib
ofla
vin,
nia
cin,
pan
toth
enic
aci
d, v
itam
in B
6, a
nd v
itam
in B
12.
7In
clud
es in
divi
dual
sup
plem
ents
of v
itam
in A
, D, a
nd E
.8
Incl
udes
indi
vidu
al s
uppl
emen
ts o
f mag
nesi
um, p
otas
sium
, sel
eniu
m, z
inc,
and
oth
ers
(e.g
. sod
ium
, flu
orid
e, a
nd io
dine
).
86 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e C2
OTH
ER D
IETA
RY S
UPP
LEM
ENT
USE
IN T
HE
LAST
YEA
RCo
nsum
ptio
nfre
quen
cy (%
) 1Pe
rcen
t of t
he p
opul
atio
n co
nsum
ing
supp
lem
ent 2
Bee
Spor
tsRe
gula
r 3Oc
casi
onal
4Bo
tani
cal 5
Garli
cOi
ls 6
Bran
/fibr
e 7pr
oduc
ts 8
supp
lem
ents
9Ot
her
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
1712
59
63
21
2M
ales
15–1
811
74
55
00
01
19–2
411
124
82
00
52
25–4
49
114
91
11
12
45–6
417
94
103
42
02
65–7
424
33
98
33
10
75+
155
15
43
50
1To
tal
139
49
22
21
2Fe
mal
es15
–18
524
412
52
00
519
–24
918
96
34
11
325
–44
1715
78
85
20
145
–64
2912
711
154
30
265
–74
2810
510
88
60
175
+29
63
138
54
01
Tota
l20
147
99
43
02
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sI
1211
310
22
21
2M
ales
II13
105
102
21
12
III13
105
93
22
22
IV14
54
63
11
11
Fem
ales
I23
189
1010
64
01
II21
146
1010
43
11
III19
145
118
41
03
IV17
116
68
42
01
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
1310
49
32
21
2Pr
ovin
cial
138
48
22
11
1Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an19
157
99
52
01
Prov
inci
al23
126
109
33
12
Su
pple
men
t int
ake
ques
tionn
aire
.1
Cons
umer
s of
oth
er d
ieta
ry s
uppl
emen
ts w
ere
clas
sifie
d to
eith
er ‘r
egul
ar’ o
r ‘oc
casi
onal
’ cat
egor
ies
base
d on
thei
r mos
t fre
quen
tly u
sed
supp
lem
ent.
2In
clud
es a
ny s
uppl
emen
t use
(eith
er re
gula
r or o
ccas
iona
l).3
‘Reg
ular
’ inc
lude
s al
l tho
se w
ho u
sed
any
supp
lem
ent a
t lea
st o
nce
per w
eek,
dur
ing
the
last
yea
r.4
‘Occ
asio
nal’
incl
udes
all
thos
e w
ho u
sed
any
supp
lem
ent,
no m
ore
than
3 ti
mes
per
mon
th, d
urin
g th
e la
st y
ear.
5In
clud
es h
erba
l rem
edie
s, b
rew
er’s
yeas
t, sp
irulin
a, a
nd a
cido
philu
s.6
Incl
udes
eve
ning
prim
rose
, cod
live
r, an
d ha
libut
live
r.7
Incl
udes
oat
bra
n, w
heat
bra
n, w
heat
ger
m, f
ibre
pow
ders
, and
fibr
e ta
blet
s.8
Incl
udes
bee
pol
len,
roya
l jel
ly, a
nd p
ropo
lis.
9In
clud
es c
arbo
hydr
ate
and
prot
ein
pow
ders
, car
nitin
e, a
nd c
reat
inin
e.
87Dietary Supplements
Tabl
e C2
con
t.O
THER
DIE
TARY
SU
PPLE
MEN
T U
SE IN
TH
E LA
ST Y
EAR
Cons
umpt
ion
frequ
ency
(%) 1
Perc
ent o
f the
pop
ulat
ion
cons
umin
g su
pple
men
t 2
Bee
Spor
tsRe
gula
r 3Oc
casi
onal
4Bo
tani
cal 5
Garli
cOi
ls 6
Bran
/fibr
e 7pr
oduc
ts 8
supp
lem
ents
9Ot
her
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
45
81
20
00
23
25–4
410
85
81
00
30
45+
1014
113
27
20
0To
tal
89
38
12
02
1Fe
mal
es15
–24
96
42
62
01
025
–44
1314
64
94
30
245
+24
612
44
19
01
Tota
l15
107
37
24
11
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
418
*0*
3*1*
0*0*
0*4*
0*25
–44
15
42
00
00
045
+8*
0*1*
4*0*
0*2*
0*0*
Tota
l8
33
20
00
10
Fem
ales
15–2
43*
5*4*
0*4*
0*0*
0*0*
25–4
46
21
51
10
00
45+
6*3*
4*2*
1*3*
0*0*
5*To
tal
53
33
21
00
1N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
1211
58
40
03
225
–44
1012
49
11
11
245
+19
74
94
33
02
Tota
l14
94
93
22
12
Fem
ales
15–2
47
258
114
41
05
25–4
418
168
99
52
11
45+
3011
612
135
40
1To
tal
2215
711
105
30
2
Supp
lem
ent i
ntak
e qu
estio
nnai
re.
* Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Cons
umer
s of
oth
er d
ieta
ry s
uppl
emen
ts w
ere
clas
sifie
d to
eith
er ‘r
egul
ar’ o
r ‘oc
casi
onal
’ cat
egor
ies
base
d on
thei
r mos
t fre
quen
tly u
sed
supp
lem
ent.
2In
clud
es a
ny s
uppl
emen
t use
(eith
er re
gula
r or o
ccas
iona
l).3
‘Reg
ular
’ inc
lude
s al
l tho
se w
ho u
sed
any
supp
lem
ent a
t lea
st o
nce
per w
eek,
dur
ing
the
last
yea
r.4
‘Occ
asio
nal’
incl
udes
all
thos
e w
ho u
sed
any
supp
lem
ent,
no m
ore
than
3 ti
mes
per
mon
th, d
urin
g th
e la
st y
ear.
5In
clud
es h
erba
l rem
edie
s, b
rew
er’s
yeas
t, sp
irulin
a, a
nd a
cido
philu
s.6
Incl
udes
eve
ning
prim
rose
, cod
live
r, an
d ha
libut
live
r.7
Incl
udes
oat
bra
n, w
heat
bra
n, w
heat
ger
m, f
ibre
pow
ders
, and
fibr
e ta
blet
s.8
Incl
udes
bee
pol
len,
roya
l jel
ly, a
nd p
ropo
lis.
9In
clud
es c
arbo
hydr
ate
and
prot
ein
pow
ders
, car
nitin
e, a
nd c
reat
inin
e.
88 NZ Food: NZ People
89Eating Patterns
Section DEating PatternsIntroductionWithin the New Zealand population, some people choose from all food types available (plant andanimal) and others restrict their choice for a variety of reasons. People change their food choicesnot only on a daily basis but throughout life in response to many influences including educationabout recommended intake as expressed in food and nutrition guidelines. This section providesinformation about dietary change: the timing and direction of change, and the difficulties (barriers)to achieving change. Respondents were shown lists of possible ‘barriers to change’ for example,‘barriers to increasing intake of fruits’. These lists were presented on showcards. However,respondents were able to express other, non-specified, barriers and these are described in thisreport as non-showcard responses.
Because most New Zealanders prepare a significant proportion of their food at home, they candescribe cooking and preparation habits, such as the use of fats.
Having access to affordable foods which are liked and acceptable is a key issue in whether or notthey are consumed. This aspect of eating patterns is termed food security. It is to be expected,therefore, that ethnic and NZDep96 quartile groups will respond differently to statements aboutfood security.
Key PointsType of diet• Ninety-four percent of the New Zealand population consumed a regular (omnivorous) diet.
Current dietary changes• One-third of New Zealanders were currently trying to make dietary changes, with more females
(39 percent) than males (28 percent) attempting change.
• Trying to alter the consumption of high fat foods was the most popular type of dietary change (22percent) in the New Zealand population, followed by trying to change the amount of fruitseaten (14 percent).
Direction of current dietary change attempts• Of the 22 percent of New Zealanders who were trying to change the amount of high fat foods
eaten, 94 percent were trying to eat less.
• Of the New Zealanders who reported trying to alter their consumption of fruits (14 percent)and vegetables (11 percent) most were trying to eat more (96 percent and 92 percent respectively).
Intended dietary changes• Over one-fifth of the New Zealand population intended to make dietary change in the next six
months, with fruits (11 percent) and high fat foods (9 percent) the most popular areas for changes.
Difficulties involved in making dietary changes• Cost and don’t always have at home were two frequent difficulties cited by those trying to increase
their fruits and vegetable intake.
90 NZ Food: NZ People
• Almost half of the population (47 percent) was happy with fat intake and 32 percent felt it wouldbe hard to eat less high fat foods because they taste good.
Food preparation practices• Seventy-four percent of the New Zealand population fried or roasted meat/chicken in fat or
oil, and 69 percent did the same with their vegetables. The most common types of fat used wereother oils (e.g. sunflower, corn oil) and olive/canola.
• Excess fat was trimmed off red meat always or often by 67 percent of those who ate red meat,while 42 percent of those who ate chicken removed the skin always or often.
Household food security• Concern about household food security was more frequently expressed by individuals living in
NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) compared with those living in NZDep96 quartile Iareas (least deprived).
91Eating Patterns
D1Type of Diet Table D1
Ninety-four percent of all New Zealanders ate a regular diet which included animal products.While avoids meats except chicken was uncommon, it was the most prevalent restricted food dietalongside an other 6 types of diet (both 2 percent). Females 15–18 years were most likely to reporteating a vegetarian diet or avoiding red meat (13 percent). Consumption of a regular diet wasslightly more common in males than females and more common in male NZ European & Othersthan females (Figure A). The proportion consuming a regular diet was highest in males 25–74years and females 65–74 years (both 97 percent), with the lowest proportion in females 15–18years (85 percent).
A greater percentage of Pacific males reported avoids meats except chicken in comparison with maleNZ European & Others (Figure B).
The type of diet consumed was unrelated to NZDep96 quartiles. The proportion of males consuminga regular diet was higher in provincial (98 percent) than metropolitan (95 percent) areas.
Avoided meats except chicken
Ethnic group
Popu
latio
n
Ethnic group
Popu
latio
n
Regular diet
Figure A Figure B
90%
92%
94%
96%
98%
NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European &Others
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European& Others
malefemale
malefemale
6 Other included ‘non-specified combinations’
92 NZ Food: NZ People
D2Current Dietary Changes Table D2
One-third of all New Zealanders (34 percent) reported that they were currently attempting tochange either the amount or type of foods they consumed. Compared with males, a largerproportion of females were trying to alter their diet (39 percent, 28 percent respectively). Females25–64 years had a greater prevalence of attempted dietary change than males of the same ages(females 43 percent and 39 percent, males 31 percent and 25 percent). Attempted dietary changewas most frequent in the 19–24 years group (females 58 percent, males 44 percent) but subsequentlydecreased with age (Figure A).
Male NZ European & Others (26 percent) were less likely than females (38 percent) to be currentlyattempting dietary change. A greater percentage of male NZ Måori (37 percent) and Pacific people(45 percent) were undertaking dietary change compared with NZ European & Others (26 percent).Proportions attempting a dietary change did not differ according to NZDep96 quartile orcommunity.
The most popular type of dietary change reported was trying to alter the amount of high fat foodsconsumed (males 16 percent, females 27 percent). Fruits followed as the second most commonlyreported dietary change (males 12 percent, females 17 percent) with third highest being breads andcereals for females (14 percent) and vegetables for males (10 percent) (Figure B). Females living inNZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to be trying to change vegetables intake (17 percent)than those living in quartile I areas (8 percent).
Altering the consumption of high fat foods was the predominant dietary change in all ethnic groups.A greater proportion of female NZ European & Others than males were attempting to changetheir consumption of fruits, breads and cereals and high fat foods. Percentages of NZ Måori and Pacificpeople who were attempting the various types of change were similar for both males and females.
A higher proportion of metropolitan than provincial males were attempting to change theirconsumption of fruits (14 percent, 7 percent respectively) and vegetables (11 percent, 6 percent).
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Currently attempting dietary change
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
Current dietary change
Type of change intended
NZ
popu
latio
n
malefemale
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
Fruits Vegetables Breads/cereals High fatfoods
malefemale
93Eating Patterns
D3Direction of Current Dietary Change Attempts Table D3
Of the New Zealanders who reported trying to alter their consumption of ‘fruits’ (14 percent) and‘vegetables’ (11 percent) most were trying to eat more (96 percent, 92 percent respectively) (FigureA). However, more males over 45 years were trying to eat less ‘vegetables’ (27 percent). Of thosealtering their ‘breads and cereals’ intake, most (60 percent) were trying to eat more, with 36 percenttrying to eat less. The percentage trying to eat more ‘breads and cereals’ decreased with age in females.Among females over 45 years the majority (55 percent) were trying to eat less ‘breads and cereals’.
There are two types of change possible for ‘high fat foods’ 7, trying to alter the amounts eaten andchanging the type of fats used. Of the 22 percent of New Zealanders who were attempting tochange their intake of ‘high fat foods’ trying to eat less was the most popular change (94 percent)while only 31 percent were trying to change type of fat eaten (Figure B).
eat more
Attempting change to fat type eaten(NZ population)
NZ
popu
latio
n
Direction of current dietary changeeat less
Figure A Figure B
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
male female male female male female
Breads/cereals FruitsVegetables
ChangingNo change
7 Includes butter, margarine and oils.
94 NZ Food: NZ People
D4Intended Dietary Changes Table D4
The percentage of the population intending to make dietary changes in the future (over the nextsix months) was calculated by including all respondents who indicated at least one type of change(fruits, vegetables, breads and cereals and/or high fat foods).
Respondents who had indicated that they were currently trying to change a specific diet category(e.g. fruits or vegetables), were not asked about future changes in this category.
Twenty-two percent of all New Zealanders were intending to change their fruits, vegetables, breadsand cereals and/or high fat foods consumption in the future. The proportion intending to makedietary change in the future decreased with age from 19–24 years in both sexes (Figure A).
The proportion of females intending to change ‘amount/type of food eaten’ increased withNZDep96 quartile area (I 20 percent, IV 29 percent). The proportion of males intending to changeincreased over NZDep96 quartile areas I–III (15 percent to 28 percent) and then decreased to 17percent among individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas. This pattern was reflected in allfood types intended for change. Place of residence (metropolitan vs provincial) had no effect onintention to make dietary change in the future or type of change intended. In both sexes a greaterproportion of NZ Måori and Pacific people were intending to make dietary change in the futurethan NZ European & Others.
For males, fruits was the most popular area for intended change (11 percent), followed by changingthe amount of high fat foods (8 percent) and vegetables (7 percent). For females, intending to changethe amount of fruits eaten was also the most popular change (12 percent) closely followed byaltering the amount of high fat foods eaten (11 percent) (Figure B).
Fruits was a more popular intended change (22 percent) compared with vegetables for NZ Måorifemales (13 percent) and NZ European & Others males and females (10 percent, 7 percentrespectively).
Figure A Figure B
Intending to change diet in future
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
Age group (years)
Intended dietary changes
NZ
popu
latio
n
Type of change intended
malefemale
malefemale
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
Fruits Vegetables Breads/cereals High fatfoods
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
4%
2%
0%
95Eating Patterns
D5Direction of Intended Dietary Changes Table D5
At least 95 percent of those who intended to change the amount of ‘fruits’ and ‘vegetables’ eatenin the future, intended to increase the amount they ate (Figure A). Although very few were intendingto eat less ‘fruits’ and ‘vegetables’ (3 percent), this was highest among those 45+ years, whereas7 percent of males were intending to eat less ‘vegetables’ and 7 percent of females were intending toeat less ‘fruits’.
The direction of future changes in ‘breads and cereals’ intake varied with age, with the proportionintending to eat less increasing with age to over half of males and females 45+ years (51 percent, 63percent respectively). Proportionately fewer females were intending to eat more ‘breads and cereals’in the future than males. Most of the 9 percent who intended to make future changes in theirconsumption of ‘high fat foods’ were intending to eat less (89 percent) with a small proportionintending to change type eaten (19 percent) (Figure B).
Intending to change type of fat eaten(NZ population)
NZ
popu
latio
n
Direction of intended dietary changeeat lesseat more
Figure A Figure B
male female male female male female
Breads/cereals FruitsVegetables
ChangingNot changing
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
96 NZ Food: NZ People
D6Difficulties Involved in MakingDietary Changes Tables D6.1, D6.2, D6.3, D6.4
Respondents who indicated they were currently trying to eat more fruits, vegetables and/or breadsand cereals were asked about any difficulties they had, or were experiencing in attempting thereported change. They were presented with a showcard but many respondents identified difficultiesnot listed (in the tables these are collectively called non-showcard options). The percentage of therespondents selecting a non-showcard option ranged from 4 percent (high fat foods) to 45 percent(breads and cereals).
Cell sizes are small for a number of age groups related to fruits, vegetables and bread and cereals,therefore it is not possible to make statements about the age trends for the change among thesefood groups.
The major difficulties associated with trying to eat more fruits were cost (24 percent), don’t alwayshave at home (22 percent), poor quality (15 percent) and can’t store for long (14 percent). There wereno significant differences between males and females (Figure A).
There were a number of frequently cited reasons why trying to eat more vegetables was hard:don’t always have at home (16 percent), cost (15 percent), takes too long to prepare (15 percent) and notenough time (15 percent). In contrast to the difficulties expressed with attempting to eat more fruits,poor quality was not often cited as a reason why eating more vegetables would be hard (fruits 15percent, vegetables 4 percent).
Few respondents who were currently attempting to increase their consumption of breads andcereals identified with the difficulties presented to them on the showcards. Almost half, however,volunteered a non-showcard option with the most frequent response volunteered being that it wasnot hard to eat more breads and cereals. Don’t like breads and cereals (8 percent), was the mostcommon showcard option followed by need willpower (7 percent) and too many calories (6 percent).
All respondents, regardless of whether they were currently attempting to change their high fatfoods consumption, were asked about difficulties they might find in reducing the amount of highfat foods they ate. This explains the high proportion (47 percent) that indicated none of thedifficulties applied as they were happy with fat intake (Figure B). The most frequently cited difficulty
Happy with fat intake
Age group (years)
NZ
popu
latio
n
Responses
NZ
popu
latio
n
Difficulty with eating more fruits
Figure A Figure B
malefemale
malefemale
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
Cost Not available Poor Quality Storage0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
15–24 25–44 45+
97Eating Patterns
in reducing the amount of high fat foods eaten was that they taste good (32 percent), followed bynot as enjoyable (16 percent), convenient (14 percent) and need willpower (11 percent). The percentageindicating that they were happy with fat intake increased with age in both sexes (males 30 percent to62 percent; females 25 percent to 61 percent) while the percentage who would find it difficultbecause high fat foods taste good and are convenient decreased with age, particularly in the group45+ years. Food preparation with less fat too hard, others would have to eat less and hard when eating outwere other difficulties cited, particularly by 15–24 years females compared with females 45+ years.
98 NZ Food: NZ People
D7Food Preparation Practices Tables D7.1, D7.2
Meat or chickenMales (78 percent) were more likely than females (70 percent) to report having meat or chickenfried or roasted in fat or oil (Figure A). The most common choices were other oils (49 percent), olive/canola oil (35 percent), butter (18 percent) and lard (16 percent). Males 45+ years were less likely toeat meat or chicken cooked in fat or oil, less likely to use butter and more likely to use lard thanthose under 45 years. Females were more likely than males to always or often ‘trim excess fat’ frommeat (72 percent, 60 percent respectively), and ‘remove skin’ from chicken (49 percent, 35 percent).
Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to eat meat or chicken cooked in fator oil (75 percent) than those from quartile I areas (65 percent). Lard was used more amongindividuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (males 22 percent, females 18 percent) comparedwith those from quartile I areas (males 15 percent, females 10 percent). Olive/canola oil was morelikely to be used by individuals living in NZDep96 quartiles I and II areas when cooking meat orchicken (males 35 percent, females 53 percent and 42 percent) compared with those living in quartileIV areas (males 24 percent, females 25 percent). Individuals from the NZDep96 quartile I areas,compared to those from quartile IV areas, were more likely to always or often ‘trim excess fat’ frommeat (females) and to ‘remove skin’ from chicken (males and females).
Always and often ‘remove skin’ from chicken was more common in metropolitan (52 percent) thanprovincial females (43 percent).
NZ Måori and Pacific people were less likely than NZ European & Others to have reported alwaysor often ‘trim excess fat’ from meat. NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to haveused olive/canola oil in cooking meat or chicken. Among females, Pacific people were more likelyto have used margarine and less likely to have used lard in cooking meat or chicken than NZEuropean & Others. NZ Måori were less likely to have always or often removed chicken skin thanNZ European & Others (Figure B).
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Meat or chicken cooked in fat or oil
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
Removed chicken skin (always or often)
Ethnic group
Popu
latio
n
malefemale
malefemale
60%
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European &Others
99Eating Patterns
VegetablesSixty-nine percent of the population ate vegetables cooked in fat or oil, with young males (15–18years) having the highest consumption (76 percent) and young females the lowest (57 percent).The fats most commonly used to cook vegetables were: other oils (44 percent), olive/canola oil(32 percent) and lard (20 percent). Olive/canola oil was more popular among females than males.Females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas were more likely to use olive/canola oil in cooking(48 percent) compared with those from quartile II–IV areas (27 percent to 35 percent). Use of lardto cook vegetables varied with NZDep96 quartile for females. The lowest use was reported bythose living in quartile I areas (12 percent) compared to those living in quartile IV areas (21 percent).NZ Måori were less likely to use olive/canola oil than NZ European & Others. Lard was more popularwith NZ Måori compared to Pacific people. Butter was more likely to be used by Pacific people(males 31 percent, females 26 percent) than NZ European & Others for cooking vegetables.Provincial males and females (28 percent, 24 percent respectively) were more likely to use lardthan metropolitan residents (males 19 percent, females 15 percent).
100 NZ Food: NZ People
D8Household Food Security Table D8
Food security is an internationally recognised term that encompasses the ready availability ofnutritionally adequate and safe foods, and the assured ability to acquire personally acceptablefoods in a socially acceptable way. Subjects responded to eight statements on behalf of themselves(if they lived alone) or their households. Each of these statements about food relate to the issue ofaffordability i.e. the response was to be made in light of whether or not the respondent felt theyhad enough money.
I/we8 can afford to eat properlyThirteen percent of New Zealanders reported that their household ‘can afford to eat properly’only sometimes; the highest proportion of households in this situation were reported by 19-24years females (31 percent). More NZ Måori (males 24 percent, females 33 percent) and Pacificpeople (males 39 percent, females 37 percent) reported that their households ‘can afford to eatproperly’ only sometimes compared with NZ European & Others (males 9 percent, females 10percent). Reporting that their household ‘can afford to eat properly’ only sometimes, was lowest inthe older groups (45+ years) of NZ European & Others. Individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IVareas were more likely to report that their household can afford to eat properly only sometimescompared with those from the other areas, quartiles I–III (Figure A). There were no differencesbetween metropolitan and provincial residents.
Food runs out in my/our household due to lack of moneyFourteen percent of New Zealanders reported that in their household ‘food runs out because oflack of money’ sometimes (12 percent) or often (2 percent). This was reported more by females(16 percent) compared to males (11 percent). Younger (15-44 years) males and females were morelikely to identify this as an issue for their household than older groups.
‘Food runs out’ often or sometimes was reported by about half of Pacific people (males 50 percent,females 49 percent) and about one-third of NZ Måori (males 26 percent, females 36 percent),compared with about one-tenth of NZ European & Others (males 7 percent, females 11 percent).
Use food grants/banks sometimes
NZDep96 Quartile
NZ
popu
latio
n
NZDep96 Quartile
NZ
popu
latio
n
Can afford to eat properly only sometimes
Figure A Figure B
malefemalemale
female
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
I II III IV0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
I II III IV
8 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We,depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household.
101Eating Patterns
This declined as an issue with increasing age in NZ European & Others but NZ Måori and Pacificpeople reported that this was an issue for at least one-fifth of their households regardless of age.
The percentage reporting ‘food runs out’ in their household often or sometimes was also related toNZDep96 quartile. This was most frequently reported by females from NZDep96 quartile IV areas(31 percent), compared to quartile I-III areas (7 percent - 19 percent).
I/we9 eat less because of lack of moneyFor the New Zealand population as a whole, and for NZ European & Others, the pattern of responseto this statement reflects that of the previous question (‘food runs out because of lack of money’).Between 12 percent and 14 percent reported that their households ‘eat less because of lack ofmoney’, sometimes or often. Similarly to ‘food runs out’, a relatively large proportion of NZ Måoriand Pacific females, compared to households of NZ European & Others, reported their household‘eat less’. The proportion reporting ‘eat less’ was affected by NZDep96 quartile. Six percent ofmales and 8 percent of females living in quartile I areas said that their household sometimes or often‘eat less’, compared to 18 percent and 24 percent of those living in quartile IV areas.
The variety of foods I am (we are) able to eat is limited by a lack of moneyTwenty-seven percent of the New Zealand population noted that this was an issue for theirhousehold sometimes or often. Compared with older people (45+ years), a greater percentage of thehouseholds of younger people reported ‘variety of foods limited by lack of money’. A higherproportion of NZ Måori (females 47 percent, males 48 percent) and Pacific people (females 48percent, males 50 percent) reported that this was an issue for their household compared with NZEuropean & Others (females 26 percent, males 20 percent). ‘Variety of foods limited’ was consideredan issue in households across all NZDep96 quartiles, although reported more so by individualsliving in quartile IV areas compared with quartile I–III areas. Provincial males were less likely toreport that their household was concerned with this issue (19 percent) than metropolitan males(26 percent).
I/we9 rely on others to provide food and/or money for food, for my/our household, whenI/we don’t have enough moneySeven percent of the New Zealand population said that their households sometimes or often ‘relyon others’ to provide food, or money for food when they don’t have enough money. This issuewas rare (1 percent or less) for those 65+ years and most frequently mentioned by younger people,particularly females 19–24 years (20 percent). More NZ Måori (males 19 percent, females 22 percent)and Pacific people (males 29 percent, females 30 percent) compared to NZ European & Others(males 3 percent, females 5 percent) specified that this was an issue sometimes or often for theirhousehold. Those living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to be in this position thanthose from quartile I–III areas. Households of metropolitan females (10 percent) were more likelyto ‘rely on others’ for food than households of provincial females (6 percent).
9 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We,depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household.
102 NZ Food: NZ People
I/we10 make use of special food grants or foodbanks when I/we do not have enough moneyfor foodFour percent of the New Zealand population (2 percent males, 5 percent females) stated that in thelast year their household sometimes ‘use food grants/banks when they do not have enough moneyfor food’. It was not an issue for the households of males, or females 45+ years and was mostfrequently reported by younger females (19–24 years, 11 percent and 25–44 years, 7 percent). Thosefrom NZ Måori households (males 8 percent, females 16 percent) and Pacific households (males12 percent, females 14 percent) sometimes ‘use food grants/banks’ compared to NZ European &Others (males 1 percent, females 3 percent). The group most often reporting ‘use food grants/banks’ sometimes were households of NZ Måori females 15–24 years (19 percent). Those living inNZDep96 quartile IV areas reported their household ‘use food grants/banks’ sometimes (males 6percent, females 12 percent) more frequently than those in quartile I & II areas (males 0 percent, 1percent; females 1 percent, 2 percent) (Figure B).
I feel stressed because of not having enough money for foodTwelve percent of households of the New Zealand population had this experience sometimes oroften over the previous year (9 percent males, 15 percent females). The households of older people(45+ years) had this experience less often than those 19–44 years. It was most often experienced, atleast sometimes, by the households of females 25–44 years (24 percent). Among females, NZ Måori(31 percent) and Pacific people (32 percent) were more often in this position than NZ European &Others (12 percent). On the other hand, among males under 25 years 10 percent of NZ Måori andNZ European & Others and 15 percent of Pacific people said that they felt their household was‘stressed about lack of money for food’ sometimes or often. Twenty-nine percent of females and 17percent of males from NZDep96 quartile IV areas reported this stress about their household,compared with quartile I areas (females 6 percent, males 5 percent).
I feel stressed because I can’t provide the food I want for social occasionsThe pattern of New Zealanders reporting this experience for their household reflects that of theprevious question. Overall, 13 percent (9 percent males, 15 percent females) reported that theirhousehold felt stressed about providing food for social occasions sometimes or often. Again, it wasnot an issue among older groups, but was highest for females 19–24 years (23 percent). Householdsof NZ Måori and Pacific people were more than twice as likely to report this stress than NZ European& Others. While this stress was experienced to some extent in households of all NZDep96 quartiles,females living in quartile IV areas (26 percent) were more likely to report it for their householdcompared with quartile I–III areas (8 percent to 18 percent).
10 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We,depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household.
103Eating Patterns
104 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e D
1TY
PE O
F D
IET
Diet
cho
ice
(%)
Avoi
ds m
eats
Lact
o-ov
oLa
cto-
Regu
lar
exce
pt c
hick
en v
eget
aria
nOv
o-ve
geta
rian
vege
taria
nVe
gan
Othe
rN
Z Po
p’n
(Age
15+
)94
21
00
02
Mal
es15
–18
951
00
00
419
–24
923
41
00
025
–44
972
00
00
145
–64
971
01
00
065
–74
972
00
00
275
+96
10
00
02
Tota
l96
21
00
01
Fem
ales
15–1
885
83
01
12
19–2
492
21
00
23
25–4
494
31
00
02
45–6
492
31
10
03
65–7
497
20
00
01
75+
942
11
00
3To
tal
933
10
00
2N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
971
01
00
2II
962
20
00
0III
980
00
00
2IV
943
00
00
1Fe
mal
esI
923
20
00
3II
942
10
01
2III
915
10
10
3IV
943
00
00
1Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an95
21
00
01
Prov
inci
al98
10
00
01
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
924
10
00
2Pr
ovin
cial
942
11
00
2Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
1.
105Eating Patterns
Tabl
e D
1 co
nt.
TYPE
OF
DIE
TDi
et c
hoic
e (%
)Av
oids
mea
tsLa
cto-
ovo
Lact
o-Re
gula
rex
cept
chi
cken
veg
etar
ian
Ovo-
vege
taria
nve
geta
rian
Vega
nOt
her
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
490
70
21
00
25–4
499
10
00
00
45+
991
00
00
0To
tal
963
01
00
0Fe
mal
es15
–24
942
00
13
025
–44
944
00
10
145
+94
30
20
01
Tota
l94
30
01
11
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
489
*4*
1*1*
0*0*
4*25
–44
8910
01
00
045
+92
*8*
0*0*
0*0*
0*To
tal
908
01
00
1Fe
mal
es15
–24
92*
6*0*
1*0*
0*0*
25–4
493
60
00
00
45+
89*
11*
0*0*
0*0*
0*To
tal
927
00
00
0N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
941
30
00
225
–44
971
00
00
245
+97
10
00
01
Tota
l96
11
00
01
Fem
ales
15–2
488
52
01
14
25–4
493
31
00
02
45+
943
10
00
3To
tal
933
10
00
3*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
n 1.
106 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e D
2D
IETA
RY C
HA
NG
ES A
TTEM
PTED
CU
RREN
TLY
Curr
ently
tryi
ng to
Food
s cu
rren
tly tr
ying
to c
hang
e (%
) 1
chan
ge a
mou
nt/ty
peBr
eads
and
of fo
od e
aten
(%)
Frui
tsVe
geta
bles
cer
eals
High
fat f
oods
2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
3414
1111
22M
ales
15–1
825
610
613
19–2
444
2523
1419
25–4
431
1611
719
45–6
425
76
516
65–7
417
31
211
75+
82
22
5To
tal
2812
107
16Fe
mal
es15
–18
3918
919
2219
–24
5831
2614
4425
–44
4320
1517
2945
–64
3913
1014
2865
–74
185
38
1375
+6
21
23
Tota
l39
1712
1427
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I28
119
515
II25
119
515
III29
127
715
IV30
1413
1019
Fem
ales
I37
188
1527
II41
1813
1429
III38
1413
1426
IV39
1617
1424
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
3014
117
17Pr
ovin
cial
247
65
14Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an38
1813
1426
Prov
inci
al39
1412
1528
1As
mul
tiple
ans
wer
s w
ere
poss
ible
, per
cent
age
tota
ls m
ay e
xcee
d 10
0.Ba
rrie
rs to
cha
nge
ques
tions
4 a
nd 5
.2
Incl
udes
but
ter,
mar
garin
e, a
nd o
ils.
107Eating Patterns
Tabl
e D
2 co
nt.
DIE
TARY
CH
AN
GES
ATT
EMPT
ED C
URR
ENTL
YCu
rren
tly tr
ying
toFo
ods
curr
ently
tryi
ng to
cha
nge
(%) 1
chan
ge a
mou
nt/ty
peBr
eads
and
of fo
od e
aten
(%)
Frui
tsVe
geta
bles
cer
eals
High
fat f
oods
2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
438
1919
1520
25–4
437
1413
1025
45+
3712
115
24To
tal
3715
1510
23Fe
mal
es15
–24
4817
2013
2625
–44
4417
1814
2845
+28
914
1424
Tota
l41
1518
1427
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
452
*23
*27
*27
*42
*25
–44
4232
338
2845
+44
*14
*7*
12*
32*
Tota
l45
2525
1433
Fem
ales
15–2
452
*34
*37
*24
*45
*25
–44
3919
1416
2745
+43
*17
*16
*8*
30*
Tota
l44
2321
1633
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
435
1717
914
25–4
429
159
717
45+
205
44
12To
tal
2611
86
14Fe
mal
es15
–24
5127
1716
3625
–44
4321
1518
2945
+29
96
1020
Tota
l38
1711
1426
Barr
iers
to c
hang
e qu
estio
ns 4
and
5.
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
As m
ultip
le a
nsw
ers
wer
e po
ssib
le, p
erce
ntag
e to
tals
may
exc
eed
100.
2In
clud
es b
utte
r, m
arga
rine,
and
oils
.
108 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e D
3D
IREC
TIO
N O
F CU
RREN
T D
IETA
RY C
HA
NG
ESCu
rren
tly a
ttem
ptin
g ch
ange
1
Mal
esFe
mal
esD
irec
tion
of c
urre
ntN
Z Po
p’n
Food
cat
egor
yat
tem
pted
cha
nge 2
(Age
15+
)15
–24
25–4
445
+To
tal
15–2
425
–44
45+
Tota
lFr
uits
% tr
ying
to e
at m
ore
9697
9887
9698
9796
97%
tryi
ng to
eat
less
31
211
32
32
2Ve
geta
bles
% tr
ying
to e
at m
ore
9296
*96
69*
9110
094
8593
% tr
ying
to e
at le
ss6
4*1
27*
70
511
5B
read
s an
d ce
real
s%
tryi
ng to
eat
mor
e60
83*
6163
*69
7256
4356
% tr
ying
to e
at le
ss36
14*
3333
*27
2439
5541
Hig
h fa
t foo
ds 3
Chan
ge in
am
ount
% tr
ying
to e
at m
ore
13
10
10
20
1%
tryi
ng to
eat
less
9492
9594
9495
9495
94%
not
cha
ngin
g am
ount
eat
en5
54
65
55
55
Chan
ge in
type
of f
at%
not
tryi
ng to
cha
nge
type
6986
7265
7270
6566
67%
tryi
ng to
cha
nge
type
3114
2835
2830
3534
33*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
Barr
iers
to c
hang
e qu
estio
ns 6
–9.
1Fi
gure
s ar
e a
perc
enta
ge o
f tho
se c
urre
ntly
atte
mpt
ing
to m
ake
a di
etar
y ch
ange
, in
the
corr
espo
ndin
g fo
od c
ateg
ory.
2‘D
on’t
know
’ res
pons
es a
re n
ot p
rese
nted
.3
Incl
udes
but
ter,
mar
garin
e an
d oi
ls.
109Eating Patterns
110 NZ Food: NZ People
1As
mul
tiple
ans
wer
s w
ere
poss
ible
, per
cent
age
tota
ls m
ay e
xcee
d 10
0.Ba
rrie
rs to
cha
nge
ques
tions
9 a
nd 1
0.2
Incl
udes
but
ter,
mar
garin
e, a
nd o
ils.
Tabl
e D
4IN
TEN
DED
DIE
TARY
CH
AN
GES
Inte
ndin
g to
cha
nge
Food
s in
tend
ing
to c
hang
e in
the
futu
re (%
) 1
amou
nt/ty
pe o
f foo
dBr
eads
and
eat
en (%
)Fr
uits
Vege
tabl
es c
erea
lsHi
gh fa
t foo
ds 2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
2211
87
9M
ales
15–1
826
178
109
19–2
436
2022
1216
25–4
425
138
59
45–6
411
53
34
65–7
48
22
44
75+
22
10
0To
tal
2011
76
8Fe
mal
es15
–18
3822
189
1519
–24
4014
1219
1725
–44
3015
119
1245
–64
187
66
965
–74
83
22
475
+5
41
02
Tota
l25
128
811
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I15
75
45
II21
116
57
III28
1612
812
IV17
98
67
Fem
ales
I20
97
411
II24
108
99
III26
138
810
IV29
1511
1113
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
2010
75
7Pr
ovin
cial
2011
76
8Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an24
118
811
Prov
inci
al25
139
79
111Eating Patterns
Tabl
e D
4 co
nt.
INTE
ND
ED D
IETA
RY C
HA
NG
ESIn
tend
ing
to c
hang
eFo
ods
inte
ndin
g to
cha
nge
in th
e fu
ture
(%) 1
amou
nt/ty
pe o
f foo
dBr
eads
and
eat
en (%
)Fr
uits
Vege
tabl
es c
erea
lsHi
gh fa
t foo
ds 2
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
440
2410
518
25–4
427
1515
1411
45+
155
410
1To
tal
2815
1110
11Fe
mal
es15
–24
5230
2119
2625
–44
3622
1315
1945
+23
133
511
Tota
l38
2213
1419
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
445
*26
*21
*15
*11
*25
–44
3515
1614
1345
+9*
1*6*
0*2*
Tota
l32
1515
1110
Fem
ales
15–2
448
*22
*20
*29
*22
*25
–44
3718
208
1445
+33
*10
*19
*11
*3*
Tota
l39
1720
1413
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
429
1717
1212
25–4
424
137
49
45+
94
23
4To
tal
1810
75
7Fe
mal
es15
–24
3514
1313
1325
–44
2814
108
1145
+12
54
46
Tota
l22
107
79
Barr
iers
to c
hang
e qu
estio
ns 9
and
10.
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
As m
ultip
le a
nsw
ers
wer
e po
ssib
le, p
erce
ntag
e to
tals
may
exc
eed
100.
2In
clud
es b
utte
r, m
arga
rine,
and
oils
.
112 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e D
5D
IREC
TIO
N O
F IN
TEN
DED
DIE
TARY
CH
AN
GES
Futu
re in
tend
ed c
hang
e1
Mal
esFe
mal
esN
Z Po
p’n
Food
cat
egor
yD
irec
tion 2
(Age
15+
)15
–24
25–4
445
+To
tal
15–2
425
–44
45+
Tota
lFr
uits
% in
tend
ing
to e
at m
ore
9699
*98
98*
9894
9692
95%
inte
ndin
g to
eat
less
31*
10*
16
47
5Ve
geta
bles
% in
tend
ing
to e
at m
ore
9599
*95
93*
9793
9491
*93
% in
tend
ing
to e
at le
ss3
1*3
7*3
52
4*4
Bre
ads
and
cere
als
% in
tend
ing
to e
at m
ore
6080
*65
*#
6575
*54
32*
57%
inte
ndin
g to
eat
less
3418
*28
*#
2917
*39
63*
37H
igh
fat f
oods
3
Chan
ge in
am
ount
% in
tend
ing
to e
at m
ore
12*
30*
20
02
0%
inte
ndin
g to
eat
less
8995
*88
96*
9298
8384
87%
not
cha
ngin
g am
ount
eat
en10
3*9
4*6
217
1412
Chan
ge in
type
of f
at%
not
inte
ndin
g to
cha
nge
type
8193
*80
84*
8579
7976
78%
inte
ndin
g to
cha
nge
type
197*
2016
*15
2121
2422
#n
< 25
, sam
ple
size
too
smal
l to
prov
ide
a re
liabl
e es
timat
e.Ba
rrie
rs to
cha
nge
ques
tions
10–
13.
