1850 – 1914 1850 – 1914

Russia and Japan Managed to avoid Western dominance Industrialize to achieve economic autonomy.

Japan and Russia Compared Proved to be the most flexible politically Strain of industrialization produced a series of revolutions in Russia

As late industrializing nations There were substantial similarities between Russia and Japan. Both nations had prior experience with cultural imitation

Japan from China Russia from Byzantium and the West.

Both had achieved more effective central governments during the 17th and 18th centuries.

As both countries industrialized, they came into conflict over territorial ambitions in Asia.

Russian leaders in the 18th and early 19Russian leaders in the 18th and early 19 thth centuries centuries Isolate Russia from European revolution, Napoleon; completed shift to conservatismIsolate Russia from European revolution, Napoleon; completed shift to conservatism Tsar Alexander I sponsored Holy Alliance, linked conservative monarchies together Tsar Alexander I sponsored Holy Alliance, linked conservative monarchies together

Russian Intellectuals (Intelligentsia)Russian Intellectuals (Intelligentsia) Remained connected to western European trendsRemained connected to western European trends This connection that worried the elite. This connection that worried the elite.

1825 and After1825 and After The Decembrist uprisingThe Decembrist uprising

Western-oriented military officers attempted a coupWestern-oriented military officers attempted a coup Defeated by Imperial forces and members hungDefeated by Imperial forces and members hung

Tsar Nicholas I Tsar Nicholas I Turned to repressive conservatismTurned to repressive conservatism Russia also lacked substantial middle or artisan classesRussia also lacked substantial middle or artisan classes Both helped Russia avoid mid-19th century revolutions. Both helped Russia avoid mid-19th century revolutions.

Official Nationality, Orthodoxy, Autocracy: Formal name to Nicholas’ policiesOfficial Nationality, Orthodoxy, Autocracy: Formal name to Nicholas’ policies The tsar suppressed Polish nationalism in 1831 and demanded assimilation of minoritiesThe tsar suppressed Polish nationalism in 1831 and demanded assimilation of minorities Insisted on a traditional church and approach to politics especially autocracy Insisted on a traditional church and approach to politics especially autocracy Pressed southward against the Ottoman Empire.Pressed southward against the Ottoman Empire. Russia supported nationalist movements in the Balkans as a means of weakening the Turks.Russia supported nationalist movements in the Balkans as a means of weakening the Turks.

• The reality of Russia’s positionThe reality of Russia’s position Economy remained primarily agrarian Economy remained primarily agrarian Fell behind the West in terms of production and trade Fell behind the West in terms of production and trade To maintain the profitability of grain exportsTo maintain the profitability of grain exports

Tighter labor obligations were imposed on the peasantry Tighter labor obligations were imposed on the peasantry Tendency to export grain to raise money left many hungryTendency to export grain to raise money left many hungry

• The Crimean War, 1854-1856The Crimean War, 1854-1856 Demonstrated how far Russia had fallen behind the WestDemonstrated how far Russia had fallen behind the West British, French forces drove the Russians from the CrimeaBritish, French forces drove the Russians from the Crimea Loss convinced Tsar Alexander II that reform was needed Loss convinced Tsar Alexander II that reform was needed

• The Peasant Problem In order to establish a more vigorous economy Some attempt had to be made to resolve the peasant crisis. Belief that a freer labor force could increase profitability. Western criticism of Russian social injustice also stung Russian sensibilities. Series of minor peasant rebellions in 1850s stimulated the movement for

reform. Tsar Alexander II emancipated the serfs in 1861• The freed serfs got most of the land• Aristocracy retained political and economic power• Serfs remained tied to their villages

Until they could pay for the land they received. Redemption payments, taxes kept peasants in poverty

• The emancipation produced a larger urban labor force• But failed to stimulate agricultural production• Slow pace of change engendered social dissatisfaction• Led to regional peasant uprisings, peasant distrust

Alexander II carried out other reforms Issued new law codes, established regional councils (zemstvoes) for input on local decisions Began military reforms Literacy spread more widely in society with the rise of a mass market in popular literary forms Women gained power slightly through greater access to education Somewhat loosened patriarchal authority

Industrialization and the State Russia lacked a substantial middle class: state handled capital formation, investment Russia created a substantial railroad network in the 1870s Better transportation permitted more efficient use of Russia's abundant natural resources The railroad also facilitated shipment of grain to the West, which in turn helped finance industrialization.

