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i:;".,n::"i,il,1L,il,\Xi;;:ry'"'Aiyit#*i,-'d"1fiffi"l* * " " i " ",' " " T"l :0X," il il:;",1::':,"i, i"' TilXi ;iffi n:* ;:;: ::':::l;f ';::";iilillT;'il'"'i'"ii""i"'ionswritttf \r.,,.,n. rorm or the communi":':::#]":,Xlt :"J'i:'lJl"ff

"l';:

:T:*:TJJ;{T"':,ls:',:['""::ll.i,'i'"'*i*"'caru.i'l" -- i;. trend or- "lll;: J:"i:lu*:,,::l'i"i:,i:# "*:'::l'"1'::?: ll#:lcommunication reflec'il::T*,{,",,,111i"3;:l5?:'tr#-,T'T#i"fh';;;;#;ffi:kii:'r#q{q'::'"1:?ifvltt*'^{o:#:?#:,{:';;1n"'a":"*oi" -a diverse'1t{osn:'!; il!il?ii'Jl;:" 'r""p'""i"'":l:t:'* - tvpes of '^-i,:;iii;'i;,t,:,:;:;',;;;iu'r":r-rl.ll,i*i."*lti;til"l;'.ffi :'xTIintonation has a verv t'"ry,ii,:: ::\:j?"llii- modariry.) ., ,

II. THE CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES0.1. It is a foregone conclusion that since speech and writing ale the

expression of articulate thinking, utterances and written sentences will be thematerialized forms of thoughts (either cornplete or partial).Taken all in all, it is safe enough to assert that articulate thoughts (in the fieldof logic) find their expression in sentences or propositions (terms which have theirorigin in the same field of logic) and take the oral form of utterances (in -suprasegmental - phonetics). Language and its component elements (phonemes,morphemes, words, phrases, grammatical rules, structures, patterns, etc.) are thematerials and means employed by human beings in order to embody their thoughts.

0.2. Seen in this light, the expressions (written or oral) of human thoughts arepart and parcel of communication and may express different trends or purposes ofthe communication, and on the other hand may assume a variety of forms. That iswhy the traditional manner of classifying notions - in point of content and in pointof form - assumes the following aspect when we differentiate the linguisticexpressions of thoughts.

0.3. I. Classification in point of trend or purpose of the communication I inpoint of modality I manner or the speaker's attilude (therefore a matter of content);IL Classification in point of structure (of the communication) I of contposirion(therefore a maffer of form);III. Classification in point of status or grammatical dependence.Alltypes or subtypes of sentences identified in any of the three classifications canbCsubdivided into positive and lve. without snecial mention beins made of it.).. f.0. Thus, the first classification proceeds from the trend or essence (or nature,C.offenQ of the communication (although usually it is preferable to begin with a

'fgpual classification) because it is more general than the other classifications.'htdFcd the discrimination of sentences according to the purpose / intention /lSnrde of the speaker or writer is primordial and can apply to all the subdivsionsryplated underthe incidence of the other classifications. To put it differently, weulay.have short or long, extended, elliptical, etc. sentences (or clauses, for thatIt4er) which are all declarative or exclamatory, etc. So, the structure of a,d$hrative or interrogative sentence is a less important matter - for theoretical or'$fndical consideratio-ns - than its basic trend or purpose.; .l'-0.1. From the point of view of trend - which means semantic as well asand psychological content - sentences are normally divided into:

llJ::tlhlr"t"",":[';ffi ff ::t]li]'*r#:,,lii{,}'#;#ffi ir#.*ill,Hms::;'1ilffi :[![iijfj jullr.r.:',*';:1 jlffi :*:il;ilfittt"l:lilffi ','^";1,il:lll'[ i. ^, : : . ; ")*. r,,r. u, :,* ",d,, :: ]3.3.r 'rere is evetr a ramous 9'"'3'i:il:'il:il:i::iliT;lt'l'il'o'o'"h i,r,. u"if "r " r."ry9i;*l:;:':iiili.::'Xi'"'Xu' ^"Jir,.i, .itll 'liliif;:iil:: tli*"*'.tl".l*l:$f, :$:1lffi ll,ffit'*""t'si**"::;':rtit:J':'"",:l'ffi J$il'HJ"t?l*J{$H[Hhdrlhr*;i,'Ji'a:;::i

j,'"'-l-r,ffi fl :l#i"j'#3'1tffi l;i',',:'lffi ili;flrand it has various means of expression - lL .'*;;oks of phoneticnt,'d-[['T*:;nx;i",i]:#i1;;?fJ;i*ir;i{ira:':;::::J:tt:illffi i"Jlilr":'nll*[l:ii:tiil**:'i*":i,1fi'1i:"#iir""i'J"*n""ever the """,:::Y:i':;i.l'"dalities ::T:11,:i;::HJl'" ;il;i: un d oth"' mod ar iti e s

, Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory.

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So, it is a matter of the fundamental aftitude which the speaker / writer adoptstowards his i her communication. In this matter, we are going along with ProfessorLevilchiandothergrammarians,inconsideringthatanycommtlllication-evenstatements (which is an alternative name for the declarative sentences) does reflector reveal an attitude or modalitY'

l.0.2.Cornbinedstudiesinsemantics,grammarandphoneticsdoseemtopoint to the conclusion that modality is present in one form or another - explicit orimplicit - in all communication' To put it differently' there is hardly.any sentence*hi"h do., not involve a ceftain i"gt". of participation, a certain standpointadopted by the speaker / writer. Seen in these terms, any assertion, however factual-g"n",ut,orparticular,madewiththehelpofthelndicativeMood(generallyco"nsidered free from any modal implications, though Latin and-other grammars,ung" it on a par *ith otirer mocles - e*pressions of modality) reflects an attitude:nurr,'"f', in this case the assertive altilucle, or certaitlty, or conviction (explicit ori*pri"iil or fnality. All these may be conceived - in the light of this approach - as;i"; ;" un "qrut and even similar plane with any modal sentence' A.or[."6"nriue liit of rnodalities includes certainty, finality, in parallel with doubt,p"r.iUif ity, impossibility, probability, etc' and. we also know that modalify can bei*p."rr"i in uurious *uvt - by moiphological means (moods' modal verbs' modalph'rur"r, etc.), by synticticai means (emphatic constructions' etc')'.t'yr..':ll::'means (adverbs, etc.), by phonetic means (especially emphasis' doubt''humility';;;gy, etc.), by stylistic-means (inversion, etc') some of them being connectedwith the distinctions between declarative and interrogative, imperative orexclamatory.