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Figu
res
are
a pe
rcen
tage
of t
hose
inte
ndin
g to
mak
e a
diet
ary
chan
ge in
the
futu
re, i
n th
e co
rres
pond
ing
food
cat
egor
y.2
‘Don
’t kn
ow’ r
espo
nses
are
not
pre
sent
ed.
3In
clud
es b
utte
r, m
arga
rine
and
oils
.
113Eating Patterns
Tabl
e D
6.1
DIF
FICU
LTIE
S IN
VOLV
ED IN
EAT
ING
MO
RE F
RUIT
SPe
rcen
t citi
ng re
ason
1
Mal
esFe
mal
esN
Z Po
p’n
Diff
icul
ties
(Age
15+
)15
–24*
25–4
445
+*To
tal
15–2
425
–44
45+
Tota
lCo
st24
2717
618
2533
2328
Don’
t alw
ays
have
at h
ome
2223
266
2233
237
22Po
or q
ualit
y15
1125
818
915
1212
Can’
t sto
re fo
r lon
g14
324
1416
1016
712
Not
eno
ugh
time
1014
617
119
1010
10Ha
ssle
to e
at m
ore
912
1122
131
98
7N
eed
will
pow
er9
1211
510
710
99
Don’
t lik
e7
55
55
186
49
Stom
ach
upse
ts7
13
83
127
1410
Pest
icid
es/c
hem
ical
s4
05
13
17
75
Hard
to c
hew
32
14
20
46
3Al
lerg
y/ba
d re
actio
n2
02
01
13
22
Too
muc
h su
gar
10
20
10
00
0N
ot g
ood
for m
e0
00
00
00
00
Non
-sho
wca
rd o
ptio
n 225
2728
2828
1426
2623
* Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Ba
rrie
rs to
cha
nge
ques
tion
15.
1Pe
rcen
tage
of t
hose
who
wer
e cu
rren
tly tr
ying
to e
at m
ore
fruit.
As
mul
tiple
ans
wer
s w
ere
poss
ible
, per
cent
age
tota
ls m
ay e
xcee
d 10
0.2
Reas
ons
volu
ntee
red
by th
e re
spon
dent
, whi
ch w
ere
not i
nclu
ded
on th
e sh
owca
rd.
114 NZ Food: NZ People
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Ba
rrie
rs to
cha
nge
ques
tion
16.
1Pe
rcen
tage
of t
hose
who
wer
e cu
rren
tly tr
ying
to e
at m
ore
vege
tabl
es. A
s m
ultip
le a
nsw
ers
wer
e po
ssib
le, p
erce
ntag
e to
tals
may
exc
eed
100.
2Re
ason
s vo
lunt
eere
d by
the
resp
onde
nt, w
hich
wer
e no
t inc
lude
d on
the
show
card
.
Tabl
e D
6.2
DIF
FICU
LTIE
S IN
VOLV
ED IN
EAT
ING
MO
RE V
EGET
AB
LES
Perc
ent c
iting
reas
on1
Mal
esFe
mal
esN
Z Po
p’n
Diff
icul
ties
(Age
15+
)15
–24*
25–4
445
+*To
tal
15–2
4*25
–44
45+
Tota
lDo
n’t a
lway
s ha
ve a
t hom
e16
1227
518
2215
916
Cost
1514
80
915
176
14Ta
kes
too
long
to p
repa
re15
2422
019
2216
916
Not
eno
ugh
time
1523
111
1437
89
16Do
n’t l
ike
1216
120
1212
142
11Ca
n’t s
tore
for l
ong
1019
102
1213
94
9N
eed
will
pow
er8
109
79
18
76
Hard
to p
repa
re5
23
73
152
97
Hass
le to
eat
mor
e4
010
86
06
34
Poor
qua
lity
40
50
25
61
5Pe
stic
ides
/che
mic
als
31
22
20
54
4St
omac
h up
sets
10
02
00
32
2Ha
rd to
che
w1
01
00
00
21
Alle
rgy/
bad
reac
tion
00
00
00
00
0N
owhe
re to
coo
k0
00
00
11
01
Not
goo
d fo
r me
00
00
00
00
0N
on-s
how
card
opt
ion 2
268
339
2020
3636
32
115Eating Patterns
Tabl
e D
6.3
DIF
FICU
LTIE
S IN
VOLV
ED IN
EAT
ING
MO
RE B
REA
DS
AN
D C
EREA
LS P
erce
nt c
iting
reas
on1
Mal
esFe
mal
esN
Z Po
p’n
Diff
icul
ties
(Age
15+
)15
–24*
25–4
4*45
+*To
tal
15–2
4*25
–44
45+*
Tota
lDo
n’t l
ike
83
317
67
1110
9N
eed
will
pow
er7
98
17
67
97
Too
man
y ca
lorie
s6
30
01
513
49
Cost
56
40
42
68
5Ha
ssle
to e
at m
ore
52
13
28
93
7To
o fil
ling
53
09
311
37
6Fa
tteni
ng4
013
05
08
14
Stom
ach
upse
ts3
30
42
06
34
Too
heav
y2
50
02
42
02
Not
goo
d fo
r me
20
43
20
33
2To
o st
arch
y1
04
02
12
01
Caus
e w
ind
00
00
00
11
1N
on-s
how
card
opt
ion 2
4551
5836
5046
4141
42
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Ba
rrie
rs to
cha
nge
ques
tion
17.
1Pe
rcen
tage
of t
hose
who
wer
e cu
rren
tly tr
ying
to e
at m
ore
brea
ds a
nd c
erea
ls. A
s m
ultip
le a
nsw
ers
wer
e po
ssib
le, p
erce
ntag
e to
tals
may
exc
eed
100.
2Re
ason
s vo
lunt
eere
d by
the
resp
onde
nt, w
hich
wer
e no
t inc
lude
d on
the
show
card
.
116 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e D
6.4
DIF
FICU
LTIE
S IN
VOLV
ED IN
EAT
ING
LES
S H
IGH
FAT
FO
OD
SPe
rcen
t citi
ng re
ason
1
Mal
esFe
mal
esN
Z Po
p’n
Diff
icul
ties
(Age
15+
)15
–24
25–4
445
+To
tal
15–2
425
–44
45+
Tota
lHa
ppy
with
fat i
ntak
e47
3045
6249
2539
6146
Tast
e go
od32
4636
2333
4337
2031
Not
as
enjo
yabl
e16
1318
1616
1519
1516
Conv
enie
nt14
2221
615
2516
513
Nee
d w
illpo
wer
115
108
812
1611
14Pr
epar
atio
n w
ith le
ss fa
t too
har
d8
118
47
1510
59
Othe
rs w
ould
hav
e to
eat
less
66
42
415
115
9Ha
rd w
hen
eatin
g ou
t5
84
14
126
26
Com
fort
eatin
g5
35
34
77
46
Chea
p3
74
13
74
13
Few
low
fat a
ltern
ativ
es3
43
12
33
13
Too
muc
h ha
ssle
33
32
35
22
3To
o lo
ng to
pre
pare
with
low
fat
21
21
22
21
2Bo
dy n
eeds
fat
23
21
22
32
2N
on-s
how
card
opt
ion 2
41
54
45
36
51
Perc
enta
ge o
f all
resp
onde
nts
who
com
plet
ed th
is s
ectio
n, in
clud
ing
thos
e w
ho w
ere
curr
ently
not
atte
mpt
ing
aBa
rrie
rs to
cha
nge
ques
tion
18.
chan
ge in
this
cat
egor
y. A
s m
ultip
le a
nsw
ers
wer
e po
ssib
le, p
erce
ntag
e to
tals
may
exc
eed
100.
2Re
ason
s vo
lunt
eere
d by
the
resp
onde
nt, w
hich
wer
e no
t inc
lude
d on
the
show
card
.
117Eating Patterns
118 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e D7
.1FO
OD P
REPA
RATI
ON I
Mea
t or c
hick
enVe
geta
bles
Cook
inTy
pe o
f fat
/oil
(%) 1
Cook
inTy
pe o
f fat
/oil
(%) 1
fat/o
il (%
)Ol
ive/
cano
laBu
tter
Lard
Mar
garin
eOt
her o
ils 2
fat/o
il (%
)Ol
ive/
cano
laLa
rdBu
tter
Mar
garin
eOt
her o
ils 2
Don’
t kno
wN
Z Po
p’n
(Age
15+
)74
3518
169
4969
3220
145
448
Mal
es15
–18
8734
2315
638
7630
249
528
2119
–24
8531
208
841
6723
1315
434
2825
–44
8032
2016
853
7529
1915
548
945
–64
7330
1422
851
6727
2512
543
665
–74
7429
1030
938
5927
309
240
475
+73
2211
188
5262
2324
1312
358
Tota
l78
3117
188
4870
2822
135
4211
Fem
ales
15–1
871
4027
2210
4657
2524
273
5013
19–2
477
4215
914
4673
4210
136
419
25–4
472
3822
139
5670
3418
176
485
45–6
464
4312
157
4670
4316
114
432
65–7
470
3313
1817
4760
3522
114
472
75+
7625
2125
1237
6325
2419
638
1To
tal
7038
1815
1050
6836
1815
546
4N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
8035
1615
554
6831
2115
341
11II
7535
1415
1043
7132
199
741
12III
7930
1819
848
7225
2514
344
10IV
8024
2222
947
7022
2116
644
11Fe
mal
esI
6553
1510
1044
6748
1213
540
5II
7142
1616
845
6935
2012
442
4III
7131
2217
1053
7032
1918
451
5IV
7525
2118
1356
6527
2119
750
4Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an79
3318
168
4970
3019
146
4211
Prov
inci
al76
2817
227
4770
2228
113
4311
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
7040
1714
950
6638
1515
547
5Pr
ovin
cial
7233
2019
1249
7233
2417
543
31
Perc
enta
ge o
f tho
se w
ho fr
y or
roas
t in
fat o
r oil.
As
mul
tiple
ans
wer
s w
ere
poss
ible
, per
cent
age
tota
ls m
ay e
xcee
d 10
0.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ions
8 a
nd 9
.2
Incl
udes
sun
flow
er, c
orn
oil,
saffl
ower
oil
etc.
119Eating Patterns
Tabl
e D7
.1 c
ont.
FOOD
PRE
PARA
TION
IM
eat o
r chi
cken
Vege
tabl
esCo
ok in
Type
of f
at/o
il (%
)1Co
ok in
Type
of f
at/o
il (%
) 1
fat/o
il (%
)Ol
ive/
cano
laBu
tter
Lard
Mar
garin
eOt
her o
ils2
fat/o
il (%
)Ol
ive/
cano
laLa
rdBu
tter
Mar
garin
eOt
her o
ils 2
Don’
t kno
wN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
7912
2823
152
7312
2727
429
1925
–44
9013
2332
460
8110
3116
360
845
+83
1416
308
6479
1525
1012
633
Tota
l85
1323
294
5978
1229
176
5210
Fem
ales
15–2
486
1543
2416
5162
1724
3813
497
25–4
472
2232
2115
6365
2725
257
526
45+
7215
2424
1361
7339
3314
851
2To
tal
7618
3422
1558
6628
2726
951
5Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
88*
18*
35*
5*10
*30
*57
*20
*17
*8*
2*36
*38
*25
–44
8618
3916
1459
7020
1144
846
1145
+80
*38
*30
*16
*14
*68
*57
*35
*10
*22
*10
*65
*4*
Tota
l85
2236
1313
5263
2312
317
4816
Fem
ales
15–2
483
*20
*24
*5*
19*
70*
50*
11*
4*31
*5*
65*
10*
25–4
480
2123
1518
6768
259
2416
598
45+
66*
19*
26*
3*24
*75
*44
*10
*16
*29
*20
*70
*0*
Tota
l78
2024
919
6957
199
2614
627
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
487
3819
98
3871
3015
95
3226
25–4
478
3718
138
5174
3318
145
469
45+
7330
1223
846
6428
2711
540
6To
tal
7734
1616
847
6930
2112
541
11Fe
mal
es15
–24
7151
1312
1143
6842
1413
342
1125
–44
7142
2012
754
7135
1815
547
445
+67
4013
189
4367
3918
123
422
Tota
l69
4215
149
4769
3817
134
444
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
ns 8
and
9.
* Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 <
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Perc
enta
ge o
f tho
se w
ho fr
y or
roas
t in
fat o
r oil.
As
mul
tiple
ans
wer
s w
ere
poss
ible
, per
cent
age
tota
ls m
ay e
xcee
d 10
0.2
Incl
udes
sun
flow
er, c
orn
oil,
saffl
ower
oil
etc.
120 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e D
7.2
FOO
D P
REPA
RATI
ON
IIPo
rk, b
eef,
mut
ton,
hog
get,
or la
mb
Chic
ken
Thos
e w
hoTr
im e
xces
s fa
t (%
) 1Th
ose
who
Rem
ove
skin
(%) 1
cons
ume
(%)
Alw
ays
Ofte
nOc
casi
onal
lyN
ever
cons
ume
(%)
Alw
ays
Ofte
nOc
casi
onal
lyN
ever
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
9639
2826
897
2121
2632
Mal
es15
–18
100
2924
3116
999
1821
5219
–24
9330
2233
1595
1419
2939
25–4
499
2629
3411
9812
1725
4745
–64
9935
3124
1098
2018
2637
65–7
496
4725
199
9632
2021
2775
+98
5125
1312
9143
1821
17To
tal
9832
2829
1297
1718
2540
Fem
ales
15–1
887
4728
214
9618
2533
2419
–24
9544
2921
695
2222
3126
25–4
495
3829
266
9720
2528
2745
–64
9647
2622
598
2724
2822
65–7
498
5530
132
9736
3220
1375
+97
5816
179
9442
2023
15To
tal
9545
2723
597
2425
2823
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I99
3430
2610
9917
2131
31II
9634
2828
1195
1819
2341
III99
3225
3211
9920
1522
43IV
9730
2730
1497
1315
2249
Fem
ales
I94
4929
193
9529
2627
18II
9648
2621
597
2628
2817
III95
4230
235
9723
2427
27IV
9739
2428
998
1920
2733
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
9733
2629
1198
1918
2538
Prov
inci
al99
3030
2712
9613
1724
46Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an95
4528
225
9727
2527
21Pr
ovin
cial
9543
2724
696
1924
2829
1Pe
rcen
tage
of t
hose
who
con
sum
e.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ions
14
and
15.
121Eating Patterns
Tabl
e D
7.2
cont
.FO
OD
PRE
PARA
TIO
N II
Pork
, bee
f, m
utto
n, h
ogge
t, or
lam
bCh
icke
nTh
ose
who
Trim
exc
ess
fat (
%) 1
Thos
e w
hoRe
mov
e sk
in (%
) 1
cons
ume
(%)
Alw
ays
Ofte
nOc
casi
onal
lyN
ever
cons
ume
(%)
Alw
ays
Ofte
nOc
casi
onal
lyN
ever
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
492
2626
3217
100
814
3939
25–4
410
023
1838
2110
07
1021
6245
+98
2127
2429
995
1535
46To
tal
9723
2332
2210
07
1330
51Fe
mal
es15
–24
9613
3941
810
08
1336
4225
–44
9619
2935
1698
920
3041
45+
9629
2542
399
1618
3531
Tota
l96
2031
3911
9910
1833
39Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
99*
31*
19*
35*
16*
100*
22*
19*
15*
44*
25–4
410
023
2630
2110
04
3111
5445
+10
0*34
*28
*33
*5*
100*
19*
5*25
*51
*To
tal
100
2824
3216
100
1222
1551
Fem
ales
15–2
496
*29
*42
*25
*4*
100*
27*
30*
19*
23*
25–4
497
4321
332
9922
1725
3545
+10
0*29
*23
*33
*15
*10
0*10
*19
*36
*35
*To
tal
9836
2831
699
2122
2632
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
496
3022
3215
9612
1923
4525
–44
9827
3033
998
1317
2744
45+
9841
2922
897
2719
2331
Tota
l98
3428
2810
9719
1825
39Fe
mal
es15
–24
9155
2515
594
2325
3221
25–4
495
4130
245
9721
2628
2445
+96
5325
185
9733
2624
18To
tal
9548
2720
596
2726
2721
* Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ions
14
and
15.
1Pe
rcen
tage
of t
hose
who
con
sum
e.
122 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e D
8H
OU
SEH
OLD
FO
OD
SEC
URI
TY O
VER
THE
LAST
YEA
RTh
e ho
useh
old:
1B
ecau
se o
f lac
k of
mon
ey, t
he h
ouse
hold
: 1Th
e ho
useh
old:
1
Stre
ssed
abo
utSt
ress
ed w
hen
noCa
n af
ford
to e
atVa
riety
of f
oods
Use
food
lack
of m
oney
food
for s
ocia
lpr
oper
lyFo
od ru
ns o
utEa
t les
s li
mite
dRe
ly o
n ot
hers
gra
nts/
bank
s fo
r foo
d o
ccas
ions
Som
e-So
me-
Som
e-So
me-
Som
e-So
me-
Som
e-So
me-
Alw
ays
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
times
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
8613
212
112
522
16
04
210
211
Mal
es15
–18
8510
211
012
330
05
05
07
17
19–2
482
170
211
224
361
100
41
121
925
–44
8117
212
112
425
17
02
213
213
45–6
493
71
70
74
120
30
22
41
565
–74
991
02
03
16
00
00
01
01
75+
980
00
10
04
00
10
00
20
Tota
l87
121
101
114
211
50
21
81
8Fe
mal
es15
–18
8110
123
110
323
110
24
35
111
19–2
468
316
222
239
347
131
115
152
2125
–44
8019
318
216
930
29
17
519
316
45–6
492
81
71
93
150
30
22
92
1065
–74
982
02
14
116
01
00
13
18
75+
972
03
03
09
01
00
00
03
Tota
l85
142
142
126
232
71
53
122
13N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
926
08
06
113
02
00
14
27
II90
91
60
93
180
40
10
70
5III
8711
111
111
422
15
02
19
110
IV78
213
162
166
312
120
63
142
13Fe
mal
esI
945
07
17
315
14
01
15
17
II88
101
81
105
202
40
22
101
9III
8216
316
114
626
17
16
314
216
IV72
276
254
209
354
131
127
224
22Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an86
121
111
124
221
60
31
102
9Pr
ovin
cial
8910
17
18
316
13
02
26
17
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
8414
314
213
622
28
05
412
213
Prov
inci
al85
142
131
114
261
51
42
142
141
Perc
enta
ge o
f the
pop
ulat
ion
resp
onse
for e
ach
ques
tion.
Opt
ions
‘Nev
er’ a
nd ‘D
on’t
know
’ are
not
repo
rted.
Food
Sec
urity
Que
stio
nnai
re.
123Eating Patterns
Tabl
e D
8 co
nt.
HO
USE
HO
LD F
OO
D S
ECU
RITY
OVE
R TH
E LA
ST Y
EAR
The
hous
ehol
d: 1
Bec
ause
of l
ack
of m
oney
, the
hou
seho
ld: 1
The
hous
ehol
d: 1
Stre
ssed
abo
utSt
ress
ed w
hen
noCa
n af
ford
to e
atVa
riety
of f
oods
Use
food
lack
of m
oney
food
for s
ocia
lpr
oper
lyFo
od ru
ns o
utEa
t les
s li
mite
dRe
ly o
n ot
hers
gra
nts/
bank
sfo
r foo
d o
ccas
ions
Som
e-So
me-
Som
e-So
me-
Som
e-So
me-
Som
e-So
me-
Alw
ays
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
tim
esOf
ten
times
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
476
213
212
273
650
120
90
104
1025
–44
6830
922
326
540
422
18
523
227
45+
8117
219
29
1114
113
16
310
37
Tota
l74
245
213
236
422
170
83
163
17Fe
mal
es15
–24
6235
731
326
748
1122
419
618
326
25–4
462
379
327
2614
364
170
1813
286
2645
+77
234
224
188
272
101
87
177
18To
tal
6633
729
524
1037
517
216
922
524
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
467
*33
*4*
47*
0*21
*8*
23*
5*28
*0*
14*
0*15
*5*
24*
25–4
453
431
471
4612
502
262
115
396
3245
+64
*36
*10
*44
*0*
33*
16*
32*
3*25
*2*
14*
18*
16*
4*25
*To
tal
5939
446
136
1238
326
112
627
529
Fem
ales
15–2
453
*41
*15
*25
*2*
34*
4*42
*0*
27*
4*9*
0*21
*4*
15*
25–4
462
359
456
3215
354
251
179
267
2445
+62
*38
*9*
43*
0*48
*13
*31
*0*
34*
2*13
*7*
30*
5*27
*To
tal
6037
1039
437
1236
228
214
626
622
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
486
110
140
153
271
60
21
90
725
–44
8514
18
18
421
04
01
110
210
45+
973
03
04
29
01
01
12
12
Tota
l90
90
71
83
170
30
11
71
6Fe
mal
es15
–24
7817
220
114
723
38
05
49
115
25–4
484
152
131
138
281
61
53
172
1445
+96
40
31
52
130
10
11
51
7To
tal
8910
110
110
521
14
03
210
111
* Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Fo
od S
ecur
ity Q
uest
ionn
aire
.1
Perc
enta
ge o
f the
pop
ulat
ion
resp
onse
for e
ach
ques
tion.
Opt
ions
‘Nev
er’ a
nd ‘D
on’t
know
’ are
not
repo
rted.
124 NZ Food: NZ People
125Frequently Eaten Foods
Section EFrequently Eaten FoodsIntroductionThese data are derived from the food frequency questionnaire which also included questions onsome key food habits. For each food or beverage item respondents were asked to describe theirusual frequency of consumption by choosing one of eight frequency of consumption options forexample, never, less than once a month, etc. If the choice of foods was expected to vary withseason (e.g. fruits, vegetables, porridge, soups, etc) respondents were requested to indicate thefrequency of consumption according to how often the foods were consumed ‘in season’.
Choice of foods and beverages varies widely with individuals, over time and according to sex.The choice is set against the background of the rich variety which is available for consumption inNew Zealand; both what is grown and produced here, and imported.
This section compared the distribution of demographic groups (e.g. age, sex, ethnicity) acrossfrequency of consumption categories. These data have been summarised and presented as theproportion consuming most food and beverage items in the questionnaire, at least once per week.
Key PointsDairy foods• Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products than males.
• Teenagers (15–18 years) were the most frequent consumers of ice cream, at least once per week.
Bread and cereal foods• Only about one in five of the New Zealand population reached the New Zealand Nutrition
Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day.
• Males 15–24 years were the most frequent consumers of bread and the number of servings ofbread per day consumed by females was not related to age group.
Meat and fish• New Zealanders most frequently (at least once per week) chose beef or veal followed by beef
mince dishes and chicken.
Vegetables• About two-thirds of the New Zealand population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce
(1991) guideline of at least three servings of vegetables per day.
• Only two out of five males aged 15–18 years met the recommended number of daily vegetableservings.
Fruits• Almost half of the New Zealand population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991)
guideline of at least two servings of fruit per day.
• Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day.
126 NZ Food: NZ People
Beverages• Tea and coffee were equally consumed by about three out of five New Zealanders at least three
times per week.
• Over half of males drank beer at least once a week, while almost one-quarter of females drankwhite wine at least once a week.
Miscellaneous foods• Two-thirds of the New Zealand population consumed sweet spreads and over half Vegemite or
Marmite at least once per week.
• In winter, half of the New Zealand population had homemade soup at least once per week.
127Frequently Eaten Foods
E1Dairy Foods Table E1
Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products (e.g. trim milk, yoghurt, cottage or ricottacheeses) than males, who showed a greater preference for some of the higher fat options, e.g.standard milk, ice cream. Standard milk was a more popular choice among younger males and females.Compared with older males and females, more younger people consumed flavoured milk and milkas a beverage while hot beverage made with milk (e.g. Milo, hot chocolate drinks) were more popularamong males 15–18 years. Young people (15–18 years) were the most frequent consumers of icecream (males 57 percent, females 48 percent) and custard/dairy food (males 25 percent, females39 percent). With increasing age fewer males consumed yoghurt (Figure A). However, milk puddingswere most popular in the 75+ years group (males 22 percent, females 20 percent).
The most popular cheeses were colby/mild/tasty (65 percent overall). All cheeses, with the exceptionof cottage or ricotta and cream cheese were more likely to be eaten by males and females living inNZDep96 quartile I areas. Standard milk was more likely to be consumed by males and femalesliving in NZDep96 quartile IV areas compared with males and females living in quartile I areas.The reverse is true for trim milk. Yoghurt and ice cream were more likely to be eaten by males livingin NZDep96 quartile I areas. In contrast the consumption of hot beverage made with milk was greaterin individuals living in NZDep96 quartiles III and IV areas.
Among NZ Måori and Pacific people, compared with NZ European & Others, standard milk wasmore popular (Figure B) and the reverse was true for trim milk. Pacific people were also lessfrequent consumers of colby/mild/tasty and edam/gouda cheeses and more frequent consumers ofhot beverage made with milk, than other ethnic groups.
Compared with metropolitan males, provincial males were less frequent consumers of yoghurt,mozzarella/feta/camembert cheese and all drinks of milk. Ice cream and colby/mild/tasty cheeses wereeaten more often by people in provincial communities.
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Yoghurt consumed (≥1/week) Usually chose standard milk
Ethnic group
Popu
latio
n
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
malefemale
malefemale
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European& Others
128 NZ Food: NZ People
E2Bread and Cereal Foods Tables E2.1, E2.2
Only 18 percent of the population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelineof at least six servings of breads and cereals per day with the percentage declining with increasingage, particularly for males (Figure A). Males were more likely to meet the guideline (28 percent)than females (9 percent).
The amount of bread consumed was higher among males than females. Males were also morelikely to consume a larger number of servings of cereals with 18 percent of males consuming ≥10servings of cereals per week compared with 13 percent of females.
Males 15–18 years (47 percent) were most likely to consume at least five servings of bread per day,with more older males having 3-4 servings per day compared to younger males. In females, thenumber of servings of bread per day was not related to age, although the 65+ years group morefrequently had 3–4 servings per day. A higher proportion of younger males and females consumed10 or more servings of cereal foods per week.
While a higher proportion of people living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas consumed five or moreservings of bread per day, the proportion consuming 10 or more servings of cereals per week wasless.
Pacific people and NZ Måori females were more frequent consumers of five or more servings ofbread per day than NZ European & Others. Both NZ Måori and Pacific people were more likely toconsume less than four servings of cereal foods per week than NZ European & Others. Amongfemales, more NZ Måori and Pacific people (20 percent, 14 percent respectively) met the breadsand cereals guideline than NZ European & Others (7 percent).
Fifty percent of New Zealanders spread butter and 47 percent polyunsaturated margarines (e.g. MiracleSunflower) on their bread/crackers. Overall, the percentage using butter or margarine on bread/crackers was lower among younger people. More common spreads used by NZ Måori and Pacificpeople were butter and butter & margarine blend compared to NZ European & Others. Provincialmales were more likely to have used butter than metropolitan males (56 percent, 51 percentrespectively) and less likely to have used polyunsaturated margarines (43 percent, 50 percent) asspreads.
Figure A Figure B
Cooked porridge consumed (≥1/week)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
Age group (years)
Met breads and cereals guideline (6+ servings/day)
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24
malefemale
malefemale
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
129Frequently Eaten Foods
A higher proportion of young people consumed pasta, specialty breads, waffles/donuts, fruit/iced buns,rice and Måori bread than older people while savoury biscuits/crackers and cooked porridge were morepopular among older New Zealanders (Figure B).
About 8 percent of NZ Måori (males 10 percent, females 7 percent) and 5 percent of Pacific people(males 6 percent, females 4 percent) consumed Måori bread compared with virtually no NZ European& Others. NZ Måori were less likely to consume savoury biscuits/crackers, pasta (females only) andrice, but more likely to have had rewena bread, Måori bread, frybread and cooked porridge than NZEuropean & Others. A higher proportion of Pacific people consumed rice than the other two ethnicgroups.
In metropolitan areas, rice, pasta and specialty breads were consumed more frequently than inprovincial areas, although cooked porridge consumption was more frequent in provincialcommunities.
Females from NZDep96 quartile I areas were higher consumers of rice, pasta, savoury biscuits/crackersand specialty breads than females living in quartile IV areas.
130 NZ Food: NZ People
E3Meat and Fish Tables E3.1, E3.2
The most common types of meat consumed at least once a week by New Zealanders were beef orveal (males 57 percent, females 51 percent), beef mince dishes (47 percent, 43 percent), chicken (40percent, 44 percent), beef or veal mixed dishes (38 percent, 39 percent), and bacon/ham (41 percent, 33percent). In addition, 36 percent males and 26 percent females chose sausages (including frankfurtersand saveloys) and 34 percent females and 29 percent males consumed chicken mixed dishes. Fish-battered was chosen nearly twice as often among males (20 percent) than females (11 percent).
More younger people ate beef mince dishes, luncheon meats, chicken and chicken mixed dishes (Figure A).A higher percentage of older females had fish (other than battered or fried) and other offal e.g.kidneys, while males and females over 75 years were less likely to have sausages.
Males and females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to eat hogget/mutton(29 percent, 21 percent respectively) compared to those from quartile I areas (18 percent, 13 percent).The same applied for females for fish-battered (16 percent, 8 percent) and hogget/mutton mixed dishes(17 percent, 6 percent).
Items more likely to be eaten by both NZ Måori and Pacific people than by NZ European & Othersincluded: lamb, hogget/mutton, fish-battered, hogget/mutton mixed dishes, pork - roast/ chops/steak, cornedbeef, lamb mixed dishes, shellfish and pork bones (Figure B). In addition, a higher proportion of Pacificpeople consumed chicken, chicken mixed dishes, fish-canned, fish-steamed/baked/grilled/raw, fish-friedand pork mixed dishes than the other two ethnic groups.
Figure A Figure B
Luncheon meats consumed (≥1/week)
25–44
45–64
65–74 75
+
Age group (years)
Shellfish consumed (≥1/week)
Popu
latio
n
Ethnic group
malefemale
malefemale
0
100
15–18
19–24
NZ
popu
latio
n
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European& Others
131Frequently Eaten Foods
E4Vegetables Tables E4.1, E4.2, E4.3
Potato (males 95 percent, females 93 percent), carrots (81 percent, 86 percent), tomatoes (72 percent,81 percent), lettuce (67 percent, 79 percent), onions/leeks (68 percent, 74 percent) and peas (73 percent,64 percent) were the most common types of vegetables consumed by New Zealanders at leastonce a week.
Sixty-seven percent of the population consumed at least three servings of vegetables a day, andtherefore met the New Zealand Nutrition Task Force (1991) guideline. More females (73 percent)met the guideline than males (62 percent) and the group most likely to meet the guideline wasfemales 65–74 years (87 percent). Males 15–18 years (42 percent) were least likely to meet theguideline (Figure A).
The likelihood of meeting the guideline was related to NZDep96 quartile, particularly amongfemales (quartile I 83 percent, quartile IV 60 percent).
NZ European & Others were most likely (males 65 percent, females 76 percent) and Pacific peopleleast likely (males 27 percent, females 42 percent) to have three or more servings of vegetables perday.
The only vegetables eaten at least once per week more often by males than females were peas(males 73 percent, females 64 percent), hot chips (54 percent, 42 percent) and mixed frozen vegetables(54 percent, 40 percent). Thirteen other vegetables, including tomatoes, cauliflower and asparagus,were eaten more frequently by females.
Males and females 15–24 years more often consumed mixed frozen vegetables, mushrooms and hotchips (Figure B). Older people more often ate potato, carrots, tomatoes, onions/leeks, cauliflower, pumpkin,green beans, silverbeet/spinach, courgettes (males only), kumara, beetroot, celery, brussels sprouts, asparagus,parsnip and turnips/swedes.
Compared to New Zealanders living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas a greater proportion of NewZealanders in quartile I areas ate carrots, sweetcorn (females only), mushrooms, peas (males only),tomatoes, sprouts (females only), broccoli, courgettes, capsicum, lettuce, cauliflower (females only), celery,asparagus, and cucumber.
Figure A Figure B
Met vegetables guideline (3+ servings/day) Hot chips consumed (≥1/week)
Age group (years)
malefemale
malefemale
0
100
15–18
19–24
NZ
popu
latio
n
0
100
15–18
19–24
NZ
popu
latio
n
25–44
45–64
65–74 75
+
Age group (years)
25–44
45–64
65–74 75
+
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
132 NZ Food: NZ People
There was a higher proportion consuming mixed frozen vegetables among females living in NZDep96quartile IV areas, compared with quartile I areas.
NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to have consumed carrots, tomatoes, lettuce,onions/leeks, cauliflower, broccoli and green beans, and more likely to have eaten mixed frozen vegetablesand hot chips (females only). Watercress, kamo kamo, and puha were almost exclusively consumedamong NZ Måori and to a lesser extent among Pacific people. The latter were the most likely toconsume taro, green bananas and taro leaf.
Provincial people showed a higher frequency of consumption of potato, hot chips (females only),pumpkin, kumara, peas, silverbeet/spinach, carrots (females only), cabbage/coleslaw, beetroot, turnips/swedes, parsnip, cauliflower, brussels sprouts and yams. Mushrooms, capsicum and other green leafyvegetables were more often eaten by individuals living in metropolitan areas.
133Frequently Eaten Foods
E5Fruits Table E5
Forty-six percent of the population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelineof at least two servings of fruit per day. Females (56 percent) were more likely to meet the guidelinethan males (34 percent), with the highest proportion in the older groups (Figure A).
Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day (34percent, 19 percent respectively), and less likely to have at least two servings per day (34 percent,56 percent). Numbers of servings of fruit per day increased with age in both sexes, although thepercentage of females 15–18 years having at least two servings of fruit per day was high (60 percent).
There was an increase in the proportion of males and females eating less than one serving of fruitper day who lived in NZDep96 quartile IV areas, compared with those from quartile I areas. Therewas a similar pattern for vegetable consumption.
Female NZ Måori and Pacific people were more likely than NZ European & Others to consumeless than one serving of fruit per day (26 percent and 30 percent, 18 percent).
The fruit consumed most often at least once per week by the New Zealand population was bananas(females 85 percent, males 78 percent). Other fruit consumed by more than half the populationwere apples (73 percent), oranges (67 percent), and stone fruit (peach, nectarine, plum, apricot) in season(56 percent). Almost all fruits were consumed more frequently by females except for fruit canned insyrup. Older groups (65+ years) reported a higher frequency of choice of stewed fruit, bananas andstone fruit (males only) at least once per week.
Individuals from NZDep96 quartile I areas were more likely than individuals living in quartile IVareas to consume grapes, kiwifruit, stone fruit, apples, bananas, berry fruits (strawberries and other berriesor cherries), sultanas and other dried fruit.
While most fruits were eaten equally often among all ethnic groups, Pacific people more oftenchose pears and oranges than other ethnic groups. Both NZ Måori and Pacific people were lesslikely to choose kiwifruit, stewed fruit and other dried fruits than NZ European & Others (Figure B).
The only differences in fruit choice between metropolitan and provincial residents, were the morefrequent consumption of fruit canned in syrup and stewed fruit in provincial areas.
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Met fruit guideline (2+ servings/day)
25–44
45–64
65–74 75
+
Kiwifruit consumed (≥1/week)
Ethnic group
Popu
latio
n
0
100
15–18
19–24
NZ
popu
latio
n
malefemale
malefemale
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European& Others
134 NZ Food: NZ People
E6Beverages Table E6
Non-alcoholicWater (80 percent), tea (62 percent) and coffee (61 percent) were consumed regularly (at least threetimes per week) by the greatest numbers of New Zealanders. Males were more frequent regularconsumers than females of coffee (64 percent, 58 percent respectively), carbonated drinks (30 percent,18 percent), cordial (7 percent, 4 percent), powdered drinks (23 percent, 18 percent) and sports drinks(5 percent, 2 percent); whereas for females it was diet carbonated drinks (10 percent, 7 percent), water(85 percent, 74 percent), herbal tea (11 percent, 4 percent) and tea (65 percent, 58 percent).
Males 19–24 years were the most frequent consumers of sports drinks (20 percent). Apart from tea,coffee, diet carbonated drinks and herbal tea, younger groups more frequently consumed non-alcoholicdrinks than older groups.
Tea was less regularly consumed by the 15–24 years group (males 25 percent and 26 percent,females 40 percent and 47 percent), but more frequently consumed by the 75+ years group (males89 percent, females 86 percent) (Figure A). The highest frequency of consumption of herbal tea wasamong females 19–64 years (10 percent – 13 percent).
Powdered drinks and cordial were more regularly consumed by individuals living in NZDep96quartile IV areas but fruit juice, tea (males only), water (females only) and coffee were more popularamong individuals living in quartile I and II areas.
Compared to the other two ethnic groups, Pacific people were higher regular consumers of fruitdrinks and sports drinks, while NZ Måori more often had cordial and carbonated drinks. Fewer NZMåori and Pacific people drank coffee, tea and herbal tea than NZ European & Others.
AlcoholicMore males than females chose beer (51 percent, 10 percent respectively) and spirits/liqueurs (21percent, 16 percent). White wine was the more popular drink among females (23 percent, 13 percent).
Consumption (at least once per week) of beer among females 45+ years was uncommon (≤ 5 percent).Red wine consumption was highest among males 25–74 years (15 percent to 17 percent) and females
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Tea consumed (≥3/week) White wine consumed (≥1/week)
Ethnic group
Popu
latio
n
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
malefemale
malefemale
NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European& Others
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
135Frequently Eaten Foods
19–64 years (14 percent to 17 percent). Females 19–74 years (19 percent to 29 percent) and males45–74 years (17 percent to 25 percent) had the highest white wine consumption on at least a weeklybasis.
The frequency of consumption of beer at least once a week was lowest among Pacific peoplecompared to the other two ethnic groups.
Red wine and white wine consumption, although common among NZ European & Others (15 percentto 25 percent at least once per week), was very rare among NZ Måori (3 percent to 8 percent) andPacific people (1 percent to 4 percent) (Figure B). Compared with NZ European & Others thechoice of spirits/liqueurs was lower among NZ Måori and Pacific people except for NZ Måori males15–24 years who had the highest frequency of intake of all groups (27 percent).
Provincial males were less likely than metropolitan males to consume red wine and white wine atleast once per week.
136 NZ Food: NZ People
E7Miscellaneous Foods Tables E7.1, E7.2
Of New Zealanders who ate eggs, almost a quarter consumed at least four eggs per week (males 33percent, females 16 percent) and about a third ate one or less per week (26 percent, 36 percent).This did not include eggs used in baking. The proportion consuming at least four per week changedwith NZDep96 quartile areas for both males (quartile I 20 percent, quartile IV 43 percent), andfemales (quartile I 10 percent, quartile IV 25 percent). NZ Måori males (59 percent) and females(34 percent) were about twice as likely to have eaten at least four per week than NZ European &Others (males 28 percent, females 13 percent).
Sweet spreads (jam, honey, marmalade or syrup) were the most popular ‘toppings/spreads’ (66 percent)followed by Vegemite or Marmite (53 percent) and peanut butter (36 percent). Tomato sauce was themost popular ‘sauces/dressings’ (48 percent) though its popularity declined among older groups(Figure A). Both were consumed at least once per week by a higher proportion of males thanfemales. Sweet spreads were more popular among those living in NZDep96 quartile I areas andamong provincial rather than metropolitan residents. Sweet spreads were the most frequently used‘toppings/spreads’ among NZ European & Others (males 72 percent, females 64 percent), NZMåori males (62 percent) and Pacific males (51 percent).
Plain sweet biscuits (53 percent) were the most popular of the ‘biscuits/cakes/muffins’ category.Cream filled/chocolate biscuits were consumed by more males (44 percent) than females (37 percent).All biscuits, cakes and muffins were eaten less by individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areasthan quartile I areas. More provincial males preferred cakes/scones/pikelets than metropolitan males.
At least once per week during winter 50 percent of the New Zealand population had homemadesoup and 37 percent had canned/packet soup.
Only small proportions of the population ate sweet pies/pastries and other puddings/desserts at leastonce per week. Males were twice as likely as females to consume sweet pies/pastries (14 percent, 7percent). The consumption of sweet pies/pastries decreased with age in both sexes.
