1180070082 Term Paper Submission ECE301 RC6701A01

8/7/2019 1180070082 Term Paper Submission ECE301 RC6701A01

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DEPARTEMENT OF ELECTONICS

TERM PAPER OF MICROPROCESSOR BASED SYSTEM

MICROPROCESSOR, MICROCONTROLLER&COMPUTER

INTRODUCTION:

Microprocessors are regarded as one of the

most important devices in our everydaymachines called computers. Before we

start, we need to understand what exactly

microprocessors are and their appropriate

implementations. Microprocessor have

functions as the central processing unit

(CPU) of a computer, providing

computational control. Microprocessors

are also used in other advanced electronic

systems, such as computer printers,

automobiles, and jet airliners .Typical

microprocessors incorporate arithmetic

and logic functional units as well as the

associated control logic, instruction

processing circuitry, and a portion of the

memory hierarchy. Portions of the

interface logic for the input/output (I/O)

and memory subsystems may also be

infused, allowing cheaper overall systems.

While many microprocessors and singlechip designs, some high-performance

designs rely on a few chips to provide

multiple functional units and relatively

large caches. When combined with other

integrated circuits that provide storage for

data and programs, often on a single

semiconductor base to form a chip, the

microprocessor becomes the heart of a

small computer, or microcomputer.Microprocessors are classified by the

semiconductor technology of their design

(TTL, transistor-transistor logic; CMOS,

complementary-metal-oxide

semiconductor; or ECL, emitter-coupledlogic), by the width of the data format (4-

bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit) they

process; and by their instruction set (CISC,

complex-instruction-set computer, or

RISC, reduced-instruction-set computer).

TTL technology is most commonly used,

while CMOS is favoured for portable

computers and other battery-powered

devices because of its low powerconsumption. ECL is used where the need

for its greater speed offsets the fact that it

consumes the most power. Four-bit

devices, while inexpensive, are good only

for simple control applications; in general,

the wider the data format, the faster and

more expensive the device. CISC

processors, which have 70 to several

hundred instructions, are easier to program

than RISC processors, but are slower and

more expensive.

A microprocessor can do any information

processing task that can be expressed,

precisely, as a plan. It is totally

uncommitted as to what its plan will be. It

is a truly general-purpose information-

processing device. The plan, which it is to

executewhich will, in other words,

control its operationis stored


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electronically. This is the principle of

stored program control. Without a

program the microprocessor can do

nothing. With one, it can do anything.

Furthermore, microprocessors can onlyperform information-processing tasks. To

take action on the outside world, or to

receive signals from it, a connection must

be provided between the microprocessors

representation of information (as digital

electronic signals) and the real world

representation.

HISTORY:

The first digital computers were built in

the 1940s using bulky relay and vacuum-

tube switches. Relays had mechanical

speed limitations. Vacuum tubes required

considerable power, dissipated a

significant amount of heat, and suffered

high failure rates. Some systems achieved

processing rates up to 1,000 operations per

second. In 1947, Bell Laboratories

invented the transistor, which rapidly

replaced the vacuum tube as a computer

switch for several reasons, including

smaller size, faster switching speeds, lower

power consumption and dissipation, and

higher reliability. In the 1960s Texas

Instruments invented the integrated circuit,

allowing a single silicon chip to contain

several transistors as well as their

interconnections.

The first microprocessor was the Intel

4004, produced in 1971. Originally

developed for a calculator and

revolutionary for its time, it contained

2,300 transistors on a 4-bit microprocessor

that could perform only 60,000 operations

per second. The first 8-bit microprocessor

was the Intel 8008, developed in 1972 to

run computer terminals. The Intel 8008

contained 3,300 transistors. The first truly

general-purpose microprocessor,

developed in 1974, was the 8-bit Intel

8080, which contained 4,500 transistors

and could execute 200,000 instructions per

second. By 1989, 32-bit microprocessorscontaining 1.2 million transistors and

capable of executing 20 million

instructions per second had been

introduced. Reductions in both device size

and power dissipation are essential in

achieving these high densities. Smaller

device sizes also allow faster switching

speeds, which in turn permit higher

processor clock rates.

Increased density also lets designers add

circuitry to increase the amount of work

performed within a cycle. On many

benchmarks, high-end microprocessors are

two orders of magnitude faster than the

DEC VAX-11/780 minicomputer, a

performance standard in the 1970s. Key

distinctions between mainframe and high-

performance microprocessor-based

systems often are simply physical size,

ability to handle large amounts of I/O, and

software issues.

MICROPROCESSOR DESIGN

AND ARCHITECTURE:


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A basic difference between a

microprocessor and other logic chips is the

functional flexibility afforded by the

microprocessors programmable nature.