l.l. Declarative sentences are also ealled statements (in grammar as well as inphonetics,rhetoric,etc.)astheyareusedinordertoaffirm'declare'orstatesomething (positive or negativei usually without emotional implications that iswithout a-ffective participalion - and denoting certainty, conviction, etc' thoughtheirvariations and diveisity are immense. They normally end with a,period andare uttered in the "Tone of Finality / Decision" - (High) Fall ot Tone I High'It is at least three weeks since his last visit / since he last came here(and he hasn't phoned either) (' if I'm not mistaken) (' unless hecalled when we were in the country) / (, which I very much regret) /(,though we all miss him a lot) - (That is a simple, a compound or acomplex sentence, with or without a modal tinge)I stratt I will (certainly) give him a piece of my mind ('if / when I meelhim) (,so that he may know where we stand / lest he should blunder

mil$lf

again) (, although he seems to be beyond hope) (and I shan't / won'tmince r',,ords either) - (ldem)I'rn sure he has read the paper / He must have read the paper (, or atleast he has by all means heard the news from somebody) - (ldem)

1.1.1. Declarative sentences usually resort to the Indicative Mood. Theirdegree of asseftiveness depends on the presence of strengthening or emphaticadverbs, e.g., "certainly", "undoubtedly", "doubtlessly", etc. (and in this casemodality is even more obvious) or on the contrary of adverbial modifiers denotingdoubt, probability, etc. - e.g., "probably", "perhaps", "maybe". Conviction -sometimes without proof or material support - may be expressed also through thernodal verb "must" - also followed by the perfect infinitive, with reference ro pasractions - the modal verb "will" - indicating a high degree of probability, etc.

1.1.2. For the arrangement of words in positive or negative statements, cf. therespective section in the Chapter on word order.1.2. Interrogative sentences are expressions of the speaker's / writer's curiosity

and so their form follows the standards corresponding to that modality or to itssubdivisions or association. Therefore, there are certain requirements in point ofword order (cf. the respective section in the book) and the tones adopted depend onthe sub-division described below.Thus, for various purposes, interrogative sentences are usually sub-dividedinto a) general, b) special / particular, c) alternative, and d) disjunctive questions.(cf. also Note under L2.5.)All of them normally end in a question mark.

1.2.1. As is well known, general questions are those which refer to the truth ofan entire sentence, and so the answer which they expect may be just one word -usually the adverbs "yes" or "no" (or a corresponding gesture) and that is why theyare also called in a familiar / elementary way "Yes or No questions".General questions are typical reflection of genuine / pure / unmingledcuriosity, being also called straightforward questions that is having noimplications whatever. They, as well as interrogative repetitions, are normallyuttered in the tone of genuine curiosity (highrise) - which in English appears as acontinuous, uninterrupted rise in pitch (stronger upon the nucleus or nuclei) unlikeRomanian intonation, which includes a drop in front of the main rise at the end.

The asserlive attitude underlies declarative sentences, irrespective of thespeaker's / writer's belief in the truth of the respective sentence. Therefore, whetherhe knows his statement to be the truth or a lie, he delivers it with seemingconviction. In phonetics, however, uncertainty or deceitfulness may come to thesurface through the utilisation of the fall-rise (hesitating) tone, in spite of ther's will- depending upon his ability or inability to disguise his thoughts.

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Must you really go?It is raining?Have you heard the news? (Straightforward question)He has called on you (did you say)? (lnterrogative repetition)Can you tell me when he left? (Straightforward question with asubordinate direct object clause - indirect question)Has mother come? Was it late?

1.2.1.1. Word order in general questions involves partial grammaticalinversion, that is the removal of the auxiliary or modal anomalous finite to place Oin front ofthe subject (cf. the Chapter on word order).1.2.2. Special or particular questions refer only to one / to a specific part of a rsentence / statement, so that they do not expect more confirmation or denial but a Idefinite precise answer. This justifies their above-mentioned name, while the fact ithat they begin with an interrogative pronoun or adverb (most of them having as iinitials the fetters Wh) justifies their familiar / elementary designation - "Wh - iquestions". IThe arrangement of words for expressing special / particular questions isdescribed in the respective section of the chapter on word order. In point ofintonation, they follow the same pattern in English as in other languages - the :descendingonecalled falltune-perhapsalittlemoremarkedinEnglish. iBetween interrogative proper and interrogative - negative sentences, the ipattern differs only in point ofword order (cf. that chapter)

1.2.3. Alternative questions, that is those based on the presence of several jpossibilities or of one alternative at least, are necessarily subdivided into a) limited/ ifnite,which offer a definite set of possibilities (namely two or perhaps three) and Ib) open/unlimited, whose meaning is that the number of possibilities is larger than Ithose listed.1.2.3.1. Limited lfinite alternative questions have the nature of a "closed list" lor of a "limitative" enumeration - that is one exhausts all possibilities - andtherefore the intonation pattern is made up of (n-l) sense groups uttered with theLow rise tone (for showing continuation) * I sense group uttered as a Fall (forshowing the end of the list). The word order pattern does not change.Does he work ,nights or 'days?Do you prefer /cash or tcheques?

Who(m) do you love more - /mummy ortdaddy?Will you have ,Iea or 'coffee? ( = there is nothing else in the house)1.2.3.2. Unlimited I open alternative questions have the nature of art"illustrative / exemplifoing" enumeration and the fact that the list is left open ismarked by a High Rise in the intonation of the last element of the set - after (n-iiLow Rises - suggesting further possibilities, not mentioned explicitly.

-,Y;lrrr:Jyput up at the \Ath6n6e palace, or the lnterc ontidentat? 1o,

r.2.4. Disiunctive quesrions have trre sarne rogicar pattern in the ranguages wediscuss, that is a statement_fotowed by a quesrion li.nuin"ry "r.r"r, politely /formally asking for its confirmation), the question normaily hauing the oppositetrend r direction than the statement: a) positive statem-ent roiio*"a by theinterrogative-negative question, b) negative'statement foilowed by interrogativeH?::Jjtrffr), as is shown in fu'detail in rhe respe*ive section'of ,h";;;;;;;a) you caught the evening train, didn,t you?This in your younger sister, isn,t she?You can come tonight, can,t you?b) It hasn't rained, has it?He oughtn't to be late, ought he?You won't forggt, willyou?(In fact a request or an order) _ For furtherdetairs cf' coordination.(in the chapter on trre compound sentence) andword order in disjunctive questions (under 2.4. in the chapter on theorder of words).

1.2.5. Analysing the probrem in terms of the connection between context andspeech, Roger Kingdom (The Groundwork of Engtish Intonation _ section J $ 103)arso discusses the fo'owing fypes of questions, graphicaty simirar to the previousones, yet differing in their intonation:a) Questions asking for reperitiore, for which the speaker uses High Rise(Tone I High)in or9:l lo make his inrerrocutor repeat (part or) whar he said before:What (did vou sav)?/Wh"r" is fle goingi /where did you say he was going?"How much (did you say you wanted)iTherefore an (emphatic) rising intonation is used instead of the f-ailing onenormal for particular questions..;-. -b) Interrogative repetitio.ns, in which the speaker again uses High Rise (Tone IIigll possibly with particurar emphasis on ,o,n. word - in order to make sure hehas heard correctly (a statement, question etc. which astonished, ,1,o"L"J him etc.):you'told him to /come?Harlenry /seen them?,.. .c) . Insistent questions, in which the speaker uses (Emphatic) Farr (Tone IIHigh) in_either general or particurar questions for which i,e onpt aticuily demandsa (specific / definite) reply:HastJohn came?Did thevlll so?eut\here iJitzButswhen did they come?Shall we go there on ,Monday or 'Tuesday? (or when?) iWhat wilf you have, Sir, ,whisky, or ,brandy, or'gin? (or somethinglt ,d) Quizzical questions, in which the speaker resorts to Rise Fail (Tone IV) inorder to mark his doubt, irony, mockery, etc.