Chocolate and other confectionery were almost equally popular (35 percent, 34 percent respectively).There was no sex difference in the frequency of consumption of other confectionery and muesli barsbut chocolate was eaten more by males than females (38 percent, 33 percent). The consumption ofother confectionery, muesli bars and chocolate all decreased with age (Figure B).
Age group (years) Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Tomato sauce consumed (≥1/week) Chocolate consumed (≥1/week)
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+ 0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
malefemale
malefemale
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
137Frequently Eaten Foods
Takeaway style foods (meat pies/sausage rolls, hamburger, pizza) were more frequently consumed bymales than females. The percentage consuming meat pies/sausage rolls, hamburger and pizza at leastonce per week was highest in those 15–24 years and decreased with age. NZ Måori and Pacificpeople were more likely to have eaten meat pies/sausage rolls and hamburger than NZ European &Others. Meat pies/sausage rolls were consumed by a greater proportion of individuals from NZDep96quartile IV areas (males 46 percent, females 21 percent) compared with quartile I areas (33 percent,10 percent).
More males than females ate potato crisps (38 percent, 33 percent). There was a marked decreasewith age in the percentage of the population consuming potato crisps while older people weremore likely to consume nuts. Among females, NZ European & Others (32 percent) were less likelyto consume potato crisps than NZ Måori (40 percent) or Pacific people (45 percent).
Coconut cream was only used by a very small proportion of the population with the exception ofPacific people (males 38 percent, females 40 percent). There was a strong gradient across theNZDep96 quartiles for coconut cream intake, with the lowest consumption among those living inNZDep96 quartile I areas (1 percent) and highest in quartile IV areas (7 percent – 8 percent).
138 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E1
DAIR
Y FO
ODS
Milk
s ch
osen
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
k.m
ost o
ften
(%)
Milk
type
Drin
ks o
f milk
Othe
r dai
ry fo
ods
Chee
ses
Hot
Brie
, blu
e,be
vera
geCr
eam
/ C
usta
rd/
Colby
,Co
ttage
Moz
zare
lla,
& ot
her
Milk
as a
mad
e with
Flavo
ured
sour
dairy
Milk
mild
,Ed
am/
orfe
ta,
spec
ialty
Crea
mSt
anda
rd Tr
imbe
vera
gem
ilkm
ilkIc
e cr
eam
Yogh
urt
crea
mfo
odpu
dding
s ta
stygo
uda
ricot
taca
mem
bert
chee
ses
chee
se N
Z Po
p’n
(Age
15+
)60
2535
2011
3835
1815
665
205
55
3M
ales
15–1
885
1563
3742
5733
1125
852
132
72
219
–24
7824
5030
3735
3018
197
7019
68
47
25–4
472
2140
2015
4029
1716
466
172
45
345
–64
5725
2814
846
2420
114
6616
13
62
65–7
440
2725
113
4822
2112
972
101
36
375
+51
2018
145
379
3220
2265
111
14
2To
tal
6622
3719
1643
2718
166
6616
24
53
Fem
ales
15–1
859
3051
2521
4847
2339
467
193
30
519
–24
5727
4525
1331
4421
195
5924
89
51
25–4
460
2435
208
2842
1711
465
259
85
445
–64
4730
2319
229
4218
86
6125
87
53
65–7
441
3426
204
3542
1118
1571
208
36
275
+44
1930
282
4132
2729
2071
115
29
6To
tal
5427
3221
832
4218
157
6424
86
54
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I61
2437
1819
4930
2114
473
212
76
2II
6124
3114
1244
2816
145
6817
43
53
III66
2337
1913
3924
1718
761
151
23
6IV
7718
4327
2039
2417
178
619
35
42
Fem
ales
I42
3028
174
3248
1917
767
319
107
4II
5227
3419
831
4321
126
6423
86
64
III57
3134
229
3138
1615
665
219
53
3IV
6620
3526
936
3817
168
6116
65
43
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
6523
3921
1841
2818
156
6517
35
53
Prov
inci
al69
2034
1613
4624
1817
669
141
24
3Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an51
2832
228
3142
1915
663
238
85
4Pr
ovin
cial
5924
3320
634
4118
158
6823
84
53
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
ns 1
0 –
11.
139Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E1
con
t.DA
IRY
FOOD
SM
ilks
chos
enPe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek.
mos
t ofte
n (%
)M
ilk ty
peDr
inks
of m
ilkOt
her d
airy
food
sCh
eese
sHo
tBr
ie, b
lue,
beve
rage
Crea
m/
Cus
tard
/Co
lby,
Cotta
geM
ozza
rella
, &
othe
rM
ilk as
a m
ade w
ithFla
vour
ed so
urda
iryM
ilkm
ild,
Edam
/ or
feta
,sp
ecial
tyCr
eam
Stan
dard
Trim
beve
rage
milk
milk
Ice
crea
mYo
ghur
t cr
eam
food
pudd
ings
tasty
goud
aric
otta
cam
embe
rtch
eese
sch
eese
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
492
1451
5050
5728
1924
1253
82
114
425
–44
8210
4817
2332
3021
2115
546
41
15
45+
7320
2211
135
1135
75
598
21
21
Tota
l83
1343
2626
4024
2419
1255
73
42
3Fe
mal
es15
–24
7511
4836
3754
4317
298
6013
72
04
25–4
473
1840
2611
2625
1214
657
135
31
345
+85
1334
372
3124
1716
1759
154
20
1To
tal
7715
4130
1636
2915
199
5813
53
13
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
485
*17
*61
*31
*33
*36
*14
*14
*34
*9*
20*
4*0*
3*3*
5*25
–44
9514
3029
1346
94
142
251
60
02
45+
69*
15*
36*
35*
15*
49*
37*
13*
23*
25*
33*
3*0*
0*0*
1*To
tal
8615
4031
1944
179
229
252
31
13
Fem
ales
15–2
467
*14
*49
*44
*14
*63
*46
*15
*28
*14
*44
*8*
3*3*
1*4*
25–4
475
2743
3511
4426
1220
834
93
01
245
+80
*29
*22
*26
*8*
33*
34*
6*11
*6*
46*
12*
11*
8*9*
8*To
tal
7324
4035
1147
3412
2010
3910
53
34
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
478
2255
2937
4233
1519
669
205
73
625
–44
6923
3920
1442
3116
162
7120
25
63
45+
5125
2714
746
2220
127
6915
13
62
Tota
l63
2436
1815
4427
1715
570
182
55
3Fe
mal
es15
–24
5333
4720
1232
4624
263
6426
68
42
25–4
457
2533
187
2946
1810
467
2810
96
545
+41
3124
203
3241
1814
1066
228
56
4To
tal
5029
3119
630
4419
146
6625
97
64
* Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ions
10
– 11
.
140 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E2
.1B
REA
DS
AN
D C
EREA
LS I
Freq
uenc
y of
ser
ving
s 1%
usi
ngTy
pe o
f but
ter/m
arga
rine
used
on
brea
d/cr
acke
rs (%
) 2
Cere
als
Brea
ds &
butte
r on
Butte
r & R
educ
edBr
ead
Brea
dBr
ead
Cere
als
≥10
cere
als
brea
d/Po
lyun
sat.
mar
garin
ePr
aise
/Lo
w s
alt
Unsa
lted
fat
<1/d
ay3–
4/da
y≥5
/day
<4/w
eek 3
/wee
k 36+
/day
4cr
acke
rs 5
Butte
rm
arga
rines
6bl
end
Oliv
iom
arga
rine
butte
r m
arga
rine
Othe
rN
Z Po
p’n
(Age
15+
)5
4223
3116
1892
5047
1110
72
20
Mal
es15
–18
625
4728
2839
8652
4920
86
32
119
–24
638
4024
3033
9254
5311
64
20
325
–44
540
3532
2129
9460
4112
75
22
045
–64
241
3436
1226
9646
537
99
11
065
–74
144
3327
522
9639
5011
124
11
075
+0
6215
196
1598
4351
78
122
10
Tota
l4
4035
3118
2894
5248
118
61
11
Fem
ales
15–1
85
4415
4117
1284
5058
62
62
40
19–2
47
4513
3417
887
5153
106
87
50
25–4
48
4013
2820
1089
5146
1211
83
40
45–6
46
4410
377
891
4544
1114
81
10
65–7
42
5710
382
693
3545
1016
91
40
75+
256
1326
68
9839
4912
117
00
1To
tal
644
1233
139
9047
4711
118
23
0N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
es I
442
2725
2324
8949
5513
64
11
3II
344
3432
1525
9359
4112
84
22
0III
438
3934
1528
9643
528
108
11
0IV
536
4234
1936
9450
4810
86
11
1Fe
mal
esI
448
928
178
8446
617
64
55
0II
744
1129
149
8850
4310
128
34
0III
644
1234
139
9341
4510
158
12
0IV
741
1741
812
8945
479
137
23
0Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an4
3933
2919
2793
5150
119
61
11
Prov
inci
al2
4240
3415
3296
5643
116
62
20
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
744
1232
159
9047
4711
128
33
0Pr
ovin
cial
645
1236
1110
9148
4712
118
22
0Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ions
4, 6
and
13.
1Pe
rcen
t of p
opul
atio
n co
nsum
ing
spec
ified
num
ber o
f ser
ving
s. ‘<
1/d
ay’ a
nd ‘<
4/w
eek’
incl
udes
thos
e w
ho d
o no
t eat
bre
ads/
cere
als.
2Pe
rcen
t of t
hose
who
use
but
ter/m
arga
rine.
As
mul
tiple
ans
wer
s w
ere
poss
ible
, per
cent
age
tota
ls m
ay e
xcee
d 10
0.3
Serv
ings
of f
oods
suc
h as
pas
ta, r
ice,
mue
sli,
porr
idge
, or b
reak
fast
cer
eal.
4N
ew Z
eala
nd N
utrit
ion
Task
forc
e (1
991)
gui
delin
e.5
Incl
udes
peo
ple
who
use
but
ter a
nd/o
r mar
garin
e pr
oduc
ts o
n br
ead
and/
or c
rack
ers.
6Fo
r exa
mpl
e, ‘M
iracl
e’, ‘
Sunf
low
er’ e
tc.
141Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E2
.1 c
ont.
BRE
AD
S A
ND
CER
EALS
IFr
eque
ncy
of s
ervi
ngs 1
% u
sing
Type
of b
utte
r/mar
garin
e us
ed o
n br
ead/
crac
kers
(%) 2
Cere
als
Brea
ds &
butte
r on
Butte
r & R
educ
edBr
ead
Brea
dBr
ead
Cere
als
≥10
cere
als
brea
d/Po
lyun
sat.
mar
garin
ePr
aise
/Lo
w s
alt
Unsa
lted
fat
<1/d
ay3–
4/da
y≥5
/day
<4/w
eek 3
/wee
k 36+
/day
4cr
acke
rs 5
Butte
rm
arga
rines
6bl
end
Oliv
iom
arga
rine
butte
r m
arga
rine
Othe
rN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
538
4230
2835
8971
4218
87
40
025
–44
432
4452
1235
9765
4213
23
12
045
+2
4626
421
2098
5756
1111
60
51
Tota
l4
3739
4215
3195
6546
146
52
20
Fem
ales
15–2
47
3532
5011
2587
6341
102
157
20
25–4
48
4523
3315
1997
6156
208
61
30
45+
642
2250
213
9353
4125
86
03
0To
tal
741
2542
1020
9460
4819
68
23
0Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
0*26
*52
*26
*16
*38
*96
*59
*37
*20
*13
*7*
10*
4*0*
25–4
49
3928
493
2795
6947
183
243
00
45+
3*34
*31
*49
*8*
28*
100*
63*
46*
9*4*
8*0*
15*
0*To
tal
634
3643
830
9765
4417
616
45
0Fe
mal
es15
–24
2*49
*30
*50
*21
*12
*99
*63
*34
*23
*2*
17*
1*3*
0*25
–44
932
1729
1716
9549
5624
613
11
145
+18
*42
*13
*38
*18
*10
*97
*48
*61
*18
*3*
3*1*
0*0*
Tota
l9
3920
3719
1496
5351
224
121
10
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
47
3242
2429
3689
4955
136
41
13
25–4
44
4134
2723
2993
5941
128
42
20
45+
244
3232
1125
9643
528
108
11
0To
tal
441
3529
1928
9450
4810
86
11
1Fe
mal
es15
–24
646
932
186
8446
617
64
55
025
–44
840
1127
208
8850
4310
128
34
045
+4
499
345
693
4145
1015
81
20
Tota
l6
4510
3114
789
4547
913
72
30
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
ns 4
, 6 a
nd 1
3.*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
1Pe
rcen
t of p
opul
atio
n co
nsum
ing
spec
ified
num
ber o
f ser
ving
s. ‘<
1/d
ay’ a
nd ‘<
4/w
eek’
incl
udes
thos
e w
ho d
o no
t eat
bre
ads/
cere
als.
2Pe
rcen
t of t
hose
who
use
but
ter/m
arga
rine.
As
mul
tiple
ans
wer
s w
ere
poss
ible
, per
cent
age
tota
ls m
ay e
xcee
d 10
0.3
Serv
ings
of f
oods
suc
h as
pas
ta, r
ice,
mue
sli,
porr
idge
, or b
reak
fast
cer
eal.
4N
ew Z
eala
nd N
utrit
ion
Task
forc
e (1
991)
gui
delin
e.5
Incl
udes
peo
ple
who
use
but
ter a
nd/o
r mar
garin
e pr
oduc
ts o
n br
ead
and/
or c
rack
ers.
6Fo
r exa
mpl
e, ‘M
iracl
e’, ‘
Sunf
low
er’ e
tc.
142 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E2
.2B
REA
DS
AN
D C
EREA
LS II
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
kSa
vour
yCr
umpe
tsW
affle
sBr
eakf
ast
bisc
uits
/Co
oked
Spec
ialty
Frui
t or
or
orM
aori
Rew
ena
cere
al P
asta
crac
kers
Rice
porr
idge
brea
dsic
ed b
uns
croi
ssan
tsdo
ughn
uts
brea
d b
read
Fryb
read
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
6054
5148
2310
75
31
11
Mal
es15
–18
7064
4146
136
1710
96
33
19–2
465
7334
558
1616
85
10
025
–44
6061
4153
2311
77
32
11
45–6
459
3950
4228
69
43
10
165
–74
6028
6026
393
114
11
00
75+
5224
5528
523
73
10
00
Tota
l60
5245
4624
910
63
21
1Fe
mal
es15
–18
6073
5740
716
137
51
00
19–2
452
7142
5910
131
65
21
025
–44
6069
5460
1915
54
21
10
45–6
460
4564
4322
85
41
01
165
–74
6123
6430
304
62
22
21
75+
6625
6726
394
93
11
00
Tota
l60
5757
4920
116
42
11
0N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
6358
5452
269
86
30
00
II60
5646
4525
912
52
00
1III
5645
4141
2011
66
31
00
IV62
4937
4525
613
74
52
3Fe
mal
esI
6264
6554
1915
65
10
00
II64
6158
5317
146
32
00
0III
6051
5547
2010
65
21
10
IV53
4548
4123
76
44
43
1Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an61
5445
5123
1010
64
21
1Pr
ovin
cial
6146
4333
267
95
21
00
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
5958
5853
1914
65
21
00
Prov
inci
al62
5055
3924
75
42
11
1Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
12.
143Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E2
.2 c
ont.
BRE
AD
S A
ND
CER
EALS
IIPe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Savo
ury
Crum
pets
Waf
fles
Brea
kfas
tbi
scui
ts/
Cook
edSp
ecia
ltyFr
uit o
r o
ror
Mao
riRe
wen
ace
real
Pas
tacr
acke
rsRi
cepo
rrid
gebr
eads
iced
bun
scr
oiss
ants
doug
hnut
sbr
ead
bre
adFr
ybre
adN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
7265
2057
197
103
713
76
25–4
454
5524
3230
88
64
104
845
+52
2436
2542
53
01
72
5To
tal
5951
2638
298
74
410
56
Fem
ales
15–2
453
5337
3716
77
57
73
125
–44
6151
3644
298
47
16
54
45+
6320
3526
497
82
47
138
Tota
l59
4436
3829
76
53
76
4Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
46*
66*
41*
77*
9*3*
12*
0*7*
4*0*
0*25
–44
4248
3962
339
80
94
10
45+
29*
32*
56*
61*
51*
18*
17*
15*
13*
12*
2*0*
Tota
l40
4943
6731
911
39
61
0Fe
mal
es15
–24
68*
66*
28*
74*
18*
17*
17*
13*
21*
6*0*
2*25
–44
5152
5678
3610
178
111
21
45+
58*
29*
63*
59*
45*
1*22
*19
*10
*6*
0*0*
Tota
l58
5150
7233
1019
1214
41
1N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
6770
4149
814
1911
71
00
25–4
462
6243
5521
126
72
00
145
+59
3654
3732
510
42
00
0To
tal
6152
4846
249
116
30
00
Fem
ales
15–2
455
7652
536
166
64
00
025
–44
6173
5762
1517
54
20
00
45+
6138
6638
256
63
10
00
Tota
l61
5860
4918
125
42
00
0*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
n 12
.
144 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E3
.1M
EAT
AN
D F
ISH
IPe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Fis
h-Ho
gget
/Be
efBe
ef/v
eal
Chic
ken
stea
med
/m
utto
nBe
ef/
min
cem
ixed
Baco
n/ m
ixed
Lunc
heon
Hogg
et/
Fish
-Fi
sh-
bake
d/m
ixed
vea
ldi
shes
Chic
ken
dish
es h
amdi
shes
Saus
ages
1m
eats
Lam
bm
utto
nca
nned
batte
red
grill
ed/ra
wdi
shes
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
5445
4238
3832
3123
2020
1515
1312
Mal
es15
–18
5939
4139
3930
3740
2522
920
813
19–2
458
5552
3845
3747
3226
2811
317
1625
–44
5751
4439
4336
3635
1922
1623
1214
45–6
460
4434
3943
2433
1823
2213
1611
1365
–74
5841
2531
2814
3418
1825
1510
1620
75+
4434
2830
3713
237
2819
1113
1510
Tota
l57
4740
3841
2936
2722
2314
2011
14Fe
mal
es15
–18
5337
5836
3334
2722
2119
512
98
19–2
448
4053
3442
4126
2625
1415
1213
825
–44
5252
4742
3641
3325
1613
2112
1510
45–6
453
4040
4230
3020
1319
2016
916
1165
–74
4936
3534
2719
2110
2017
209
2214
75+
4526
3230
2821
126
2121
1315
2115
Tota
l51
4344
3933
3426
1919
1616
1115
10N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
6248
3942
4132
3427
2018
1116
1110
II52
4641
3940
2833
2615
1913
198
12III
5650
3834
4330
3731
2128
1823
1219
IV59
4542
3641
2839
2830
2915
2414
18Fe
mal
esI
5543
4741
3737
2519
1913
188
166
II52
4545
4236
3524
1916
1618
914
9III
5043
4437
3232
2916
1816
1412
1212
IV46
4341
3630
3227
2224
2117
1620
17Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an54
4742
3640
3333
2722
1913
1913
13Pr
ovin
cial
6647
3442
4420
4327
2132
1423
819
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
5042
4737
3238
2420
1914
1810
179
Prov
inci
al54
4739
4237
2531
1818
2115
1312
141
Incl
udes
fran
kfur
ters
and
sav
eloy
s.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
16.
145Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E3
.1 c
ont.
MEA
T A
ND
FIS
H I
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
k F
ish-
Hogg
et/
Beef
Beef
/vea
lCh
icke
nst
eam
ed/
mut
ton
Beef
/ m
ince
mix
edBa
con/
mix
edLu
nche
onHo
gget
/Fi
sh-
Fish
-ba
ked/
mix
ed v
eal
dish
esCh
icke
ndi
shes
ham
dish
esSa
usag
es 1
mea
tsLa
mb
mut
ton
cann
edba
ttere
dgr
illed
/raw
dish
esN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
5841
4843
4239
3544
3531
730
1020
25–4
459
5738
3440
2640
2929
3919
3812
2245
+60
3438
2232
2433
1625
3312
2417
28To
tal
5946
4234
3929
3731
3035
1433
1323
Fem
ales
15–2
454
5059
3328
3931
2421
197
2213
1725
–44
4746
5339
2941
3731
2524
1618
2019
45+
4749
2937
2618
2219
2335
138
1926
Tota
l49
4748
3728
3532
2624
2514
1817
20Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
52*
30*
44*
29*
25*
36*
8*10
*43
*9*
13*
17*
20*
11*
25–4
467
3550
3626
3523
2747
4039
3534
3345
+52
*29
*59
*40
*35
*48
*40
*23
*64
*47
*41
*20
*39
*39
*To
tal
5932
5135
2838
2322
5033
3227
3228
Fem
ales
15–2
457
*31
*57
*23
*36
*56
*22
*27
*52
*39
*21
*14
*32
*28
*25
–44
5037
6034
2641
3519
4026
2714
4027
45+
51*
35*
64*
43*
19*
40*
33*
8*47
*18
*40
*17
*32
*12
*To
tal
5234
6033
2745
3019
4528
2815
3624
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
459
5247
3944
3347
3522
2511
266
1425
–44
5551
4540
4437
3636
1619
1420
1112
45+
5844
3137
4020
3217
2121
1313
1213
Tota
l57
4839
3842
2936
2719
2113
1810
13Fe
mal
es15
–24
4937
5437
4236
2624
2214
119
94
25–4
453
5445
4338
4133
2513
1120
1112
745
+51
3638
3829
2718
1119
1815
1018
11To
tal
5143
4339
3434
2519
1715
1610
149
* Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
16.
1 Incl
udes
fran
kfur
ters
and
sav
eloy
s.
146 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E3
.2M
EAT
AN
D F
ISH
IIPe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Othe
rOt
her
Pork
-roa
st/
Pork
Lam
bse
afoo
dof
fal
Fish
-ch
ops/
Corn
ed m
ixed
mix
edSh
ell-
Pork
Live
r/e.
g.e.
g.Tu
rkey
/M
utto
nfri
edst
eak
beef
dis
hes
dis
hes
fish 1
bone
spa
tepr
awns
kidn
eys
Veni
son
duck
bird
Eel
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
1210
99
96
32
21
10
00
Mal
es15
–18
1612
913
85
44
30
11
00
19–2
419
1310
1011
71
32
22
10
125
–44
1314
911
109
42
31
21
00
45–6
412
1012
76
72
11
11
00
065
–74
119
94
72
02
01
00
00
75+
197
118
63
23
24
00
10
Tota
l14
1210
98
73
22
11
00
0Fe
mal
es15
–18
147
108
112
30
21
00
00
19–2
412
99
813
115
16
02
00
025
–44
1011
89
96
32
20
10
10
45–6
48
810
88
42
22
11
00
065
–74
166
77
73
15
02
10
00
75+
1310
76
92
04
02
00
20
Tota
l11
98
89
52
22
11
00
0N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
119
68
74
12
11
10
00
II14
109
64
51
31
21
00
0III
1412
910
1210
33
11
01
00
IV16
1816
1312
107
25
21
11
1Fe
mal
esI
117
37
83
02
30
00
00
II10
97
67
42
21
01
01
0III
710
109
93
11
11
10
00
IV15
1114
1014
107
34
11
00
0Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an14
1310
108
73
32
11
00
0Pr
ovin
cial
1410
116
87
21
21
21
00
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
1110
79
95
32
21
10
00
Prov
inci
al11
711
510
62
11
01
00
01
Shel
l fis
h (e
.g. m
usse
ls, o
yste
rs, p
aua,
kin
a, p
ipis
).Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
16.
147Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E3
.2 c
ont.
MEA
T A
ND
FIS
H II
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
kOt
her
Othe
rPo
rk-r
oast
/Po
rkLa
mb
seaf
ood
offa
lFi
sh-
chop
s/Co
rned
mix
edm
ixed
Shel
l-Po
rkLi
ver/
e.g.
e.g.
Turk
ey/
Mut
ton
fried
stea
kbe
ef d
ishe
s d
ishe
sfis
h 1bo
nes
pate
praw
nski
dney
sVe
niso
ndu
ckbi
rdEe
lN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
167
107
811
50
00
12
02
25–4
415
2117
1420
1214
25
12
32
245
+26
1224
93
268
13
30
00
1To
tal
1815
1710
1215
101
31
11
12
Fem
ales
15–2
422
2117
1114
1118
06
10
00
025
–44
1214
1610
1415
112
41
10
01
45+
68
1610
1614
124
25
30
10
Tota
l14
1416
1014
1413
24
21
00
0Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
12*
12*
38*
5*12
*6*
0*0*
3*0*
0*0*
0*2*
25–4
421
2938
1030
3415
213
20
00
045
+26
*25
*48
*32
*41
*35
*29
*2*
19*
0*0*
0*8*
0*To
tal
2023
4014
2726
142
121
00
21
Fem
ales
15–2
423
*26
*37
*39
*28
*29
*15
*2*
8*0*
0*0*
0*3*
25–4
425
2726
1328
138
114
21
01
045
+12
*8*
36*
2*43
*28
*7*
6*11
*0*
0*0*
0*0*
Tota
l22
2231
1831
2110
311
10
01
1N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
1814
713
115
14
32
10
00
25–4
412
137
117
72
32
02
00
045
+12
99
66
41
21
10
00
0To
tal
1311
89
75
12
21
10
00
Fem
ales
15–2
49
45
511
40
14
01
00
025
–44
99
58
74
12
10
10
10
45+
118
87
72
13
01
00
10
Tota
l10
86
78
31
21
01
00
0*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
n 16
.1
Shel
l fis
h (e
.g. m
usse
ls, o
yste
rs, p
aua,
kin
a, p
ipis
).
148 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E4
.1VE
GET
AB
LES
ISe
rvin
gs 1
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
kM
ixed
Vege
table
sVe
geta
bles
Onio
ns/
Cabb
age/
Caul
i-Ho
tfro
zen
Gree
n≤
1/da
y≥
3/da
y 2Po
tato
3Ca
rrot
sTo
mat
oes
Lettu
ce le
eks
Peas
cole
slaw
flow
erBr
occo
liPu
mpk
inch
ips 4
vege
tabl
esbe
ans
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
1267
9583
7773
7168
6159
5952
4747
46M
ales
15–1
824
4290
7560
7044
6559
3837
2875
6134
19–2
421
5387
7560
6359
6656
5354
3575
6539
25–4
416
5994
7871
6370
7355
5053
4361
6041
45–6
413
7298
8477
7171
8067
6761
6345
4751
65–7
47
7499
8987
8380
6768
6355
6624
3267
75+
971
9793
7764
7470
5766
3860
1943
52To
tal
1562
9581
7267
6873
6055
5449
5454
45Fe
mal
es15
–18
1368
9679
6480
4763
5868
5742
6356
4119
–24
1559
8976
7176
6462
5055
6447
5557
2525
–44
1071
9086
8177
7765
6057
6549
4941
4045
–64
878
9789
8583
7766
6769
6764
3233
5465
–74
587
9992
9087
8162
6366
6868
2124
7375
+6
7797
9086
6878
5858
7158
6615
3060
Tota
l9
7393
8681
7974
6461
6265
5542
4047
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I12
6696
8877
7367
7660
6063
5053
5448
II12
6698
8374
7271
7658
5151
5155
5246
III17
6095
7872
6469
7361
5853
4457
5447
IV19
5491
7266
5866
6562
5245
4953
5542
Fem
ales
I4
8395
9188
8475
6562
6975
5542
3351
II7
7892
8781
8280
6262
6066
5641
3746
III11
6994
8479
7870
6459
5962
5443
4142
IV16
6093
8074
7169
6658
5954
5740
5045
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
1758
9380
7265
6869
5853
5446
5354
44Pr
ovin
cial
1172
9882
7273
6880
6660
5455
5557
49Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an10
7092
8481
7975
6258
6165
5340
4045
Prov
inci
al7
8097
8980
7972
6867
6665
6145
3948
1Pe
rcen
t of p
eopl
e ea
ting
thes
e nu
mbe
rs o
f ser
ving
s of
veg
etab
les
per d
ay (‘
≤ 1’
incl
udes
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
ns 3
and
20.
thos
e w
ho d
on’t
eat v
eget
able
s). S
ervi
ng =
1 m
ediu
m p
otat
o/ku
mar
a or
1/2
cup
coo
ked
vege
tabl
es o
r 1 c
up s
alad
veg
etab
les.
2N
ew Z
eala
nd N
utrit
ion
Task
forc
e (1
991)
gui
delin
e.3
Pota
to: b
oile
d, m
ashe
d, b
aked
or r
oast
ed.
4Ho
t pot
ato
chip
s or
kum
ara
chip
s/ fr
ench
frie
s/ w
edge
s.
149Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E4
.1 c
ont.
VEG
ETA
BLE
S I
Serv
ings
1Pe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Mix
edVe
geta
bles
Vege
table
sOn
ions
/Ca
bbag
e/Ca
uli-
Hot
froze
nGr
een
≤ 1/
day
≥ 3/
day 2
Pota
to 3
Carr
ots
Tom
atoe
sLe
ttuce
leek
sPe
asco
lesl
awflo
wer
Broc
coli
Pum
pkin
chip
s 4ve
geta
bles
bean
sN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
2544
8754
5065
4252
5229
2929
7259
3625
–44
1756
9975
6352
6880
6556
5554
5179
4345
+24
4997
6566
6174
7074
5443
5733
5146
Tota
l21
5095
6659
5961
7063
4744
4754
6642
Fem
ales
15–2
422
4989
7053
6152
6555
4944
4664
6922
25–4
414
6390
7770
5966
7364
5656
6150
6442
45+
576
9489
8281
7670
6960
6173
3348
51To
tal
1462
9178
6865
6470
6255
5460
5062
37Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
54*
11*
49*
47*
52*
69*
47*
21*
46*
34*
22*
11*
59*
36*
14*
25–4
443
2887
6156
6064
5458
3826
2840
7041
45+
25*
42*
77*
90*
74*
86*
74*
65*
79*
67*
53*
74*
50*
53*
44*
Tota
l41
2774
6458
6862
4760
4431
3447
5634
Fem
ales
15–2
434
*43
*84
*76
*72
*84
*71
*46
*61
*40
*34
*23
*41
*64
*39
*25
–44
2039
8083
8675
6851
6549
4543
4563
4745
+38
*47
*95
*67
*64
*78
*71
*42
*71
*50
*44
*31
*39
*77
*48
*To
tal
2842
8677
7779
7047
6547
4234
4266
45N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
2052
9183
6366
5572
6052
5434
7767
3925
–44
1461
9479
7365
7172
5449
5542
6357
4045
+10
7498
8880
7273
7766
6658
6338
4254
Tota
l13
6596
8474
6869
7559
5756
5054
5347
Fem
ales
15–2
410
6793
7972
8257
6353
6668
4658
5334
25–4
48
7491
8882
8080
6458
5768
4749
3639
45+
682
9890
8782
7863
6469
6666
2628
60To
tal
776
9488
8381
7563
6064
6855
4035
48*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
ns 3
and
20.
1Pe
rcen
t of p
eopl
e ea
ting
thes
e nu
mbe
rs o
f ser
ving
s of
veg
etab
les
per d
ay (‘
≤ 1’
incl
udes
thos
e w
ho d
on’t
eat v
eget
able
s). S
ervi
ng =
1 m
ediu
m p
otat
o/ku
mar
a or
1/2
cup
coo
ked
vege
tabl
es o
r 1 c
up s
alad
veg
etab
les.
2N
ew Z
eala
nd N
utrit
ion
Task
forc
e (1
991)
gui
delin
e.3
Pota
to: b
oile
d, m
ashe
d, b
aked
or r
oast
ed.
4Ho
t pot
ato
chip
s or
kum
ara
chip
s/ fr
ench
frie
s/ w
edge
s.
150 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E4
.2VE
GET
AB
LES
IIPe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Silve
rbee
t/Sw
eet-
Mus
h-Br
usse
lssp
inac
hCu
cum
ber
Bean
s 1co
rnro
oms
Cour
gette
s 2Ku
mar
aCa
psic
umBe
etro
otCe
lery
spro
uts
Avoc
ado
Aspa
ragu
sSp
rout
sPa
rsni
pN
Z Po
p’n
(Age
15+
)42
4037
3433
3030
3029
2619
1916
1615
Mal
es15
–18
2025
3235
2111
159
1813
119
46
819
–24
3724
3929
3716
1726
1810
518
48
625
–44
3228
3335
3623
2530
2017
1213
1114
945
–64
5136
4429
2530
3325
3324
2416
1513
1865
–74
6246
4015
1930
3418
4132
2315
208
2575
+51
2438
1813
2631
937
2917
515
427
Tota
l40
3038
3130
2427
2626
1916
1412
1113
Fem
ales
15–1
823
4737
3928
1920
2121
256
229
208
19–2
428
4025
4350
3232
3022
2912
2517
2210
25–4
440
4736
4440
4029
4128
2915
2720
2311
45–6
451
5336
3434
3937
3437
3533
2325
2124
65–7
463
5544
2119
3743
2340
4040
2231
1125
75+
6944
4122
2333
3811
3939
4013
3818
35To
tal
4348
3638
3536
3233
3132
2224
2220
17N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
es I
4137
3733
3529
2733
2525
2018
1414
13II
3729
4127
2825
2623
3017
1413
1214
13III
4030
3634
2924
2522
2417
1414
1112
13IV
4326
3627
2619
2820
2419
1411
96
12Fe
mal
esI
4055
3643
3947
2944
3440
2729
2930
21II
4650
3936
3939
3434
3333
2324
2220
16III
4244
3436
3433
3028
2626
2021
1918
16IV
4843
3334
2926
3624
3028
1920
1614
15Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an38
3138
3132
2425
2824
2114
1411
1110
Prov
inci
al44
3236
2923
2330
1832
1819
1512
1220
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
4348
3537
3737
3135
2932
2024
2320
16Pr
ovin
cial
4649
3739
3137
3730
3831
2725
2021
191
Bean
s (in
clud
ing
bake
d be
ans)
, len
tils.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
n 20
.2
Cour
gette
s, zu
cchi
ni, m
arro
w, e
ggpl
ant,
squa
sh.
151Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E4
.2co
nt.
VEG
ETA
BLE
S II
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
kSi
lverb
eet/
Swee
t-M
ush-
Brus
sels
spin
ach
Cucu
mbe
rBe
ans 1
corn
room
sCo
urge
ttes 2
Kum
ara
Caps
icum
Beet
root
Cele
rysp
rout
sAv
ocad
oAs
para
gus
Spro
uts
Pars
nip
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
437
2430
2720
1220
1919
72
170
11
25–4
450
2426
2935
1535
1721
138
129
66
45+
5436
3428
1931
3223
2922
1219
128
9To
tal
4727
2928
2618
3019
2313
716
64
5Fe
mal
es15
–24
2427
2646
3014
3311
149
616
78
425
–44
5036
2546
2728
4524
2717
1124
1116
645
+71
4435
2719
3263
1736
2423
2617
915
Tota
l47
3528
4226
2546
1825
1612
2111
128
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
47*
30*
10*
11*
16*
9*7*
10*
8*21
*0*
21*
3*6*
0*25
–44
3622
3920
327
3219
919
64
53
045
+74
*60
*47
*39
*27
*29
*65
*56
*30
*46
*32
*11
*21
*35
*0*
Tota
l36
3333
2226
1333
2513
2610
108
110
Fem
ales
15–2
423
*67
*44
*29
*28
*12
*21
*15
*23
*34
*3*
25*
4*1*
0*25
–44
4452
3436
1924
2628
2332
921
118
145
+55
*64
*18
*25
*23
*15
*37
*32
*6*
45*
22*
26*
17*
8*1*
Tota
l41
5834
3123
1828
2619
3611
2411
61
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
430
2440
3435
1516
1919
119
145
98
25–4
429
2934
3636
2623
3321
1813
1412
1610
45+
5336
4324
2330
3221
3626
2414
1611
22To
tal
4031
3930
3025
2626
2720
1714
1212
15Fe
mal
es15
–24
2745
3042
4431
2631
2331
1126
1626
1125
–44
3749
3843
4444
2645
2930
1628
2125
1345
+55
5239
2930
3937
2939
3836
2129
1928
Tota
l43
5037
3738
3931
3632
3424
2524
2219
* Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
20.
1Be
ans
(incl
udin
g ba
ked
bean
s), l
entil
s.2
Cour
gette
s, zu
cchi
ni, m
arro
w, e
ggpl
ant,
squa
sh.
152 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E4
.3VE
GET
AB
LES
IIIPe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Othe
r gre
enPa
cific
leaf
yTu
rnip
s/Gr
een
Kam
o S
oybe
ans/
Taro
Isla
ndBr
ead
vege
tabl
es 1
swed
esba
nana
sYa
ms
Wat
ercr
ess
kam
oTa
roPu
hato
fu le
afKa
reng
oya
ms
Cass
ava
fruit
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
1310
76
33
22
21
11
10
Mal
es15
–18
114
64
10
40
31
10
04
19–2
411
65
22
01
12
00
00
025
–44
134
85
32
32
41
21
10
45–6
49
107
43
42
31
10
11
065
–74
1320
54
23
01
00
00
00
75+
1328
12
11
01
10
10
00
Tota
l12
86
42
22
22
11
11
0Fe
mal
es15
–18
96
114
20
31
31
01
13
19–2
414
85
64
23
23
22
11
025
–44
157
89
34
22
41
11
00
45–6
415
164
84
52
22
11
11
065
–74
1822
37
25
02
30
10
10
75+
1532
67
11
11
10
00
00
Tota
l15
126
83
32
23
11
11
0N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
128
54
01
00
10
10
00
II10
106
31
10
03
01
00
0III
118
65
31
12
21
10
01
IV15
810
36
76
52
30
22
1Fe
mal
esI
1615
49
12
01
30
00
10
II14
145
92
11
03
12
00
0III
1510
58
24
21
20
10
01
IV14
1110
59
96
63
31
22
1Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an13
77
32
22
12
11
11
1Pr
ovin
cial
911
65
42
03
10
10
00
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
1611
67
33
31
31
11
11
Prov
inci
al13
174
93
60
22
01
00
01
Such
as
whi
tloof
.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
20.
153Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E4
.3 c
ont.
VEG
ETA
BLE
S III
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
kOt
her g
reen
Paci
ficle
afy
Turn
ips/
Gree
nKa
mo
Soy
bean
s/Ta
roIs
land
Brea
dve
geta
bles
1sw
edes
bana
nas
Yam
sW
ater
cres
ska
mo
Taro
Puha
tofu
leaf
Kare
ngo
yam
sCa
ssav
afru
itN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
111
92
62
15
00
00
02
25–4
414
54
216
114
122
01
00
245
+15
58
025
181
245
02
00
0To
tal
144
71
1511
113
20
10
01
Fem
ales
15–2
49
20
012
34
80
30
01
225
–44
133
42
1522
212
12
10
01
45+
1712
44
2244
326
03
20
00
Tota
l12
53
216
224
151
21
00
1Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
0*0*
29*
0*3*
0*37
*0*
6*9*
7*3*
1*4*
25–4
416
141
125
641
25
233
1218
345
+32
*11
*49
*9*
28*
28*
59*
6*17
*26
*7*
15*
21*
12*
Tota
l16
340
810
945
28
205
1014
5Fe
mal
es15
–24
15*
1*53
*3*
4*0*
39*
3*4*
15*
4*21
*4*
3*25
–44
304
3612
157
421
1016
1013
70
45+
19*
2*37
*8*
19*
1*44
*0*
5*26
*8*
16*
27*
8*To
tal
232
419
133
421
718
816
123
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
413
63
30
00
03
01
00
225
–44
134
74
10
00
40
20
00
45+
1015
44
02
01
00
00
00
Tota
l12
95
41
10
02
01
00
0Fe
mal
es15
–24
129
56
00
00
30
10
11
25–4
414
86
111
20
14
01
00
045
+16
213
81
10
02
00
00
0To
tal
1514
59
11
00
30
10
00
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
20.
1Su
ch a
s w
hitlo
of.