Its instruction set comprises the group ofavailable low-level operations. Each

instruction has a specific binary pattern, or

operation code. This operation code

specifies the operation as well as the

location of the operands. A programmer

uses sequences of these low-level

instructions to create a desired higher-level

function. Therefore the personality of a

microprocessor-based system can be

readily modified without the hardware

modifications usually associated with non-

programmable logic systems.

A typical microprocessor chip set includes

an instruction control unit, one or more

functional units, a set of register, and one

or more caches. Conceptually, the

instruction control unit fetches an

instruction from main memory, interprets

the operation code, and then dispatches theinstruction to a functional unite. The

functional unit may again interpret the

operation code, read the required operands

from the register or memory perform the

specified operation and store the result in

either the register set or memory.

Then the process repeats, with the

instruction control unite fetching the next

instruction. A powerful aspect ofprogrammability arises from the ability to

specify which instruction will be executed

next; selection is often based on the

outcome of a test involving computed

results. For performance reasons,

implementations commonly segment theinstruction processing into stages and

allow multiple instructions to overlap, each

executing in a different pipeline stage.

High-end designs dispatch multiple

instructions each processor cycle. Since

main memory access times are relatively

slow, smaller, faster memory units are

frequently employed to cache recently

used portions of main memory, creating a

memory hierarchy. These caches are

typically an order of magnitude faster than

main memory. Separate caches may be

used for instruction and data, or a unified

cache may hold both. Multiple levels of

cache are how a popular solution to the

performance problems created by the

increasing gap between processor and

memory speeds.

CLASSIFICATION OF

MICROPROCESSORS:

Several functional classifications can be

used to classify microprocessors. The

different types of microprocessors used

most frequently are as follows:

1. INTEL MICROPROCESSORS:

4004 (1970): Intel's Ted Hoff

and Federico Faggin designed

and implemented (respectively)

the first general-purpose

microprocessor. The 4004

processor, used in a hand-held

calculator built by Busicom of

Japan, was part of a four-chip

set called the 4000 Family:


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o 4001 - 2,048-bit ROM

memory

o 4002 - 320-bit RAM

memory

o 4003 - 10-bit I/O shift

register

o 4004 - 4-bit central

processor

8008 (1972): The 8008

increased the 4004's word

length from four to eight bits,

and doubled the volume ofinformation that could be

processed. It was still an

invention in search of a market

however, as the technology

world was just beginning to

view the microprocessor as a

solution to many needs.

8080 (1974): The 8080 were 20

times as fast as the 4004 and

contained twice as many

transistors. This 8-bit chip

represented a technological

milestone as engineers

recognized its value and used it

in a wide variety of products. It

was perhaps most notable as

the processor in the first kit

computer, the Altair, whichignited the personal computing

phenomenon.

8088 (1979): Created as a

cheaper version of Intel's 8086,

the 8088 was a 16-bit processor

with an 8-bit external bus. This

chip became the most

ubiquitous in the computer

industry when IBM chose it for

its first PC. The success of the

IBM PC and its clones gave

Intel a dominant position in the

semiconductor industry.

80286 (1982) : With 16 MB of

addressable memory and 1 GB

of virtual memory, this 16-bit

chip is referred to as the first

"modern" microprocessor.

Many novices were introduced

to desktop computing with a

"286 machine" and it became

the dominant chip of its time. It

contained 130,000 transistors

and packed serious compute power (12 MHz) into a tiny

footprint.

80386 (1985), 80486 (1989)

:The price/performance curve

continued its steep climb with

the 386 and later the 486 --32-

bit processors that brought real

computing to the masses. The

386, which became the best-selling microprocessor in

history, featured 275,000

transistors; the 486 had more

than a million.

Pentium (1993): Adding

systems-level characteristics to

enormous raw compute power,

the Pentium supports

demanding I/O, graphics and

communications intensive

applications with more than 3

million transistors.

Pentium Pro (1995): The

newest Pentium has dynamic

instruction execution and other

performance-enhancing

features such as a large L2cache in the chip package, in


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addition to its more than 5.5

million transistors.

Pentium II (1997): The 7.5

million-transistor Pentium II

processor incorporates Intel

MMXTM technology, which is

designed specifically to process

video, audio and graphics data

efficiently.

Pentium II Xeon (1998): The

Pentium II Xeon processors are

designed to meet the

performance requirements of

mid-range and higher servers

and workstations. Consistent

with Intel's strategy to deliver

unique processor products

targeted for specific markets

segments, the Pentium II Xeon

processors feature technical

innovations specifically

designed for workstations and

servers that utilize demanding business applications such as

Internet services, corporate data

warehousing, digital content

creation, and electronic and

mechanical design automation.

Systems based on the processor

can be configured to scale to

four or eight processors and

beyond.