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Are you "really sorry?^Can't /^couldn't you helP me?How many ^more do you want?As is clearly seen, the various nuances of stressing and intonation (sornetimesrather subtle) are independent of word order - though in (b) the latter is not suitedto the interrogative, very much as in other colloquial sentences.

1.3. Imperative sentences include commands proper (given a final or very final/ categorical / imperious intonation - the Fall or High Fall Tone) or requests,(usually given a pliant, agreeable intonation - namely the Fall-Rise tone) orinvitations (usually given the same intonation as requests but polite enough evenwhen the categorical I final tone - Fall - is used). Usually they end in anexclamation mark.

en analytic form of the subjunctive, n.rainly with should.lt is but natural that theyshould end in an exclamation mark.

1.5. ln all tvpes and srrb-types of sentences, whether positive or negative, a$rong connection is present throughout between grammar and plronetics or, morespecifically, between syntax and suprasegmental phonetics (sentence stress andintonation).Therefore it may be asserted that this classification is of great importance forchoosing the appropriate word order, intonation and punctuation apt to convey ourmeaning as well as our attitude.

2.0. The second classification, the formal one, refers to the way thoughts areexpressed, whether destined for utterance or for writing.We prefer the classification in point of slructure I composition I form whichdistinguishes three main types of sentences:2.1. (A) the simple sentence, that is the sentence which expresses just one

thought at a time, by means of one predicate (or main focus / nucleus) between twopunctuation marks that are destined for separating thoughts - or between twoconclusive pauses in the speech chain, indicating the beginning of a new ufteranceand its end. Simple serltences can be further subdivided, as will be seen in theirdetailed description (Chapter III).

2.2. (B) the compound senlence (in which the word compond is employed inthe sense of homogeneity / similarity / coordination i equality) that is a thoughtwhich includes rnore units than one, placed on an equal footing. In syntacticalterms, the English compound sentence corresponds to the notion of frazd(compusd) prin coordonare that is a sentence made up of two or more clauses (:propozi{ii coordonate), which discharge the same function and are connectedbetween them with or without the help of coordinating conjunctions.

2.3. (C) the complex.tentence involves the notion of "complex" in the sense ofdiversity / non-homogeneousness / inequaliry / subordination of the variouscomponent elements. In purely syntactical terms, it corresponds to the Romanianfrazd (compusd prin subordonarel that is a unit of thinking made up of one ormore main / principal clauses (:propozitii principale) and one or more subordinate'clauses (:protrtozilii secundare I subordonate). (Their further description, togetherwith the explanation of the notion of subordination, and details about the severalpossible levels of subordination, are dwelt upon in the chapter on the complexsentence).

2.4. Moreover, the reality of speech and writing confronts us with situations inwhich both coordination and subordination are pfesent in the same syntactical unit.Such sentences may be called compound-contplex (if coordination occurs at thefirst level, that is between the main clauses on one or several of which depend(s)the subordinate clause(s) and, vice-versa, complex-contpound (when there is firstsubordination and then coordination at the second level. that is between the two or

ftrrIiiI

i,I,Iti

LOmel'Shut up, ( please)!(Plea$; Bring thern along to'night! (. please)) \,Let s nurr\r':.Don't forllt me! _ \tNever rcount your 'chickens before they are hatched!'Let metthink - yes, now I remember perfectly!Read a little\ louder, will you?

It is common knowledge that the most polite invitations, requests and evensuggestions are formulated as questions of the types: "Would you mind sittidown?", "Shouldn't we better postpone it?", "Shall we discuss it over lunch?","Won't you stay for dinner?", etc.

1.3.1. The ellipsis of the subject in standard English, its presence in colloquialEnglish and other aspects of imperative sentences are explained in greater detail inthe section on the subject and on word order. As their very name shows,imperative sentences - whether commands, requests or invitations - are the properfield of application of the imperative mood. Moreover, phrases, phonetic emphasisand lexical means may also be employed for denoting the corresponding modality.

1.4. On the other hand Exclantatory sentences are naturally the proper field ofapplication of those modalities which are rnore clearly connected with ouremotions. They denote either attitudes which we may call "positive" or even"superlative" (such admiration, enthusiasm, joy, surprise, happiness, satisfaction,exultation, elation, etc.) or, on the contrary "negative" ones, (such horror, terror,disgust, dissatisfaction, disappointment, regret, sadness, grief, etc.) The means forexpressing such a wide range of feelings will of course differ substantially, thoughthe patterns display many similitudes: the order of words is practically the same,exclamatory sentences usually beginning otherwise than declarative sentences -with adverbs, pronouns, etc. on place O - (cf. word order) inversion is frequent (cf.the respective chapter) and sometimes they may includc an oblique mood - that is86 81

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.

several subordinate clauses) but on the whole they are covered by the theory andanalysis of complex sentences.3.0. Sentences can also be classified in accordance with their s/a/as (ofdependence or independence) or in other formulation in point of (content and)grammatical dependence, that is in terms of their position as regards othersyntactical units. This classification, however, is rather intricate, because it bringsinto play all three types of sentences classified in point of structure, or rathersimple sentences as such (or independent clauses, as part ofa compound sentence)and the non-homogeneous components ofa complex sentence - the subordinator(s)and the subordinated.It is in fact a matter of government, of equality or of juxtaposition / totalseparation and the difficulties increase when it comes equivalating the various classesin other languages (cf. in this respect the points on terminology under 4.0. below).In point ofstatus or degree ofgrammatical dependence, sentences are classified into:

a. independent sentences (isolated);b. independent clauses (as part ofa compound sentence);c. main / principal / head clauses (in complex sentences);d. regent clauses (as part of a complex sentence, in case there are two degrees

/ three levels of subordination);e. subordinate / secondary clauses (again as part ofcomplex entences).3.1. Independent sentences are in fact simple sentences, their name differingonly in function of the angle from which they are viewed: relative status /

condition / situation.It is 8 o'clock.You will have to rush to your office.If linked by conjunctions, independent sentences become (more or less)independent clauses (in case of coordination, as part of a compound sentence -e.g., It is 8 o'clock and you have lo rush to the office), while in the case where theyare placed in a hierarchy, they turn into main clauses, subordinate clauses properor regent clauses - e.g. h is 8 o'clock and so you will have to rush to the office,unless you want to be late again.

3.2. Independent clauses are the complete elements or units which are broughttogether in a closer connection as part of the speech chain, without, however,being dependent upon each other or upon anything else (in point of meaning or ofgrammatical relationships). They preserve their equal status, and their"hypothetical" independence can at any time be proved, through replacing commasor coordinating conjunctions by full stops, without their full sense being altered.