154 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E5
FRUI
TSSe
rvin
gsPe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Frui
tFr
uit
Frui
tSt
one
Berr
yca
nned
Othe
rSt
ewed
< 1/
day 1
2+ /d
ay 2
Bana
nas
Appl
esOr
ange
sfru
it 3Pe
ars
fruits
4Ki
wifr
uit
Grap
esSu
ltana
sFe
ijoas
Mel
on in
syr
updr
ied
fruit
fruit
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
2746
8273
6756
4739
3830
2424
2222
1817
Mal
es15
–18
3736
6876
6637
4831
2528
1920
2826
105
19–2
439
3079
6362
4237
1926
2515
1316
247
325
–44
3932
7467
5740
3725
2920
2014
1521
136
45–6
431
3684
6765
5142
3030
2622
1912
2612
1365
–74
2740
8369
6259
4845
3331
2427
1527
1637
75+
1453
8271
5759
5229
3623
3114
1032
2247
Tota
l34
3478
6861
4541
2829
2320
1616
2412
13Fe
mal
es15
–18
2060
7685
7265
4538
4036
1740
2728
1921
19–2
429
4879
6965
6045
4130
3222
2927
2220
825
–44
2249
8478
7465
5150
4435
3032
3319
2212
45–6
417
6087
7674
7159
5356
3826
3228
1924
2365
–74
974
8681
7472
6653
4841
3034
2423
2647
75+
571
9081
7469
5541
5134
3625
1035
2762
Tota
l19
5685
7872
6753
4947
3627
3128
2123
21N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
2643
8172
6650
4234
3128
2617
1524
1510
II33
3479
7161
4638
2732
2320
1713
2113
16III
4034
7666
5643
4228
2821
2018
1723
1112
IV42
2876
6158
4241
2324
2115
1717
2710
11Fe
mal
esI
1268
9083
7474
5760
5343
3233
3220
2823
II19
5684
7674
7055
5047
3530
3127
2225
23III
2151
8274
7363
4845
4432
2331
2420
2018
IV25
4979
7770
5755
3939
3322
3230
2417
20Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an33
3479
6862
4442
2829
2420
1616
2213
11Pr
ovin
cial
3637
7565
5948
3929
2922
2219
1428
1215
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
1857
8578
7266
5449
4636
2631
2820
2419
Prov
inci
al21
5583
7773
6853
4847
3530
3528
2323
261 P
erce
nt o
f peo
ple
eatin
g le
ss th
an o
ne s
ervi
ng o
f fru
it pe
r day
, or n
o fru
it at
all.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
ns 2
, 21,
and
22.
Serv
ing
= 1
med
ium
pie
ce o
r 2 s
mal
l pie
ces
of fr
uit o
r 1/2
cup
of s
tew
ed fr
uit.
2 Per
cent
of p
eopl
e ea
ting
2 se
rvin
gs o
r mor
e of
frui
t per
day
. NZ
Nut
ritio
n Ta
skfo
rce
(199
1) g
uide
line.
3Pe
ach,
nec
tarin
e, p
lum
, apr
icot
.4
Stra
wbe
rry’s
and
oth
er b
errie
s or
che
rrie
s.
155Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E5
con
t.FR
UITS
Serv
ings
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
kFr
uit
Frui
tFr
uit
Ston
eBe
rry
cann
edOt
her
Stew
ed<
1/da
y 12+
/day
2Ba
nana
sAp
ples
Oran
ges
fruit 3
Pear
sfru
its 4
Kiw
ifrui
tGr
apes
Sulta
nas
Feijo
asM
elon
in s
yrup
drie
d fru
itfru
itN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
3243
8559
7238
4131
1336
524
2936
63
25–4
448
2367
6258
3244
2117
99
1326
257
1045
+38
3084
7464
5655
3413
2915
2122
246
9To
tal
4131
7664
6440
4627
1522
919
2628
68
Fem
ales
15–2
433
4867
7566
5048
2923
2515
2930
2610
425
–44
2847
8076
6753
5529
3129
2040
3127
1912
45+
1752
8485
8471
7538
4538
1434
4324
2127
Tota
l26
4977
7771
5758
3132
3018
3533
2617
14Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
35*
33*
77*
62*
73*
24*
51*
19*
6*19
*6*
6*23
*12
*8*
0*25
–44
4524
7473
7544
6524
2330
1318
2333
79
45+
38*
36*
88*
87*
83*
74*
76*
34*
44*
50*
15*
30*
41*
28*
18*
11*
Tota
l41
2978
7476
4664
2423
3111
1827
2610
8Fe
mal
es15
–24
32*
57*
82*
80*
77*
38*
75*
30*
27*
30*
20*
41*
38*
42*
5*8*
25–4
427
4987
8679
5172
3037
3413
3146
1717
1245
+34
*56
*95
*95
*88
*45
*82
*28
*40
*35
*5*
34*
29*
33*
3*4*
Tota
l30
5388
8680
4676
3035
3314
3539
2811
9N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
3930
7271
6042
4022
3025
2014
1923
95
25–4
437
3476
6856
4134
2630
2022
1413
1914
545
+27
3983
6763
5243
3332
2624
2012
2714
23To
tal
3335
7868
6046
3829
3123
2316
1423
1313
Fem
ales
15–2
422
5579
7667
6742
4338
3620
3426
2324
1625
–44
2149
8479
7468
4855
4735
3231
3217
2311
45+
1367
8877
7371
5953
5439
3031
2223
2636
Tota
l18
5784
7873
6952
5249
3730
3127
2025
23*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
ns 2
, 21,
and
22.
1Pe
rcen
t of p
eopl
e ea
ting
less
than
one
ser
ving
of f
ruit
per d
ay, o
r no
fruit
at a
ll.Se
rvin
g =
1 m
ediu
m p
iece
or 2
sm
all p
iece
s of
frui
t or 1
/2 c
up o
f ste
wed
frui
t.2
Perc
ent o
f peo
ple
eatin
g 2
serv
ings
or m
ore
of fr
uit p
er d
ay. N
Z N
utrit
ion
Task
forc
e (1
991)
gui
delin
e.3
Peac
h, n
ecta
rine,
plu
m, a
pric
ot.
4St
raw
berr
y’s a
nd o
ther
ber
ries
or c
herr
ies.
156 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E6
BEV
ERA
GES
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g ‘re
gula
rly’ 1
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
kN
on-a
lcoh
olic
Alco
holic
Diet
Low
Carb
onat
edFr
uitPo
wde
red
carb
onat
edSp
orts
Fruit
Herb
alW
hite
Spirit
s/Re
dalc
ohol
Wat
er dr
inks
juice
drink
s d
rinks
Cord
ial dr
inks
drink
sTe
aCo
ffee
tea
Beer
wine
lique
urs
wine
beer
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
8024
2620
86
43
6261
830
1818
132
Mal
es15
–18
7653
3133
613
97
2536
232
116
33
19–2
479
5438
354
1320
826
512
566
288
025
–44
7334
2829
77
63
5471
658
1318
153
45–6
475
1622
128
52
276
684
5417
1917
765
–74
7718
208
117
04
8165
240
2528
158
75+
7720
179
74
01
8951
124
832
75
Tota
l74
3027
237
75
358
644
5113
2114
4 F
emal
es15
–18
8334
2933
116
411
4032
317
814
40
19–2
482
4230
3011
79
347
5310
2419
1717
225
–44
8315
2521
95
22
6163
1311
2414
141
45–6
484
1424
1010
11
372
6213
529
1816
065
–74
9113
1910
76
12
8259
63
1914
71
75+
896
248
73
06
8649
54
1317
63
Tota
l85
1825
1810
42
365
5811
1023
1613
1N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
7829
3617
85
53
6566
655
2022
196
II77
3027
227
46
259
675
5514
2415
2III
7328
2425
68
64
5363
255
822
94
IV71
3519
276
147
555
614
408
159
4Fe
mal
esI
8817
2914
103
32
6660
1110
3220
181
II87
1727
1513
11
365
5914
1125
1716
0III
8220
2219
84
35
6359
119
1916
101
IV79
2121
267
94
563
538
812
105
1Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an75
3430
218
76
457
654
5114
2116
4Pr
ovin
cial
7425
2026
69
43
6462
453
1020
83
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
8420
2718
104
33
6459
1110
2215
131
Prov
inci
al85
1622
198
51
466
5611
1123
1612
11
‘Reg
ular
ly’ i
nclu
des
all t
hose
who
con
sum
e th
ese
beve
rage
s at
leas
t 3 ti
mes
per
wee
k.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
23.
157Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E6
con
t.B
EVER
AG
ESPe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
‘regu
larly
’ 1Pe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Non
-alc
ohol
icAl
coho
licDi
etLo
wCa
rbon
ated
Fruit
Pow
dere
dca
rbon
ated
Spor
tsFr
uitHe
rbal
Whit
eSp
irits/
Red
alcoh
olW
ater
drink
sjui
ce dr
inks
drin
ksCo
rdial
drink
sdr
inks
Tea
Coffe
ete
aBe
erw
ine liq
ueur
s w
ine be
erN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
7363
3438
225
70
1549
044
027
71
25–4
473
3414
423
1314
365
653
582
177
345
+68
2622
2412
40
071
641
498
612
6To
tal
7240
2237
515
91
5060
251
317
83
Fem
ales
15–2
467
4722
495
207
1438
460
159
121
325
–44
8017
1934
710
54
5551
811
59
50
45+
8413
1829
511
16
6938
67
49
60
Tota
l77
2520
387
134
853
465
116
105
1Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
80*
45*
25*
36*
4*7*
32*
4*33
*30
*0*
22*
3*14
*0*
3*25
–44
7838
2350
710
819
4963
329
33
11
45+
86*
21*
27*
20*
11*
15*
11*
19*
87*
61*
0*29
*2*
3*6*
15*
Tota
l81
3625
397
1116
1553
541
283
62
4 F
emal
es15
–24
88*
43*
36*
24*
18*
10*
16*
24*
56*
33*
4*7*
2*11
*0*
3*25
–44
8518
2236
108
107
6362
46
45
11
45+
95*
12*
36*
24*
16*
2*0*
11*
73*
59*
9*2*
6*2*
3*1*
Tota
l88
2429
3014
79
1363
525
54
61
2N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
7952
3633
611
169
2745
249
523
61
25–4
472
3331
267
64
252
737
5915
1917
345
+76
1620
108
50
279
663
4819
2316
7To
tal
7529
2720
77
53
5965
453
1521
154
Fem
ales
15–2
486
3631
2712
26
345
4610
2417
1715
125
–44
8414
2618
103
22
6265
1511
2816
161
45+
8612
238
92
13
7761
114
2618
131
Tota
l85
1726
1510
22
366
6012
1025
1715
1*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
n 23
.1
‘Reg
ular
ly’ i
nclu
des
all t
hose
who
con
sum
e th
ese
beve
rage
s at
leas
t 3 ti
mes
per
wee
k.
158 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e E7
.1M
ISCE
LLA
NEO
US
FOO
D I
Freq
uenc
y 1Pe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Eggs
Topp
ings
/spr
eads
Sauc
es/d
ress
ings
Bisc
uits
/cak
es/m
uffin
sLo
w-
Crea
mVe
gem
iteW
hite
/ca
lorie
Plai
nfil
led/
Cake
s/≤
1/2–
3/≥
4/Sw
eet
orPe
anut
Tom
ato
May
on-
chee
seSa
lad
sala
dsw
eet
choc
olat
esco
nes/
wee
kw
eek
wee
ksp
read
s 2M
arm
itebu
tter
sauc
eGr
avy
nais
esa
uce
dres
sing
dres
sing
bisc
uits
bisc
uits
pike
lets
Muf
fins
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
3144
2466
5336
4843
2625
2312
5340
3926
Mal
es15
–18
3344
2454
5456
7540
1917
148
5163
3823
19–2
432
3434
5350
4875
3834
2220
1443
3735
2925
–44
2243
3566
4743
5540
2321
207
5343
3926
45–6
426
3935
8047
3048
5226
2426
1158
4242
2065
–74
3051
2086
5040
3655
2618
2014
7146
4917
75+
2655
1987
3523
3549
1626
288
6537
6023
Tota
l26
4233
7048
4054
4525
2221
1055
4441
23Fe
mal
es15
–18
4935
1636
6733
6537
3924
206
6448
3527
19–2
437
4122
3761
3864
4024
3216
1342
4526
1825
–44
3746
1761
5434
4837
2528
2316
5038
3730
45–6
437
4915
6957
2527
4326
2526
2053
3139
3165
–74
3359
877
6429
2349
2629
3521
6034
5025
75+
3157
1285
5822
2750
3334
2610
6530
4820
Tota
l36
4816
6257
3141
4027
2824
1652
3738
28N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
3149
2078
4940
5444
3023
2411
6454
4626
II29
4131
7349
3957
4628
2225
1361
4146
33III
2736
3664
4640
5242
2020
187
4841
3617
IV17
4143
6346
4055
4820
2116
845
3835
17Fe
mal
esI
4148
1064
5832
4041
2929
2819
5945
4133
II39
4715
6759
2943
3929
3028
1854
3341
31III
3748
1560
5629
4038
2325
2013
5035
3827
IV28
4625
5656
3445
4325
2619
1246
3332
18Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an27
4330
6648
4155
4123
2120
953
4538
25Pr
ovin
cial
2340
3777
4938
5454
2923
2410
6142
4720
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
3748
1559
5632
4138
2426
2215
5338
3729
Prov
inci
al34
4719
6762
3043
4532
3127
1653
3339
231
Freq
uenc
y of
egg
con
sum
ptio
n fo
r tho
se w
ho e
at e
ggs
(per
cent
).Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ions
17
– 19
.2
Incl
udes
jam
, hon
ey, m
arm
alad
e an
d sy
rup.
159Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E7
.1 c
ont.
MIS
CELL
AN
EOU
S FO
OD
IFr
eque
ncy 1
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
kEg
gsTo
ppin
gs/s
prea
dsSa
uces
/dre
ssin
gsBi
scui
ts/c
akes
/muf
fins
Low
-Cr
eam
Vege
mite
Whi
te/
calo
riePl
ain
fille
d/Ca
kes/
≤ 1/
2–3/
≥ 4/
Swee
tor
Pean
utTo
mat
oM
ayon
-ch
eese
Sala
dsa
lad
swee
tch
ocol
ates
cone
s/w
eek
wee
kw
eek
spre
ads 2
Mar
mite
butte
rsa
uce
Grav
yna
ise
sauc
edr
essi
ngdr
essi
ngbi
scui
tsbi
scui
tspi
kele
tsM
uffin
sN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
935
5650
4554
7740
2316
169
5452
368
25–4
46
3163
6141
3850
4415
2414
446
2926
1445
+17
2657
7943
3052
4126
2129
933
3031
6To
tal
931
5962
4341
5842
2021
187
4536
3010
Fem
ales
15–2
426
3341
4047
4368
4427
3815
442
4430
1625
–44
2248
3150
4735
4037
2436
1010
3731
2818
45+
2047
3374
7535
2742
2925
2721
3220
2511
Tota
l23
4334
5254
3744
4126
3415
1138
3228
15Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
18*
38*
44*
24*
28*
21*
49*
18*
18*
8*11
*5*
29*
20*
13*
8*25
–44
937
5455
2543
5256
156
185
3438
3322
45+
41*
23*
35*
76*
32*
64*
64*
65*
18*
9*27
*19
*54
*32
*42
*27
*To
tal
1935
4751
2742
5448
178
188
3732
2920
Fem
ales
15–2
441
*34
*26
*21
*50
*11
*76
*34
*37
*10
*11
*12
*43
*68
*41
*40
*25
–44
2444
3244
3533
4842
2616
2212
4036
2318
45+
25*
54*
22*
46*
40*
26*
40*
25*
14*
15*
20*
16*
24*
10*
18*
19*
Tota
l28
4327
3941
2554
3527
1419
1337
3927
25N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
3838
2357
5553
7740
3022
1812
4548
3732
25–4
424
4529
6750
4557
4026
2120
855
4641
2845
+27
4527
8247
3043
5326
2424
1264
4446
21To
tal
2844
2872
4940
5546
2722
2210
5846
4325
Fem
ales
15–2
446
4014
3769
3662
3830
2819
1254
4528
2225
–44
3946
1563
5635
5036
2527
2416
5240
3933
45+
3652
1274
5825
2646
2727
2819
5932
4529
Tota
l39
4813
6459
3041
4127
2725
1756
3740
29*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
ns 1
7 –
19.
1Fr
eque
ncy
of e
gg c
onsu
mpt
ion
for t
hose
who
eat
egg
s (p
erce
nt).
2In
clud
es ja
m, h
oney
, mar
mal
ade
and
syru
p.
160 NZ Food: NZ People
1In
clud
es o
ther
sav
oury
pas
tries
.Qu
alita
tive
food
freq
uenc
y qu
estio
nnai
re; q
uest
ion
18.
Tabl
e E7
.2M
ISCE
LLA
NEO
US
FOO
D II
Perc
ent c
onsu
min
g at
leas
t onc
e pe
r wee
kSo
ups
Pudd
ings
Conf
ectio
nery
Othe
r foo
dsOt
her
Swee
tM
eat p
ies/
Hom
e-Ca
nned
/pu
ddin
gs/
pies
/Ot
her
Mue
sli
sau
sage
Pota
toCo
conu
tm
ade
pack
etde
sser
tspa
strie
sCh
ocol
ate
conf
ectio
nery
bars
rolls
1Ha
mbu
rger
Pizz
acr
isps
Nut
scr
eam
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
5037
1710
3534
1326
169
3519
3M
ales
15–1
828
3427
2466
6716
5742
1970
132
19–2
430
2816
2452
3414
6347
3052
112
25–4
436
3516
1338
3417
3924
1143
185
45–6
455
3720
1228
289
309
528
252
65–7
469
4222
637
363
162
422
290
75+
6046
169
2028
414
14
714
1To
tal
4436
1914
3835
1338
2111
3820
3Fe
mal
es15
–18
5336
2116
5955
2827
3312
678
419
–24
3344
1611
5443
1728
3012
568
125
–44
4737
147
3433
1316
129
3919
545
–64
6636
178
2424
119
34
1825
265
–74
7140
156
2031
36
12
1421
175
+75
3920
319
303
90
29
200
Tota
l55
3816
733
3312
1511
733
193
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I50
3823
1639
3814
3320
1341
221
II50
3819
1337
3414
3519
1236
182
III36
3115
1338
3510
3722
1141
193
IV38
3515
1339
3112
4624
1036
217
Fem
ales
I57
4218
836
3813
1011
835
201
II60
3914
732
3011
1310
532
222
III56
3515
832
3114
1610
731
153
IV47
3816
833
3412
2114
834
188
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
4135
1815
4036
1340
2312
3920
4Pr
ovin
cial
5039
1912
3433
1434
1511
3718
1Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an52
3815
735
3413
1612
734
184
Prov
inci
al62
3716
829
3212
128
630
201
161Frequently Eaten Foods
Tabl
e E7
.2 c
ont.
MIS
CELL
AN
EOU
S FO
OD
IIPe
rcen
t con
sum
ing
at le
ast o
nce
per w
eek
Soup
sPu
ddin
gsCo
nfec
tione
ryOt
her f
oods
Othe
rSw
eet
Mea
t pie
s/Ho
me-
Cann
ed/
pudd
ings
/pi
es/
Othe
rM
uesl
i s
ausa
gePo
tato
Coco
nut
mad
epa
cket
dess
erts
past
ries
Choc
olat
eco
nfec
tione
ryba
rs ro
lls 1
Ham
burg
erPi
zza
cris
psN
uts
crea
mN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
2331
1417
7053
1874
5515
675
225
–44
2237
816
2425
1440
303
3310
545
+39
2215
1623
255
370
622
311
Tota
l26
3212
1638
3413
5030
741
143
Fem
ales
15–2
427
3823
1669
5621
4540
2062
142
25–4
432
3114
730
3212
2216
740
214
45+
5437
2312
2032
514
74
1717
1To
tal
3634
1911
3938
1227
2010
4017
3Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
21*
24*
11*
14*
52*
31*
8*63
*44
*11
*47
*6*
24*
25–4
445
2713
1731
1317
5628
1251
1544
45+
60*
26*
25*
29*
23*
15*
14*
51*
30*
15*
26*
28*
46*
Tota
l42
2615
1935
1814
5733
1244
1638
Fem
ales
15–2
447
*26
*30
*36
*50
*50
*14
*55
*30
*11
*64
*14
*35
*25
–44
5931
1116
3017
1325
228
4322
4745
+62
*30
*24
*4*
6*5*
3*17
*8*
1*28
*20
*31
*To
tal
5629
2019
3024
1131
217
4519
40N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
3131
2226
5447
1557
4329
5913
025
–44
3735
1813
4136
1839
2313
4420
345
+60
4120
930
307
247
424
240
Tota
l46
3719
1438
3513
3519
1238
211
Fem
ales
15–2
444
4316
1054
4522
2029
1060
60
25–4
449
3914
634
3414
1510
1038
183
45+
7038
176
2326
87
23
1623
1To
tal
5739
167
3233
1312
97
3219
1*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
Qual
itativ
e fo
od fr
eque
ncy
ques
tionn
aire
; que
stio
n 18
.1
Incl
udes
oth
er s
avou
ry p
astri
es.
162 NZ Food: NZ People
163Health
Section FHealthIntroductionThe nutrition-related health of New Zealanders was determined from anthropometric measures,blood pressure and blood assays. The critical body size data in terms of health are body massindex (BMI) and waist to hip (W/H) ratio. Blood pressure provides an indication of the prevalenceof an important cardiovascular disease risk factor. While we have confidence in the trends inblood pressure measurement we note that the equipment used (an automatic electronicsphygmomanometer) in the NNS97 may be a factor which suggests some caution in theinterpretation of these data. All blood assays were conducted by Dunedin-based SouthernCommunity Laboratories (an IANZ accredited laboratory) which follows the Royal College ofPathologists of Australasia quality assurance programme.
Key PointsBody size• Seventeen percent of the New Zealand population (15 percent males, 19 percent females) were
considered obese. An additional 35 percent were considered overweight (40 percent males, 30percent females).
Blood pressure• Twenty-two percent of males and 18 percent of females had high blood pressure (those taking
hypertensive medication plus those with a systolic pressure ≥ 160 mmHg and a diastolic pressure≥ 95 mmHg).
Blood analyses• The mean total serum cholesterol of both males and females was 5.7 mmol/L. Twenty-three
percent of the New Zealand population had total cholesterol levels higher than 6.5 mmol/L.
• Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia affected 6 percent, 3 percent and 2percent of females, respectively.
164 NZ Food: NZ People
F1Body Size Table F1
Anthropometric measurements (height, weight, circumferences, breadths and skinfolds) wereincluded as indicators of health status and to provide a description of the size and shape of NewZealanders.
Height and weightMales on average were 13 cm taller and 12 kg heavier than females. Weight was greatest in the45–64 years group (males 84.6 kg, females 72.7 kg) (Figure A). NZ Måori (males 87.3 kg, females75.2 kg) and Pacific people (males 95.0 kg, females 84.7 kg) were heavier than NZ European &Others (males 78.9 kg, females 67.1 kg) but did not differ significantly in height.
Mean height was greatest in the 19–24 years group (177.4 cm) and decreased in older age groups.The difference in height may reflect a loss of height with age group and/or a trend to an increasein height among younger New Zealanders.
Body mass indexBody Mass Index (BMI) is an indicator of excess weight. The proportion of the population who areoverweight 11 or obese 12 can be estimated from BMI. Thirty-five percent of the population(40.4 percent males, 30.1 percent females) were classified as overweight and a further 17 percentwere considered obese (14.7 percent males, 19.2 percent females). Obesity in the populationincreased with age, peaking in the 45–64 years group (males 23 percent, females 26.5 percent),then declining in the older groups. The proportion of the population classified as overweight washighest in those 65–74 years (males 57.6 percent, females 47.5 percent).
In females, there was a strong relationship between obesity and NZDep96 quartile. Females livingin NZDep96 quartile I areas had the lowest level of obesity (13.1 percent), compared with quartileIV areas (25.4 percent). This relationship was not significant in males. The proportion of thepopulation who were overweight was not associated with NZDep96 quartile.
NZ Måori (males 27.0 percent, females 27.9 percent) and Pacific people (26.2 percent, 47.2 percent)were more likely to be classified as obese than NZ European & Others (12.6 percent, 16.7 percent).The proportion of overweight females was not affected by ethnic group. However, Pacific males
Figure A Figure B
W/H ratio excess
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
Age group (years)
Weight
25–44
45–64
65–74
Mea
n (k
g)
75+
Age group (years)
0
100
15–18
19–24 0
100
15–18
19–24
malefemale
malefemale
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
0%
10%
20%30%
40%
50%
60%70%
80%
90%
11 NZ Maori and Pacific people with 26 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 32 kg/m2 and all other New Zealanders with 25 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 30 kg/m2 .12 NZ Maori and Pacific people with a BMI ≥ 32 kg/m2 and all other New Zealanders with a BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2.
165Health
were more likely to be classified as overweight (59.2 percent) than NZ European & Others (41.0percent) and NZ Måori (30.0 percent). NZ Måori males (30.0 percent) were less likely to be classifiedas overweight than NZ European & Others (41.0 percent).
Waist/hip ratioWaist to hip (W/H) ratio is considered an indicator of cardiovascular risk when the ratio exceeds0.9 for males and 0.8 for females (National Cholesterol Education Program 1994). The proportionof the population with a W/H ratio excess increased with age from the 15–18 years groups (males7.7 percent, females 10.2 percent) to the 75+ years group (72.9 percent, 71.8 percent) (Figure B).With the exception of the youngest and oldest groups, a higher proportion of males had a W/Hratio excess than females. Pacific people (males 66 percent, females 52.4 percent) had the highestprevalence of W/H ratio excess compared with NZ Måori (47.5 percent, 38.0 percent) and NZEuropean & Others (46.8 percent, 34.4 percent).
SkinfoldsThe mean triceps skinfold was 19.5 mm (females 25.0 mm, males 13.9 mm) which was similar tothe mean subscapular skinfold at 20.8 mm (females 23.3 mm, males 18.3 mm). In males, meantriceps skinfold did not change with age group, but mean subscapular skinfold was highest in the45–64 years group (21.0 mm). In females, the highest mean triceps and subscapular skinfolds weremeasured in the 45–64 years group (triceps 28.4 mm, subscapular 27.0 mm).
The mean subscapular skinfold was higher in females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (25.3mm) compared with quartile I areas (21.7 mm).
166 NZ Food: NZ People
F2Blood Pressure Table F2
Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures increased with age as described in other studies indeveloped societies peaking in the 75+ years group at approximately 160 mmHg (systolic) and80 mmHg (diastolic).
Males up to 65 years had higher blood pressure than females of a comparable age.
HypertensionParticipants were deemed to be hypertensive in accordance with the World Health Organization(WHO) cut-off values (≥ 160 mmHg systolic and/or ≥ 95 mmHg diastolic), irrespective of whetherthey were taking hypertensive medication. Under these criteria, 16.5 percent of males and 12.3percent of females were deemed to be hypertensive. Hypertensive levels were lowest in the 15–44years groups and increased markedly with age, peaking at 48 percent to 51 percent in the 75+years groups (Figure A). Twenty percent of the population had high blood pressure when allindividuals who reported taking hypertensive medication and those who were hypertensive wereincluded. This prevalence did not alter across ethnic groups (Figure B).
Close to 10 percent of the population were on some form of hypertensive medication. Of interest,is the observation that 4.2 percent of respondents (males 4.1 percent, females 4.3 percent) whoreported taking hypertensive medication were still hypertensive at the time of their blood pressuremeasurements. Medication of hypertensives was apparently more effective in NZ European &Others (males 6.1 percent, females 6.4 percent) compared with NZ Måori (1.6 percent, 3.3 percent)and Pacific people (1.2 percent, 4.4 percent).
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Hypertension High blood pressure
Ethnic group
Popu
latio
n
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
malefemale
malefemale
NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European& Others
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
167Health
F3Blood Analyses Table F3
The mean total serum cholesterol (mmol/L) of New Zealanders was 5.7 with no differencebetween males and females. Cholesterol levels increased with age group for females, but for malesit peaked at the 65–74 years group before declining slightly. Twenty-three percent of NewZealanders had cholesterol levels greater than 6.5 mmol/L, the level which some internationalorganisations suggest as a cut-off point above which people should be counselled to reduce theircholesterol levels (Figure A). However, in females, proportions among NZ Måori and Pacific peoplewere low (10.0 percent and 11.9 percent respectively) compared to NZ European & Others (25.6percent). Among males, a lower proportion of Pacific people exceeded 6.5 mmol/L (17.5 percent)than did NZ Måori (27.6 percent) or NZ European & Others (23 percent). Metropolitan residents(males 21.4 percent, females 22.0 percent) were less likely than provincial residents (27.4 percent,27.7 percent) to have levels above 6.5 mmol/L.
The overall level of HDL cholesterol in the population was 1.3 mmol/L with females (1.4) havinghigher levels than males (1.2). This trend was also evident among the three ethnic groups. HDLlevels decreased from NZDep96 quartile I areas (females 1.5, males 1.2) to quartile IV areas (1.3, 1.1).
Lipid Guidelines developed by The National Heart Foundation (1996) recommend a total cholesterolof 3.0 mmol/L – 5.0 mmol/L and 31 percent of New Zealanders achieved this guideline. Amongfemales, NZ European & Others were the least likely to achieve this guideline (29.4 percent)compared with NZ Måori (43.8 percent) and Pacific people (60.2 percent) (Figure B). Males in thethree ethnic groups had similar percentages meeting the guideline (NZ European & Others 31.1percent, NZ Måori 26.8 percent, Pacific people 28.7 percent).
The only difference in haemoglobin levels (g/L) was between males (151) and females (135). Males75+ years had a lower mean haemoglobin level (144) than all other age groups.
Ferritin levels (µg/L) of males (190) were substantially higher than those of females (80). Theywere lowest among premenopausal females (38–62) and males 15–18 years (78) and highest amongPacific males (318). Provincial males (206) had higher concentrations than metropolitan males(183). There were no apparent differences by NZDep96 quartiles.
Age group (years)
Figure A Figure B
Total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L Met NHF lipid guideline
Ethnic group
Popu
latio
n
0
100
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
NZ
popu
latio
n
75+
malefemale
malefemale
NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European& Others
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
168 NZ Food: NZ People
The zinc protoporphyrin to haemoglobin ratio (µmol/mol) was higher in females (41) than males(35), which was the reverse of the pattern seen in ferritin concentrations. In females, the ratio washighest among Pacific people (53) compared to NZ Måori (45) and NZ European & Others (40).
Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia primarily affected females (6 percent,3 percent, 2 percent respectively). Prevalence was highest among NZ Måori females (11 percent, 9percent, 6 percent). Males overall were not affected with only 4 percent of the 15–18 years groupand 2 percent of the 75+ years group considered to have low iron stores, iron deficiency and irondeficiency anaemia.
169Health
170 NZ Food: NZ People
1Pe
rcen
tage
of N
Z M
aori
and
Paci
fic p
eopl
e w
ith 2
6 kg
/m2 ≤
BM
I < 3
2 kg
/m2 , N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
with
25
kg/m
2 ≤ B
MI <
30
kg/m
2 .2
Perc
enta
ge o
f NZ
Mao
ri an
d Pa
cific
peo
ple
with
BM
I ≥ 3
2kg/
m2 , N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
with
BM
I ≥ 3
0 kg
/m2 .
3Pe
rcen
tage
with
a W
/H ra
tio >
0.9
for m
en a
nd >
0.8
for w
omen
.
Tabl
e F1
BO
DY
SIZE
Over
- W
/H ra
tioSu
bsca
pula
rUp
per a
rmHe
ight
Wei
ght
BMI
wei
ght 1
Obes
ity 2
W/H
exce
ss 3
Tric
eps
skin
fold
ski
nfol
d c
ircum
fere
nce
(cm
)(k
g)(k
g/m
2 )(%
)(%
) ra
tio(%
)(m
m)
(mm
)(c
m)
Mea
nSE
MM
ean
SEM
Mea
nSE
MM
ean
SEM
Mea
nSE
MM
ean
SEM
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
168.
60.
2174
.50.
3326
.10.
1035
.217
.00.
8441
.419
.50.
2120
.80.
2331
.00.
09M
ales
15–1
817
4.9
0.95
71.2
2.16
23.2
0.63
11.7
12.6
0.81
7.7
13.0
1.07
13.2
1.23
29.0
0.54
19–2
417
7.4
0.75
77.9
1.42
24.8
0.40
34.0
2.1
0.84
12.5
12.2
0.50
14.1
0.66
31.3
0.36
25–4
417
6.4
0.31
81.5
0.67
26.1
0.19
39.2
14.1
0.89
38.1
14.3
0.35
18.5
0.43
32.3
0.16
45–6
417
4.9
0.43
84.6
0.80
27.6
0.23
48.2
23.0
0.94
74.2
14.7
0.38
21.0
0.54
32.6
0.16
65–7
417
1.9
0.52
78.6
0.92
26.6
0.28
57.6
13.9
0.95
77.1
13.1
0.63
19.3
0.57
30.9
0.25
75+
168.
20.
6571
.81.
0225
.30.
3038
.97.
40.
9572
.912
.80.
4518
.00.
7829
.20.
24To
tal
175.
30.
2380
.40.
4526
.20.
1340
.414
.70.
9047
.613
.90.
2218
.30.
2731
.80.
11Fe
mal
es15
–18
163.
30.
6161
.41.
6723
.00.
6323
.55.
30.
7410
.220
.81.
2318
.01.
2227
.50.
6219
–24
164.
60.
8867
.81.
5125
.00.
5617
.717
.20.
7510
.823
.00.
9821
.81.
3029
.40.
4725
–44
163.
60.
2668
.60.
6125
.70.
2225
.717
.10.
7724
.825
.20.
4023
.00.
4730
.10.
1745
–64
161.
50.
3272
.70.
7527
.90.
2736
.626
.80.
8048
.428
.40.
4927
.00.
5931
.90.
2065
–74
159.
00.
5768
.80.
9527
.20.
3447
.522
.00.
8368
.124
.50.
6823
.50.
7830
.70.
2775
+15
6.4
0.59
62.5
1.17
25.5
0.46
33.3
17.3
0.83
71.8
19.6
0.70
17.7
0.81
28.6
0.35
Tota
l16
2.2
0.18
68.7
0.41
26.1
0.15
30.1
19.2
0.78
35.6
25.0
0.28
23.3
0.33
30.2
0.12
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I17
5.5
0.48
79.8
0.96
25.9
0.25
39.0
14.8
0.89
44.9
14.4
0.47
18.2
0.56
31.6
0.22
II17
5.8
0.47
80.6
0.85
26.0
0.26
41.9
14.5
0.91
50.9
13.4
0.39
18.0
0.54
31.7
0.21
III17
5.0
0.43
79.5
0.79
25.9
0.24
41.0
12.5
0.89
45.6
13.5
0.42
18.0
0.56
31.6
0.19
IV17
4.6
0.39
81.9
0.89
26.9
0.26
40.2
16.7
0.90
49.1
14.1
0.39
19.0
0.50
32.3
0.22
Fem
ales
I16
2.9
0.45
66.7
0.69
25.2
0.26
32.3
13.1
0.77
28.9
24.3
0.57
21.7
0.61
29.6
0.23
II16
2.2
0.33
68.5
0.83
26.0
0.29
27.9
19.8
0.78
36.5
25.4
0.57
23.7
0.68
30.2
0.22
III16
2.0
0.33
68.2
0.92
26.0
0.35
30.1
19.6
0.79
34.3
24.8
0.62
22.7
0.72
30.3
0.31
IV16
1.7
0.32
71.7
0.81
27.5
0.30
30.3
25.4
0.80
43.5
25.7
0.43
25.3
0.62
31.1
0.22
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
175.
40.
2780
.20.
5526
.00.
1638
.214
.40.
8946
.214
.00.
2718
.20.
3231
.70.
13Pr
ovin
cial
174.
90.
4181
.00.
7626
.40.
2245
.515
.30.
9050
.813
.70.
3718
.40.
5232
.00.
18Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an16
2.2
0.23
68.6
0.47
26.1
0.17
30.2
18.5
0.78
34.0
25.0
0.30
23.0
0.38
30.3
0.14
Prov
inci
al16
2.2
0.29
68.8
0.81
26.2
0.31
29.9
20.9
0.79
39.3
25.1
0.62
23.8
0.66
30.2
0.25
171Health
Tabl
e F1
con
t.B
OD
Y SI
ZEOv
er-
W/H
ratio
Subs
capu
lar
Uppe
r arm
Heig
htW
eigh
tBM
Iw
eigh
t 1Ob
esity
2W
/Hex
cess
3 T
ricep
s sk
info
ld s
kinf
old
circ
umfe
renc
e(c
m)
(kg)
(kg/
m2 )
(%)
(%)
ratio
(%)
(mm
)(m
m)
(cm
)M
ean
SEM
Mea
nSE
MM
ean
SEM
Mea
nSE
MM
ean
SEM
Mea
nSE
MN
Z M
aori
Mal
es15
–24
175.
61.
1180
.93.
1526
.20.
9417
.417
.40.
8323
.213
.01.
1016
.41.
7032
.20.
6625
–44
174.
70.
5487
.82.
2628
.70.
7236
.322
.20.
9044
.514
.50.
9222
.01.
3834
.20.
4345
+17
2.3
0.89
93.9
2.91
31.6
0.87
33.5
47.4
0.95
81.9
17.6
1.94
27.2
2.08
34.9
0.58
Tota
l17
4.4
0.47
87.3
1.66
28.7
0.53
30.0
27.0
0.89
47.5
14.8
0.73
21.5
1.03
33.8
0.33
Fem
ales
15–2
416
3.4
0.70
69.8
1.94
26.1
0.72
21.8
17.7
0.77
18.0
23.5
1.12
24.6
1.70
30.0
0.61
25–4
416
2.7
0.49
77.2
1.55
29.2
0.53
36.7
28.0
0.80
34.1
26.4
0.88
29.0
1.38
32.1
0.39
45+
159.
50.
9777
.82.
5330
.70.
9938
.439
.80.
8468
.830
.02.
8331
.62.
0832
.50.
54To
tal
162.
10.
4175
.21.
1328
.70.
4232
.727
.90.
8038
.026
.40.
8928
.30.
9131
.60.
30Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
177.
3*1.
78*
101.
8*6.
31*
32.3
*1.
77*
57.6
*30
.0*
0.88
*33
.1*
25.4
*5.
48*
30.5
*4.
86*
37.1
*1.
40*
25–4
417
5.1*
1.26
*93
.8*
2.15
*30
.5*
0.60
*55
.8*
27.4
*0.
92*
74.3
*16
.0*
1.27
*26
.1*
1.76
*36
.2*
0.52
*45
+17
0.1*
0.79
*88
.9*
2.87
*30
.7*
0.98
*69
.7*
18.4
*0.
99*
90.0
*15
.6*
1.07
*24
.6*
1.92
*34
.4*
0.62
*To
tal
174.
70.
8595
.02.
2931
.10.
6359
.226
.20.
9266
.018
.51.
8427
.01.
7436
.10.
52Fe
mal
es15
–24
164.
5*1.
26*
81.9
*5.
56*
30.2
*1.
75*
25.5
*40
.6*
0.76
*25
.4*
26.9
*1.
50*
28.0
*1.
92*
32.8
*1.
60*
25–4
416
1.5
0.60
79.4
2.90
30.4
1.04
34.8
34.0
0.82
53.5
29.8
1.60
34.1
2.18
33.4
0.75
45+
160.
7*1.
34*
97.5
*4.
20*
37.7
*1.
45*
21.6
*78
.4*
0.87
*80
.6*
38.3
*2.
45*
44.3
*2.
67*
39.6
*1.
10*
Tota
l16
2.1
0.61
84.7
2.45
32.2
0.84
28.8
47.2
0.81
52.4
31.1
1.15
34.9
1.52
34.8
0.69
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
417
6.6
0.74
72.2
1.26
23.2
0.34
24.5
2.3
0.82
6.3
11.5
0.42
12.0
0.50
29.6
0.33
25–4
417
6.8
0.35
79.8
0.71
25.5
0.19
38.7
12.1
0.88
35.0
14.1
0.40
17.6
0.47
31.8
0.17
45+
173.
70.
3780
.90.
6126
.70.
1650
.017
.30.
9473
.813
.90.
2819
.80.
3931
.60.
13To
tal
175.
40.
2578
.90.
4625
.60.
1341
.012
.60.
9046
.813
.60.
2317
.50.
2831
.30.
11Fe
mal
es15
–24
164.
10.
7462
.41.
3023
.10.
4819
.48.
30.
747.
421
.30.
9618
.41.
1227
.80.
4525
–44
163.
80.
3066
.60.
6524
.80.
2323
.514
.40.
7621
.724
.80.
4621
.50.
5129
.60.