1880s – 1910s and the Results of Industrialization Modern factories had begun to develop in major Russian cities Count Sergei Witte, minister of finance from 1892 to 1903, enacted high tariffs to protect new industries. Witte also encouraged Western investment in Russian industrialization. As a result, nearly one half of Russia's industrial businesses were foreign-owned. By 1900, Russia ranked fourth in steel production and second in petroleum production. Russian factories were typically enormous but technologically inferior. Agriculture also lagged behind Western standards of productivity. The masses of Russian citizens were only slightly affected by industrialization. Military reforms did not substantially alter the concept of peasant conscripts serving aristocratic landlords. Russian industrialization produce a substantial middle class.

Zemstvo StampZemstvo Stamp

Post-1855Post-1855 Undo impact of Crimean War and conquer Ottoman EmpireUndo impact of Crimean War and conquer Ottoman Empire Obtain Constantinople as outlet to the MediterraneanObtain Constantinople as outlet to the Mediterranean Expand Russia’s influence in AsiaExpand Russia’s influence in Asia Expand Russian influence amongst Balkan peoplesExpand Russian influence amongst Balkan peoples

Pan-Slavism and SlavophilesPan-Slavism and Slavophiles Ideologies that portrayed Russia as leader of all SlavsIdeologies that portrayed Russia as leader of all Slavs Goal was to liberate all Slavs, unite them under Russian ruleGoal was to liberate all Slavs, unite them under Russian rule Sought to unite Slavs under Russian tsar, common stateSought to unite Slavs under Russian tsar, common state Saw Russian culture as superior: anti-westernizersSaw Russian culture as superior: anti-westernizers Led to Russification in Russia and conflict with Germany, RussiaLed to Russification in Russia and conflict with Germany, Russia

Alliance with France in 1894 and later with EnglandAlliance with France in 1894 and later with England Rise of Germany scared Russia who made common cause with FranceRise of Germany scared Russia who made common cause with France Similar fears eventually caused Russia and UK to bury differences Similar fears eventually caused Russia and UK to bury differences

Russo-Japanese War 1904 – 1905 Russo-Japanese War 1904 – 1905 Russian military expansion came to an end in 1904Russian military expansion came to an end in 1904 Japan and Russia came into conflict over expansion in northern China.Japan and Russia came into conflict over expansion in northern China. The Japanese quickly defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War The Japanese quickly defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War Military defeat unleashed all of the dissenting forces in Russia. Military defeat unleashed all of the dissenting forces in Russia.

During, after the 1880s, Russia became politically, socially unstable Ethnic minorities began to agitate for national recognition after the 1860s. Recurrent famines produced peasant unrest. Intellectual protest began Business and professional people sought further liberal reforms

Radical intelligentsia demanded revolution Intellectual radicalism shaded off into terrorism and anarchism as a way to restructure society Initially, Russian radicals sought to spread their message among the peasants But they found the masses unreceptive Anarchists fell back on political assassination to unseat the government Alexander II was assassinated in 1881: his successors imposed repressive policies to dampen unrest.

Russian Marxism In the 1890s, intellectuals picked up Marxism from the West as a means of organizing the revolution. Lenin introduced innovations in Marxism to accommodate the reality of Russian society Lenin's organization called for small disciplined cells of Marxists to organize the revolution. Lenin's approach was accepted by the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Marxists. Radicalism spread rapidly among urban workers, who formed unions and engaged in strikes.

The Russian Government Faced with mass protests in cities and countryside state clamped down on reform Created a secret police to spy on, infiltrate radical organizations Began exiling malcontents to Siberia

Bakunin: Anarchism

Lenin, Engels, MarxFrom Marxism to Bolshevism

From Narodniki to Nihilists

Russian Social Revolutionaries

(Agrarian Socialists)

THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM IN RUSSIA ACCORDING IN RUSSIA ACCORDING

TO THE MARXISTSTO THE MARXISTS

The Tsar, Nobles

The Church

The Military and Police

The Rich Bourgeoisie

The Peasants, Workers

The Russian Revolution of 1905 Began when soldiers mistakenly opened fire on pro-tsarist demonstration Soldiers, sailors mutinied at end of Russo-Japanese War Urban workers produced widespread strikes Peasants revolts erupted across Russia.