3.3. Main clauses, also calledprincipal or head clauses, are elements that rankfirst in the hierarchy established as part of a complex sentence, that is they have intheir subordination both secondary / subordinate clauses and regent clauses - incase the latter are present. (Notice that while subordinate clauses display greatvariety, main clauses are limited in their variability, being usually statements,

H*r.E.

although questions, imperatives or - less frequently - exclamations occasionally doappear as main clauses.)3.4. Regent clauses have the intermediate position, i.e. they have theambivalent / twofold / hybrid nature of governed and governing at the same time,when the stratification / hierarchy within the complex sentence is more diversified.They behave as subordinates to the main clause(s) while governing the subordinateclause(s.; ProPer.

3.5, Subordinate I secondary clauses are an indispensable element of complexsentences: the very notions of "complex sentence" (:heterogeneous, unequal) andof main clauses are impossible without the existence of subordinate / subservientelements.Their governement by main or regent clauses is the principal area where therules of sequence of tenses manifest themselves.

4.0. The useful and as often as not indispensable comparison with Romanianinevitably requires a perfect understanding of the equivalence of terms, which wepresent in the following form (summarizing in fact all the above):

Or, vice-versa

Romunianoropozitie independentd/simnlS Englishi ndependent/s imole s e n t e nc epropozilie independentd coordonati(in cadrul unei fraze compuse prin coordonare)

coord i nated independent c I aus e(as part of a compoundsentence)

propozi!ie principald(in cadrul unei fraze compuse prin subordonare) main/princ ipal head c I aus e(as part of a complex sentence)propoz ip ie secundari/su bordon atd(idem) subord inate/s econdary c I aus e(idem)propozitie resentd (idem) regent clause (idem)frazd (compusi) prin coordonare compound sentence'{razd komousi) prin subordonare complex sentenceloculiune sramaticale grammatical Dhraseexpresrc idiom, idiomatic phrase

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Englislt Romanian

sentence

s imple/irrdePendentcompound (two or moreindependent clausescontplex (one main clause ormore * one or moresubordinated clauses)

- propozilie independentd / sirnpld-frazd compusd Prin coordonare*frazd compusd Prin subordonare

clauseindependent (as Part of acompound sentence)main/principal (as Part of acomplex sentence)subordinate (idem)regent (idem)

- propozilie independentd (as partof a "frazd contPusd Princoordonare ")propozilie principald (as part of a"frazd compusd prin subordonare"- propozilie secundar6/ subordo-nati (idem)- propozilie regentd (idem)

Phrase

(idiomatic) Phrase

-locuyiune gramatical6 (adjectivala,prepozilional6,conj unctivald,circumstan!iald etc.)- ex pr e s ie I fr azeologicl/ id iomaticd

l?1!

III. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE1.0. The typical syntactic unit, found with great frequency and enjoying the

oualities of conciseness and clarify usually required for conversation, orders,sign-boards, suggestions, indications, information, etc is the simple sentence. ltconveys the informative elemerrts of communication as separate units.Usually, in conversation and in a sort of primary, non-scientific conception.people consider sirnple sentences to be reduced to two words at the most (forinstance the subject and the predicate). The truth is. however. that although thesubject and the predicate are the essential parls ofthe sentence (in logic as well asin the grarnnrar of manv languages - those which do not evince the fi'equentellipsis of the subject) in fact most sentences (oral or written) containsupplementary eletrents. Truth to say, conversation, writing, etc. would be poorenough if sentences were made up only of these main elements.

1.0.1. Grarnrnars propose the following subdivision of simple sentences:l.I.a) Simple unextended sentences (: propozilii simple nedezvoltate) made

up only of the traditional main parts of the sentence - the subject and the predicate.He has come. She is asleep. Mother wouldn't agree. Jenny waswolking.1.2.b) Sinple ertended sentences (: propozitii sintple dezvoltate) made up of

the main parts of tlre sentence - attribute(s), the direct, indirect and/or prepositionalobject, adverbial modifier(s) or some kind or another, etc.Not very long ago he used to come here ahnost daily.At three o'clock yesterday, the cabin with its passengers, crashed into. the river below.New and old newspapers, books, cigarettes, matches, pencils, andwhat not, were lyirrg in a litter on the not very clean floor.

1.3.c) Elliptical simple sentences (: propozilii sintple eliptice) charactelizedbythe absence of a part of the sentence whiclr is otherwise considered essential oreven indispensable - the subject or the predicate, for irrstance.Care for a walk? (: Vrei sd ne plimbdrr? - through the ellipsis of both

the auxiliary "do" and the subject ofthe sentence)Got a match? (Ave1i un foc? - like the previous sentence, this form isofvery frequent occurence in colloquial English)Nice to see you! (Ellipsis of the introductory subject ir and of theIinking verb /o be, achieving precisely the effect of prominence forthe predicative, which is envisaged when utilizing tlre introductoryantic ipatory construction. )Delighted to have met youl (Ellipsis of the subject and of the linkingverb, with emphasis on the predicative.)9l

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1.3.1. Elliptical sentences are peculiar especially to colloquial conversation(men, as we realize from English and American literature, seem to be fonder ofeltipti"ut expression than women are) and to stage directions e-g., "Goes to tableL." (:left), i'Crosse, to sofa C." (:centre) (cf. the chapter on the subject and thechapters on the arlicle in grammar books')1.3.2. When elliptical sentences are used very frequently, they may become amannerism which as a matter of fact used to be en vogue especially withfn-de-sidcte fashionable young men, for example as inWilde's The Importance ol'Being Earnesl - 1895 (though, judging by the speech of Mr.Jingle in The PickwickPapirs, 1836-3': , it seems the mannerism had begun earlier)'

1.4. d) One-member sentences (= propozilii ntono-membre) which include justone element, suficient however to express something, to convey the gist of an idea,the essential of some communication unit. As nominal elements usually prevail inone member Sentences, these are sometimes called "nominal sentences"(:propoz i1 i i nom inale)I went in. Darkness. Silence Smoke.I went out.. Rain. Drizzle. Fog-The streets were empty. Nobody in sight.Not the shadow ofa ghost. Darkness all around'(Adverbial modifiers - perhaps with an attributive function - are employedhere to round off the atmosphere; note also that the nominal elemeqt may becompound - a nominal Phrase.)

1.4.1. Such sentenoes may occur either in literature or in some oral narrative,if it is related in such a way as to enhance stylistic effects - e.g. to enhancesuspense.In literature, some of the most famous examples are culled from Dickens:Silence between them. The deadly statistical clock very hollow. Thedistant smoke very black and heavy. (Hard Times, Chapter XV)In fact a number of elements are present, but they discharge essentially thesame function in the sentence - circumstantial or adverbial'

2.1. ln point of freque4cy, the bulk of oral or written communication is madeup of simple extended sentences because on the one hand unextended sentencescannot communicate a substantial / sufficient amount of information (moreover thestylistic effect of their frequent occurence would be too depressing), while on theother hand elliptical and one-member sentences are limited in their frequencybecause of their narrow spreading in only two or three registers of the language'2.2. As regards the arrangement of words in the simple sentence, cf' thechapter on word order.