1945
+16
0.2
0.26
69.0
0.56
26.9
0.20
38.9
21.7
0.81
54.7
25.6
0.36
24.0
0.45
30.8
0.15
Tota
l16
2.2
0.21
67.1
0.43
25.5
0.16
29.8
16.7
0.78
34.4
24.6
0.30
22.1
0.36
29.8
0.13
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Perc
enta
ge o
f NZ
Mao
ri an
d Pa
cific
peo
ple
with
26
kg/m
2 ≤ B
MI <
32
kg/m
2 , NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
s w
ith 2
5 kg
/m2 ≤
BM
I < 3
0 kg
/m2 .
2Pe
rcen
tage
of N
Z M
aori
and
Paci
fic p
eopl
e w
ith B
MI ≥
32k
g/m
2 , NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
s w
ith B
MI ≥
30
kg/m
2 .3
Perc
enta
ge w
ith a
W/H
ratio
> 0
.9 fo
r men
and
> 0
.8 fo
r wom
en.
172 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e F2
BLOO
D PR
ESSU
RESy
stol
icDi
asto
licBP
cat
egor
ies
High
blo
od(m
mHg
)(m
mHg
)(ir
resp
ectiv
e of
med
icat
ion)
2pr
essu
re 6
Med
icat
ion 7
Nor
mo-
Hype
r-N
otM
ean 1
SEM
Mea
n 1SE
M te
nsiv
e 3Bo
rder
line 4
tens
ive 5
Effe
ctiv
eef
fect
ive
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
132
0.4
780.
367
.5%
18.2
%14
.4%
20.0
%5.
7%4.
2%M
ales
15–1
812
02.
066
1.9
93.5
%4.
0%2.
5%2.
5%0.
0%0.
0%19
–24
130
1.5
741.
076
.4%
20.6
%3.
0%3.
4%0.
4%0.
0%25
–44
131
0.7
800.
575
.5%
17.4
%7.
1%8.
5%1.
4%0.
2%45
–64
143
1.1
870.
742
.1%
29.7
%28
.2%
36.1
%7.
8%7.
7%65
–74
155
1.9
861.
126
.3%
35.2
%38
.5%
59.9
%21
.4%
13.1
%75
+16
02.
681
1.3
20.3
%31
.9%
47.8
%65
.5%
17.7
%18
.1%
Tota
l13
70.
680
0.4
61.2
%22
.2%
16.5
%21
.9%
5.4%
4.1%
Fem
ales
15–1
811
21.
371
1.0
99.7
%0.
3%0.
0%0.
7%0.
7%0.
0%19
–24
113
1.0
701.
097
.4%
2.2%
0.4%
0.4%
0.0%
0.0%
25–4
411
70.
675
0.4
90.1
%6.
9%3.
1%5.
3%2.
2%0.
2%45
–64
136
1.0
800.
657
.1%
26.1
%16
.8%
24.9
%8.
1%5.
4%65
–74
152
2.1
791.
435
.2%
28.2
%36
.6%
53.0
%16
.5%
14.7
%75
+16
12.
779
1.6
21.7
%27
.3%
51.0
%72
.5%
21.5
%22
.0%
Tota
l12
70.
676
0.3
73.5
%14
.2%
12.3
%18
.2%
5.9%
4.3%
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
I13
51.
179
1.1
65.7
%23
.2%
11.1
%16
.3%
5.2%
2.3%
II13
81.
381
0.7
60.8
%19
.8%
19.3
%25
.9%
6.5%
5.7%
III13
81.
481
0.8
58.6
%23
.0%
18.5
%23
.0%
4.6%
4.5%
IV13
71.
081
0.6
58.6
%22
.9%
18.4
%23
.5%
5.1%
4.2%
Fem
ales
I12
71.
277
0.6
76.3
%13
.1%
10.5
%15
.8%
5.3%
3.1%
II12
91.
177
0.6
73.2
%13
.8%
13.0
%19
.9%
6.9%
5.0%
III12
71.
475
0.7
71.4
%15
.9%
12.7
%18
.0%
5.3%
4.6%
IV12
71.
175
0.6
72.8
%14
.1%
13.1
%19
.3%
6.2%
4.4%
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
137
0.7
800.
561
.5%
21.9
%16
.6%
21.9
%5.
3%4.
1%Pr
ovin
cial
137
1.1
810.
760
.7%
22.9
%16
.4%
22.0
%5.
6%4.
1%Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an12
70.
776
0.4
74.6
%13
.0%
12.4
%18
.1%
5.7%
4.3%
Prov
inci
al12
71.
177
0.5
70.9
%17
.0%
12.1
%18
.6%
6.5%
4.2%
1Sy
stol
ic a
nd d
iast
olic
pre
ssur
es a
re th
e m
ean
of th
e pa
rtici
pant
s re
adin
gs (m
axim
um th
ree)
.2
Parti
cipa
nts w
ere
clas
sifie
d irr
espe
ctiv
e of
whe
ther
they
wer
e ta
king
hyp
erte
nsiv
e m
edic
atio
nor
not
. Cat
egor
ies
wer
e de
term
ined
hie
rarc
hica
lly a
nd a
re m
utua
lly e
xclu
sive
.3
Nor
mot
ensi
ve: s
ysto
lic <
140
mm
Hg a
nd d
iast
olic
< 9
0 m
mHg
.4
Bord
erlin
e: 1
40 m
mHg
≤ s
ysto
lic ≤
160
mm
Hg, a
nd/o
r 90
mm
Hg ≤
dia
stol
ic <
95
mm
Hg.
5Hy
perte
nsiv
e: s
ysto
lic ≥
160
mm
Hg o
r dia
stol
ic ≥
95
mm
Hg.
6Hi
gh b
lood
pre
ssur
e in
clud
es a
ll pa
rtici
pant
s on
med
icat
ion
plus
thos
e in
the
hype
rtens
ive
cate
gory
(foo
tnot
e 5)
abo
ve.
7Ef
fect
ivel
y med
icat
ed in
clud
es a
ll par
ticip
ants
on
hype
rtens
ive
med
icat
ion
and
not c
lass
ified
as
hype
rtens
ive.
Non
effe
ctiv
ely
med
icat
ed in
clud
es a
llpa
rtici
pant
s on
hype
rtens
ive
med
icat
ion
and
are
clas
sifie
d as
hyp
erte
nsiv
e.Th
e su
m o
f effe
ctiv
ely
and
non
effe
ctiv
ely
med
icat
ed is
the
perc
enta
ge o
fth
e po
pula
tion
on h
yper
tens
ive
med
icat
ion.
173Health
Tabl
e F2
con
t.BL
OOD
PRES
SURE
Syst
olic
Dias
tolic
BP c
ateg
orie
sHi
gh b
lood
(mm
Hg)
(mm
Hg)
(irre
spec
tive
of m
edic
atio
n) 2
pres
sure
6M
edic
atio
n 7
Nor
mo-
Hype
r-N
otM
ean 1
SEM
Mea
n 1SE
M te
nsiv
e 3Bo
rder
line 4
tens
ive 5
Effe
ctiv
eef
fect
ive
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
412
51.
571
1.5
94.3
%4.
7%1.
0%1.
0%0.
0%0.
0%25
–44
135
2.2
831.
958
.5%
24.3
%17
.2%
17.2
%0.
0%0.
0%45
+14
93.
587
2.2
34.0
%26
.2%
39.9
%46
.4%
6.6%
17.7
%To
tal
136
1.6
811.
263
.1%
18.9
%18
.0%
19.7
%1.
6%4.
4%Fe
mal
es15
–24
111
1.3
701.
198
.4%
1.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
25–4
411
71.
876
1.1
85.4
%8.
3%6.
3%9.
2%2.
9%0.
8%45
+15
13.
884
2.5
29.7
%28
.6%
41.7
%49
.9%
8.2%
10.2
%To
tal
123
1.8
760.
976
.0%
11.2
%12
.9%
16.2
%3.
3%2.
8%Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
##
##
##
##
##
25–4
413
3*2.
6*84
*2.
1*62
.4%
*22
.9%
*14
.7%
*14
.7%
*0.
0%*
0.0%
*45
+16
2*5.
0*97
*3.
5*22
.3%
*11
.1%
*66
.6%
*72
.1%
*5.
5%*
19.3
%*
Tota
l13
92.
383
1.8
54.2
%24
.2%
21.6
%22
.7%
1.2%
4.0%
Fem
ales
15–2
411
2*1.
9*72
*1.
6*92
.1%
*4.
2%*
3.8%
*3.
8%*
0.0%
*0.
0%*
25–4
411
72.
173
1.7
91.4
%4.
1%4.
5%4.
5%0.
0%0.
6%45
+14
6*5.
5*80
*4.
7*29
.9%
*31
.3%
*38
.8%
*54
.6%
*15
.8%
*17
.2%
*To
tal
123
2.4
741.
675
.8%
11.1
%13
.1%
17.2
%4.
1%4.
7%N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
126
1.5
711.
382
.1%
14.5
%3.
4%3.
7%0.
3%0.
0%25
–44
130
0.7
790.
578
.8%
16.0
%5.
1%6.
9%1.
7%0.
3%45
+14
71.
086
0.5
36.8
%31
.9%
31.3
%43
.7%
12.3
%9.
2%To
tal
137
0.7
800.
561
.3%
22.6
%16
.1%
22.2
%6.
1%4.
1%Fe
mal
es15
–24
112
1.0
700.
998
.9%
1.1%
0.0%
0.4%
0.4%
0.0%
25–4
411
70.
775
0.5
90.7
%6.
8%2.
5%4.
7%2.
2%0.
1%45
+14
31.
080
0.6
48.7
%26
.5%
24.9
%37
.0%
12.1
%9.
7%To
tal
128
0.7
760.
473
.1%
14.7
%12
.2%
18.5
%6.
4%4.
4%#
n <
25, s
ampl
e si
ze to
o sm
all t
o pr
ovid
e a
relia
ble
estim
ate.
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Syst
olic
and
dia
stol
ic p
ress
ures
are
the
mea
n of
the
parti
cipa
nts
read
ings
(max
imum
thre
e).
2Pa
rtici
pant
s wer
e cl
assi
fied
irres
pect
ive
of w
heth
er th
ey w
ere
taki
ng h
yper
tens
ive
med
icat
ion
or n
ot. C
ateg
orie
s w
ere
dete
rmin
ed h
iera
rchi
cally
and
are
mut
ually
exc
lusi
ve.
3N
orm
oten
sive
: sys
tolic
< 1
40 m
mHg
and
dia
stol
ic <
90
mm
Hg.
4Bo
rder
line:
140
mm
Hg ≤
sys
tolic
≤ 1
60 m
mHg
, and
/or 9
0 m
mHg
≤ d
iast
olic
< 9
5 m
mHg
.5
Hype
rtens
ive:
sys
tolic
≥ 1
60 m
mHg
or d
iast
olic
≥ 9
5 m
mHg
.
6Hi
gh b
lood
pre
ssur
e in
clud
es a
ll pa
rtici
pant
s on
med
icat
ion
plus
thos
e in
the
hype
rtens
ive
cate
gory
(foo
tnot
e 5)
abo
ve.
7Ef
fect
ivel
y med
icat
ed in
clud
es a
ll par
ticip
ants
on
hype
rtens
ive
med
icat
ion
and
not c
lass
ified
as
hype
rtens
ive.
Non
effe
ctiv
ely
med
icat
ed in
clud
es a
llpa
rtici
pant
s on
hype
rtens
ive
med
icat
ion
and
are
clas
sifie
d as
hyp
erte
nsiv
e.Th
e su
m o
f effe
ctiv
ely
and
non
effe
ctiv
ely
med
icat
ed is
the
perc
enta
ge o
fth
e po
pula
tion
on h
yper
tens
ive
med
icat
ion.
174 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e F3
BLO
OD
AN
ALY
SES
Tota
l cho
lest
erol
HDL
chol
este
rol
Haem
oglo
bin
Ferr
itin
Zinc
pro
topo
rphy
rin/
Iron
stat
us(m
mol
/L)
(mm
ol/L
)(g
/L)
(µg/
L)ha
emog
lobi
n ra
tio 1
(%) 2
Iron
Betw
een
Low
iron
Iron
defic
ienc
yM
ean
SEM
> 6.
5 33
and
5 4M
ean
SEM
Mea
nSE
MM
ean
SEM
Mea
nSE
Mst
ores
5de
ficie
ncy 6
anem
ia 7
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
5.7
0.03
23.4
31.1
1.3
0.01
143
0.3
137
3.1
380.
33
21
Mal
es15
–18
4.5
0.15
4.2
72.2
1.1
0.03
150
1.9
787.
335
2.0
44
419
–24
4.9
0.12
4.9
57.3
1.2
0.02
153
1.0
129
9.4
351.
01
00
25–4
45.
70.
0820
.531
.41.
20.
0215
20.
420
06.
835
0.5
00
045
–64
6.2
0.07
35.7
16.9
1.2
0.02
151
0.5
225
12.3
350.
50
00
65–7
46.
30.
1034
.510
.51.
30.
0415
01.
018
713
.135
0.9
00
075
+5.
80.
1620
.721
.01.
20.
0614
41.
720
023
.440
1.5
22
2To
tal
5.7
0.05
23.2
30.6
1.2
0.01
151
0.3
190
5.1
350.
40
00
Fem
ales
15–1
84.
70.
135.
967
.21.
30.
0513
41.
038
3.7
401.
87
66
19–2
45.
00.
115.
451
.51.
40.
0313
40.
947
3.5
411.
04
21
25–4
45.
30.
0512
.242
.41.
40.
0113
50.
462
2.6
420.
67
32
45–6
46.
30.
0635
.513
.11.
50.
0213
60.
699
6.3
410.
96
43
65–7
46.
70.
1357
.98.
71.
40.
0313
70.
814
510
.939
1.1
11
175
+6.
80.
1651
.94.
61.
50.
0413
31.
213
113
.644
1.6
11
1To
tal
5.7
0.04
23.7
31.7
1.4
0.01
135
0.3
802.
641
0.4
63
2N
ZDep
96 Q
uart
iles
Mal
esI
5.8
0.11
27.3
29.1
1.2
0.02
150
0.6
194
11.6
340.
80
00
II5.
70.
0921
.731
.91.
20.
0215
20.
618
68.
434
0.7
10
0III
5.7
0.09
19.7
31.9
1.2
0.02
150
0.7
184
10.7
360.
71
11
IV5.
70.
0722
.929
.81.
10.
0215
20.
519
59.
037
0.6
00
0Fe
mal
esI
5.7
0.07
21.6
34.1
1.5
0.02
135
0.6
784.
241
0.9
52
2II
5.9
0.08
29.0
25.8
1.4
0.02
135
0.6
845.
540
0.7
52
2III
5.8
0.08
24.8
33.0
1.4
0.02
135
0.5
754.
142
0.8
73
3IV
5.6
0.06
18.4
34.6
1.3
0.02
136
0.5
846.
743
0.9
74
3Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an5.
60.
0521
.432
.81.
20.
0115
10.
418
36.
5536
0.4
10
0Pr
ovin
cial
5.9
0.10
27.4
25.5
1.2
0.02
151
0.6
206
7.26
340.
50
00
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
5.7
0.05
22.0
33.5
1.4
0.01
135
0.3
793.
0041
0.4
63
2Pr
ovin
cial
5.9
0.07
27.7
27.2
1.4
0.02
135
0.6
824.
9141
1.0
63
21
Zinc
pro
topo
rphy
rin to
hae
mog
lobi
n ra
tio (µ
mol
/mol
).2
Perc
enta
ge o
f the
pop
ulat
ion.
Par
ticip
ants
wer
e on
ly in
clud
ed in
this
cal
cula
tion
if th
eyha
d a
valu
e fo
r eac
h of
the
follo
win
g: fe
rriti
n, c
-rea
ctiv
e pr
otei
n, h
aem
oglo
bin,
and
zin
cpr
otop
orph
yrin
s. A
lso
thei
r c-r
eact
ive
prot
ein
was
≤ 8
mg/
L.3
Perc
enta
ge o
f the
pop
ulat
ion.
4Pe
rcen
tage
of t
he p
opul
atio
n w
ith to
tal c
hole
ster
ol b
etw
een
3 an
d 5
mm
ol/L
.
5Fe
rriti
n <
12µg
/L.
6Fe
rriti
n <
12µg
/L a
nd zi
nc p
roto
porp
hyrin
> 6
0 µm
ol/m
ol.
7Ir
on d
efic
ienc
y an
emia
; fer
ritin
< 1
2 µg
/L a
nd z
inc
prot
opor
phyr
in >
60
µmol
/mol
, and
haem
oglo
bin;
< 1
36 g
/L (1
5–19
yea
rs m
ale)
, < 1
37 g
/L (2
0–49
yea
rs m
ale)
, < 1
33 g
/L (5
0–69
year
s m
ale)
, < 1
24 g
/L (7
0+ y
ears
mal
e), <
120
g/L
(15–
69 y
ears
fem
ale)
, or <
118
g/L
(70+
year
s fe
mal
e).
175Health
Tabl
e F3
con
t.B
LOO
D A
NA
LYSE
STo
tal c
hole
ster
olHD
L ch
oles
tero
lHa
emog
lobi
nFe
rriti
nZi
nc p
roto
porp
hyrin
/Iro
n st
atus
(mm
ol/L
)(m
mol
/L)
(g/L
)(µ
g/L)
haem
oglo
bin
ratio
1(%
) 2
Iron
Betw
een
Low
iron
Iron
defic
ienc
yM
ean
SEM
> 6.
5 33
and
5 4M
ean
SEM
Mea
nSE
MM
ean
SEM
Mea
nSE
Mst
ores
5de
ficie
ncy 6
anem
ia 7
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
45.
3*0.
16*
10.1
*44
.3*
1.2*
0.06
*15
2*1.
9*14
9*21
.9*
36*
2.1*
0*0*
0*25
–44
6.2
0.33
33.8
23.6
1.1
0.04
150
1.7
233
21.3
361.
30
00
45+
6.4
0.23
34.3
12.4
1.1
0.05
151
1.4
323
31.6
401.
50
00
Tota
l6.
00.
2027
.626
.81.
10.
0315
11.
122
916
.137
0.9
00
0Fe
mal
es15
–24
4.7
0.11
2.4
72.4
1.2
0.04
134
1.5
546.
144
2.1
1412
1025
–44
5.2
0.09
5.7
41.1
1.2
0.03
135
1.1
737.
846
2.0
118
545
+6.
1*0.
19*
30.3
*11
.5*
1.1*
0.06
*13
9*1.
8*20
1*59
.8*
43*
2.6*
5*5*
5*To
tal
5.3
0.08
10.0
43.8
1.2
0.02
135
0.8
9413
.845
1.3
119
6Pa
cific
Peo
ple
Mal
es15
–24
##
##
##
##
##
##
##
#25
–44
6.0*
0.27
*28
.5*
20.4
*1.
1*0.
05*
154*
1.7*
388*
73.7
*41
*2.
5*0*
0*0*
45+
##
##
##
##
##
##
##
#To
tal
5.7
0.17
17.5
28.7
1.1
0.03
155
1.1
318
44.5
411.
60
00
Fem
ales
15–2
4#
##
##
##
##
##
##
##
25–4
45.
10.
176.
258
.91.
30.
0513
82.
073
13.2
545.
12
22
45+
##
##
##
##
##
##
##
#To
tal
5.1
0.19
10.9
60.2
1.3
0.04
137
1.5
809.
553
3.1
44
4N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
es15
–24
4.6
0.11
3.9
67.0
1.1
0.02
151
1.1
986.
734
1.1
22
225
–44
5.6
0.07
18.3
33.0
1.2
0.02
152
0.4
186
5.8
340.
60
00
45+
6.1
0.06
34.4
16.0
1.2
0.02
150
0.5
207
9.5
350.
50
00
Tota
l5.
70.
0522
.931
.11.
20.
0115
10.
318
15.
234
0.4
10
0Fe
mal
es15
–24
5.0
0.10
6.7
51.4
1.5
0.03
134
0.8
402.
939
0.9
21
125
–44
5.4
0.06
13.3
41.8
1.4
0.02
135
0.4
592.
841
0.6
72
245
+6.
50.
0643
.110
.81.
50.
0213
60.
510
84.
341
0.7
43
2To
tal
5.8
0.04
25.6
29.4
1.5
0.01
135
0.3
782.
540
0.4
52
2#
n <
25, s
ampl
e si
ze to
o sm
all t
o pr
ovid
e a
relia
ble
estim
ate.
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Zinc
pro
topo
rphy
rin to
hae
mog
lobi
n ra
tio (µ
mol
/mol
).2
Perc
enta
ge o
f the
pop
ulat
ion.
Par
ticip
ants
wer
e on
ly in
clud
ed in
this
cal
cula
tion
if th
ey h
ad a
valu
e fo
r eac
h of
the
follo
win
g: fe
rriti
n, c
-rea
ctiv
e pr
otei
n, h
aem
oglo
bin,
and
zinc
pro
topo
rphy
rins.
Also
thei
r c-r
eact
ive
prot
ein
was
≤ 8
mg/
L.3
Perc
enta
ge o
f the
pop
ulat
ion.
4Pe
rcen
tage
of t
he p
opul
atio
n w
ith to
tal c
hole
ster
ol b
etw
een
3 an
d 5
mm
ol/L
.5
Ferr
itin
< 12
µg/
L.6
Ferr
itin
< 12
µg/
L an
d zin
c pr
otop
orph
yrin
> 6
0 µm
ol/m
ol.
7Iro
n de
ficie
ncy
anem
ia; f
errit
in <
12
µg/L
and
zin
c pr
otop
orph
yrin
> 6
0 µm
ol/m
ol, a
ndha
emog
lobi
n; <
136
g/L
(15-
19 y
ears
mal
e), <
137
g/L
(20-
49 y
ears
mal
e), <
133
g/L
(50-
69ye
ars
mal
e), <
124
g/L
(70+
yea
rs m
ale)
, < 1
20 g
/L (1
5-69
yea
rs fe
mal
e), o
r < 1
18 g
/L (7
0+ye
ars
fem
ale)
.
176 NZ Food: NZ People
177Have We Changed?
Section GHave We Changed?IntroductionCaution should be exercised when comparing these NNS97 data in this report with previousnational nutrition surveys.
The most recent national survey of nutrition undertaken in New Zealand was the HillaryCommission’s Life in New Zealand (LINZ) survey conducted in 1989 (Russell and Wilson 1991).Specific differences which may affect the validity of comparisons include the following.
1. Change in the ethnic mix of the population. The proportion of NZ Måori, Pacific people andother ethnic groups has increased in New Zealand since 1989.
2. The age structure of the New Zealand population has changed since 1989 with an increasingproportion of older New Zealanders.
3. Methodologies were not identical in the two surveys. Specific differences include:
LINZ NNS97
Sampling Frame Electoral roll Area-based frame
Oversampling New Zealand Måori New Zealand Måori andPacific people
Location of Interview Central clinics Participant’s home
24 hour Diet Recall Paper based Computer basedTwo pass Three passLimited probe questions Detailed probe questionsSingle administration Repeat on subsampleData collected over three Data collected over 12months months
Qualitative Food Frequency Two formats One formatQuestionnaire Few ethnic foods Good choice of ethnic foods
Different questionsDifferent food combinationswithin questions
Not checked with respondent Checked with respondent byinterviewer
Manually coded Electronically scanned
Skinfolds Slimguide calipers Harpenden calipers
Blood Pressure Hawksley Random Zero Omron 706C Smart-InflateSphygmomanometer Monitor
Therefore, only limited comparisons have been presented in this report. Further comparisons willbe made in research papers which adjust for some of the methodological differences.
178 NZ Food: NZ People
Key PointsEnergy and selected foods• Percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen from 37.5 percent in 1989 to 35 percent in
1997.
• While some changes in food choices reflected dietary guidelines (e.g. increased frequency ofconsumption of pasta and rice), other choices did not (e.g. decreased frequency of consumptionof many vegetables).
Health• Mean body weight has increased by 3.2 kg since 1989. Associated with this increase was an
increase in obesity levels from 11 percent in 1989 to 17 percent in 1997.
• Mean total serum cholesterol has decreased from 5.9 mmol/L to 5.7 mmol/L since 1989. Thiswas reflected in the proportion of the population with a cholesterol greater than 6.5 mmol/L,decreasing from 30 percent to 23 percent.
179Have We Changed?
G1Energy and Selected Foods Tables G1.1, G1.2, G1.3
The mean daily energy intakes (unadjusted for intra-individual variation) reported from the24 hour diet recall data for the New Zealand population were higher in NNS97 (males 12.0 MJ,females 8.0 MJ) than the LINZ survey (11.2 MJ, 7.2MJ respectively).
The question of whether this is a ‘true’ increase in energy intake cannot be answered because themethodological and sampling issues (outlined in the introduction) would also be expected toincrease reported energy intake. However, when unadjusted 90th percentiles of energy intake arecompared (LINZ 14.4 MJ, NNS97 15.8 MJ) it can be concluded that there is an increase in theproportion of high energy consumers. (These unadjusted percentile data are not included in thisreport.)
Sources of energy from macronutrients for the New Zealand population have continued to change.Between 1989 and 1997, the percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen, from 37.5 percent to34.9 percent. This trend continues the decrease from the level of about 40 percent reported in the1977 survey (Birkbeck 1983). This decrease in contribution to energy from fat has been observed inboth males and females (Figure A). The contribution of carbohydrate to energy has shown acorresponding increase from 43.7 percent to 46.2 percent and that of protein from 14.8 percent to15.6 percent.
Consumption of selected foodsFoods for which comparable data were available between NNS97 and LINZ surveys, are listed inTable G1. Some of the changes observed were in the direction recommended by the New ZealandNutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelines: an increase in some lower fat cheeses and in highcarbohydrate foods such as pasta and rice (Figure B). Other changes did not complement thedietary guidelines, particularly the decrease in frequency of choice of many vegetables.
Mea
n
Fat contribution to energy
NZ
popu
latio
n
Selected food consumed (≥1/week)LINZNNS97
LINZNNS97
Figure A Figure B
32%
34%
36%
38%
40%
Male Female Rice Pasta0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
180 NZ Food: NZ People
Increase DecreaseFood Food LINZ NNS97 Diff. 2 Food LINZ NNS97 Diff. 2
Category
Dairy Edam/Gouda 9% 20% 11% Cottage/ricotta cheese 18% 5% 13%Ice cream 47% 37% 10%Milk puddings 12% 6% 6%Colby/mild/tasty cheeses 70% 65% 5%
Meat & Fish Sausage/frankfurter/ saveloy 47% 31% 17%Fish/other than fried or battered 30% 14% 17%Luncheon meats 29% 23% 5%
Breads & Pasta 39% 54% 16% Fruit/iced buns 15% 8% 7%Cereals Rice 31% 48% 16%Fruits Pears 34% 47% 14% Raisins 38% 24% 14%
Feijoas 12% 25% 13% Stewed fruit 28% 17% 11%Melon 14% 22% 8% Canned fruit in syrup 30% 22% 7%Bananas 75% 81% 7% Pineapple 18% 12% 6%Grapes 25% 30% 5% Grapefruit 21% 16% 5%
Vegetables Broccoli 41% 59% 18% Green beans 59% 46% 13%Brussels sprouts 15% 19% 5% Pumpkin 63% 52% 11%Capsicum 25% 29% 5% Peas 77% 68% 9%
Cabbage/coleslaw 68% 60% 8%Beetroot 37% 29% 8%Avocado 25% 19% 6%Bean sprouts 21% 16% 5%Celery 31% 26% 5%
Non-alcoholic Carbonated 42% 50% 8% Decaffeinated coffee 18% 7% 11%Beverages drinks
Tea 77% 69% 7%Alcoholic Beer 41% 30% 11%BeveragesMiscellaneous Chocolate 30% 35% 6% Cream filled/chocolate
Other biscuits 49% 40% 8% confectionery 21% 34% 13% Muesli bars 22% 13% 10%
Table G1.1 FREQUENCY OF CHOICE OF TYPE OF FOOD CONSUMED 1
1 Percentage of population consuming more than one serving per week.2 Due to rounding, the difference between LINZ and NNS97 may differ (+ 1 percent) from the difference presented.
All differences are statistically significant.
181Have We Changed?
Tabl
e G
1.2
ENER
GY
IEn
ergy
(MJ)
1
Mea
nSE
M95
% C
.I. 2
Diffe
renc
e 3
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
All
LIN
Z9.
20.
138.
9–9.
4*
NN
S9.
90.
09 9
.7–1
0.1
Mal
esLI
NZ
11.2
0.21
10.8
–11.
6*
NN
S12
.00.
1411
.7–1
2.2
Fem
ales
LIN
Z7.
20.
187.
0–7.
4*
NN
S8.
00.
087.
8–8.
1N
Z M
aori
Mal
esLI
NZ
11.7
1.00
9.8
–13.
7N
SN
NS
12.3
0.47
11.3
–13.
2Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
7.6
0.39
6.9–
8.4
*N
NS
9.0
0.26
8.5–
9.5
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
LIN
Z11
.10.
2110
.7–1
1.5
*N
NS
11.9
0.15
11.6
–12.
2Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
7.2
0.12
6.9–
7.4
*N
NS
7.8
0.09
7.6–
8.0
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n.2
C.I.
= co
nfid
ence
inte
rval
.3
* =
Sign
ifica
nt d
iffer
ence
at 0
.05.
NS
= N
on s
igni
fican
t diff
eren
ce.
182 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e G
1.3
ENER
GY
IIPe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
car
bohy
drat
e 1Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
pro
tein
2Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
fat 3
Mea
nSE
M95
% C
.I. 4
Diffe
renc
e 5M
ean
SEM
95%
C.I.
4Di
ffere
nce 5
Mea
nSE
M95
% C
.I. 4
Diffe
renc
e 5
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
All
LIN
Z43
.70.
2943
.2–4
4.3
*14
.80.
1114
.6–1
5.1
*37
.50.
2537
.0–3
8.0
*N
NS
46.2
0.21
45.8
–46.
615
.60.
1015
.4–1
5.8
34.9
0.18
34.6
–35.
3M
ales
LIN
Z42
.30.
4141
.5–4
3.1
*14
.80.
1614
.5–1
5.2
NS
38.1
0.35
37.4
–38.
8*
NN
S45
.00.
3344
.3–4
5.6
15.4
0.15
15.1
–15.
735
.40.
2834
.8–3
5.9
Fem
ales
LIN
Z45
.10.
3844
.3–4
5.8
*14
.80.
1614
.5–1
5.1
*36
.90.
3636
.2–3
7.6
*N
NS
47.3
0.27
46.8
–47.
815
.80.
1315
.6–1
6.1
34.5
0.24
34.0
–35.
0N
Z M
aori
Mal
esLI
NZ
38.0
1.55
35.0
–41.
0N
S15
.40.
6614
.1–1
6.7
NS
41.0
1.27
38.6
–43.
5*
NN
S42
.40.
9440
.6–4
4.2
16.1
0.51
15.1
–17.
136
.80.
7535
.4–3
8.3
Fem
ales
LIN
Z43
.51.
6840
.2–4
6.8
NS
13.6
0.53
12.6
–14.
7N
S40
.71.
5137
.7–4
3.7
*N
NS
46.7
0.67
45.4
–48.
015
.30.
3014
.7–1
5.8
36.2
0.62
35.0
–37.
4N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
esLI
NZ
42.6
0.43
41.8
–43.
5*
14.8
0.17
14.4
–15.
1N
S37
.90.
3637
.2–3
8.6
*N
NS
45.3
0.36
44.6
–46.
015
.30.
1515
.0–1
5.6
35.2
0.30
34.6
–35.
8Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
45.2
0.39
44.4
–46.
0*
14.9
0.17
14.6
–15.
2*
36.6
0.37
35.9
–37.
3*
NN
S47
.20.
3046
.6–4
7.8
16.0
0.15
15.7
–16.
234
.30.
2733
.8–3
4.9
1Th
ese
figur
es a
re n
ot a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion.
Per
cent
ene
rgy
from
car
bohy
drat
e fo
r eac
h pa
rtici
pant
was
calc
ulat
ed a
s th
e en
ergy
from
car
bohy
drat
e (c
onve
rsio
n fa
ctor
= 1
6.7
kJ/g
) div
ided
by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
2Th
ese
figur
es a
re n
ot a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al va
riatio
n. P
erce
nt e
nerg
y fro
m p
rote
in fo
r eac
h pa
rtici
pant
was
cal
cula
ted
as th
e en
ergy
from
pro
tein
(con
vers
ion
fact
or =
16.
7 kJ
/g) d
ivid
ed b
y th
e to
tal e
nerg
y in
take
.3
Thes
e fig
ures
are
not
adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n. P
erce
nt e
nerg
y fro
m fa
t for
eac
h pa
rtici
pant
was
cal
cula
ted
as th
e en
ergy
from
fat (
conv
ersi
on fa
ctor
= 3
7.7
kJ/g
) div
ided
by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
4C.
I. =
conf
iden
ce in
terv
al.
5*
= Si
gnifi
cant
diff
eren
ce a
t 0.0
5. N
S =
Non
sig
nific
ant d
iffer
ence
.
183Have We Changed?
G2Health Tables G2.1, G2.2, G2.3
Body sizeMean body weight has increased in the New Zealand population from 71.3 kg in 1989 to 74.5 kg.The increase for males and females was 2.6 kg and 3.6 kg respectively. Changes were not significantfor NZ Måori or male NZ European & Others. Female NZ European & Others increased weight by2.7 kg. There was no change in height in any groups compared.
BMI has increased in the New Zealand population and this is reflected in the estimated obesitylevels rising from 11.1 percent to 17.0 percent. This increase has occurred for both males andfemales (Figure A). The increase was significant for NZ European & Others, but not for NZ Måori.There has also been an increase in central obesity (as estimated by W/H ratio excess) from 27.4percent to 41.4 percent of the New Zealand population. This increase has occurred for both malesand females and was significant for NZ European & Others. There was no significant change forNZ Måori. While methodological differences may account for some, they are not considered toaccount for all of the difference.
Serum cholesterolMean total serum cholesterol (mmol/L) has decreased from 5.9 to 5.7 for the population, althoughthe decrease was only significant for females (NZ European & Others 6.1, 5.8, NZ Måori 5.7, 5.3).The decrease in the proportion of the population with a cholesterol >6.5 mmol/L from 30.2 percentto 23.4 percent is beneficial, with the greatest impact on females (33.7 percent, 23.7 percent)(Figure B).
NZ
popu
latio
n
Obesity
NZ
popu
latio
n
Total serum cholesterol >6.5 mmol/LLINZNNS97 LINZ
NNS97
Figure A Figure B
Male Female0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
Male Female
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
184 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e G
2.1
BO
DY
SIZE
IW
eigh
t (kg
)He
ight
(cm
)BM
I (kg
/m2 )
Mea
nSE
M95
% C
.I.1
Diffe
renc
e 2M
ean
SEM
95%
C.I.
1Di
ffere
nce 2
Mea
nSE
M95
% C
.I. 1
Diffe
renc
e 2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
All
LIN
Z71
.30.
2770
.8–7
1.9
*16
8.7
0.19
168.
4–16
9.1
NS
25.0
0.09
24.9
–25.
2*
NN
S74
.50.
3373
.8–7
5.1
168.
60.
2116
8.2–
169.
026
.10.
1025
.9–2
6.3
Mal
esLI
NZ
77.8
0.34
77.2
–78.
5*
175.
30.
2017
4.9–
175.
7N
S25
.30.
1125
.1–2
5.5
*N
NS
80.4
0.45
79.6
–81.
317
5.3
0.23
174.
8–17
5.7
26.2
0.13
25.9
–26.
4Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
65.1
0.36
64.4
–65.
8*
162.
40.
1816
2.1–
162.
8N
S24
.70.
1424
.5–2
5.0
*N
NS
68.7
0.41
67.9
–69.
516
2.2
0.18
161.
9–16
2.6
26.1
0.15
25.8
–26.
4N
Z M
aori
Mal
esLI
NZ
82.3
1.65
79.1
–85.
5N
S17
4.1
0.76
172.
6–17
5.6
NS
27.2
0.59
26.0
–28.
3N
SN
NS
87.3
1.66
84.0
–90.
617
4.4
0.47
173.
5–17
5.3
28.7
0.53
27.6
–29.
7Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
72.2
1.70
68.9
–75.
6N
S16
2.7
0.71
161.
3–16
4.1
NS
27.3
0.61
26.1
–28.
5N
SN
NS
75.2
1.13
73.0
–77.
416
2.1
0.41
161.
3–16
2.9
28.7
0.42
27.8
–29.
5N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
esLI
NZ
77.4
0.35
76.7
–78.
1N
S17
5.4
0.20
175.
0–17
5.8
NS
25.2
0.11
25.0
–25.
4N
SN
NS
78.9
0.46
78.0
–79.
817
5.4
0.25
174.
9–17
5.9
25.6
0.13
25.4
–25.
9Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
64.4
0.36
63.7
–65.
1*
162.
40.
1816
2.0–
162.
8N
S24
.50.
1424
.2–2
4.7
*N
NS
67.1
0.43
66.2
–67.
916
2.2
0.21
161.
8–16
2.7
25.5
0.16
25.2
–25.
81
C.I.
= co
nfid
ence
inte
rval
.2
* =
Sign
ifica
nt d
iffer
ence
at 0
.05.
NS
= N
on s
igni
fican
t diff
eren
ce.
185Have We Changed?
Tabl
e G
2.2
BO
DY
SIZE
IIOb
esity
1 (%
)W
/H e
xces
s 2 (%
)M
ean
SEM
95%
C.I.
3Di
ffere
nce 4
Mea
nSE
M95
% C
.I. 3
Diffe
renc
e 4
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
All
LIN
Z11
.10.
609.
87–1
2.24
*27
.40.
8525
.75–
29.0
8*
NN
S17
.00.
7015
.62–
18.3
741
.41.
0339
.43–
43.4
7M
ales
LIN
Z9.
50.
758.
02–1
0.96
*33
.11.
2530
.63–
35.5
3*
NN
S14
.71.
0612
.61–
16.7
847
.61.
6144
.41–
50.7
3Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
12.6
0.94
10.7
1–14
.39
*22
.01.
1719
.68–
24.2
8*
NN
S19
.21.
0017
.26–
21.2
035
.61.
2733
.06–
38.0
5N
Z M
aori
Mal
esLI
NZ
19.6
4.24
11.2
9–27
.90
NS
32.6
5.34
22.1
2–43
.06
NS
NN
S27
.03.
8019
.54–
34.4
347
.54.
5438
.62–
56.4
4Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
17.5
3.60
10.4
9–24
.60
NS
40.9
5.20
30.7
2–51
.12
NS
NN
S27
.93.
0421
.93–
33.8
538
.03.
1931
.74–
44.2
5N
Z Eu
rope
an &
Oth
ers
Mal
esLI
NZ
8.9
0.75
7.31
–10.
25*
33.1
1.29
30.5
7–35
.65
*N
NS
12.6
1.09
10.4
2–14
.69
46.8
1.76
43.3
3–50
.22
Fem
ales
LIN
Z11
.80.
979.
93–1
3.73
*20
.21.
1817
.90–
22.5
4*
NN
S16
.71.
0714
.65–
18.8
534
.41.
4431
.61–
37.2
71
Perc
enta
ge o
f NZ
Mao
ri an
d Pa
cific
peo
ple
with
BM
I ≥ 32
kg/m
2 , NZ
Euro
pean
and
Oth
ers w
ith B
MI ≥
30 kg
/m2 . T
he LI
NZ
data
hav
ebe
en re
calc
ulat
ed fo
r the
se B
MI c
utof
fs.
2Pe
rcen
tage
with
a W
/H ra
tio >
0.9
for m
en a
nd >
0.8
for w
omen
.3
C.I.
= co
nfid
ence
inte
rval
.4
* =
Sign
ifica
nt d
iffer
ence
at 0
.05.
NS
= N
on s
igni
fican
t diff
eren
ce.
186 NZ Food: NZ People
1C.
I. =
conf
iden
ce in
terv
al.
2*
= Si
gnifi
cant
diff
eren
ce a
t 0.0
5. N
S =
Non
sig
nific
ant d
iffer
ence
.
Tabl
e G
2.3
CHO
LEST
ERO
LTo
tal c
hole
ster
ol (m
mol
/L)
Tota
l cho
lest
erol
> 6
.5 m
mol
/L (%
)M
ean
SEM
95%
C.I.
1Di
ffere
nce 2
Mea
nSE
M95
% C
.I.1
Diffe
renc
e 2
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
All
LIN
Z5.