After repression failed, tsar's government offered reforms. Duma (national parliament) created; multi-party system legalized Constitution rewritten

Minister Stolypin Enacts Reforms Offered lighter burdens to the peasantry Offered peasants a place in village councils Peasant rebellions did die out Some peasants began to accumulate substantial land

The reforms were rapidly undone. Tsar Nicholas II withdrew concessions to workers New rounds of strikes followed Duma rapidly became a political nonentity.

1750 Split between Ottomans, Austria, Poland Had largely missed Reformation, Renaissance, changes

To 1914 Poland has disappeared

Three partitions Russia, Austria and Prussia each received lands Shared a common goal never to allow a Polish state to arise again

Ottomans expelled from Europe After series of wars, revolts ended in two large Balkans wars in 1912 Except for small part of Thrace, Turks expelled from Europe Many Muslims (converted Slavs, Greeks) remained as did large Turkish populations

Many new nations emerged in the Balkans Eastern Europe was a patchwork quilt of nationalities Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Serbia included large minorities Replicated Russian patterns of political autocracy Many did establish parliaments put politics was violent, brutal

Most eastern European nations abolished serfdom in 1848 Industrialization was less thorough and many traditional Ottoman patterns remained Landlords continued to wield economic and political power Most energy, money spent on building nations, supporting large militaries

Slavic nations enjoyed an era of great cultural productivity Diplomatically allied with Russia or Germany/Austria

The Late Tokugawa Shogunate Utilitzed a central bureaucracy Combined with alliances to feudal magnates Government was chronically short of funds

Due to limited income from taxes Also due to high payments made to feudal lords for their loyalty

Shortages of income led to reform movements This weakened shogunate and made it vulnerable to external threats

Government and Society The political alliance between the bureaucracy and the samurai worked well Growth of neo-Confucianism made Japanese life more secular Also precluded a religious opposition to change Literacy rates in Japan were much higher than in the West The national school emphasized essentially Japanese culture Dutch Studies school represented attempts to learn Western science, technology The Japanese economy expanded on the basis of commercial growth Manufacturing began to extend into countryside producing some rural protests

• 1853 American commodore Matthew Perry arrived Demanded that Japan be opened to trade

• 1856 Japan was forced to receive Western consuls Forced to open ports to foreign trade.

• Shogun faced immediate opposition Daimyos insisted on maintaining isolation Shogun and the daimyos both made appeals to the emperor Emperor began to emerge as a more powerful figure.

• Meiji Restoration Some among the samurai saw an opportunity to unseat the shogun In 1860s samurai armed with Western weapons defeated shogun's army In 1868, certain samurai restored imperial rule under Meiji Emperor

• The Meiji government abolished feudalism Replaced the daimyo states with regional prefectures Government sent samurai abroad to study political, economic organization Foreign observations were used to restructure the state Government abolished payments to samurai Paid samurai with government bonds but some samurai fell into poverty Conscription provided a new army Others found avenues of employment in the government and business.

• 1884 Government created a new nobility to staff a House of Peers Civil-service examinations were utilized to open the bureaucracy to men of talent.

• 1889 constitution Recognized the supremacy of the emperor But gave limited powers to an elected lower house of representatives within the Diet. The new constitution was based on German models. Voting rights were determined by property qualifications Five percent of the population to cast ballots The form of government gave great authority to wealthy businessmen and nobles Political parties developed A small oligarchy continued to dominate the government into the 20th century Inclusion of businessmen among political elite was major difference from Russian model of reform

The influence of the army and navy Became very influential in society Many reforms were enacted to modernize the armed forces

Modernization necessary for military reasons Foundations for industrialization

An internal infrastructure was created Guilds and internal tariffs were abolished Clear title to land was granted to individuals

Government Involvement Lack of capital dictated direct government involvement in the stages of industrialization. Japan established the Ministry of Industry in 1870 to oversee economic development The government built model factories to provide experience with new technology Education was extended as a means of developing a work force Private enterprise soon joined government initiatives, particularly in textiles Industrial combines or zaibatsus served to accumulate capital for major investment.

Results Japan's careful management of industrialization limited foreign involvement. Japan continued to depend on the importation of equipment and raw materials from the West. Rapid growth depended on existence of cheap supply of labor often drawn from poorly paid women. More than Russia, Japan's industrialization depended on selling manufactured goods abroad.

• Social change led to rapid population growth Strained Japanese resources But provided a ready supply of cheap labor. As industrialization progressed, population growth dropped off. Patriarchal households remained the norm Divorce rates indicated increasing instability within family life.