#:ri IV. THE SUBJECT

0.f. In logic, judgements (propositions i sentences) are usually divided intofi,vo main parts - the subject and the predicate - which are essential to any completethinking - and which correspond to tlre principal parls of the sentence in syntax. Inqrammar, roughly speaking, we may say that the subject is the element underiiscussion, while the predicate is the element which says something about it.According to the formula which Romanian studies in English owe mainly toprofessor Levilchi, the role of the subject is usually anaphoric, that is limited toreminding one about the topic of the discussion, narrative, etc., while the role ofthe predicate is much rnore important, namely bringing new elements concerningthe problem discussed - a role which may be labelled epiphoric. With otherauthors - especially the Prague School - we find the same conception expressed indifferent terms: the subject of the judgement is described in a functional view ofgrammar as the theme, while the predicate is described as the rheme, that is thenovel element, the vector of the more substantial, informative part of thecommunication.

0.2. To put it differently, the subject is the element which in most cases isknown to the listener and, as is but logical, English sentences usually begin withthis element, that is they proceed from something which is already known tosomething which is yet unknown. If the subject is not known, if it is introduced forthe first time, we usually find that English people also move this element towardsthe end of the sentence, where most of the emphasis falls. In such cases, nativespeakers resort as often as not to an introductory subject, a soft of temporarysubstitute or "l ieutenant".

0.3. Such situations can be illustrated by the contradiction between whatseems to be subject, especially considering the usual order of words in English,and what actually is the subject. For instance, ifwe revert to the debate around thefamous quotation To be or not Io be, that is the question and if we apply thesidelights on grammar which are provided by phonetics and by the analysis ofbroader, situational contexts, we immediately find the emphasis cannot logicallybe laid on the word "question", because it is not part of the predicate, as it may seem,but the subject (that is the question preying on the speaker's mind is whether life isworth living or not).

0.4, In much the same way, if we compare the pair of sentences:L George is a good boy or George is a good 'boy (Subject - George)

and II. 'George is a'good'boy (Subject = a good boy, because it can be rephrasedfls: "An example of a good boy is George")we find that they answer different questions: the first answers such questions aslf/ho is George? or LVhat is George? or Is George a good boy? - with the usual

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answer Yes, he ls because George is the issue under discussion, whereas the secondsentence answers such questions as l{ho is a good boy? referring to a differentcontext, for instance one in which we discuss the good boys in a class, etc.Therefore, although formally identical, the two sentences presuppose adifferent context and require different translations - which will be indicated by thecontext and, when spoken, also by intonation.

I. George e (un) bdiat 'bun or E bdiatrbun George (dsta) / George e biiatt bun Ir bun bdiat.ll. (Un) bdiat bun ,'G"orgn or Uite,'G"org" e (un1 bdiat bun.0.5. Generally speaking, such problems of differences in translation,determined by the actual purport ofthe sentence, arise also out ofthe fact that thesubject is almost always present in E,nglish sentences. This is due to the almosttotal loss in inflexions in contemporary English and creates difficulties fortranslators into languages whose structure is different - for instance Romanian inwhich the presence of the subject (especially when repeated or when expressed bya persorral pronoun) seems incongruous or clumsy, if it does not, moreover, bringabout unwarranted emphasis. For instance, it is easy to imagine how clumsy and,in the last analysis, incorrect, would sound the translation of the followingquotation from Browning if all the pronouns were retained in the Romaniantranslation: \Had I said that, had I done this,

So might I gain, so might I miss.Might she have loved me? just as wellShe might have hated, who can tell?Where had I been now if the worst befell?

0.6. So the subject is customarily expressed in English sentences, the twomain exceptions being:l) rnost imperative sentences, in which case the absence of the subject is thespecific indication for the utilization of this mood (e.g., Take back the hope yougave; tly and test it!),'

2) the second important exception is provided by elliptical speech and hereagain difficulties arise in translation because the subject being seldom expressed inRomanian, we must look for other means in order to point to the stylistic device ofellipsis. (Less important cases are mentioned in section 5 "Peculiarities of Englishusage".)0.7. To sum up this introduction, the conclusion is that we should not leaveEnglish sentences without subjects. On the other hand, we must refrain as far aspossible from rendering English subjects expressed by personal pronouns intoRomanian, in order not to create a gulf between our maternal language and thelanguage oftranslations, to say nothing ofavoiding undesired emphatic effects.

94 95

1.0. If we try to defi.e the subject, we reach the foilowing formura agreedupon by most grammarians wlro have attempted a definition:The subject is that principal part of rhe .senrence which shows v,ho/v,hatperfornts the action expressed by the predicate or to whom/ro what ct fearure orcharacterislic expressed by the prediccttive is ascribed.By and large, the subject is therefore that part ofthe sentence about which thepredicate states sorneth ing.1.1. The subject answers the question u,ho? or what? as in the followinsquotation from Browning:You gave a score of years to art. (Who gave?)But in rnusic we know how fashions endl.(l/ Who knows? 2lWhat ends?)2.0. Ways of Expressing the SubjecrrThe subject can be expressed in various ways:2.1. By a noun in the nominative case, which may be:2.1.1. a conmon noun, with or without noun determiners or modifiers (NounPhrase = NP)

The blood replenished me again.My last thought was at least not vain.Since nothing all my love availsMy whole heart rises up to bless your nameIn pride and thankfulness! (Browning)Every ass loves to hear himself bray. (English proverb)This category includes all kinds ofnouns, concrete or abstract, verbal nouns orsubstantiv ized adjectives:Beauty is but skin-deep.A blind man will not thank you for a looking_glass.C omparis ons are odious.Enough is as good as a feast.Come day, go day, God send Sunday. (English proverb)Riding's a joyMy riding is better, by their leave. (Browning)

2.1.2.8y a substantivized past or indefinite participle:The dying do not care about this. (Wilde)The accused were charged with theft.2.1.3.modifier): By a proper name (possibly accompanied by a determinative or

Martin was not angry (J.London)Young Laertes, in a riotous head

, . ' Most examples in this chapter are excerpted from Robert Browning,s poems or frombooks of English proverbs. It is not unprofitable to memorize them.

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l

O'erbears your officers-.. (Shakespeare)The Miss Dodsons had always been thought to hold up their headsvery high (G.EIiot)Blathersville wants a Nicholson pavement (M.Twain)2.1.4. By a fixed group of words, indicating the title A) of a work (literary,musical, artistic) or B) of an office, enterprise, institution etc., both A and Btherefore referring to single notions:

The Prince and the Pauper is a fine story by Mark Twain'Three Loves was one of Cronin's early novels'Heart of Darkness is experience too. (J.Conrad)2.2 By a pronoun of various kinds:

2.2.1. By a personal Pronoun:I claim only a memory of the same, and this besidelf you will not blame, your leave for one more last ride with me'(Browning)

The personal pronoun with a or impersonal function will be treated

The personal pronoun may be emphasized in one way or another:Have you yourself what's best for men?What if we still ride on, rte two,With life for ever old yet new. (Browning)

2.2.2. P os s e s sive pronouns:This book is yours, mine is at home.2.2.3. De mons trai v e pronouns:And thal's your Venus...What does j/ all mean, poet? (Browning)2.2.4. Interrogalive pronouns:Who knows but the world may end tonight? (Browning)llhat stones?