90.
035.
88–5
.98
*30
.20.
8928
.43–
31.9
3*
NN
S5.
70.
035.
67–5
.78
23.4
0.99
21.4
9–25
.39
Mal
esLI
NZ
5.8
0.03
5.75
–5.9
8N
S26
.61.
1624
.32–
28.8
9N
SN
NS
5.7
0.05
5.63
–5.8
123
.21.
5420
.18–
26.2
1Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
6.0
0.04
5.96
–6.1
0*
33.7
1.34
31.0
4–36
.30
*N
NS
5.7
0.04
5.66
–5.8
123
.71.
2521
.25–
26.1
4N
Z M
aori
Mal
esLI
NZ
5.6
0.13
5.36
–5.8
7N
S22
.64.
6313
.53–
31.6
8N
SN
NS
6.0
0.20
5.64
–6.4
127
.65.
4616
.85–
38.2
6Fe
mal
esLI
NZ
5.7
0.12
5.51
–5.9
6*
22.8
4.15
14.6
6–30
.94
NS
NN
S5.
30.
085.
10–5
.43
10.0
3.32
3.5
1–16
.53
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
LIN
Z5.
80.
045.
77–5
.91
NS
27.0
1.21
24.5
8–29
.33
NS
NN
S5.
70.
055.
59–5
.78
22.9
1.63
19.7
3–26
.13
Fem
ales
LIN
Z6.
10.
045.
98–6
.13
*34
.51.
4131
.75–
37.2
7*
NN
S5.
80.
045.
73–5
.89
25.6
1.37
22.9
6–28
.33
187References
ReferencesAustralian Bureau of Statistics. 1998. National Nutrition Survey: Nutrient Intakes and Physical
Measurements, Australia 1995. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Beaton GH. 1994. Criteria of an Adequate Diet. In: M Shils, J Olson, M Shike (eds.). Modern Nutritionin Health and Disease 8th ed, Vol 2, 1491–1506. Philadelphia: Lea and Feibiger.
Birkbeck JB. 1983. New Zealanders and their diet. A report to the National Heart Foundation of NewZealand on the National Diet Survey, 1977, 2nd ed. Dunedin: Otago University.
Briefel RR, McDowell NA, Alaimo K, et al. 1995. Total energy intake of the US population: Thethird National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988-1991. American Journal of ClinicalNutrition 62 (Suppl): 10 725–805.
Burlingame BA, Milligan GC, Spriggs TW and Athar N. 1997. The Concise New Zealand FoodComposition Tables. Palmerston North: New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research andMinistry of Health.
Department of Health. 1991. Food for Health. The Report of the Nutrition Taskforce to the Department ofHealth. Wellington: Department of Health.
Department of Statistics and Center for Agricultural and Rural Development (CARD), Iowa StateUniversity. 1996. A User’s Guide to C-SIDE. Technical Report 96-TR 31. Dietary Assessment ResearchSeries Report 8.
Dodd KW. 1996. A Technical Guide to C-SIDE, Software for Intake Distribution Estimation. TechnicalReport 96–TR 32. Dietary Assessment Research Series Report 9.
Duffield AJ. 1999. Selenium requirements for New Zealanders. PhD thesis, University of Otago.
Gibson RS. 1990. Principles of Nutrition Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lohman TA, Roche AF, Martorell R (eds). 1988. Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual.Illinois: Human Kinetics.
Ministry of Health. 1999. Taking the Pulse. The 1996/97 New Zealand Health Survey. Wellington:Ministry of Health.
National Cholesterol Education Program. 1994. Second Report of the Expert Panel on Detection,Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel II).Circulation 89: 1333–1432.
National Research Council Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation. 1986. Nutrient adequacy:Assessment using food consumption surveys. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
New Zealand Institute of Crop & Food Research. 1998. FOODfiles: Datafiles of the New Zealand FoodComposition Database, version 9.0. OCNZ 98.
Nusser SM, Carriquiry AL, Dodd KW and Fuller WA. 1996. A Semiparametric TransformationApproach to Estimating Usual Daily Intake Distributions. Journal of American Statistical Association91: 1440–1449.
Quigley RJ, Burlingame BA, Milligan GC and Gibson JJ. 1995. Fats and fatty acids in New Zealandfoods. Palmerston North: NZ Institute for Crop & Food Research and the Public HealthCommission.
Quigley R and Watts C. 1997. Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National Nutrition Survey ofNew Zealand. Wellington: Ministry of Health.
Russell DG and Wilson NC. 1991. Life in New Zealand Commission Report Volume I: Executive Overview.Dunedin: University of Otago.
188 NZ Food: NZ People
Salmond C, Crampton P and Sutton F. 1998. NZDep96. Index of Deprivation. Research Report No.8.Wellington: Health Services Research Centre.
Schofield W, Schofield C and James W. 1985. Basal metabolic rate: Review and prediction, togetherwith an annotated bibliography of source material. Human Nutrition: Clinical Nutrition 39 C(Suppl 1): 1–96.
Statistics New Zealand. 1997. 1996–97 New Zealand Health Survey. Final Report prepared for theMinistry of Health and the Regional Health Authorities. Unpublished.
Swinburn BA, Carmichael HE and Plank LD. 1999. Body Composition in Samoans. Wellington:Ministry of Health.
The National Heart Foundation of New Zealand Dyslipidaemia Advisory Group. 1996. 1996National Heart Foundation clinical guidelines for the assessment and management ofdyslipidaemia. New Zealand Medical Journal 109: 224–32.
United Kingdom Department of Health. 1991. Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrientsfor the United Kingdom. London: HMSO.
Wilson NC and Russell DG. 1998. Overview and Methodology of the National Nutrition Survey.New Zealand Dietetic Association Conference Proceedings Number 3, 31–33.
189Explanatory Notes
Explanatory NotesTables1. All data have been weighted 13, to compensate for sampling bias, in a three step process:
i. determination of each participant’s probability of selection into the survey sample suppliedby Statistics NZ
ii. adjustment of the response rate to correct for differences occurring between days of theweek and months of the year
iii. post-stratification by age, sex and ethnicity to the New Zealand population as at the 1996Census.
2. Cell sizes are included in Table I for the different sections of the survey. When the sample sizein the cell was less than 25 it was considered insufficient to provide a reliable population estimateand the data are not presented. Where the sample size was 25 ≤ n < 50, an asterisk (*) is shownnext to the data to indicate that caution should be exercised in interpretation.
3. In some cases where numbers are insufficient to provide reliable estimates, data are presentedin collapsed age groups only. Examples of this are Tables D3 – D5.
4. Sampling error: The NNS97 used a complex sampling design which involved both stratificationand clustering. It is therefore not appropriate to calculate standard errors using formulae thatassume simple random sampling. To assist readers a guide to the level of sampling error presentin population proportions has been prepared (Table 2). These sampling errors have beencalculated as:
where deff is the ratio of the variance calculated from the actual survey estimate, to the varianceon the estimate had it been calculated assuming a simple random sample of the same size. Sincedeff varies for health characteristics and subpopulations (age groups, sex, ethnic groups etc)within the characteristics an average deff value (calculated over several subpopulations over awide selection of variables) was used in the sampling error equation.
5. Derivation of ethnic group. Where only one ethnic group was given, that category was coded.In cases where participants stated that they belonged to more than one ethnic group, a singleethnic category was assigned to that person using a system of priority recording of ethnicity.The following hierarchical rules 14 were applied:
i. If NZ Måori was one of the groups reported, then the participant was assigned to NZMåori.
ii. If any of the Pacific groups was one of the groups reported, then the participant was assignedto Pacific people.
iii. All remaining participants were assigned to NZ European & Others.
sampling error = 1.96 deff x p(1 – p)
n
13 Weighting is based on participation in the 24 hour diet recall. Although individuals did not necessarily participate in allsections of the survey, only one weight was created (similar to 1996/97 Health Survey). The creation of individualweights for the different sections were considered but rejected, as drop off rates were similar across demographicvariables (e.g. ethnic groups).
14 This system of hierarchical recording of ethnicity was consistent with the 1996/97 Health Survey.
190 NZ Food: NZ People
6. NZDep96. This is an index of deprivation based on the residential address of the individual(Salmond et al 1998). The scale ranges from quartile I to quartile IV, where quartile I representsthe least deprived areas to live in and quartile IV the most deprived areas to live in. See AppendixC for further information.
7. Metropolitan/Provincial. Individuals were classified as living in a metropolitan area if theirresidential address was in an urban centre with a population ≥ 30,000. All other individualswere classified as provincial.
8. SEM. This is the abbreviation used for the standard error of the mean.
TextItalics have been used in the text to indicate actual response choices of participants.
Only statistically significant differences among various groups (e.g. age, sex, ethnicity) have beendiscussed in the text. It was not always possible to carry out an appropriate statistical test becauseof factors such as the complex sampling design, and the distribution of the particular healthcharacteristic (e.g. differences in median alcohol consumption). When this occurs it is noted in thetext.
Differences in nutrient medians were calculated using the following pivotal quantity:
where T1 and T2 are the estimates of the medians from subgroup 1 and subgroup 2 respectively,and S1 and S2 are the standard errors for these estimates. These pivotal quantities were thenstatistically tested for a significant difference by comparing the observed quantity with that of thetwo-tailed normal critical value at the 95 percent level of significance. Refer to Appendix B forfurther information on the nutrient analysis.
Differences in proportions between subgroups (for example percentage hypertensive) wereconsidered to be significant if the 95th percentile confidence limits surrounding the two estimatesdid not overlap. Differences in means (for example height, blood pressure) were also assessedusing confidence limits. Again the difference was considered significant if the confidence limitssurrounding the two estimates did not overlap. It should be noted that testing for a significantdifference between two subgroups using the above method of comparing confidence intervals is aconservative method.
No trend analysis was undertaken, nor was any adjustment made for multiple testing.
FiguresData for age groups have been plotted at the mid-point of each age group.
Q =T1 – T2
S2 + S2T2T1
191Explanatory Notes
192 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e I
NU
MB
ER O
F RE
SPO
ND
ENTS
Diet
ary
Qual
itativ
eN
ew Z
eala
nd24
hou
r die
t rec
all
supp
lem
ents
food
Barr
iers
to p
opul
atio
nus
ed o
ver t
hefre
quen
cych
ange
/ foo
dBl
ood
Bloo
d(‘0
00)
Initi
alRe
peat
last
yea
rqu
estio
nnai
re s
ecur
itypr
essu
reAn
thro
pom
etry
anal
ysis
NZ
Pop’
n (A
ge 1
5+)
2656
4636
695
4617
4576
4609
4379
4420
3369
Mal
es15
–18
9910
926
107
105
107
105
104
6819
–24
152
145
2714
514
214
513
914
111
625
–44
516
759
131
757
746
757
733
738
586
45–6
434
558
882
585
585
585
572
572
463
65–7
411
121
119
211
209
211
206
208
170
75+
5811
514
113
117
113
110
109
81To
tal
1281
1927
299
1918
1904
1918
1865
1872
1484
Fem
ales
15–1
896
137
2313
713
313
713
113
275
19–2
415
720
939
209
203
208
187
188
146
25–4
455
412
0518
611
9911
9111
9711
1211
1586
745
–64
352
667
8366
466
066
263
764
747
165
–74
124
296
4029
629
229
427
328
419
675
+92
195
2519
419
319
317
418
213
0To
tal
1375
2709
396
2699
2672
2691
2514
2548
1885
NZD
ep96
Qua
rtile
sM
ales
IN
/A39
677
396
394
396
391
394
320
IIN
/A43
049
428
425
429
424
422
353
IIIN
/A45
067
447
443
447
440
437
360
IVN
/A65
110
664
764
264
661
061
945
1Fe
mal
esI
N/A
486
9448
548
448
445
746
236
9II
N/A
581
8558
057
457
954
855
242
4III
N/A
663
9366
365
966
362
563
048
4IV
N/A
979
124
971
955
965
884
904
608
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
N/A
1290
294
1283
1274
1283
1249
1250
1001
Prov
inci
alN
/A63
75 1
635
630
635
616
622
483
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
N/A
1856
391
1851
1837
1847
1722
1746
1320
Prov
inci
alN
/A85
35 1
848
835
844
792
802
565
1Re
peat
24
hour
reca
lls w
ere
targ
ette
d at
met
ropo
litan
are
as o
nly.
193Explanatory Notes
Tabl
e I c
ont.
NU
MB
ER O
F RE
SPO
ND
ENTS
Diet
ary
Qual
itativ
eN
ew Z
eala
nd24
hou
r die
t rec
all
supp
lem
ents
food
Barr
iers
to p
opul
atio
nus
ed o
ver t
hefre
quen
cych
ange
/ foo
dBl
ood
Bloo
d(‘0
00)
Initi
alRe
peat
last
yea
rqu
estio
nnai
re s
ecur
itypr
essu
reAn
thro
pom
etry
anal
ysis
NZ
Mao
riM
ales
15–2
445
5613
5653
5652
5134
25–4
467
119
1411
811
611
911
511
787
45+
3693
1290
9190
8888
61To
tal
148
268
3926
426
026
525
525
618
2Fe
mal
es15
–24
4810
110
101
9410
189
9161
25–4
477
248
2224
624
124
522
322
215
545
+39
878
8683
8677
8146
Tota
l16
543
640
433
418
432
389
394
262
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
415
308
2828
2824
2616
25–4
424
5316
5350
5349
4836
45+
1233
833
3333
2931
19To
tal
5211
632
114
111
114
102
105
71Fe
mal
es15
–24
1647
1347
4647
4242
2225
–44
2710
936
109
105
109
9093
5745
+14
355
3532
3533
3316
Tota
l57
191
5419
118
319
116
516
895
NZ
Euro
pean
& O
ther
sM
ales
15–2
419
016
832
168
166
168
168
168
134
25–4
442
558
710
158
658
058
556
957
346
345
+46
678
895
786
787
786
771
770
634
Tota
l10
8115
4322
815
4015
3315
3915
0815
1112
31Fe
mal
es15
–24
188
198
3919
819
619
718
718
713
825
–44
450
848
128
844
845
843
799
800
655
45+
515
1036
135
1033
1030
1028
974
999
735
Tota
l11
5320
8230
220
7520
7120
6819
6019
8615
28
194 NZ Food: NZ People
Tabl
e II
EFFE
CT O
F SA
MPL
E SI
ZE O
N A
CCU
RACY
OF
ESTI
MAT
ED P
ROPO
RTIO
NS 1
Prop
ortio
n 2
Sam
ple
size
5%10
%15
%20
%25
%30
%35
%40
%45
%50
%25
11%
315
% 3
18%
320
%21
%23
%24
%24
%25
%25
%50
8% 3
10%
12%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
17%
756%
39%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
14%
14%
14%
100
5%7%
9%10
%11
%11
%12
%12
%12
%12
%15
04%
6%7%
8%9%
9%10
%10
%10
%10
%20
04%
5%6%
7%8%
8%8%
9%9%
9%25
03%
5%6%
6%7%
7%7%
8%8%
8%30
03%
4%5%
6%6%
7%7%
7%7%
7%35
03%
4%5%
5%6%
6%6%
6%7%
7%40
03%
4%4%
5%5%
6%6%
6%6%
6%45
03%
4%4%
5%5%
5%6%
6%6%
6%50
02%
3%4%
4%5%
5%5%
5%6%
6%10
002%
2%3%
3%3%
4%4%
4%4%
4%15
001%
2%2%
3%3%
3%3%
3%3%
3%25
001%
2%2%
2%2%
2%2%
2%2%
3%45
001%
1%1%
2%2%
2%2%
2%2%
2%1
The
valu
es in
the
tabl
e ar
e 1.
96 x
SE,
ther
efor
e p
+/- t
he v
alue
are
the
95%
con
fiden
ce li
mits
. For
exa
mpl
e, if
30%
of t
he s
ampl
ech
oose
a p
artic
ular
resp
onse
(sam
ple
size
= 1
00) w
e ca
n be
95%
con
fiden
t tha
t the
cor
rect
per
cent
age
lies
betw
een
19 a
nd41
% (3
0% +
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195Appendix A
Appendix ASurvey MethodologyLinking with Health SurveyThe NNS97 was conducted in association with the 1996/97 Health Survey. The 1996/97 HealthSurvey was conducted by Statistics New Zealand and was a nation-wide survey involvingapproximately 9,000 New Zealanders over a 12 month period. At the conclusion of the 1996/97Health Survey interview, individuals were asked to participate in the NNS97. The linkage of thetwo surveys had the potential to significantly enhance the value of both data collections and willprovide a comprehensive picture of the health and nutrition patterns of New Zealanders aged 15years and older. Nevertheless, this approach was not optimal for maximising sample size, sincesome respondents were ‘lost to follow-up’.
Survey DesignAn area based sampling frame was used with a three stage stratified design consisting of a selectionof primary sampling units (PSUs), households within the selected PSU, and a single randomlyselected respondent within a household. A detailed description of the survey design is includedin Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley andWatts 1997).
Survey SampleAs for most surveys, the sample design was influenced by statistical, financial and operationalconsiderations. The NNS97 covered rural and urban areas across New Zealand but was restrictedto persons living in private dwellings. Only one person per dwelling was invited to take part inthe 1996/97 Health Survey and, therefore, in the NNS97. The total number of respondents was4,636, including an oversampling of NZ Måori and Pacific people.
Survey Methods24 hour diet recall: The computer assisted, multiple pass 24 hour diet recall interview was structuredinto three steps (passes) to maximise respondent recall of foods eaten. The first pass, the ‘quicklist’, involved respondents supplying a broad description of all food and beverage items consumedin the previous day (the 24 hours from midnight to midnight). In the second pass, a detaileddescription of each food or beverage item on the quick list was ascertained through a series ofquestions and prompts (generated by the programme) which were specific to each item. The thirdand final step was a review of the recall. Further details about this methodology are included inAppendix B Technical Notes.
Food Frequency Questionnaire: This was a self-administered, qualitative questionnaire whichestimated the frequency of intake of foods over the preceding 12 months or in the case of seasonalfoods, the consumption frequency when they were ‘in season’. This questionnaire also includedquestions on food preparation habits for example, use of fats/oils in cooking. This instrument wasdeveloped and piloted by the University of Otago’s LINZ® Research Unit under a separate contractwith the Ministry of Health. This questionnaire was designed so the data could be electronicallyscanned. A copy of the questionnaire is included in Appendix E.
196 NZ Food: NZ People
Food-related questions: A number of additional food-related questions on dietary supplements,barriers to change and food security were included in the survey. These were asked after the24 hour diet recall and were entered directly into the computer using the LEDDAS® software.
Environmental chemicals: A small number of questions on exposure to dioxins, polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides were included. These data will be reported bythe Ministry for the Environment in a separate report.
Physical measurements: Physical measurements collected were weight, height, circumferences(waist, hip and arm), two skinfolds (triceps and subscapular) and elbow breadth. Blood pressurewas also measured. These data were entered directly into the computer using the LEDDAS®
software. The results of physical measurements were sent to the respondent if requested.
Blood sample: A standard blood sample was taken for the purpose of measuring mean cell volume,haematocrit, haemoglobin, serum ferritin, serum iron, erythrocyte protoporphyrin, white bloodcell count, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol and environmental chemicals.Transferrin receptors were measured on females aged 15–34 years.
Details of the methodologies are included in the Food Comes First: Methodologies for the NationalNutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and Watts 1997). This document can be downloadedfrom the Ministry of Health Web site at http://www.moh.govt.nz
Quality Control of DataQuality control of the data was of primary concern and the difficulty of maintaining the controlwas compounded by the fact that data collection covered a 12 month period, 16 different sets ofequipment were used, 49 different people were involved in data collection and staff were basedthroughout New Zealand. A number of different data quality control initiatives including ongoingstaff training and monitoring, use of computer-based data capture, equipment calibration, on-going review of interview data and telephone checks were thus required. Details of these proceduresare described in Wilson and Russell (1998).
Collection of DataThe survey data were collected in the homes of respondents by two trained interviewers.
Respondent BurdenThis was an important consideration in the design of the NNS97 methodologies. The constraintsof a survey setting are different from those of clinical and epidemiological settings. The NNS97respondents were selected by Statistics New Zealand according to the procedures outlined above,so that survey results could be generalised to the New Zealand population. The methods weredeveloped to be efficient and to burden the respondent as little as possible, both in terms of timeand effort. Respondents in the 1996/97 Health Survey and the NNS97 were visited in their homeson different occasions by different interviewers for two lengthy interviews. Because participationwas voluntary, most respondents whom NNS97 interviewers encountered were motivated andcomfortable about participating.
Ethical IssuesEthical approval for the survey was granted by 14 ethics committees throughout New Zealand.Participation in the survey was voluntary, and written consent before the interview began wasrequired from the respondent, or from the guardian of respondents under 18 years.
197Appendix A
New Zealand Maori and Pacific People ConsultationThe NNS97 project team’s NZ Måori principal investigator, Dr Papaarangi Reid, was supportedby Consultants Professor Mason Durie, medical consultant of Te Pumanawa Hauora Måori HealthResearch Unit, Massey University, and Ms Druis Barrett, President of the Måori Women’s WelfareLeague. Bishop Bennett was also involved through the Måori Statistical Forum which had inputvia the Ministry of Health. The principal investigator for Pacific people was Dr Colin Tukuitonga,Måori and Pacific Health Unit, University of Auckland, with individuals from each of the mainPacific groups providing advice, guidance and support for the project team and the field staff.Local New Zealand Måori support people were also involved.
Response AnalysisThe response rate for the 1996/97 Health Survey was 73.8 percent (Statistics NZ 1997). Of thoserespondents to the 1996/97 Health Survey who were asked to consent to having their personalinformation (name, address, telephone number) passed to the University of Otago for contactingto participate in the NNS97, 80.2 percent agreed (n = 5,613).
Four thousand six hundred and thirty six completed the 24 hour diet recall and 977 did notparticipate for the following reasons:
698 refused
147 unable to be located
100 completed the qualitative food frequency questionnaire
27 ill
5 deceased.
Statistics NZ (personal communication Feb 1998) calculated this as a response rate of 84.7 percent,allowing for the survey design.
The overall response rate taking into account the three step procedure for recruitment of participantswas 50.1 percent.
Survey Non ResponseThere are several types of bias that can occur in surveys. Selection bias occurs when particularsubgroups of the population do not respond in the same proportion as other subgroups in thepopulation. This may then cause biased survey estimates of collected variables. For example, arepresentative sample size of 500 is selected from a population to investigate nutrient intake.Suppose also that 400 people from this sample are considered to have excellent health, while 100are considered to have poor health. Selection bias through non-response will occur if, for example,75 percent of the people with excellent health respond but only 30 percent of the people with poorhealth respond. When estimates of nutritional variables are calculated (such as usual daily meanenergy intake) they may be biased towards a healthy population.
NNS97 was ‘piggybacked’ on the 1996/97 Health Survey. This meant that participants of the1996/97 Health Survey were also asked to participate in NNS97. There were therefore three stagesat which participants could drop out. Initially, they could refuse to participate in the 1996/97Health Survey. If they did participate in the 1996/97 Health Survey they could refuse to have theirname passed on to the University of Otago for participation in the NNS97. Finally, participants of
198 NZ Food: NZ People
the 1996/97 Health Survey who initially agreed to participate in the NNS97 could refuse whencontacted.
Information was not available to investigate non-response of those who did not participate in the1996/97 Health Survey, and chose not to participate in the NNS97. However, information wasavailable to investigate non-response of those who participated in the 1996/97 Health Survey, butthen chose not to participate in the NNS97. Non-response for this group of people wasinvestigated by selecting particular variables collected from the 1996/97 Health Survey that werethought to be related to diet, for example, age group, ethnic group, sex, marital status, labourforce status, smoking status. Response rates to each variable were then compared between thetwo surveys. It was found from this analysis that for the variables selected the two samples werevery similar, suggesting the NNS97 sample had similar characteristics to the 1996/97 Health Surveysample.
199Appendix B
Appendix B Technical NotesDevelopment of 24 Hour Diet Recall MethodologyThe first step in the development of this methodology was to review the use of methodologies inuse in other large national surveys. The 24 hour diet recall methodology is widely regarded as theonly suitable dietary survey methodology to be used in national surveys which aim to determinethe food and nutrient intake of the population. Following the decision to collect the data in thehome, a decision was made to use methodology similar to that which the Australians used in their1995 National Nutrition Survey. This was refined from the methodology used by the ContinuingSurvey of Food Intakes of Individuals 1994-96 (CSFII) of the United States Department ofAgriculture (USDA). Permission was granted to use and adapt the instruments and associatedbooklets used in the Australian survey. This methodology was further developed and modifiedby the LINZ® Research Unit’s NNS97 Project Team to New Zealand conditions and adapted to adirect computer data entry system (the LINZ® Electronic Dietary Data Acquisition System –LEDDAS©).
The computer assisted, multiple pass 24 hour diet recall interview was structured into three steps(passes) to maximise respondent recall of foods eaten. The first pass, the ‘quick list’, involvedrespondents supplying a broad description of all food and beverage items consumed in the previousday (the 24 hours from midnight to midnight).
In the next stage, a detailed description of each food or beverage item on the quick list wasascertained through a series of programme-controlled questions and prompts specific to eachitem. Questions for each item included: time of consumption, amount eaten, any additions madeprior to consumption (i.e. eaten in combination with other foods, for example, potatoes with butter),the cooking method, fats used in preparation and recipe where appropriate. If the respondent didnot know the recipe of a mixed item, probe questions about ingredients likely to influence the fatcontent of the food (for example type of fat, milk, yoghurt and/or cheese used) were asked. If therespondent was able to supply some information about these ingredients it was used to modify astandard recipe (see nutrient analysis section).
For any foods from a category where fortification was permitted, brand and product names wererequested. Where the respondent had the packaging available, a bar code scanner was used torecord information directly. The amount of food or beverages consumed was described by volumeusing cups, spoons, food photographs and shape dimensions. Alternatively, a help file was availablecontaining weights of common servings or measures of specified items (e.g. one slice of bread)and conversions from the raw to cooked form. When the respondent supplied a recipe the amountof each ingredient was obtained and the portion of the whole dish eaten was recorded.
The third and final pass was a review of the recall. The interviewer read aloud the foods eaten inchronological order and verified the descriptions and amounts consumed with the respondent. Afinal question checked whether anything had been omitted from the recall. Any information thatwas forgotten or incorrectly entered was added or edited at this stage, although editing facilitieswere available throughout the recall. Entry errors were minimised by warning messages, forexample, seeking confirmation of unusually large volumes or amounts of the food eaten.
A comprehensive food list, which comprised all of the known foods and beverages available forconsumption in New Zealand, was contained within the programme. Foods eaten were entered ina format consistent with the names used in this list to produce standardised descriptions. Theseries of item specific questions in the second pass of the recall ensured food items were describedin sufficient detail to enable accurate matching with food composition data. This minimised possible
200 NZ Food: NZ People
variation between interviewers as they were read from the computer screen to respondents. Anotepad function allowed interviewers to record any additional information about foods eaten bythe respondent.
Dietary AnalysisNutrient AnalysisFood and beverages from the 24hr diet recall were electronically matched to food compositiondata to calculate nutrient intake. The primary source of food composition information was theNew Zealand Food Composition Database (NZFCD) which contains the composition ofapproximately 2,000 foods and was compiled by Crop and Food Research Ltd (1998). Detailedfood composition analytical techniques for nutrients included in the NZFCD are in Burlingame etal (1997). Table I provides an outline of the analytical techniques. If a direct match with informationin the NZFCD was not available and the frequency of use was high relative to other foods, additionalnutrient composition data was sought either from overseas databases (Australian, USDA andBritish) if applicable, or the food item was prioritised for New Zealand analysis.
When a food or beverage could not be completely described by the respondent (for example theperson had milk but did not know the type) it was matched to a composite of the various types ofmilk weighted to reflect use reported in the survey.
Foods that were fortified at the commencement of data collection (2 December 1996) were identifiedby the New Zealand Therapeutic Database (NZTD) which obtained fortificant levels from themanufacturer. Crop and Food Research Ltd (CFR) then incorporated these levels into existingnutrient information for the corresponding food to create brand and product name specific nutrientcomposition. Products fortified during the 12 month survey period or changes in fortificant levelscould not be taken into account due to an unknown and variable time lag between a change inmanufacturing procedure and product consumption.
If a recipe could not be supplied for a mixed food item eaten it was matched to a standard recipe.Preparation of ‘standard recipes’ was carried out by examination of appropriate recipes from theAustralian survey and checking commonly used recipes from top selling New Zealand cook books.Modifications were made to standard recipe ingredients to correspond with frequent responses tothe ingredient probe questions (e.g. type of fat, milk, yoghurt and/or cheese used). These modifiedrecipes were matched to mixed food items where the respondent, although unable to supply theentire recipe, had been able to give some ingredient information in response to the probe questions.The nutrient composition of these recipes, allowing for weight and nutrient loss in cooking, wascalculated by CFR.
Dietary SourcesFood items reported as consumed in the 24hr diet recall, have been allocated to groups to calculatedietary sources of nutrients. Table II outlines the groups and illustrates the designation of fooditems. The following issues require explanation:
1. Grouping of components of mixed dishes: Respondents who consumed a mixed dish, such asmacaroni cheese, may or may not have known the recipe. If the recipe was supplied by therespondent the ingredients were entered individually i.e. each ingredient was separatelyallocated to the appropriate group. When the exact recipe was unknown, information regardingcontent was sought from the participant, for example, whether meat was added to the macaronicheese, in order to identify which recipe provided the best nutrient match. In this situationwhere there was nutrient composition information only for the dish as a whole, it was grouped
201Appendix B
accordingly. For example, macaroni cheese would be assigned to ‘grains and pasta’ since pastais the main ingredient.
2. Alcoholic beverages: These were considered as an aggregate group for all analyses, except sourcesof alcohol, where the sub-groups have been used to examine the contribution of the variousbeverage types to alcohol intake.
3. Comparisons of dietary sources of nutrients with results of the 1989 Life in New Zealand (LINZ) survey:While many of the groups are essentially the same as those used in the LINZ survey, foodconsumption patterns have changed considerably in the last eight years and a new food groupclassification was required. Consequently, food items may fall into different groups and directcomparison of results warrants caution. Asterisks (*) in Table II indicate that this is not a directlycomparable group to 1989.
C-SIDE – Software for Intake Distribution EstimationIt is important to assess the distribution of a population’s usual intake for a particular dietarycomponent (for example protein intake), where usual intake of that nutrient for an individual isdefined as the long-run average for that individual. The distribution of a dietary component basedon an individual’s one day intake is wider than that of individual’s usual intake, since anindividual’s day-to-day diet is likely to be highly variable.
The software package C-SIDE (developed by Iowa State University) was used in the NNS97 toestimate the distribution of usual intakes of dietary components. This software can be used whendaily intake observations are repeated at least once on a subsample of the individuals in thepopulation.
To estimate the distribution of usual intakes of a dietary component an assumption that the datais normally distributed is required. Nutrient data is generally non-normal, and can be particularlyextreme in some nutrients (for example retinol, vitamin A). To remedy this problem C-SIDE usesa combination of a power and grafted polynomial transformation.
The method used by C-SIDE to estimate usual intake distributions consists of the four major tasks:preliminary data adjustments, semiparametric transformation to normality, estimation of withinand between individual variances for intakes, and finally back transformation into the originalscale. These tasks, described below, are summaries of those found in the C-SIDE User’s Guide.Detailed information describing the C-SIDE methodology can be found in Nusser et al (1996) andDodd (1996).
a. Preliminary data adjustmentsPreliminary data adjustments include shifting observed intake data by a small amount awayfrom zero, incorporating survey weights by creating an equal weights sample, and correctingfor the effect of sample day (first versus all the rest) on the mean and variance of the distributionof observed intakes.
202 NZ Food: NZ People
Table I: Analytical Techniques for Nutrients*
Nutrient INFOODS Units Description/synonym/methodTagname1
Energy ENERC kJ Energy, calculated (protein = 16.7 kJ/g; totalfat = 37.7 kJ/g; available carbohydrate =16.7 kJ/g; alcohol = 29.3 kJ/g).
Protein PROCNT g Protein, calculated from total nitrogen; generallyFAO/WHO conversions factors.
Total fat FAT g Total fat/total lipid; several methods depending onfood matrix.
Saturated fat FASAT g Sum of individual saturated fatty acids; GC ofmethyl esters.
Monounsaturated fat FAMS g Sum of individual monounsaturated fatty acids; GC ofmethyl esters.
Polyunsaturated fat FAPU g Sum of individual polyunsaturated fatty acids; GC ofmethyl esters.
Cholesterol CHOLE mg Cholesterol, GC.
Carbohydrate CHOAVL g Available carbohydrate; sum on mono-, di- and oligo-saccharides, starch and glycogen; or enzymicdigestion and colorimetry.
Dietary fibre PSACNS g Non-starch polysaccharides/fibre; Englyst method.
Insoluble non-starch PSACNSI g Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides; Englystpolysaccharides method.
Soluble non-starch PSACNSS g Soluble non-starch polysaccharides; Englyst method.polysaccharides
Total sugars SUGAR g Total available sugars, sum of individual mono- anddi-saccharides; GC or HPLC.
Glucose GLUS g Available glucose, sum of individual d-glucosemonosaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Fructose FRUS g Available fructose, sum of individual d-fructosemonosaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Sucrose SUCS g Available sucrose, sum of individual sucrosedisaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Lactose LACS g Available lactose, sum of individual lactosedisaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Maltose MALS g Available maltose, sum of individual maltosedisaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Starch STARCH g Starch; enzymic digestion and colorimetry.
Alcohol ALC g Alcohol/ethyl alcohol, hydrometer or GC.
Vitamin A equivalents VITA µg Total vitamin A equivalents/retinol equivalents;equals (µg retinol ) + (0.166 x µg β-caroteneequivalents); HPLC.
203Appendix B
1 Klensin JC, Feskanich D, Lin V, Truswell AS, and Southgate DAT 1989. Identification of Food Components for INFOODSData Interchange. United Nations University Press, Tokyo. The up-to-date listing can be found on the World Wide Web[http://www.fao.org/infoods/].
* The information in this table was adapted by R Quigley, Ministry of Health, from Burlingame et al, 1997.
Nutrient INFOODS Units Description/synonym/methodTagname1
Retinol RETNOL µg All trans retinol only, HPLC.
β -carotene CARTBEQ µg Beta-carotene equivalents; equals (µg β-carotene)+ (0.5 x µg other provitamin A carotenoids); HPLC.
Vitamin C VITC mg Vitamin C; HPLC and titration.
Vitamin E VITE mg Vitamin E/α - tocopherol equivalents; equals (mg α -tocopherol ) + (0.4 x mg β - tocopherol) + (0.1 x mggamma-tocopherol) + (0.01 x mg delta-tocopherol) +(0.3 x mg alpha-tocotrienol) + (0.05 x mg β -tocotrienol) + (0.01 x mg gamma-tocotrienol); HPLC.
Thiamin THIA mg Thiamin; HPLC, fluorescence detection ofthiochrome.
Riboflavin RIBF mg Riboflavin; HPLC, fluorescence detection.
Niacin equivalents NIAEQ mg Total niacin equivalents; equals (mg pre-formedniacin (HPLC, UV detection)) + (1/60 x mg tryptophan(HPLC)).
Vitamin B6 VITB6C mg Vitamin B6; HPLC, fluorescence detection.
Vitamin B12 VITB12 µg Vitamin B12; microbiological.
Folate FOL µg Folate, total; radioassay or microbiological.
Calcium CA mg Calcium, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Phosphorus P mg Phosphorus, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Magnesium MG mg Magnesium, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Iron FE mg Iron, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES or dry ashing, AAS.
Zinc ZN mg Zinc, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES or dry ashing, AAS.
Potassium K mg Potassium; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Selenium SE µg Selenium; fluorometry or wet ashing ICP-AES.
Manganese MN mg Manganese; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Copper CU mg Copper; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Table I: Analytical Techniques for Nutrients* cont.
204 NZ Food: NZ People
Food Group Examples of food items includedGrains and pasta* Rice (fried/risotto), flour, pasta (filled/with sauce /lasagne), bran,
wheatgerm, barley, semolinaBread* All types bread (rolls, pita, foccacia, garlic), bagels, English muffins,
crumpets, sweet bunsBreakfast cereal All types cereals (muesli, porridge, puffed/flakes/extruded & bran
cereals)Biscuits Sweet biscuits, crackers, muesli barsCakes and muffins* All cakes and muffins, slices, scones, pancakes, doughnuts, pastryBread-based dishes* Sandwiches, filled rolls, hamburgers, pizza, samosas, wontons, spring
rollsPuddings Milk puddings, cheesecake, fruit crumbles & pies, mousse, steamed
sponges, PavlovaMilk Cow, soy & goat milk, flavoured milk, milkshakes, milk powderDairy products Cream, sour cream, yoghurt, dairy food, ice-creamCheese Cheddar, edam, speciality (blue, brie, feta etc), ricotta, cream cheese,
cottage cheese, processed cheeseEggs and egg dishes Poached, boiled, scrambled and fried eggs, omelettes, self-crusting
quichesButter and margarine Butter, margarine (poly- and mono-unsaturated), butter/margarine
blendsFats and oils* Dripping, lard, canola, olive, sunflower and vegetable oilsBeef and veal All muscle meats (steak, mince, corned beef, roast etc), casseroles/
stews, stir-friesLamb/mutton All muscle meats (chops, mince, roast etc), casseroles/stews, curriesPork All muscle meats (roast, chop, schnitzel etc), bacon, ham, casseroles/
stews, stir-friesPoultry All chicken, duck, turkey and muttonbird muscle meats (breast, leg,
wing etc), casseroles/stews and stir-friesOther meat* Venison, rabbit, tongue, kidney, heart, liver (lambs fry), pâté (liver),
sweetbreadsSausages and processed Sausages, luncheon, frankfurters, saveloy/cheerios, salami, meatloafmeats* and pattiesPies and pasties All pies including potato top, pasties, savouries, sausage rolls, quiche
with pastryFish/seafood All fish and dishes (canned, battered, fingers etc), shellfish, squidVegetables* All vegetables including mixes, coleslaw, green salads, legumes and
pulses, tofuPotatoes and kumara* Mashed, boiled, baked, scalloped etc potatoes and kumara, hot chips,
crisps, hash brownsSnack foods* Corn chips, popcorn, extruded snacks (burger rings etc), mixes
(scroggin)Fruits Fresh, canned, cooked and dried fruitsNuts and seeds* Peanuts, almonds, sunflower and sesame seeds, tahini, coconut milk &
creamSugar/sweets* Sugars, syrups, confectionery, chocolate, jam, marmalade, honey, jelly,
sweet toppingsSoups and stocks All instant and home-made soups, stocks and stock powderSauces* Gravy, tomato & cream based sauces, mint, tartare and cheese sauces,
mayonnaise, oil and vinegar dressings, chutney, marmiteNon-alcoholic beverages* All teas, coffee & substitutes, Milo, hot chocolate, juices, cordial, soft
drinks, waterAlcoholic beverages
Beer All types including reduced alcoholWine White, red, sparkling, mulled, saki (rice wine)Spirits Vodka, gin, brandy, rumLiqueurs and cocktails All types including spirits and mixes, cream basedOther alcohol Wine cooler, cider, alcoholic soda, sherry, port
Meal replacements* Complan, Ensure, Vitaplan
* Not comparable with 1989 LINZ Survey
Table II: Food Groups
205Appendix B
b. Semiparametric transformation to normalityObserved intake data (whether adjusted or not) generally have non-normal distributions. Fornutrients such as vitamins and some micro nutrients, skewness is quite extreme.
Most statistical procedures rely on the assumption of normality. The C-SIDE proceduretransforms adjusted dietary intake data into normality as part of obtaining estimates of usualintake distributions.
The transformation into normality in C-SIDE is done in two steps. In the first step, data aretransformed so that their distribution is as close to normal as possible, by using a powertransformation. However, power transformed data are not necessarily normal. Thus, a secondtransformation which takes the power transformed intakes into the normal scale is employed.This second step in the transformation is nonparametric and is based on a grafted polynomialmodel. The power transformation plus the grafted polynomial function make up thesemiparametric transformation into normality.
c. Estimation of within and between individual variances in intakesC-SIDE uses a measurement error model for observed daily intakes, similar to the modelproposed by the National Research Council Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation(1986). The model states that the observed intake for an individual on any day is equal to thatindividual’s usual intake plus a measurement error. The variance of the usual intakes is thebetween individual variance. The variance of the measurement errors is the within individualvariance, and reflects the day-to-day variation in intakes for an individual.