• The education system stressed science and loyalty to the emperor• Westernization?

Western culture arrived along with models of state and industrialization. Shintoism as an expression of indigenous culture gained new popularity.

• Foreign Policy Japan entered the race for colonial domination.

• The need to employ the new army• Search for raw materials• Efforts to prevent Western encroachment • All contributed to Japanese imperialism after 1890

Japan annexed the Ryuku Islands Japan won easy victories over China in 1895 and over Russia in 1904. The victories yielded Japan some territories in northern China In 1910, Japan annexed Korea

RAW SILK PRODUCTION AND EXPORT FROM JAPAN 1868 TO 1913

Period

Productionannual

average(tons)

Exportsannual

average(tons)

1868-1872 1026 646

1883 1687 1347

1889-1893 4098 2444

1899-1903 7103 4098

1909-1913 12460 9462

COAL PRODUCTION IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1875 TO 1913

YearCoal Production

(metric tons)

1875 600,000

1885 1,200,000

1895 5,000,000

1905 13,000,000

1913 21,300,000

THE SIZE OF THE JAPANESE MERCHANT FLEET IN VARIOUS YEARS

FROM 1873 TO 1913

YearNumber of Steamships

1873 26

1894 169

1904 797

1913 1514

RAILROAD MILEAGE IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM

1873 TO 1913

YearTrack

(miles)

1872 18

1883 240

1887 640

1894 2100

1904 4700

1914 7100

• Industrialization and successful imperialism had costs• Industrialization upended older traditions, social classes• Change is not accepted easily• Imperialism demanded a strong industrial base

• War industries tie up money in producing goods which have no benefit• Money spent on war could be invested elsewhere• Japan made the decision to be a great power and that meant arming

• Unions, strikes arose in Japan and labor politics became part of industry • Carefully contrived political balance became unwieldy

Ministries were forced to call more frequent elections Few working majorities in the Diet Factions emerged in the Diet and old timers dominated proceedings

• Rise of Nationalism Conservatives appalled at trend to imitate the West. Intellectuals bemoaned loss of an authentic Japanese identity Both saw a Japan that was neither traditional nor Western. Leaders urged loyalty to the emperor and the nation. Nationalism became a strong force in Japanese politics.

Comparisons in 1800 Similarities in 1800

Both had a Confucian culture, adopted a policy of relative isolation from contacts Both lagged behind west scientifically, industrially; forcibly opened by the West about the same time

Differences China surpassed Japan in development Chinese Confucian leadership was stronger, more developed; government was secular, bureaucratic Chinese centralized government had no feudal lords to impeded or distract it China had a rich tradition of innovation and scientific discoveries

Differences Determined Outcome of Contact So why did Japan succeed?

China lacked flexibility: tried to squash or control innovation Japan knew benefits of innovation; had a strong autonomous mercantile tradition Japan’s feudalism produced a dedicated militaristic elite, limited centralization China hampered by rapid population growth which consumed energy, resources Japan was island nation open to maritime contacts, influences: learned from Chinese mistakes Japanese government suffered no breakdown of authority even during Meiji Restoration

Or Did China fail? Chinese government less efficient, less popular as dynasty was in decline; intellectual life stifled West fixated on China first as it was a greater prize Western contacts only worsened internal situation and made reform, control difficult Sino-Japanese War 1894 – 1895 proved Japan learned its lessons from the West

Russia's already established role in the world expanded in the 19th century, as its cultural, diplomatic, and military power came to be felt in Europe, the Ottoman Empire, and Asia.

Japan's role was newer, as it emerged from isolation to develop an increasingly powerful economy and to expand its influence in the western Pacific. Some nations in the West feared the yellow peril represented by Japan's emergence as an international power.

The addition of Russia, Japan, and the United States to the world diplomatic picture increased competition. Colonial acquisitions by the new powers heightened the competitive atmosphere, particularly in the Far East.

HOLY ALLIANCE DECEMBRIST UPRISINGS CRIMEAN WAR EMANCIPATION OF THE

SERFS ZEMSTVOES TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILROAD INTELLIGENTSIA ANARCHISTS BOLSHEVIKS RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR DUMA STOLYPIN REFORMS KULAKS

TERAKOYA DUTCH STUDIES ZAIBATSU DIET SINO-JAPANESE WAR YELLOW PERIL

NICHOLAS I ALEXANDER II SERGEI WITTE V. I. LENIN MATTHEW PERRY MEIJI EMPEROR