Who goes there? (Sentry's Password)l{ho more busy than he that hath least to do? (English proverb)2.2.5, Relative pronouns:Whence we turn to yonder girl that fords the burn! (Browning)2.2.6. Conj unctive-relative pronouns:What will be will be (Dickens, Hard Times)ll/ho looks not before, finds himself behind. (English proverb)

97

P.'uIt 2.2.7. Indefinire pronouns, which may be subdivided into quantitarive (theprototype .be.ing much - e.g., All is not gold that glitters!) and numerical (theprotofype betng many, more, most, severa[).Some people are wise and some are otherwise.All lay load on the willing horse. (English proverbs)

2.2.8. Generic pronouns, which may be subdivided into:a) absolute - such as one, you, thou (archaic), everybody, everyone, anybody, etc.Still one must have a bliss to die with (Browning)You can't get blood (or water) out of a stone.With Latin, a horse and money, thou will pass through the world.(English proverbs)b) limited - such as they:They scratch his name on the Abbey-stone . (Browning)

2.2.9. Negatiye pronouns:None knows the weight of another's burden.Nothing is impossible to a willing heart.Nothing succeeeds like success. (English proverbs)2.2.10. Numeral pronouns:Five (of them) were present.2.3.8y a nunteral, which may be:2.3.1. cardinal:

Where one is wise, two are happy. (English proverb)2.3.2. ordinal:Francoise Sagan's third novel was not considered up to the mark, butthefourth revived all hopes.2.4.8y an infinitive with or without additions (complements):

To promise and to give nothing is comfort to a fool.To scare a bird is not the way to catch it. (English proverbs)Won't do them any harm /o cool their heels a bit.(J.Gal sworthy, S tr ife)2.5. By a gerundial consftuctton:He said that bringing home that trout had saved him from a beatins.(Jerome K. Jerome)2.6.8y any substantivized part of speech:Yesterday will not be called again.Almost and well-nigh save many a Iie. (English proverbs)?.7. SV a group of words whose narure may alff"i *ia"ty (including anominative + infi nitive - cf. 3.2.4.)Not a soul was anywhere visible.The not being troubled with eqrnesrness was a grand point in hisfavour (Dickens, Hard rimes) - a rather rare agglomeration of words.

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ffi:Ii.8. By a subclrdirrate subject clattse:I4/hut is tt'ttrth tloing is rvorlh doing rvell'Whor nttr.l'bc done ut trtt.l'/itttc will be done at llo tlnle'I(httt is .ttttrt'e /itr the gttosa is sauce fbr the gartdc-t'(English ptoret'bs)

2.9. Befo|e passing olt to a classiflcation of strbjects, we oLlght to lllelltlonceftaitr pecr-rliarities of contelllporary colloquial speech, in which we percelve adeviation f|om the rule rvhich lequires the sub-iect to be in the tlotnitrative:a) a form which is accepted by many glamurat'iatrs - the itse of rrie instead of /in answer to the question "Who's thele?"b; a lolrn which is trot yet accepled v granrnralialrs but is ver-y extensively

few people

a logical subject, being explessed by what English granlrnar calls a prepositioncrlohjet't ttl ttiett!. Tlrc passivc selllcncc rrc have citcd natur.alll fias arr actiyeequivaf errt (Otrr sprrlnten htn,e v'otl nevt victories) bul on various.occasions tltereis one reasott or attotlter fbr entploving a passive constructiorr (avoiding lneptiol ofthe agent. ignoling the agent, laying enrplrasis on the object - as in our case -styl istic effects. etc.).Tlre scherrre rr lriclr rve p'Llpose for srrirtirrg fr.orrr arr active lo a passrveconstfuctioll and vice-versa is the follorving:

used: "My sistel is four y'ears oldet'thatr rrie'"c) a forur which has practically rro justification and is used by veryso far(except in dialect speech): "Who did it?" "Us did it'"

3.0. Subjects afe apt to be classilled from two points of vierv:A. Flonr tlre point of view of their senruntic'conlenl /value - i'e the atrrotltrtoft'otnltosition, i.e. according to themeanittg wlrich theY collve)':B. From the Point o{'view o1-theirof structure and fbrnr.

Active: subiect(Gramadc-Passive: sutiject(gramatical/formal)Figure l.

(real/logicalsubject)

3.1. According to the c|iterion of cotltetlt or setrlatrtic value, subjects rnay bel)glarnntalical. 2)logical or -1 1 irrrpersorral.3.1.1. Grumtnuticul strbjet'\.t, also called fbl-mal or appafent sLrbjects, directly

connected with the predicate alrd therefore usually dete|nrirting agreelllent betrveenthe lattel and the subject:Sitrce lrow at length rny f-ate I knowIs /lrls your sole praise from a fl-iend? (Brorvning)

3.1.2. Logical or rectl .subiec't. whiclr points to the agent, that is to the realauthor or doer/perforrler'/perpetratot' of the action'Usually, the granrrnatical subject is identical rvitlr the logical subject. forlogical thinking is explessed through gralnmar. Yet, there are two categor-ies ofexceptiorrs - (a) pcrssive constrtlctiotls and (b) introduclor.v' cotlstt'ttctiorrs - thefbrrner comnlon to many languages and the latter acqtriring peculiar fi'eqtrency inE,nglislt.

3.1.2.1. (a) - ptrssive conslrucltons"If we analyse suclr an exanlPle as:New victories have been won by our spoftslnetl'we find tltat tlre noull or the uoutl equivalent used in the nonrinative is the rlerelyforn.ral or gramrnatical subject of the sentence. It does not point to the ar'rthor of theaction - *ln,ri,.rg victories - nol to tlte object (or in other cases persons). on lvhichthe action tells or is retlected. The agent/authorof the action acqtriles the natttt'eol

Romanian reflexive-possessive corrstructiorrs (irnpersonal irr nreaning) of the tvpesS-.au oblinut reulizciri intportunte arrd Se crede cd ilu Ltu r)enil.on the other harrd. we shoLrld nor forget that in English the indirect object maya!:so turn into a subject fol a passive construction (e.g., the active constru ctior.r Theguide shou'ecl us rhe nev' puinrings rnay tunr into either The new pctinttngs v,ereshown Io r.r.r, or into lle v,ere .thott'n rhe nev, painringsl the agent neecl rrot bementioned, because one can easill,inf-er his identity or.because ive want to avoidlllnecessary repetitions, etc. ).. This can be represented in the follorving graphical fornr:

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Passive l: The newpaintings(Grammaticalsubject +Attribute)Passive 2: ll'e

(Gramaticalsubject)

(PassivePredicate)

II,1,

the paintings(Direct object +Attribute)

by the guide(Optionalprepositionalobjectof agent : real I)

participated(Predicate)

was participated in(Predicate)

showed

to usirect

(Passive (Retainedobiect) (Optionalpredicate) prepositionalobject ofagent: real /logicalsubject)Figure [lMoreover, some of the verbs followed by obligatory prepositiEns can beturned intothe passive, which gives riseto sentences whose subject may be forrnedby the prepositional object ofthe active construction:

Active:

subject)

in the meeting( Prepositional object)

by many students.(Prepositional object ofagent: real subject)

Many studenrs(Real and gram-matical subject+ atribute)The meeting(Gramrnaticalsubject + attribute)

Figure III3.1.2.2.(b) - constructions with introductory element.s (it, there, here)We can distinguish the following categories of introductory subjects:A,. AnticipatorH which discharge no syntactical function beirrg used merelyinstead of the real subject, which is placed by the speaker or writer after anotherword - (emphasis is usually on the predicative) - considered by him moreimportant for the meaning of the sentence:It is nice of you to have come.

p*I It is pleasant to sit in the grass and watch the sun in his chariot ofgold and the moon in her chariot of silver.(Wilde, The Nightingale and the Rose)It is absolutely useless to speak to him.As a rule, in constructions introduced by there emphasis is laid merely on the

existence or absence of the real subject. When other verbs than "to be" areemployed, which happens much more rarely, emphasis is laid either on existence0r on the sematic content ofthese verbs;And to port there 'loomed a 'bulky mass with a slanting outline.(J.Conrad, Typhoon)There cante nothing out of the sack but what was in it.(English proverb)In spite of the empirical (and often mistaken) usage by foreigners, a frequencysurvey of contemporary British and American usage shows that in constructionsintroduced by there, the verb "to be" occurs in about 95o/o of the instances, thesame verb preceeded by "lo seem" or "to appear" in about 2Yo, the verbs to comeor to arrive in another 2o/o while all other verbs and occcisional passiveconstructions are extremely rare, all of them taken together amounting only to theremaining I per cent of the cases. This can be presented graphically as follows:

2%2o/o

t% all other verbs (includingpassive constructions)Figure IV

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A furlher discussion of the function discharged by the constructian there is,there are will be made in connection with the simple verbal predicate. For the tirnebeing, let us confine ourselves to recallirrg the absolute necessity of ernploying thsintroductory subject there which is indispensable in all sentences referring toexistence, that is all those intended to describe the contents of a room, bookcase,etc. orthe location of objects, of geographical elements, etc. (The obligation is notalways observed in stage directions.)

B, Announcing or exclamalory, whose role is to emphasize the approach orthe corning of the real subject by a sort of interjection which calls attention ratherto tlre subject than to the predicate:Here/There is Tom. Here/There he is.Here are come Dick and Clara to fetch yop away. (W.Morris)

There are the Houses of Parliament. (W.Morris)In case the real subject is expresed by a personal pronoun, it followsimmediately after the introductory subject there (proving the semantic andfunctional similarity between them):And here we are riding, she and l.Here we ride.Interesting evaluations can be made on the normal Romaniatr tranqlations of

such sentences, for instance trvo quotations from Hamlet, first act: There it goesland tlre employrnent of where (archaic) with the same function:

Look, there it comes againlThe value of an announcing or warning exclamation or of an anlloullcementproper is expressed in Romanian by latd-l/lat-o (cd vine etc.), Uite-l/Uite-o (Si) peX, etc.C. Emphatic construclions, whose role is to underline or single out variousparts of the sentence, as follows:a) The real subject:It's fte who broke the window (in which the real subject is placedwithin the framework of a clause in order to stress its rrovelty as a

rheme, which may be rnisleading in syntactical analysis).It'sfather as calls me Sissy. (Hard Times)It is lthatlwho met his sister in the hall.b) The direct object:

It was lis sister thatlwh om I met in the hall.c) The indirect object:It was /o hint thal I spoke, not to her.d) The prepositional object:It is about you thatl was talking, not about him.e) The adverbial modifier of manner:It is but reluctanlly that I gave my consent.f) The adverbial modifier of attending (or attendant) circumstances:

F,Fi:i It was ln afrightrtil snowstorn that he alrived at the chalet.g) The adverbial rnodifier of place:It was al the library that I lost my rnall.

h) The adverbial modifier of time:Itwas sixteen years ago that I landed him. (J.K.Jerome)It was u'hen lhe v'ealher quieted dorvn that the situation becameconfoundedly delicate. (J.Conrad, Typhoon)Therefore, introductory entphalic constructions may underline or single out

any paft of the sentence, except the predicate. The latter needs other means ofernphasis: do, does, did for some verbal predicates, stress for other ones,introductory anticipatory constructions for partially stressing the predicatives ofthe nominal ones.

3.1.3. Impersonal subjects, which do not refer to a definite / well-establishedperson or thing. Such objects may be used to denote time and weather, distance orthe state of things in general. To be more specific, they refer to:a) time (chronological - refering to hours. parts of the day, dates, days of theweek, etc.) ft was nearly the time of full moon.

.It was getting into the afternoon.b) lapse of timeIt's a month ll ayear ll three weeks since we last rnet // since I sawhim last.c) weather, as a meteorological notion, either in constructions with a nominal

predicate (an adjective being used as a predicative) or with impersonal verbs.1r is cold, etc.

d) natural phe nonte na'.1l is raining. 1r dewed heavily overnight.1l thunders // lightens, etc.

e) distance:ft's a long way to Tipperary, ll's a long way to go.-Il is five miles to the next town.f) the state of things in general:Since it is so... (Browning1t was all over with the poor dog..Il's wonderful /l awfull

3.2.0. According to the criterion of cornposition, subjects may be classified as:simple,.compound, coordinated, complex, double3.2.1. Simple subjects expressed by one word (usually a noun or a nounequivalent), possibly accompanied by attributes:A tain was coming irr.Whistlins would be heard.

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F',several r.2.2. Compound subjecls which, although expressed by two orelements (nouns), represent one person or one thing.