Estimates for both the within (intra) and the between (inter) individual variances are obtainedunder the measurement error model, under the assumption of normality. The variances areused to estimate the distribution of usual intakes in the normal scale.
d. Back-transformation into the original scaleThe final step in the methodology is to transform the estimated usual intake distribution fromthe normal scale into the original scale. More than “undoing” the transformation into normalityby applying the inverse transformation is required because the original transformation isnonlinear. The inverse transformation makes an adjustment for the fact that the mean of anonlinear function of a random variable is not the nonlinear function of the mean. The inversetransformation is based on an approximation to the mean function. This back-transformation iscalled mean transformation, since it brings the distribution of usual intakes (true individualmeans) back into the original scale.
The programme estimates statistics of interest from the estimated usual intake distribution. Forexample, estimates for the mean and the variance of the usual intake distribution for a nutrient,for a set of percentiles, or for the proportion of the population below (or above) a given thresholdare available.
206 NZ Food: NZ People
Adequacy of nutrient intake (probability analysis)The adequacy of vitamin A, riboflavin, folate, vitamin B12, vitamin C, iron, calcium and zincintakes were evaluated by probability analysis (National Research Council Subcommittee onCriteria for Dietary Evaluation 1986). Comparison with the mean requirement (short-cut probabilityapproach) was used to evaluate the intake of these nutrients except iron intakes in menstruatingfemales which were evaluated using full probability analysis (see below). Nutrient requirementsformulated by the United Kingdom Panel on Dietary Reference Values (UK Department of Health1991) were used in the analysis (Table III). Vitamin E, copper, manganese, selenium, phosphorusand potassium intakes could not be evaluated by probability analysis, as there were no suitablemean requirement estimates. Niacin, thiamin and vitamin B6 could not be evaluated by probabilityanalysis, because the mean requirement estimates are based on a ratio, for example, vitamin B6 is13 µg/g protein. The current C-SIDE programme does not allow for ratios to be adjusted for intra-individual variation.
Probability analysis compares nutrient intakes with the corresponding requirement distributionand calculates the likelihood (probability) that a particular nutrient intake would fail to meetrequirement. Lower nutrient intakes are associated with a higher probability of inadequacy asthey are less likely to meet requirement, while higher nutrient intakes have a low probability ofinadequacy.
To perform full probability analysis it is necessary to know the distribution of requirements(symmetry, mean and standard deviation) or to be able to make a reasonable assumption aboutthe distribution. It is reasonable to assume that the distribution of requirements for most nutrientsis normal. The only nutrient for which there is evidence to the contrary is iron requirements inmenstruating females, which are positively skewed. Each nutrient intake is compared to therequirement distribution and the area under the requirement distribution to the right of the intakevalue is the probability that intake is inadequate to meet requirement. The probabilities are thenaveraged to obtain the percentage of the population with inadequate intakes.
The probability approach has been criticised because the variation in requirement (standarddeviation) is not known for many nutrients. However, it has been demonstrated that when therequirement distribution is symmetrical (not necessarily normal) the probability approach isrelatively insensitive to the variance of requirement (National Research Council 1986). Providedthe intake distribution is wider than the requirement distribution, the mean requirement is known,and a symmetrical (not necessarily normal) distribution can be reasonably assumed; the percentageof the population with intakes below the mean requirement will approximate the prevalence ofinadequate intakes determined by full probability analysis (Beaton 1994). In other words, for thosewhose intake is below the mean requirement, the prevalence of inadequacy is over-estimated, andfor those whose intake is above the mean requirement the prevalence is underestimated, as therequirement distribution is symmetrical and the errors of over- and under-estimation tend to canceleach other out.
207Appendix B
Nutrient EAR Basis of requirement
Vitamin A 500 µg RE males Supports all vitamin A dependent400 µg RE females functions & maintains liver storesfor all age groups
Riboflavin 1.0 mg males Saturation of tissues with riboflavin0.9 mg females
for all age groupsFolate 150 µg Adequate red blood cell folate &
for all age and sex groups liver storage levels (NOT therequirement to prevent neural tubedefects)
Vitamin B12 1.25 µg Maintains liver storesfor all age and sex groups
Vitamin C 25 mg Mid-point between requirement tofor all age and sex groups prevent scurvy & intake which
produces measurable plasmaconcentrations
Iron 8.7 mg males 15-18 years Maintains normal clinical function6.7 mg males 19+ years and supply of iron to tissues
5.7 mg non-menstruating females** (includes menstrual loss in womenMenstruating females*** : Iron intakes of child-bearing age)
were converted to absorbed iron(assuming 15 percent absorption). Basal losses of 0.86 mg were subtracted fromthe absorbed iron intakes.These values
were log transformed & comparedwith the log normalised distribution
of menstrual iron losses (-0.734 mean, 0.777 SD, log units)
Calcium 750 mg males 15-18 years Support growth and match any625 mg females 15-18 years obligatory losses
525 mg males & females 19+ years
Zinc 7.3 mg males Match losses5.5 mg females
for all age groups
* The EARs are from the UK Dietary Reference Values (1991)** The requirement of 5.7 mg differs from the published UK value (6.7 mg) as the UK had incorrectly assigned
the same basal loss to men and women over 50 years (G Beaton, personal communication)*** The assumption has been made that all women under 45 years are menstruating and all women 45+ years
are not menstruating.
Table III: Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) per day used in the Probability Analysis*
208 NZ Food: NZ People
The requirement estimates from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values (United KingdomDepartment of Health 1991) were chosen as they are currently the only recommendations whichdocument the mean requirement (with the exception of some FAO/WHO reports) and they havebeen formulated more recently than the Australian Recommended Nutrient Intakes. As the UnitedKingdom diet is similar to the New Zealand diet in factors affecting requirement estimates (e.g.intake of animal products), the United Kingdom nutrient requirements may be applied to theNew Zealand population. The mean requirements and the criteria the requirements are intendedto satisfy are presented in Table III.
The probability of intake being inadequate was calculated using nutrient intakes first adjusted toremove the effects of day to day (intra-individual) variation. Details of this methodology areincluded in the previous section on C-SIDE. This is important because on any given day a numberof people will have unusually low or high intakes, which are not reflective of their ‘usual’ intake.Nutrient requirements, however, represent the required long-term average (usual) intakes, notamounts that must be consumed each day. Without adjusting for intra-individual variation theprevalence of inadequate intakes would be over- or under-estimated depending on where theintake distribution lies in relation to the requirement distribution.
Evaluating nutrient intakes by probability analysis is preferable to making direct comparisonswith recommended intakes as the variation in requirement between individuals is taken intoaccount (National Research Council 1986). Directly comparing nutrient intakes with recommendedintakes fails to recognise that the recommended intakes are devised to be sufficient to meet theneeds of almost all healthy individuals. Consequently, an individual may still meet their ownrequirement although not consuming the recommended intake.
When interpreting the prevalence of inadequate intakes it is important to note:
• The prevalence of inadequate intakes reflects the criterion on which requirement is based.For example, if the requirement for nutrient X is based on maintaining body stores (assumingnormal losses) and it is estimated 15 percent of the population have inadequate intakes; thisindicates 15 percent are not consuming enough nutrient X to maintain body stores but does notindicate functional impairment or a deficiency disorder. It also does not indicate which specificindividuals in the population have inadequate intakes to maintain their body stores. Table IIIoutlines the criteria on which the requirement estimates were based.
• Accurate assessment of whether dietary intakes are adequate requires a combination ofbiochemical, anthropometric and dietary measurements. The estimates of the prevalence ofinadequate intakes serve to highlight areas which may be of concern. However, the body ishighly adaptable and enhances the absorption and/or decreases the obligatory losses of manynutrients if dietary intake is inadequate. Conversely, it is possible that dietary intake appearsadequate but due to a high content of absorption inhibitors in the diet and/or high nutrientlosses (due to physiological or pathological factors), a deficiency results. In addition, errors inthe nutrient intake data (from over- or under-reporting and the translation of food into nutrientintakes) introduce error into the estimates of the prevalence of inadequate intakes. Therefore,biochemical and anthropometric measurements are required to accurately determine nutritionalstatus as the net effect of dietary intake and the body’s response must be taken into account(Gibson 1990).
209Appendix B
Under-reportingUnder-reporting is an acknowledged problem in all types of dietary surveys. A common methodof estimating under-reporting is to calculate the ratio of energy intake to basal metabolism. Basalmetabolic rate (BMR) is most frequently computed based on height and weight using the agespecific formulas of Schofield, Schofield & James (1985). The Australian Survey (Australian Bureauof Statistics 1998) used a formula based on weight only. However, the population on which theSchofield equations were developed was ‘normal’ (to a maximum weight of 84 kg) and not obese.Extrapolating the calculation of BMR for weights beyond 84 kg has an inherent error as theassumption being made is that Lean Body Mass (the primary determinant of BMR) increases inproportion to absolute mass. Over 25 percent of this survey population had a weight exceeding 84kg, and thus further work will be required before an appropriate BMR can be calculated for the84+ kg group, and an accurate estimation of under-reporting calculated.
210 NZ Food: NZ People
211Appendix C
Appendix C Glossary of Terms
Blood Pressure: Blood pressure was measured using an Omron 706c smart-inflate blood pressuremonitor. A large cuff was used for individuals with an upper arm circumference greater than32 cm. The measurement was repeated three times and the measurements averaged.
BMI: Body Mass Index is an indicator of body fatness. It is calculated from the formula weight/height2 where weight is in kilograms and height in metres.
Cholesterol (Serum Concentrations): These data were provided by Southern CommunityLaboratories who used an enzymatic method for total cholesterol (Boehringer Mannheim, on aHitachi 717 automated analyser). High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol was measureddirectly using PEG modified enzymes (cholesterol esterase and cholesterol oxidase) linked to aperoxidase colorimetric reaction (Boehringer Mannheim). These methods were operated withInternational Accreditation New Zealand approved internal quality control procedures andunderwent fortnightly peer review through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia QualityAssurance programme.
C-reactive Protein: The C-reactive protein was measured by Southern Community Laboratoriesusing nephelometry on a Behring Nepelometer (BNA). This method was operated in accordancewith International Accreditation New Zealand approved quality control procedures and peerreviewed through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Quality Assurance programme.
C-SIDE: This is the abbreviation for the Software for Intake Distribution Estimation developedby Iowa State University. This programme allows for the estimations of the distribution of usualintakes of nutrients for a population when daily intake observations are repeated at least twice ona subsample of the individuals in the population (Nusser et al 1996).
EAR: Estimated Average Requirement of a group of people for energy or protein, or a vitamin ormineral. About half will usually need more than the EAR; about half will need less. This EARdefinition and values for EAR were sourced from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values(UK DRVs).
Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin: The free erythrocyte protoporphyrin in serum was measured bySouthern Community Laboratories and expressed as a zinc protoporphyrin/haeme ratio using aProtoFluor Z Haematofluorometer (Helena Laboratories). This method was standardised usinghigh and low calibrators as supplied with the Protofluor Reagent Kit (Helena Laboratories).
Ferritin: Serum ferritin was measured by Southern Community Laboratories using a sandwichchemiluminometric immunoassay on a Ciba Coring ACS: 180 automated immunoassay analyser.World Health Organization reference materials were used to standardize the assay which is inaccordance with International Accreditation New Zealand approved internal quality control andpeer reviewed monthly through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Endocrine QualityAssurance Programme.
Food Security: Food security is an internationally recognised term that encompasses the readyavailability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and the assured ability to acquire personallyacceptable foods in a socially acceptable way.
Height: Measurements were made without footwear using a portable stadiometer. Twomeasurements were taken to the nearest 0.1 cm. If these differed by more than 0.5 cm a thirdmeasurement was taken. The height measurement for each individual was the average of the twoclosest measurements.
212 NZ Food: NZ People
LINZ®: Life in New Zealand Activity & Health Research Unit, University of Otago. This Unitmanaged the NNS97 contract on behalf of the University.
LRNI: Lower Reference Nutrient Intake for protein or a vitamin or mineral. An amount of thenutrient that is enough for only the few people in a group who have low needs. This LRNI definitionand values for LRNI were sourced from the UK DRV.
New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) Guidelines: Sourced from Food for Health (Departmentof Health 1991). For example, breads and cereals 6+ servings/day; vegetables 3+ servings/day;fruit 2+ servings/day.
NNS97: The 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey.
NNSTAC: National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee consisting of 12 memberssupported by 18 Ministry of Health officials. The names of these individuals are included in theIntroduction.
Nutrient database: The nutrient composition of foods was supplied by Crop and Food ResearchLtd (Palmerston North) and included the New Zealand Food Composition Data, additionalcomposition data sourced from overseas, brand and product specific food composition of fortifiedfoods, and the nutrient composition of standard and modified recipes used in the survey.
NZDep96: This is an index of deprivation based on the residential address of the individual(Salmond et al 1998). The index is based on eight dimensions of deprivation: income, access to acar, living space, home ownership, employment, qualifications, support, access to a telephone.The usual NZDep96 consists of a principal components score, scaled to a mean of 1,000 with astandard deviation of 100, from which it is broken into 10 equal categories. The Ministry of Healthworked from the principal components score to create four categories (instead of 10) for the 1996/97 Health Survey, and then this NZDep96 category (or quartile) was supplied to LINZ® for theNNS97 analysis. Quartile I is defined as individuals living in the least deprived areas and quartileIV as individuals living in the most deprived areas.
Obesity: This has been defined as a BMI ≥ 32 for NZ Måori and Pacific people and a BMI ≥ 30 forall other New Zealanders (Swinburn et al 1999).
Overweight: This has been defined as a BMI ≥ 26 and < 32 for NZ Måori and Pacific people and aBMI ≥ 25 and < 30 for all other New Zealanders (Swinburn et al 1999).
PCBs: Polychlorinated biphenyls, formerly used in electrical transformers.
PSU: This is a small geographic unit known as a Primary Sampling Unit. New Zealand is dividedinto 18,800 PSUs and most contain between 50 and 100 dwellings, with an average of 65 dwellingsper PSU.
QFFQ: Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire. A self-administered questionnaire, whichasks about the frequency of consumption of foods and preparation/cooking practices.
RNI: Reference Nutrient Intake for protein or a vitamin or mineral. An amount of nutrient that isenough, or more than enough, for about 97 percent of people in a group. If the average intake ofthe group is at RNI, then the risk of deficiency in that group is very small. This RNI definition andvalues for RNI were sourced from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values.
Safe Intake: A term used to indicate intake or range of intakes of a nutrient for which there is notenough information to estimate Reference Nutrient Intake, Estimated Average Requirement, orLower Reference Nutrient Intake. It is an amount that is enough for almost everyone but not solarge as to cause undesirable effects. This ‘safe intake’ definition and values for ‘safe intake’ werederived from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values.
213Appendix C
Skinfolds: Subcutaneous skinfolds were measured with Harpenden calipers at two sites: tricepsand subscapular using standardised procedures (Lohman et al 1988). All measurements weremade to the nearest 0.1 mm. Two measurements were made at each site and if they differed bymore than 0.5 mm a third measurement was taken. The mean of the two closest measurementswas used as the skinfold measure for the participant.
Stadiometer: An instrument for measuring the standing height of an individual.
Therapeutic Database: A database of brand-name foods compiled from manufacturer informationprimarily to produce lists of food products free from certain components (e.g. gluten) and additivesand includes nutrient composition. This database is maintained by Auckland Hospital under acontract with the Ministry of Health.
Transferrin Receptor: The serum transferrin receptor concentration was measured by SouthernCommunity Laboratories using a quantitative immunoenzymetric kit from Orion Diagnostics.There was no commercial control available so the performance of this assay was monitored by:
• in house patient control which is run with each batch,
• comparison of the coefficient of variation of duplicates to the kit manufacturersrecommendations.
Twenty-Four Hour (24hr) Diet Recall: An individualised interviewer administered recall of allfoods and beverages consumed in the previous 24 hours (midnight to midnight), using the threepass technique (quick list, specified probe questions for each item on the quick list, and a review).
UK DRV: United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values resulting from the report of the 1991 Panelon Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. These includeEstimated Average Requirements (EARs), Reference Nutrient Intakes (RNIs), Lower ReferenceNutrient Intakes (LRNIs) and ‘safe intake’.
Weight: Measured on a SECA Model 770 scale to the nearest 0.1 kg with the respondent in lightclothing. The reported data have been corrected for a clothing weight of 1.2 kg. Scales werecalibrated with standard weights each day. Two measurements were taken and if these differedby more than 0.5 kg a third measurement was taken. The weight measurement for each individualwas the average of the two closest measurements.
W/H Ratio: Waist circumference/Hip circumference ratio. Waist circumference was measured atthe natural narrowing midway between the last rib and the crest of the ilium. The measurementwas taken at the end of a normal expiration. The hip measurement was taken at the maximumcircumference around the buttocks when viewed from the side (Lohman et al 1988). Bothmeasurements were made to the nearest 0.1 cm. Two measurements at each site were taken and ifthese differed by more than 1.0 cm a third measurement was taken. The measurement used foreach individual was the average of the two closest measurements.
W/H Ratio Excess: The W/H Ratio is judged excessive when the ratio is > 0.90 for males and> 0.80 for females (National Cholesterol Education Program 1994).
1996/97 Health Survey: The New Zealand Health Survey was completed by Statistics New Zealandunder contract to the Ministry of Health. The results are reported in Taking the Pulse (Ministry ofHealth 1999).
214 NZ Food: NZ People
215Appendix D
Appendix DPacific People and Community NutrientIntakes
Data in this appendix are presented but not interpreted.
Pacific peoplea. The number of Pacific people (191 females, 116 males) who completed a 24 hour recall was too
small to allow a reliable estimate of usual nutrient intake using the C-SIDE programme. Thus,these nutrient data are not adjusted for intra-individual variation and cannot, therefore, becompared with nutrient data presented in the main body of the text.
b. Interpretation of these nutrient data are compounded by small numbers across the age groups,differences in migrant status, and the heterogeneity of the group given their varying countriesof origin.
For these reasons it is not possible to interpret the Pacific people nutrient data in the same way ashas been done for other ethnic groups or to make comparisons between groups. At best, thesenutrient data provide a broad picture of the nutrient intake of Pacific people and allow a basis onwhich further work can be developed.
Nevertheless, these nutrient data make an essential contribution, ensuring the nutrient intake ofthe New Zealand population as a whole, is representatively described.
CommunityRepeat 24 hour diet recalls were targetted at metropolitan areas only, and therefore, provincialnutrient data could not be adjusted for intra-individual variation using the C-SIDE programme.These nutrient data are, therefore, not comparable with the nutrient data presented in the mainbody of the text.
216 NZ Food: NZ People
App
endi
x D
1U
NA
DJU
STED
EN
ERG
Y A
ND
PRO
TEIN
1
Ener
gy (k
J)Pr
otei
n (g
)Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
pro
tein
2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
411
944*
895.
7*66
20*
1043
5*21
686*
107*
8.6*
51*
107*
185*
15*
0.8*
10*
15*
20*
25–4
412
475
959.
340
9311
036
2174
011
812
.031
8724
315
0.8
914
2445
+97
40*
757.
3*62
28*
9118
*17
694*
106*
10.6
*47
*10
5*18
6*19
*1.
3*10
*18
*26
*To
tal
1172
657
9.9
5816
1053
220
643
112
6.9
3910
020
616
0.6
1015
24Fe
mal
es15
–24
9395
*54
2.2*
5523
*82
17*
1394
9*66
*4.
4*41
*64
*99
*12
*0.
6*9*
11*
19*
25–4
482
4661
3.3
3916
7471
1524
381
8.7
2866
165
160.
710
1524
45+
8504
*10
37*
4134
*81
82*
1533
0*87
*11
.9*
41*
80*
188*
18*
1.3*
11*
18*
29*
Tota
l86
3041
2.1
4269
8122
1396
578
5.3
3367
126
150.
510
1422
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
1171
716
6.4
6565
1091
317
651
106
1.9
5397
169
150.
210
1521
Prov
inci
al12
504
268.
170
5711
843
1860
311
52.
959
106
178
160.
311
1522
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
7929
97.6
4335
7503
1168
174
1.1
4069
112
160.
110
1522
Prov
inci
al80
7215
8.6
4620
7418
1237
573
1.4
4066
113
160.
310
1521
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for
intra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls w
ere
not c
ompl
eted
in p
rovi
ncia
l are
as, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of
Pac
ific
peop
le w
hopa
rtici
pate
d in
the
surv
ey w
as lo
w.
2Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
pro
tein
for e
ach
parti
cipa
nt w
as c
alcu
late
d as
the
ener
gy fr
om p
rote
in (c
onve
rsio
n fa
ctor
= 1
6.7
kJ/g
) div
ided
by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
3Pe
rcen
tiles
.
217Appendix D
App
endi
x D
2.1
UN
AD
JUST
ED T
OTA
L FA
T A
ND
CH
OLE
STER
OL 1
Tota
l fat
(g)
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m to
tal f
at 2
Chol
este
rol (
mg)
Mee
ting
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
guid
elin
e 4M
ean
SEM
10th
350
th 3
90th
3
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
411
3*9.
7*47
*11
3*20
3*36
*2.
3*21
*38
*48
*30
%*
392*
44.6
*11
8*32
9*81
9*25
–44
114
10.7
4297
209
341.
917
3447
49%
502
67.4
101
274
1160
45+
94*
10.9
*33
*84
*16
8*36
*2.
6*20
*36
*54
*39
%*
409*
63.7
*11
9*33
6*99
5*To
tal
109
6.7
4095
198
351.
320
3748
41%
450
37.9
117
318
996
Fem
ales
15–2
481
*7.
6*34
*67
*15
3*31
*1.
8*19
*31
*46
*61
%*
238*
31.6
*83
*21
1*52
6*25
–44
797.
630
6514
235
0.9
2236
4738
%31
140
.036
212
810
45+
81*
17.0
*22
*77
*13
8*32
*2.
4*16
*32
*51
*59
%*
343*
73.4
*65
*26
4*67
8*To
tal
805.
928
6513
933
1.0
2234
4749
%29
829
.357
216
720
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
111
2.0
5010
218
035
0.3
2335
4639
%36
29.
111
729
668
5Pr
ovin
cial
123
3.4
5711
319
836
0.5
2637
4632
%42
615
.915
236
372
3Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an74
1.2
3069
122
340.
322
3446
44%
263
6.7
7921
150
2Pr
ovin
cial
771.
834
7012
635
0.4
2435
4740
%25
97.
685
211
490
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls w
ere
not c
ompl
eted
in p
rovi
ncia
l are
as, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of P
acifi
c pe
ople
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
esu
rvey
was
low
.2
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m fa
t for
eac
h pa
rtici
pant
was
cal
cula
ted
as th
e en
ergy
from
fat (
conv
ersi
on fa
ctor
= 3
7.7
kJ/g
) div
ided
by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
3Pe
rcen
tiles
.4
The
New
Zea
land
Nut
ritio
n Ta
skfo
rce
(199
1) g
uide
line
reco
mm
ends
fat p
rovi
des
≤ 33
.0%
of e
nerg
y in
take
.
218 NZ Food: NZ People
App
endi
x D
2.2
UN
AD
JUST
ED F
ATTY
ACI
DS
I 1
Satu
rate
d fa
t (g)
Mon
ouns
atur
ated
fat (
g)Po
lyun
satu
rate
d fa
t (g)
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
448
*5.
6*22
*38
*99
*39
*3.
1*18
*40
*65
*15
*2.
0*5*
13*
33*
25–4
448
4.7
1336
9639
4.0
1231
8215
1.8
311
3145
+38
*4.
6*13
*36
*76
*36
*4.
9*13
*31
*77
*11
*1.
4*3*
10*
21*
Tota
l46
3.2
1436
9139
2.5
1234
6914
1.1
411
30Fe
mal
es15
–24
35*
3.5*
13*
30*
67*
27*
2.8*
11*
20*
53*
11*
1.3*
2*10
*22
*25
–44
312.
413
2751
273.
27
2158
121.
93
1123
45+
34*
5.9*
10*
30*
66*
27*
6.4*
6*21
*53
*12
*3.
6*2*
7*24
*To
tal
332.
111
2862
272.
37
2151
121.
33
922
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
470.
918
4281
370.
815
3464
160.
46
1329
Prov
inci
al54
1.6
2048
9241
1.1
1839
6216
0.6
614
32Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an32
0.6
1229
5524
0.4
922
4210
0.2
39
19Pr
ovin
cial
330.
912
2957
260.
711
2244
110.
34
920
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al va
riatio
n. R
epea
t 24 h
our d
iet r
ecal
ls w
ere
not c
ompl
eted
in p
rovi
ncia
l are
as, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of P
acifi
c pe
ople
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e su
rvey
was
low
.2
Perc
entil
es.
219Appendix D
App
endi
x D
2.3
UN
AD
JUST
ED F
ATTY
ACI
DS
II 1
Per
cent
ene
rgy
from
sat
urat
ed fa
tPe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
mon
ouns
atur
ated
fat
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m p
olyu
nsat
urat
ed fa
tM
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
415
*1.
3*6*
15*
26*
13*
0.9*
7*14
*18
*5*
0.6*
2*4*
10*
25–4
414
0.9
514
2112
0.8
611
195
0.4
24
845
+14
*1.
0*7*
16*
20*
14*
1.3*
7*14
*24
*4*
0.5*
2*4*
8*To
tal
140.
77
1521
120.
66
1219
50.
32
48
Fem
ales
15–2
413
*0.
9*7*
13*
21*
10*
0.7*
6*10
*16
*4*
0.5*
1*3*
9*25
–44
140.
57
1320
120.
56
1217
60.
42
510
45+
14*
1.1*
7*13
*22
*11
*1.
0*4*
10*
20*
4*0.
6*1*
4*9*
Tota
l14
0.5
713
2111
0.4
611
175
0.3
24
10Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an15
0.2
915
2112
0.1
712
165
0.1
24
8Pr
ovin
cial
160.
310
1622
120.
28
1216
50.
12
58
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
150.
28
1522
110.
17
1116
50.
12
48
Prov
inci
al15
0.2
915
2112
0.2
711
165
0.1
25
8*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n. R
epea
t 24
hour
die
t rec
alls
wer
e no
t com
plet
ed in
pro
vinc
ial a
reas
, and
the
num
ber o
f Pac
ific
peop
le w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
surv
ey w
as lo
w. P
erce
nt e
nerg
y fro
m fa
t for
eac
h pa
rtici
pant
was
cal
cula
ted
as th
een
ergy
from
fat (
conv
ersi
on fa
ctor
= 3
7.7
kJ/g
) div
ided
by
the
tota
l ene
rgy
inta
ke.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
220 NZ Food: NZ People
App
endi
x D
3.1
UN
AD
JUST
ED C
ARB
OH
YDRA
TE A
ND
STA
RCH
1
Car
bohy
drat
e (g
)Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
car
bohy
drat
e 2St
arch
(g)
Mee
ting
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
guid
elin
e 4M
ean
SEM
10th
350
th 3
90th
3
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
432
3*23
.8*
196*
284*
612*
46*
2.1*
35*
46*
60*
29%
*17
7*16
.5*
84*
153*
294*
25–4
432
226
.410
031
454
945
2.7
3044
6533
%19
216
.746
205
316
45+
249*
25.2
*13
7*18
6*42
1*43
*2.
8*20
*40
*68
*32
%*
171*
20.5
*53
*13
8*32
6*To
tal
306
15.8
116
289
520
451.
630
4462
32%
183
10.8
5815
931
1Fe
mal
es15
–24
312*
18.2
*16
0*31
5*49
5*56
*2.
3*38
*59
*68
*78
%*
165*
10.2
*85
*15
6*24
6*25
–44
235
13.9
116
209
366
491.
335
5064
52%
146
11.5
5812
128
345
+24
1*18
.7*
109*
230*
373*
50*
2.7*
30*
51*
71*
52%
*15
0*15
.8*
66*
136*
271*
Tota
l25
810
.612
024
638
851
1.3
3551
6860
%15
27.
267
144
266
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
313
5.1
168
292
484
450.
432
4558
34%
174
3.2
8716
127
7Pr
ovin
cial
323
7.1
170
299
519
440.
632
4456
24%
180
4.5
8717
228
6Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an22
22.
812
020
933
648
0.3
3548
6041
%11
61.
560
109
181
Prov
inci
al22
14.
512
220
833
647
0.5
3447
5837
%11
52.
654
107
180
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls w
ere
not c
ompl
eted
in p
rovi
ncia
l are
as, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of P
acifi
c pe
ople
who
parti
cipa
ted
in th
e su
rvey
was
low
.2
Perc
ent e
nerg
y fro
m c
arbo
hydr
ate
for e
ach
parti
cipa
nt w
as c
alcu
late
d as
the
ener
gy fr
om c
arbo
hydr
ate
(con
vers
ion
fact
or =
16.
7 kJ
/g) d
ivid
ed b
y th
e to
tal e
nerg
y in
take
.3
Perc
entil
es.
4Th
e N
ew Z
eala
nd N
utrit
ion
Task
forc
e (1
991)
gui
delin
e re
com
men
ds c
arbo
hydr
ate
prov
ides
≥ 5
0.0%
of e
nerg
y in
take
.
221Appendix D
App
endi
x D
3.2
UN
AD
JUST
ED S
UG
ARS
I 1
Tota
l sug
ars
(g)
Gluc
ose
(g)
Fruc
tose
(g)
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
414
6*19
.4*
44*
114*
327*
20*
3.7*
1*14
*51
*20
*4.
0*1*
14*
51*
25–4
412
916
.031
9925
520
2.8
216
4721
3.1
118
5545
+78
*9.
0*19
*66
*15
5*12
*1.
5*2*
11*
27*
13*
1.7*
2*12
*31
*To
tal
123
10.1
3191
251
181.
82
1440
192.
02
1548
Fem
ales
15–2
414
6*12
.6*
46*
148*
262*
27*
4.7*
4*25
*58
*27
*4.
4*3*
26*
55*
25–4
488
6.3
2977
165
151.
53
1233
171.
62
1337
45+
90*
9.8*
32*
73*
194*
16*
2.3*
4*12
*35
*17
*2.
5*5*
12*
35*
Tota
l10
56.
333
8818
918
1.9
314
4420
1.8
315
43Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an13
83.
153
121
244
240.
76
2048
250.
76
2151
Prov
inci
al14
24.
154
123
260
240.
96
2048
250.
95
2152
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
105
1.8
4197
181
190.
54
1635
200.
54
1740
Prov
inci
al10
53.
242
9217
919
0.8
517
3520
0.8
517
38*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
varia
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 hou
r die
t rec
alls
wer
e no
t com
plet
edin
pro
vinc
ial a
reas
, and
the
num
ber o
f Pac
ific
peop
le w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
surv
ey w
as lo
w.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
222 NZ Food: NZ People
App
endi
x D
3.3
UN
AD
JUST
ED S
UG
ARS
II 1
Sucr
ose
(g)
Lact
ose
(g)
Mal
tose
(g)
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
492
*16
.5*
19*
63*
209*
10*
2.2*
0*4*
25*
4.4*
0.61
*0.
3*3.
8*8.
4*25
–44
7310
.015
4616
810
1.8
06
235.
91.
340.
13.
016
.745
+41
*6.
3*3*
31*
96*
7*1.
4*0*
5*18
*4.
4*1.
03*
0.0*
3.7*
11.4
*To
tal
727.
315
4517
89
1.1
06
235.
10.
700.
23.
212
.3Fe
mal
es15
–24
77*
7.9*
24*
65*
152*
10*
1.7*
0*8*
30*
4.3*
0.49
*1.
5*3.
9*7.
6*25
–44
463.
813
4086
81.
01
516
2.9
0.46
0.3
2.0
7.2
45+
47*
6.1*
13*
38*
104*
7*1.
2*0*
5*17
*2.
8*0.
65*
0.1*
2.1*
8.3*
Tota
l55
3.6
1445
110
80.
70
618
3.3
0.29
0.4
2.3
7.3
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
681.
919
5613
416
0.5
213
334.
90.
141.
14.
09.
6Pr
ovin
cial
712.
818
5714
317
0.7
313
335.
50.
231.
44.
410
.2Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an50
1.1
1342
9314
0.3
211
283.
10.
100.
82.
45.
8Pr
ovin
cial
491.
812
4196
140.
62
1027
3.1
0.13
0.7
2.4
5.7
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al va
riatio
n. R
epea
t 24 h
our d
iet r
ecal
ls w
ere
not c
ompl
eted
in p
rovi
ncia
l are
as, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of P
acifi
c pe
ople
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e su
rvey
was
low
.2
Perc
entil
es.
223Appendix D
App
endi
x D
4U
NA
DJU
STED
FIB
RE 1
Diet
ary
fibre
(g)
Inso
lubl
e no
n-st
arch
pol
ysac
char
ides
(g)
Solu
ble
non-
star
ch p
olys
acch
arid
es (g
)M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
417
*2.
1*5*
16*
25*
8*1.
2*2*
7*14
*9*
1.0*
3*8*
13*
25–4
421
1.9
623
3510
1.0
311
1611
1.0
312
1945
+19
*2.
1*7*
17*
38*
9*0.
9*3*
8*17
*10
*1.
2*3*
8*19
*To
tal
201.
36
2033
90.
73
915
100.
73
1018
Fem
ales
15–2
421
*1.
3*9*
22*
32*
11*
0.7*
4*10
*18
*11
*0.
6*5*
12*
16*
25–4
418
1.0
716
329
0.5
38
169
0.5
48
1645
+21
*1.
9*11
*18
*35
*11
*1.
1*6*
9*19
*10
*0.
8*5*
9*16
*To
tal
190.
99
1832
100.
54
918
100.
44
916
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
240.
411
2338
120.
35
1121
110.
26
1118
Prov
inci
al24
0.6
1223
4013
0.4
611
2312
0.3
611
19Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an18
0.3
917
2910
0.2
49
169
0.1
48
13Pr
ovin
cial
180.
410
1728
100.
25
916
90.
24
813
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls w
ere
not c
ompl
eted
in p
rovi
ncia
l are
as, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of P
acifi
c pe
ople
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e su
rvey
was
low
.2
Perc
entil
es.
224 NZ Food: NZ People
App
endi
x D
5U
NA
DJU
STED
ALC
OH
OL 1
Alco
hol (
g)Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy
from
alc
ohol
2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Mea
nSE
M10
th 3
50th
390
th 3
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
419
*11
.9*
0*0*
102*
3*2.
0*0*
0*16
*25
–44
3113
.10
015
76
2.9
00
3145
+10
*4.
9*0*
0*74
*3*
1.4*
0*0*
24*
Tota
l23
7.7
00
106
51.
60
024
Fem
ales
15–2
43*
2.3*
0*0*
0*1*
0.5*
0*0*
0*25
–44
20.
70
00
10.
30
00
45+
0*0.
4*0*
0*0*
0*0.
2*0*
0*0*
Tota
l2
0.8
00
01
0.2
00
0Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an20
1.5
00
655
0.4
00
16Pr
ovin
cial
212.
40
066
50.
50
016
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
80.
60
027
30.
20
011
Prov
inci
al10
2.2
00
283
0.5
00
10*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n. R
epea
t 24
hour
die
t rec
alls
wer
e no
t com
plet
ed in
pro
vinc
ial a
reas
, and
the
num
ber o
f Pac
ific
peop
le w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
surv
ey w
as lo
w.
2Pe
rcen
t ene
rgy f
rom
alc
ohol
for e
ach
parti
cipa
nt w
as c
alcu
late
d as
the
ener
gy fr
om a
lcoh
ol (c
onve
rsio
n fa
ctor
= 29
.3 kJ
/g) d
ivid
ed b
yth
e to
tal e
nerg
y in
take
.3
Perc
entil
es.
225Appendix D
App
endi
x D
6.1
UN
AD
JUST
ED V
ITA
MIN
A 1
Vita
min
A e
quiv
alen
ts (µ
g RE
)Re
tinol
(µg
)β-
caro
tene
(µg)
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
485
7*16
1.0*
176*
601*
1837
*49
2*73
.8*
115*
328*
1117
*21
92*
783.
6*52
*77
2*71
25*
25–4
411
6442
8.2
177
684
1618
756
317.
965
369
1067
2435
706.
516
296
964
7445
+71
2*94
.2*
163*
616*
1547
*32
5*41
.9*
47*
298*
662*
2336
*47
9.9*
168*
1219
*51
04*
Tota
l97
621
6.8
178
616
1575
585
158.
365
328
1013
2342
429.
711
988
650
57Fe
mal
es15
–24
734*
98.8
*28
7*60
9*14
08*
311*
41.6
*61
*27
0*69
4*25
34*
465.
6*46
1*15
39*
6506
*25
–44
665
60.9
8954
913
8330
540
.044
239
665
2162
285.
912
910
1765
4645
+74
4*15
4.9*
104*
660*
2479
*30
7*72
.2*
24*
204*
999*
2620
*58
6.0*
24*
1892
*80
49*
Tota
l70
356
.015
754
813
9430
729
.340
241
681
2377
248.
717
213
8267
02Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an11
9553
.835
085
721
9657
242
.317
042
085
437
3818
5.7
367
1886
9217
Prov
inci
al13
4611
0.2
327
953
2457
681
99.2
176
495
979
3986
243.
544
920
8710
809
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
941
59.8
276
678
1633
435
56.0
102
308
626
3033
99.4
310
1753
7410
Prov
inci
al96
941
.931
172
817
3942
231
.811
333
166
732
7616
1.4
405
1760
7792
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls w
ere
not c
ompl
eted
in p
rovi
ncia
lar
eas,
and
the
num
ber o
f Pac
ific
peop
le w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
surv
ey w
as lo
w. A
s th
ese
nutri
ents
are
con
cent
rate
d in
rela
tivel
y fe
w fo
ods,
one
day
inta
kes
are
high
ly s
kew
ed. T
here
fore
, the
est
imat
e of
inta
ke h
as la
rge
stan
dard
err
ors.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
226 NZ Food: NZ People
App
endi
x D
6.2
UN
AD
JUST
ED V
ITA
MIN
S C
AN
D E
1
Vita
min
C (m
g)Vi
tam
in E
(mg)
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
410
4*23
.6*
6*55
*28
1*9.
7*1.
21*
0.9*
11.0
*16
.9*
25–4
413
117
.49
9533
014
.01.
843.
810
.430
.845
+10
5*20
.0*
21*
93*
291*
11.2
*1.
78*
3.7*
9.3*
23.5
*To
tal
118
11.9
1390
306
12.1
1.07
3.6
9.5
23.6
Fem
ales
15–2
411
2*12
.4*
20*
105*
265*
9.3*
0.74
*3.
9*8.
8*16
.7*
25–4
494
9.7
1257
221
10.4
1.21
4.1
7.4
25.7
45+
110*
12.5
*23
*10
1*22
1*9.
1*1.
55*
2.9*
7.2*
19.1
*To
tal
103
7.0
1775
219
9.8
0.69
4.1
7.6
18.8
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
127
4.3
2395
279
11.7
0.22
5.1
10.4
19.7
Prov
inci
al11
35.
028
8223
611
.90.
385.
211
.020
.1Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an10
42.
821
7821
88.
70.
164.
07.
714
.1Pr
ovin
cial
111
7.9
2483
220
9.2
0.23
4.4
8.1
15.2
*Li
mite
d sa
mpl
e si
ze, 2
5 ≤
n <
50, c
autio
n sh
ould
be
exer
cise
d in
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a.1
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
not a
djus
ted
for i
ntra
-indi
vidu
al v
aria
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 ho
ur d
iet r
ecal
ls w
ere
not c
ompl
eted
in p
rovi
ncia
l are
as, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of P
acifi
c pe
ople
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e su
rvey
was
low
.2
Perc
entil
es.
227Appendix D
App
endi
x D
7.1
UN
AD
JUST
ED B
VIT
AM
INS
I 1
Thia
min
(mg)
Ribo
flavi
n (m
g)N
iaci
n eq
uiva
lent
s (m
g N
E)M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
41.
5*0.
17*
0.5*
1.3*
2.7*
1.8*
0.26
*0.
8*1.
4*3.
4*45
*3.
8*22
*45
*75
*25
–44
1.5
0.14
0.4
1.3
2.5
1.8
0.20
0.5
1.4
3.5
505.