Age and wedlock tames man and beast. (English proverb)Here comes my lord and masrer. (Maugham)As is easily noticed, agreement of compound subjects and predicate is in thesingular.Sometimes they may not refer to one thing but they are perceived as oneentityi Strawberries and cream is delicious. (compound subject)on the other hand, Strawbeties and cream are delicious. (coordinated

subjects)3.2.3. Coordinated subjecls, including two or more elements which refer toseveral notions joined by coordinating conjunctions. Agreement is usually in theplural: A boaster and a liar are cousin-germans.Weight and measure take away strife. (English proverb)I and my mistress... shall be together,

breathe and ride. (Browning)I and she / Ride, ride together, forever ride. (Browning)Sometimes, two or several co-ordinated subjects have the same detepminativeor modifier: Whathand and brain went ever paired? (Browning)3.2.4. Complex subjects - subjects (or rather subject phrases) made up ofheterogeneous elements - usually one within the sphere of Nomina and one withinthat of Verba - yet inseparable, because it is only together that they give (full)meaning to the subject (and to the sentence as a whole).Among the constructions or phrases which fall into this category, we mention:a. the for-to phrase:For him to do this is rather difficult.(What is rather difficult? That fte should do thisllllrs doing this I The doing of this by him)b. the nominative with the infinitive:Louisa had been overheard to begin a conversation with her brother.(The listener heard Louisa and the fact that she began talking to her

brother).His wrists and knees could be seen to shake violently.(Conrad, Typhoon)After a moment, the outer door is heard to bang. (What is heard? Thebanging of the outer door I That the outer door bangec{).c. The nominative with indefinite participle:The children were seen runnins to the river.

d. Subordinate subject clauses (amply discussed in the chapter on the complexsentence, under 2. I .)That he will manage is beyond any doubt.How he suceeded in doing l/ passes my understanding.

3.2.4.1. Various interpretations of the problem of complex subjects suggestthe introduction into this category of such constructions as The door was burstopen or He was appointed secretary to the comntittee. As they derive from active(factitive or resultative) constructions of the types "He burst the door open" or"They appointed him secretary" - the last element in both being predicativeadjunct (= element predicativ suplimentar), the latter is considered subjectcomplement (: idem, pe lingd subiect). Since complex subjects of this type areused in the passive voice, corresponding to complex objects in the active voice, allcomplex objects in the active could be turned into complex subjects in the passive.In our opinion, however, it seems rather obvious that resultative or factitiveconstructions in the active, that is those which include something else beside thepredicate proper, belong rather in the sphere of the latter, having little to do withthe subject.

3.2.5. Double subjects materialized in both a (proper) noun and a pronoun-,the latter being a substitute for the former, this is clearly a case of redundancy(specific to English grammar which requires the subject tobe expressed in contrastwith other languages). Therefore it is a popular form that does not perfectlycomply with the rules of grammar, but appears only in folk poetry, in nurseryrhymes and in careless speech. Here is an example from a folk poem reproduced ina story by Thomas Hardy:

O , my trade ir is the rarest one,Simple shepherds all -My trade is a sight to see.3.2.5.1. The presence of such an example in The Song of the l(age-Slavepoints to the intention of the Chartist poet Ernest Charles Jones (1819-1869) toimitate the folk style (within the framework of emphasis):

The land it is the landlord'sThe trader's is the sea...3.2.5.2. Sometimes, in familiar speech, the repetition of the subject isaccompanied by the repetition of the predicate (very common in Yorkshirespeech): He was a very good boy, George was. (J.K.Jerome, Three Men in aBoat)He's got a lot of brains, George has. (J.B.Priestley, Laburnum Grove)4.0. Usually, the place of the subject in declarative, affirmative and negativesertences is at the beginning of the sentence. The subject is preceded by itsadjectival attributes with which it forms a single group - the subject group. Thesubject may also be preceded by adverbial modifiers of mannir, of attendant

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l

circumstarlces, of definite tilne and - rarely - of place. In interlogative andinterrogative-negative sentences, the subject is preceded by an anomalous finite.The various cases of inversion are discussed in the chapter on the lattersubject.

5.0. Peculiarities of English Usage5.1. Unlike Romanian grammar, English grammar requires att expressedsubject in the great majority of cases. The omission of the subject, much lessfrequent than in other languages, is however possible (in certain styles) with

coordinated predicates, and in set phrases.5.2. Reflexive-passive constructions in Romanian, with an irnpersonal subject(se) are generally rendered in English by passive constructions whose subject is:d either it:

Se spune cii e grozav la matenwticci : lt is said that he is an adept atmathematics.Se crede cd e singura solulie: It is belived that it is the only solution.

On the other hand, in free variation (though frequently enough) theEnglish express such ideas through a complex subject in the form of a"nominative + infinitive" construction (cf .3.2.4.b):He is said to be an adept at mathematics. \It is believed to be the only solution.She is supposed to be eventually cured.

b) or the object (ofa corresponding active construction):S-au creat conditii = Conditions have been created.S-au prezentat filme : Films were shown.Problema (grarnmatical subject) se studiazd de o contisie (logicalsubject) : The problem is being examined by a commission.

5.3. Dative constructiotrs in Romanian, which are similar in languages likeRussian or German (imi place, mi-efoame, etc.) are rendered into English in twoways:a/ Those including verbs forming a nominal predicate have sentences with anominal predicate as their English correspondents: the subject of the English

sentence corresponds to the indirect object in Romanian:Mi-erafoame: I was hungry.Ne ero son'rn : We were sleepy.b/ Those including predicative intransitive verbs offer two different situations:The constructions with the verb a pldcea are rendered with the help of theverbs /o like and to enjoy (transitive) - the subject being the person involved(dative in Romanian, nominative in English, while the Romanian subject becornes

the English direct object):Mi-a pldcut foarte mult flmul : I very much liked the picture.Ii place g,rozav sii ioace tenis = He very much enjoys playing tennis'

r- The constructions with the verb a sttt. a Sedea, a veni, o se potrivi (bine) are

rendered by the transitive verbs to suit, toft (to sit -/ig. to becorne)Iti sade bine : lt suits / fits/ sits vou well.5.4. 'fhe verb a se pdrea in constluctions with the dative both in Romanian

and English. Mi se pare cd ... = lt seerrrs / appears to me that ...5.5. Subjects in the dative, to be found in earlier English in such constructions

as tnethinks, melhought, ntesee,n.t, are rendered in Romanian bv constr-uctionscorresponding to tlre verb errrployed: in the case of the verb a socoti or a crede. weuse the sentence u'ith the subject in the nominative, while in the case of the verb ase pdrea we naturally employ the dative construction: Methink,s Ltee nty father(Hamlet) can be rendered into Rornanianby parcd-l vdd pe tata or nti se pare cd-lvdd pe tatdl meu.

5.6. The repetition of the subject, occuring in English too, does not offer themodal and sematic implications in Romanian (emphasis, irrsistence, threat,satisfaction, etc.).The situations are the following:(a) ln disjunctir e questions:

John is your cousin, isn't he?(b) In colloquial speech:He was a good boy, John was.(c) In folk poems and nursery rhymes:' The snail, he lives in a small house.In the first two cases - case (a) being extremely frequent in English - the paft of thepredicate is also repeated, that is we have the sentence in a nut-shell. on the otherhand, case (b) (cf. 3.2.5.2.) is not very frequent while the construction under (c)(double subject) is to be avoided in all situations except those mentioned under3.2.5.5.7. The subject is not repeated in an enumeration of predicates:He came, saw and conquered.5'8. The subject is gerrerally omitted in constructions beginning with as: e.g.,As is usual, As is normal, As is but natural/normal, As was to be expected, As wasshown elsewhere.

The chapter on attributes will be found after the other parts of the sentence, as theformer may rnodify (or determine) any of the latter.

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