114
3910
045
+1.
2*0.
13*
0.4*
1.1*
2.3*
1.4*
0.11
*0.
6*1.
5*2.
4*47
*5.
5*19
*41
*98
*To
tal
1.4
0.09
0.4
1.3
2.4
1.7
0.13
0.6
1.4
3.4
483.
116
4291
Fem
ales
15–2
41.
3*0.
07*
0.8*
1.3*
1.8*
1.3*
0.08
*0.
6*1.
3*2.
2*29
*1.
7*16
*26
*44
*25
–44
1.1
0.09
0.4
0.9
2.2
1.3
0.10
0.4
1.2
2.2
333.
711
2666
45+
1.1*
0.15
*0.
4*0.
9*2.
4*1.
3*0.
14*
0.5*
1.3*
2.4*
35*
4.0*
17*
35*
75*
Tota
l1.
10.
060.
41.
12.
01.
30.
070.
51.
22.
232
2.1
1327
56Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an1.
70.
030.
81.
62.
72.
10.
041.
01.
93.
543
0.8
2239
70Pr
ovin
cial
1.8
0.05
0.9
1.6
2.8
2.2
0.05
1.1
2.0
3.5
461.
224
4373
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
1.2
0.02
0.6
1.1
1.9
1.6
0.03
0.7
1.5
2.5
300.
415
2745
Prov
inci
al1.
20.
020.
61.
21.
91.
50.
030.
81.
42.
529
0.6
1526
46*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
varia
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 hou
r die
t rec
alls
wer
e no
t com
plet
ed in
pro
vinc
ial
area
s, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of P
acifi
c pe
ople
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e su
rvey
was
low
.2
Perc
entil
es.
228 NZ Food: NZ People
App
endi
x D
7.2
UN
AD
JUST
ED B
VIT
AM
INS
II 1
Vita
min
B6
(mg)
Vita
min
B12
(µg)
Fola
te (µ
g)M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
41.
6*0.
24*
0.6*
1.2*
3.6*
5.8*
1.07
*0.
6*4.
6*11
.6*
211*
22.9
*73
*19
3*31
3*25
–44
1.8
0.17
0.4
1.5
3.8
6.7
1.16
1.0
3.7
16.7
258
22.6
5026
745
045
+1.
5*0.
14*
0.5*
1.5*
2.3*
6.4*
1.38
*1.
4*4.
8*22
.2*
209*
19.6
*90
*20
9*33
5*To
tal
1.7
0.11
0.6
1.5
3.2
6.3
0.71
1.2
4.2
12.5
234
13.4
6523
039
3Fe
mal
es15
–24
1.8*
0.28
*0.
4*1.
6*3.
8*3.
0*0.
34*
0.9*
2.4*
5.7*
217*
21.1
*94
*20
2*35
9*25
–44
1.4
0.11
0.4
1.2
2.5
4.4
0.74
0.5
3.0
9.4
195
11.6
7818
732
945
+1.
6*0.
17*
0.6*
1.5*
2.8*
4.7*
1.00
*0.
8*3.
8*15
.4*
226*
22.0
*10
8*18
7*38
5*To
tal
1.6
0.12
0.4
1.4
3.0
4.1
0.45
0.8
3.2
7.8
209
10.5
9319
435
9Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an1.
70.
030.
71.
63.
05.
50.
221.
64.
010
.228
55.
313
126
145
6Pr
ovin
cial
1.7
0.04
0.8
1.6
2.7
7.2
0.58
1.7
4.6
14.6
287
6.8
147
275
434
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
1.3
0.02
0.5
1.2
2.2
4.0
0.21
1.0
2.8
6.4
222
3.4
105
207
349
Prov
inci
al1.
20.
030.
51.
12.
13.
70.
141.
12.
86.
721
64.
211
319
933
6*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
varia
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 hou
r die
t rec
alls
wer
e no
t com
plet
edin
pro
vinc
ial a
reas
, and
the
num
ber o
f Pac
ific
peop
le w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
surv
ey w
as lo
w.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
229Appendix D
App
endi
x D
8.1
UN
AD
JUST
ED M
INER
ALS
I 1
Calc
ium
(mg)
Phos
phor
us (m
g)M
agne
sium
(mg)
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Mea
nSE
M10
th 2
50th
290
th 2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
461
2*86
.5*
171*
522*
1210
*15
75*
170.
6*84
9*14
62*
2510
*30
5*31
.5*
163*
298*
521*
25–4
465
289
.916
159
311
3917
4116
5.2
540
1422
3280
443
58.8
154
368
914
45+
541*
70.2
*19
7*46
9*11
54*
1474
*12
1.1*
869*
1376
*24
41*
389*
80.5
*16
2*31
6*48
8*To
tal
616
51.4
171
508
1144
1634
101.
167
514
1528
6839
135
.816
031
660
0Fe
mal
es15
–24
512*
53.1
*22
4*41
6*91
6*11
10*
75.4
*73
8*10
25*
1742
*30
8*21
.3*
133*
283*
514*
25–4
449
442
.318
341
781
411
4484
.541
410
5520
7132
230
.299
255
712
45+
453*
50.8
*14
4*37
1*94
8*12
93*
179.
5*52
5*12
33*
1999
*29
4*28
.6*
126*
302*
513*
Tota
l48
927
.818
341
290
711
7064
.852
510
5619
6531
117
.912
627
053
8Co
mm
unity
Mal
esM
etro
polit
an91
019
.835
480
315
3317
7827
.791
216
7826
5837
35.
619
434
857
1Pr
ovin
cial
912
27.2
365
801
1559
1875
43.3
998
1760
3015
377
9.1
210
355
576
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
740
13.2
283
659
1281
1297
19.8
697
1228
2009
276
3.8
149
257
416
Prov
inci
al72
319
.428
864
512
5812
6923
.569
611
6719
5627
34.
515
726
040
4*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
varia
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 hou
r die
t rec
alls
wer
e no
t com
plet
edin
pro
vinc
ial a
reas
, and
the
num
ber o
f Pac
ific
peop
le w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
surv
ey w
as lo
w.
2Pe
rcen
tiles
.
230 NZ Food: NZ People
App
endi
x D
8.2
UN
AD
JUST
ED M
INER
ALS
II 1
Iron
(mg)
Zinc
(mg)
Pota
ssiu
m (m
g)M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2M
ean
SEM
10th
250
th 2
90th
2
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
413
.0*
1.44
*6.
6*13
.0*
24.0
*13
.0*
1.10
*6.
0*13
.6*
20.4
*28
01*
242.
9*12
50*
2728
*50
24*
25–4
416
.01.
505.
514
.530
.619
.72.
926.
113
.445
.342
5039
5.2
947
4500
7937
45+
12.5
*1.
08*
6.5*
11.9
*23
.8*
16.7
*2.
90*
6.8*
10.7
*37
.6*
3623
*34
4.1*
1826
*36
42*
5931
*To
tal
14.4
0.84
6.7
13.3
24.4
17.1
1.61
6.1
13.3
32.4
3689
242.
110
7233
7264
72Fe
mal
es15
–24
10.9
*0.
68*
6.5*
9.6*
16.8
*10
.5*
1.13
*5.
0*7.
6*20
.3*
3195
*22
4.7*
1269
*33
28*
4966
*25
–44
10.8
0.88
3.8
8.6
21.1
13.7
1.73
4.0
9.5
36.9
2869
197.
310
9225
3656
4745
+12
.2*
1.62
*4.
0*10
.3*
28.8
*13
.1*
1.76
*5.
5*11
.4*
31.0
*34
06*
408.
6*12
51*
3244
*65
92*
Tota
l11
.20.
604.
69.
619
.412
.70.
995.
09.
626
.730
9016
2.8
1152
3009
4966
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
14.6
0.26
7.4
13.4
22.8
14.9
0.31
7.0
13.1
24.0
3898
57.3
1969
3619
5879
Prov
inci
al16
.20.
477.
714
.526
.616
.10.
517.
414
.127
.541
7810
3.4
2249
3958
6444
Fem
ales
Met
ropo
litan
10.3
0.18
5.1
9.5
16.1
10.3
0.18
4.8
9.1
17.2
2995
39.4
1582
2857
4491
Prov
inci
al10
.30.
205.
49.
416
.410
.10.
245.
08.
716
.630
1452
.716
4628
5145
27*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
varia
tion.
Rep
eat 2
4 hou
r die
t rec
alls
wer
e no
t com
plet
ed in
pro
vinc
ial
area
s, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of P
acifi
c pe
ople
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e su
rvey
was
low
.2
Perc
entil
es.
231Appendix D
App
endi
x D
8.3
UN
AD
JUST
ED M
INER
ALS
III 1
Sele
nium
(µg)
2M
anga
nese
(µg)
Copp
er (m
g)M
ean
SEM
10th
350
th 3
90th
3M
ean
SEM
10th
350
th 3
90th
3M
ean
SEM
10th
350
th 3
90th
3
Paci
fic P
eopl
eM
ales
15–2
478
*17
.4*
21*
49*
173*
3603
*45
2.0*
965*
3980
*62
71*
1.3*
0.12
*0.
5*1.
2*2.
0*25
–44
106
27.5
1260
185
4523
426.
514
3741
6783
732.
00.
240.
41.
83.
745
+77
*8.
9*20
*80
*13
6*40
29*
527.
6*10
18*
3453
*95
72*
1.5*
0.17
*0.
7*1.
5*2.
5*To
tal
9214
.918
5815
741
4629
0.3
1024
3979
7545
1.7
0.13
0.5
1.4
2.9
Fem
ales
15–2
434
*3.
0*16
*30
*57
*32
62*
188.
2*20
23*
3049
*54
63*
1.2*
0.09
*0.
7*1.
2*1.
9*25
–44
506.
610
3011
136
4020
4.9
1214
3435
6906
1.4
0.10
0.6
1.1
2.4
45+
65*
10.9
*16
*51
*15
2*34
96*
280.
9*16
87*
3709
*57
40*
1.2*
0.13
*0.
7*1.
0*2.
5*To
tal
494.
312
3311
135
0014
2.3
1562
3091
5869
1.3
0.06
0.7
1.1
2.2
Com
mun
ityM
ales
Met
ropo
litan
592.
320
4410
851
2211
0.0
2117
4633
8745
1.7
0.03
0.9
1.6
2.6
Prov
inci
al64
3.1
2149
114
5269
159.
621
0546
2190
101.
80.
060.
91.
62.
8Fe
mal
esM
etro
polit
an43
1.5
1531
7940
9571
.417
2137
6067
401.
30.
030.
61.
12.
0Pr
ovin
cial
453.
614
3082
4040
100.
917
8537
4764
731.
30.
030.
71.
12.
0*
Lim
ited
sam
ple
size
, 25
≤ n
< 50
, cau
tion
shou
ld b
e ex
erci
sed
in in
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata.
1Th
ese
data
wer
e no
t adj
uste
d fo
r int
ra-in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n. R
epea
t 24
hour
die
t rec
alls
wer
e no
t com
plet
ed in
pro
vinc
ial a
reas
, and
the
num
ber o
f Pac
ific
peop
le w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
surv
ey w
as lo
w.
2Th
ese
data
are
unr
elia
ble,
ple
ase
refe
r to
the
text
.3
Perc
entil
es.
232 NZ Food: NZ People
Dietary Supplement Questions
1. Did you take any vitamin and/or mineral capsules/tablets at any time during the year?
YES
NO ➤ Q3
DON’T KNOW ➤ Q3
Appendix EQuestionnaires
233Appendix E
2. What vitamins and/or minerals did you take? Use Supplement Show Card 1
Typ
eB
rand
No.
Dos
eU
nits
Fre
quen
cyN
ame
Take
n
Less
1–3
Onc
eM
ore
Dai
lyE
piso
dic
Don
’tth
antim
espe
rth
anK
now
once
ape
rw
eek
once
mon
thm
onth
per
wee
k
Mu
lti/v
itam
ins
or
min
era
ls
Mu
lti/v
itam
ins
with
iro
n
Mu
lti/v
itam
ins
with
oth
er
min
era
ls
Vita
min
A o
r ca
rote
no
ids
Th
iam
in (
B1
)
Rib
ofla
vin
(B
2)
Nia
cin
(B
3)
Vita
min
B6
Vita
min
B1
2
B C
om
ple
x V
itam
ins
Vita
min
C
Vita
min
D
Vita
min
E
An
ti-O
xid
an
t Vita
min
Ca
lciu
m
Iro
n
Po
tass
ium
Fo
lic A
cid
234 NZ Food: NZ People
3. Did you take any vitamin and/or mineral capsules/tablets at any time during the past24 hours?
YES
NO ➤ Q5
DON’T KNOW ➤ Q5
4. Which vitamins and/or minerals did you take?
USE SUPP LEMENT SHOW CARD 1
Type Brand Name Number Taken Dose Units
Multi/vitamins or Minerals
Multi/vitamins with Iron
Multi/vitamins with otherMinerals
Vitamin A or Carotenoids
Thiamin (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Vitamin B6
Vitamin B12
B Complex Vitamins
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Anti Oxidant Vitamin
Calcium
Iron
Potassium
Folic Acid
5. Did you take any other dietary supplements such as plain wheat bran (unprocessedbran, not ‘Albran’ or breakfast cereal), fibre tablets, lecithin, evening primrose oil,performance enhancers, etc. at any time during the last year?
YES
NO ➤ Q7
DON’T KNOW ➤ Q7
235Appendix E
6. Which fibre etc. supplements did you take?
Typ
eB
rand
No.
Dos
eU
nits
Fre
quen
cyN
ame
Take
n
Less
1–3
Onc
eM
ore
Dai
lyE
piso
dic
Don
’tth
antim
espe
rth
anK
now
once
ape
rw
eek
once
mon
thm
onth
per
wee
k
Wh
ea
t B
ran
Oa
t B
ran
Wh
ea
t G
erm
Fib
re T
ab
lets
Le
cith
in
Ga
rlic
Ke
lp
He
rba
l Su
pp
lem
en
t
Co
dliv
er
Oil
Eve
nin
g P
rim
rose
Oil
Ye
ast
Pe
rfo
rma
nce
En
ha
nce
rs
236 NZ Food: NZ People
7. Did you take any other dietary supplements such as plain wheat bran (unprocessedbran, not ‘Albran’ or breakfast cereal), fibre tablets; lecithin, evening primrose oil,performance enhancers, etc. during the past 24 hours?
YES
NO ➤ End
DON’T KNOW ➤ End
8. Which fibre supplements etc. did you take?
USE SUPP LEMENT SHOW CARD 2
Type Brand Name Number Taken Dose Units
Wheat Bran
Oat Bran
Wheat Germ
Fibre Tablets
Lecithin
Garlic
Kelp
Herbal Supplement
Codliver Oil
Primrose Oil
Yeast
Performance Enhancer
237Appendix E
SUPP LEMENT SHOW CARD 1
Examples Include:
Multivitamins or Minerals
Vitamin A
Thiamin (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Vitamin B6
Vitamin B12
B Complex Vitamins
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Calcium
Iron
Potassium
SUPP LEMENT SHOW CARD 2
Examples Include:
Wheat Bran
Oat Bran
Wheat Germ
Fibre Tablets
Lecithin
Garlic
Kelp
Herbal Supplement
Codliver Oil
Primrose Oil
Yeast
Performance Enhancers
238 NZ Food: NZ People
Please MARK LIKE THIS:
NOT LIKE THIS:
• Use the pencil provided• Do not use red pen or felt tip pen• Erase mistakes fully• Make no stray marks
INSTRUCTIONS:
✔ ✘
How can you help?
Identification Number:
This survey will help us to find out about New Zealander's food patternsand assist with health promotion and health policy development.
• By telling us what YOU usually eat (not someone else in your household!)
• Please fill out the form yourself.
• Be accurate, but don’t spend too much time on each food.
• Please answer EVERY question.
• If you don’t know the answers to the cooking questions, please ask the person
who usually cooks your food.
• Answer by FILLING the OVAL that best applies to you.
If you have any questions, please ring:
0800 78 75 74
Thank you for contributing to this important project.© Ministry of Health
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PENCIL ONLY
Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire
239Appendix E
How to answer:
Here are some examples:
Please answer by filling in the oval which best describes how often you eat ordrink a particular food.Please use the pencil and rubber provided. Ensure that only one oval is filledin per food item for computer scanning.
How often do you usually eat these foods?
If on average you . . .
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
Never eat any sort of mince dishthen you would mark
Eat cooked porridge 5 timesper week in the winter, but neverin the summer, then you would mark
Eat fresh peaches about 3 timesa week when they are in season,then you would mark
Eat onions or leeks; onions 4 timesper week, but leeks only once amonth, then you would mark
240 NZ Food: NZ People
First of all, we have some questions about your general eating habits
1. How would you describe your eating pattern? (Please mark one only)Eat a variety of all foods, including animal productsEat eggs, dairy products, fish and chicken but avoid other meatsEat eggs and dairy products but avoid all meats and fishEat eggs but avoid dairy products, all meats and fishEat dairy products but avoid eggs, all meats and fishEat no animal productsOther (please specify)
2. On average, how many servings of fruit (fresh, frozen, canned or stewed) do you eat per day? Do not include fruit juice or dried fruit. (Please mark one only)
(a ‘serving’ = 1 medium piece or 2 small pieces of fruit or 1⁄2 cup of stewed fruit)
e.g. 1 apple + 2 small apricots = 2 servings
I don’t eat fruitPer Day
Less than 1 per day1 serving2 servings3 or more servings
I don’t eat vegetablesPer Day
Less than 1 per day1 serving2 servings3 servings4 or more servings
3. On average, how many servings of vegetables (fresh, frozen, canned) do you eat a day? Do not include vegetable juices. (Please mark one only)
(a ‘serving’ = 1 medium potato/kumara or 1⁄2 cup cooked vegetables or 1 cup of salad vegetables)
e.g. 2 medium potatoes + 1⁄2 cup of peas = 3 servings
241Appendix E
4. On average, how many slices or rolls of bread (or toast) do you eat per day?
I don’t eat bread or toast ➞ Go to question 6
Per Day
Less than 1 per day1–23–45–67 or more
I don’t eat these foodsPer WEEK
Less than 4 per week4–6 servings7–9 servings10–12 servings13–15 servings16 or more servings
WhiteWhite – high fibreWholemeal or wholegrainOther (please specify)
5. What type(s) of bread, rolls or toast do you eat most often? (Please mark only those you usually eat.)
6. On average, how many servings of foods such as pasta, rice, muesli, porridge, or breakfast cereal do you eat per week? (Please mark one only)
(a ‘serving’ = 1 cup cooked rice/pasta or porridge or cornflakes or 1⁄2 cup muesli or 2 weetbix)
e.g. 1 cup of rice 3 times per week + 2 weetbix 4 times a week = 7 servings per week
242 NZ Food: NZ People
No ➝ If no, go to question 8Yes ➝ What breakfast cereal(s) do you have most often?(Please mark only those you usually have.)
7. Do you usually eat breakfast cereal?
WeetbixCornflakes or Rice Bubbles
Untoasted muesliSpecial K
Just Right, Light and Tastyor Good Morning
Puffed Wheat or Mini-Wheats
Other (please specify)Porridge
Toasted muesli
All-Bran, San-Bran, Bran Flakesor Weetbix – ‘Hi-Bran’
Nutrigrain, Cocoa Pops or Honey Puffs
No ➝ If no, go to question 9Yes ➝ What type(s) of fat or oil do you use most often?(Please mark only those you usually use)
8. Do you eat meat or chicken fried or roasted in fat or oil?
ButterMargarineButter margarine blendLard or drippingOlive or canola oil
Other oils e.g. sunflower, corn oil,safflower oil etc
Other (please specify)Don't know
No ➝ If no, go to question 10Yes ➝ What type(s) of fat or oil do you use most often?(Please mark only those you usually use)
9. Do you eat vegetables fried or roasted in fat or oil?
ButterMargarineButter margarine blendLard or drippingOlive or Canola oil
Other oils e.g. sunflower, corn oil,safflower oil etc
Other (please specify)Don't know
243Appendix E
How often do you usually eat these foods or drinks?
Please fill one oval for each food or drink.
Dairy Foods
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
Flavoured milk(e.g. milkshake, iced coffee)Milk as a drinkMilk on breakfast cerealsMilk added to hot beverages madewith water (e.g. coffee, tea, milo)Hot beverages make with milk(e.g. milo, cocoa, hot chocolate drinks)Cream or sour creamIce creamCustard or dairy foodYoghurt, plain or flavoured(including fromage frais)Milk puddings(e.g. rice, semolina, instant)Cream CheeseCottage or ricotta cheeseMozzarella, feta, or camembertEdam or Gouda cheeseColby, Mild, Tasty cheeseBrie, blue and other specialty cheeses
10.
We would now like to ask in more detail about the foods you eat.
No ➝ If no, go to question 12Yes ➝ What type(s) do you have most often?(Please mark only those you usually have)
11. Do you drink or use any type of milk?
Standard, homogenised milk(blue top)
Trim milk (green top)Super TrimSkim milk or low-fatpowdered milkLight Blue
Whole or powderedwhole milk (silver top)'Calci-trim''Slim and Fit'Soy MilkOther (please specify)
244 NZ Food: NZ People
No ➝ If no, go to question 14Yes ➝ What type(s) do you use most often?(Please mark only those you usually use)
13. Do you use butter or margarine on bread or crackers?
ButterUnsalted butterButter and margarine blendLow salt margarine
‘Miracle’, ‘Sunflower’ etc.(ie Polyunsaturated margarines)Reduced fat margarine e.g. ‘Slimarine’
Other (please specify)‘Praise’ or ‘Olivo’ margarine
No ➝ If no, go to question 15Yes ➝ Do you trim any excess fat off these meats?(Please mark one only)
14. Do you eat pork, beef, mutton, hogget or lamb?
AlwaysOften
OccasionallyNever cut the fat off meat
How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Bread and Cereal Foods
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
Focaccia, bagel, pita or otherspeciality breadsParaoa Parai (frybread)Rewena breadDoughboys or Maori breadCrumpet or croissantWaffle or doughnutFruit or iced bunsSavoury or dry biscuits, crispbread,or crackersCooked porridgeBreakfast cereal (including muesli)Rice (including white or brown)Pasta eg. spaghetti, ravioli,macaroni, noodles
12.
245Appendix E
No ➝ If no, go to question 16Yes ➝ Do you remove the skin from chicken?(Please mark one only)
15. Do you eat chicken?
AlwaysOften
OccasionallyNever remove the skin from chicken
How often do you usually eat these foods?Please fill one oval for each food.
Meat and Fish
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
Beef mince dishes(e.g. rissoles, meatloaf)Beef or veal mixed dishes(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)Beef or veal – roast, chop, steak,schnitzelCorned beef (including canned)or brisketHogget or mutton mixed dishes(e.g. stews)Hogget or mutton – roast, chopsLamb mixed dishes(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)Lamb – roast, chop, steakPork mixed dishes(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)Pork - roast, chop, steakPork - boiled bonesSausage, frankfurter or saveloyBacon or hamLuncheon meats, salami or brawnLiver (including pate)Other offal (e.g. kidneys)Chicken mixed dishes(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)Chicken – roast, fried, steamed, BBQTurkey or duckVenison
16.
246 NZ Food: NZ People
How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Meat and Fish
Mutton birdCanned tuna, salmon, sardinesEelFish, batteredFish, fried (including fish fingersor fish cakes)Fish, steamed, baked, grilled or rawShellfish (e.g. mussels, oysters,paua, kina, pipis)Other seafood (e.g. prawns)
16. (Cont. . .)
How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Miscellaneous
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
Cakes, scones or pikeletsMuffins - all typesSweet pies or sweet pastriesOther puddings or desserts(not including milk-based puddings)Plain sweet biscuitsCream filled and/or chocolate biscuitsCanned or packet soup (in winter)Home-made soup (in winter)
18.
No ➝ If no, go to question 18Yes ➝ Not counting eggs used in baking cakes etc, how many eggs do you usually eat per week? (Please mark one only)
17. Do you eat eggs?
Less than 11 egg
2 eggs3 eggs
4 eggs5 or more eggs per week
Per WEEK
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
247Appendix E
How often do you usually eat these foods?Please fill one oval for each food.
Miscellaneous
HamburgerMeat pie, sausage roll or othersavoury pastriesPizzaMuesli barsChocolate (including chocolate barse.g. Moro bars)Other confectioneryJam, honey, marmalade or syrupPeanut butter, other nut spreadsVegemite or marmiteNutsPotato crisps, corn chips, Twisties etc.
18. (Cont. . .)
How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Dressings and Sauces
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
MayonnaiseLow-calorie salad dressingSalad dressingTomato sauceGravyWhite sauce/cheese sauce etc.Coconut cream
19.
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
248 NZ Food: NZ People
How often do you usually eat these foods?(If your intake varies with season, how often do you usually have them when in season?)
Please fill one oval for each food.
Vegetables(including fresh, frozen or canned)
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
Potato; boiled, mashed, bakedor roastedHot potato chips or kumara chips/french fries/wedgesPumpkin; boiled, roast or mashedKumara; boiled, roast or mashedPeasMixed frozen vegetablesGreen beansSilver beet, spinachCarrotsCabbage, coleslawSweet cornMushroomsTomatoesBeetrootTaroTaro leaf (e.g. palusami)Green bananasWatercressPuhaSprouts (e.g. alfalfa, mung)Turnips or swedes
20.
249Appendix E
How often do you usually eat these foods?(If your intake varies with season, how often do you usually have them when in season?)
Please fill one oval for each food.
Vegetables(including fresh, frozen or canned)
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
ParsnipKarengo (seaweed)Onions or leeksSoybeans, tofuBeans (including baked beans), lentilsCauliflowerBroccoli or broccoflowerBrussel sproutsCourgette/zucchini, marrow,eggplant, squashKamo kamoPacific Island yamsYamsCapsicum (or peppers)CeleryCassavaAsparagusBreadfruitCucumberAvocadoLettuceOther green leafy vegetablese.g. Whitloof etc.
20. (Cont. . .)
250 NZ Food: NZ People
How often do you usually eat these foods?Please fill one oval for each food.
Fresh Fruits– when they are in season
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
ApplePearBananaOrange, mandarin or tangeloGrapefruitPeach, nectarine, plum or apricotMango, paw-paw or persimmonsPineappleGrapesStrawberries and other berriesor cherriesMelon(e.g. watermelon, rockmelon etc.)KiwifruitFeijoasTamarillos
21.
How often do you usually eat these foods?Please fill one oval for each food.
Other Fruits
Never Lessthan
once amonth
1–3timesper
month
Onceper
week
2–4timesper
week
5–6timesper
week
Onceperday
2 ormoretimes
per day
Sultanas, raisins or currantsOther dried fruit(e.g. apricots, prunes, dates)Preserved or canned fruit in syrupPreserved or canned fruit in wateror juiceStewed fruit
22.
251Appendix E
(Please note that the possible categories you
have to choose from have changed.)
Well done, just one more question!
How often do you usually have these drinks?Please fill one oval for each drink.
Drinks
Neveror
rarely
3 timesa
monthor less
1–2timesper
week
3–6timesper
week
1–2timesperday
3–5timesperday
6 ormoretimes
per day
Fruit juice e.g. Just Juice, Fresh-up, Robinson'sor Rio Gold etc.Vegetable juice (e.g. tomato juice)Fruit drink e.g. Choice, Rio Splice etc.Powdered drinks (e.g. Raro, Vita-fresh etc.)Low-calorie cordialCordialDiet carbonated drink (e.g. diet sprite)Carbonated drinks (e.g. coke, lemonade etc.)Sport's drinks (e.g. Gatorade, Powerade etc.)Water (including unflavoured mineral water,soda water, tap water)CoffeeCoffee – decaffeinatedCoffee substitute (e.g. Inka)KokoTeaHerbal teaSoy beveragesBeer – low alcoholBeer – ordinaryRed wineWhite wine or champagne / sparkling wineWine coolerSparkling grape juiceSherry or portSpirits, liqueurs
23.
252 NZ Food: NZ People
Are there any other foods, not included in this questionnaire,that you eat at least once a week? If so, please tell us:
Thank you for your time and effort in completingthis questionnaire.
It is much appreciated.
Who completed this questionnaire?
Today’s date is: 19
MyselfInterviewerSomeone else
1
2
3
00
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
JANFEBMARAPRMAYJUNJULAUGSEPOCTNOVDEC
199619971998199920002001200220032004200520062007
DATE
253Appendix E
Barriers to Dietary Change Questions
INTERV I EWER TO COMPLETE :
1. Servings of fruit per day? number
See Q2 in QFFQ
2. Servings of vegetables per day? number
See Q3 in QFFQ
3. Servings of bread per day? number
See Q4 in QFFQ
Servings of cereals per week? number
See Q6 in QFFQ
(Totals per day number)
4. I’d now like to ask you some questions about changes to your choice of foods.
Are you trying at present to make any changes to your choice of foods?
(For example, trying to change the amounts or types of foods you eat)
Yes ➤ Q5
No ➤ Q10
Don’t Know ➤ Q10
254 NZ Food: NZ People
5. We’d now like you to think about four particular groups of foods.
For each group of foods, can you tell me if you are trying at present to change the amountyou eat?
(Interviewer to show each card in turn then note all positive responses that apply)
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1 fruits
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 2 vegetables
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3 breads and cereals
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 4 butter, margarine, oils, and other foods high infat
fruits ➤ Q6
vegetables ➤ Q7
breads or cereals ➤ Q8
butter, margarine, oils and other foods high in fat➤ Q9
IF NONE OF THESE ➤ Q10
Comments
If in answering Q5, the subject has already described whether they are trying to eat more or less of thefood group, simply record the answer below rather than asking Q6-9 unnecessarily.
6. About fruit, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question).
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates a change in fruit only ➤ Q10
7. About vegetables, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question).
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates a change in fruit and/or vegetables only ➤ Q10
255Appendix E
8. About bread or cereals, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question).
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates a change in fruit and/or vegetables and/or bread and cereals only ➤ Q10.
9. About butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat, in what way are you trying to changeyour choice of foods? (ask as open-ended question; note: subject to answer both questions).
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 6
9a
Eat more foods high in fat
Eat less foods high in fat
No change in amount eaten
9b
Change type of butter, margarine or oils used
No change in type eaten
Comments
If the respondent is presently changing a food group, then you are unable to ask about an intendingchange to that food group.
256 NZ Food: NZ People
10. In the last question, we asked about any changes you are making now.
We’d now like to ask about whether you are thinking about making any changes to the foods you eatin the future.
We’re interested in whether you intend or plan to make any changes over the next 6 months.
Are you intending to change the amount you eat of any of these groups of foods?
(Interviewer to show each card in turn, then note all positive responses)
(DO NOT ASK , SHOW SHOW CARDS 1 -4 )
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1 fruits
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 2 vegetables
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3 breads and cereals
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 4 butter, margarine, oils, and other foods high infat
Tick all that apply:
fruits ➤ Q11
vegetables ➤ Q12
breads or cereals ➤ Q12
foods such as butter, margarine, oils and other foods high in fat➤ Q14
IF NONE OF THESE ➤ Q15
Comments
___________________________________________________________________________
If in answering Q10, the subject has already described whether they are intending to eat more or lessof the food group, simply record the answer below rather than asking Q11-14 unnecessarily
11. About fruit, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question).
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit only ➤ Q15.
257Appendix E
12. About vegetables, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question).
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit and/or vegetables only ➤ Q15.
13. About bread or cereals, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question).
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit and/or vegetables and/or breads andcereals only ➤ Q15.
14. About butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat, in what way are you intending tochange your choice of foods? (ask as open-ended question; note: subject to answer both
questions).
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 6
14a
Eat more foods high in fat
Eat less foods high in fat
No change in amount eaten
14b
Change type of butter, margarine or oils needed
No change in type eaten
Comments
258 NZ Food: NZ People
15. If Q1 < 2 OR Q6 = ‘eat more fruit’ (ask this question).
People often find it hard to increase the amount of fruit they eat. We’re interested in the sorts ofthings that people find most difficult about making this change.
Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more fruit.
Would any apply to you?
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 7
FRUIT
Cost too much
I don’t like fruit
Can’t store fruit for long
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
Often of poor quality
Fruit causes stomach upsets or indigestion
It’s hard to chew
Causes allergy or other bad reaction
Not enough time
Don’t always have fruit at home
Contains too much sugar
Fruit is not good for me
Would need willpower to eat more
Pesticides or chemicals on fruit
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other (describe)
➤ Q16
259Appendix E
16. If Q2 < 3 OR Q7 = ‘eat more vegetables’ (ask this question).
People often find it hard to increase the amount of vegetables they eat. We’re interested in the sortsof things that people find most difficult about making this change.
Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more vegetables.
Would any apply to you?
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 8
VEGETABLES
Cost too much
I don’t like vegetables
Can’t store them for long
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
Often of poor quality
They cause stomach upsets or indigestion
Vegetables are hard to chew
Causes allergy or other bad reaction
Take too long to prepare
Don’t always have them at home
It’s hard to prepare vegetables
I have nowhere to cook vegetables
Not enough time
Would need willpower to eat more
They’re not good for me
Pesticides or chemicals on vegetables
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other (describe)
➤ Q17
260 NZ Food: NZ People
17. If Q3 < 6 (total) OR Q8 = ‘eat more breads or cereals’ (ask this question).
People often find it hard to increase the amount of breads and cereals they eat (Use DIETARYCHANGE SHOW CARD 3 to remind them of foods in this group). We’re interested in the sorts ofthings that people find most difficult about making this change.
Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more breads and cereals.
Would any apply to you?
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 9
BREADS AND CEREAL FOODS
Cost too much
I don’t like them
They’re fattening
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
They’re too filling
They upset my stomach
They’re too heavy
They provide too many calories
They’re too starchy
They’re not good for me
They cause wind
Would need willpower to eat more
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other (describe)
➤ Q18
261Appendix E
18. ALL subjects to answer:
People often find it hard to cut down the amount of butter, margarine, oils or other foods high infat. We’re interested in the sorts of things that people find most difficult about making this change.
Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about cutting down on butter, margarine, oils orother foods high in fat.
Would any apply to you?
USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 10
BUTTER, MARGARINE, OILS OR OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT
They taste good
It’s hard to prepare meals with less fat
They’re convenient
There are few low-fat alternatives
Cheap
The people I live with would have to eat less too
Would need willpower
It’s hard when I eat out a lot
My body needs fat
Preparing meals with less fat takes too long
I like to eat these foods for comfort
It’s a hassle to try and eat less
I wouldn’t enjoy food as much
None of the above, I’m happy with my fat intake
Other (describe)
End Barriers Questions
262 NZ Food: NZ People
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1
FRU ITS
Also includes:
coconut
pawpaw
watermelon
figs
mango
guava
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 2
VEGETABLES
Also includes:
manioc/cassava
taro
kumara
puha
green bananas
choko
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3
BREADS AND CEREALS
Also includes:
breakfast cereals
porridge
muesli
rice
pasta
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 4
Butter, margarine, oils, and
OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT
For example:
FRIED FOOD AND PASTRIES
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 5
EAT MORE
EAT LESS
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 6
FOODS HIGH IN FAT
AMOUNT
EATING MORE
EATING LESS
EATING THE SAME
TYPE OF BUTTER, MARGARINE OR OILS
CHANGED THE TYPE
HAVEN’T CHANGED
263Appendix E
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 7
FRUIT
Cost too much
I don’t like fruit
Can’t store fruit for long
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
Often of poor quality
Fruit causes stomach upsets or indigestion
It’s hard to chew
Causes allergy or other bad reaction
Not enough time
Don’t always have fruit at home
Contains too much sugar
Fruit is not good for me
Would need willpower to eat more
Pesticides or chemicals on fruit
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 8
VEGETABLES
Cost too much
I don’t like vegetables
Can’t store them for long
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
Often of poor quality
They cause stomach upsets or indigestion
Vegetables are hard to chew
Causes allergy or other bad reaction
Vegetables take too long to prepare
Don’t always have them at home
It’s hard to prepare vegetables
I have nowhere to cook vegetables
Not enough time
Would need willpower to eat more
They’re not good for me
Pesticides and chemicals on vegetables
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other
264 NZ Food: NZ People
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 9
BREAD AND CEREALS
Cost too much
I don’t like them
They’re fattening
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
They’re too filling
They upset my stomach
They’re too heavy
They provide too many calories
They’re too starchy
They’re not good for me
They cause wind
Would need willpower to eat more
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other
D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 10
BUTTER, MARGARINE, OILS OROTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT
Taste good
It’s hard to prepare meals with less fat
They’re convenient
There are few low-fat alternatives
Cheap
The people I live with would haveto eat less too
Would need willpower
It’s hard when I eat out a lot
My body needs fat
Preparing meals with less fat takes too long
I like to eat these foods for comfort
It’s a hassle to try and eat less
I wouldn’t enjoy food as much
None of the above, I’m happy with myfat intake
Other
265Appendix E
Food Security Questions
INTRODUCT ION
I now want to ask you some questions about particular foods you choose, and the buying of food orgifting of food. We are interested in whether you feel you always have sufficient resources to have thefood you need for yourself and the people you live with. We are not concerned with your budget, orhow you spend your money, but we are more interested in finding out about how people get the foodthat they need for their household to eat and share.
(In all questions ‘we’ refers to the household, unless it is a one-person household).
First of all, we know that some people can’t afford to eat properly and we are interested in whetheryou think you eat properly. It’s what you think eating properly is - not what I or anyone else thinks.
USE FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 1
I / WE CAN AFFORD TO EAT PROPERLY
Always
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
2. We are interested in whether you run out of basics, like bread, potatoes, etc. because you donot have enough money. We are NOT referring to treats or special foods.
USE FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 2
FOOD RUNS OUT IN MY / OUR HOUSEHOLD DUE TO LACK OF MONEY
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
266 NZ Food: NZ People
3. Now we are interested in whether a lack of money leads you to sometimes have smaller mealsthan you would like or whether a lack of money means there isn’t enough for seconds or yousometimes skip meals?
USE FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 3
I / WE EAT LESS BECAUSE OF LACK OF MONEY
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
4. Now we are going to talk about the variety of foods you eat. By variety we mean the numberof different kinds of foods you have.
USE FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 4
THE VARIETY OF FOODS I AM (WE ARE) ABLE TO EAT IS LIMITED BY A LACKOF MONEY
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
5. Some people rely on support and assistance from others for supplying their regular food andwe are interested in find out how many people fall into this group.
USE FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 5
I / WE RELY ON OTHERS TO PROVIDE FOOD AND/OR MONEY FOR FOOD, FORMY / OUR HOUSEHOLD, WHEN I / WE DON’T HAVE ENOUGH MONEY
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
267Appendix E
6. Also, some people have to rely on other sources of help such as food grants or food banks.
USE FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 6
I / WE MAKE USE OF SPECIAL FOOD GRANTS OR FOOD BANKS WHEN I / WEDO NOT HAVE ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
7. We know that some people get quite stressed and worried about providing enough food eventhough they don’t actually go without food.
USE FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 7
I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE OF NOT HAVING ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
8. We recognise that for some people food and sharing food with others is important, to thepoint that they won’t have enough food for themselves. In this question we are only interestedin social situations which are gatherings within, or outside, the household. As a result peoplemay find themselves stressed/whakama (embarrassed) about their koha (gift) when providingfood for others.
USE FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 8
I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE I CAN’T PROVIDE THE FOOD I WANT FOR SOCIALOCCASIONS
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
268 NZ Food: NZ People
FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 1
I / WE CAN AFFORD TO EAT PROPERLY
Always
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 2
FOOD RUNS OUT IN MY / OURHOUSEHOLD DUE TO LACK OF MONEY
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 3
I / WE EAT LESS BECAUSE OF LACK OFMONEY
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 4
THE VARIETY OF FOOD I AM (WE ARE)ABLE TO EAT IS LIMITED BY A LACKOF MONEY
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 5
I / WE RELY ON OTHERS TO PROVIDEFOOD AND/OR MONEY FOR FOOD FORMY / OUR HOUSEHOLD, WHEN I / WEDON’T HAVE ENOUGH MONEY
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 6
I / WE MAKE USE OF SPECIAL FOODGRANTS OR FOOD BANKS WHEN I / WEDO NOT HAVE ENOUGH MONEY FORFOOD
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 7
I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE OF NOTHAVING ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 8
I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE I CAN’TPROVIDE THE FOOD I WANT FORSOCIAL OCCASIONS
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
269Appendix E