Celeron (1999): Continuing

Intel's strategy of developing

processors for specific market

segments, the Intel Celeron

processor is designed for the

value PC market segment. It

provides consumers great

performance at an exceptional

value, and it delivers excellent performance for uses such as

gaming and educational

software

Pentium III (1999): The

Pentium III processor features

70 new instructions. It was

designed to significantly

enhance Internet experiences,

allowing users to do such

things as browse through

realistic online museums and

stores and download high-

quality video. The processor

incorporates 9.5 million

transistors, and was introducedusing 0.25-micron technology.

Pentium III Xeon (1999): The

Pentium III Xeon processor

extends Intel's offerings to the

workstation and server market

segments, providing additional

performance for e-Commerce

applications and advanced

business computing. The processors incorporate the

Pentium III processor's 70

SIMD instructions, which

enhance multimedia and

streaming video applications.

The Pentium III Xeon

processors advance cache

technology speeds information

from the system bus to the processor, significantly

boosting performance. It is

designed for systems with

multiprocessor configurations.

The Intel family of Processors

ChipYear

added

DataBuswid

AddressBuswidth (in

Speed(inMHz)

Transistors


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th(in

bits)

bits)

8080 1974

8 8 2 6.000

8086 1978

16 20 5-10

29.000

8088 1979

8 20 4.77

29.000

80286 1982

16 24 8-12

134.000

386DX 1985

32 32 1-33

275.000

386SX 1988

32 24 16-20

275.000

486DX 1989

32 32 25-50

1.2MILLION

486SX 1991

32 32 16-33

1.185MILLION

487SX 1991

32 32 16-33

1.2MILLION

486DX2

1991

32 32 33-66

2.0MILLION

486DX4

1992

32 32 75-100

2.5MILLION

PENTIUM

1993

32 32 60-166

3.3MILLION

PENTIUM

PRO

1995

64 32 150-

200

5.5MILLI

ONPENTIUM II

1997

64 64 233-300

7.5MILLION

PENTIUM IIXEON

1998

64 64 400-600

7.5MILLION

CELERON

1999

64 64 400-600

7.5MILLION

PENTIUM III 1999 64 64 350- 9.5MILLI

1000

ON

PENTIUMIII

XEON

1999

64 64 350-100

0

9.5MILLION

4-BIT MICROPROCESSORS:

Historically, the 4-bit microprocessor was

the first general-purpose microprocessor

introduced on the market. The basic

design of the early microprocessors was

derived from that of the desk calculator.

The Intel 4004, a 4-bit design, was the

grandfather of microprocessors.

Introduced in late 1971, the 4004 was

originally designed for a Japanese

manufacturer as the processing element of

a desk calculator; it was not designed as a

general-purpose computer. The

shortcomings of the 4004 were recognized

as soon as it was introduced. But it was

the first general purpose computing device

on a chip to be placed on the market.Many of the chips introduced at about the

same time by other companies were, in

fact, mere calculator chips. Some of them

were even serial-by-bit devices, which

performed calculations a single bit at a

time. The Intel 4004 chip took the

integrated circuit down one step further by

placing all the parts that made a computer

think (i.e. central processing unit, memory,input and output controls) on one small

chip. Programming intelligence into

inanimate objects had now become

possible. The 4004 was the world's first

universal microprocessor.

In the late 1960s, many scientists had

discussed the possibility of a computer on

a chip, but nearly everyone felt that

integrated circuit technology was not yetready to support such a chip. Intel's Ted


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Hoff felt differently; he was the first

person to recognize that the new silicon-

gated MOS technology might make a

single-chip CPU (central processing unit)

possible. Hoff and the Intel teamdeveloped such architecture with just over

2,300 transistors in an area of only 3 by 4

millimetres. With its 4 - bit CPU,

command register, decoder, decoding

control, control monitoring of machine

commands and interim register, the 4004

was one heck of a little invention. Today's

64 - bit microprocessors are still based on

similar designs, and the microprocessor is

still the most complex mass - produced

product ever with more than 5.5 million

transistors performing hundreds of

millions of calculations each second -

numbers that are sure to be outdated fast.

Within a short period of time, the 4004

became obsolete and was replaced by the

4040. Then, the powerful 8-bit

microprocessors were introduced at a price

that was only slightly higher than the price

of the 4040.Although 4-bit

microprocessors played an important role

in the early years of the microcomputer

revolution, today they are technically

obsolete. Because of their extremely low

cost, however, they still offer an attractive

alternative to low-end- 8-bit

microprocessors. In fact, several 4-bit

chips continue to be among the best sellersof all microprocessors: prime examples are

the National Semiconductor COP400 and

the NEC uPD75XX series.

8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS:

Today, 8-bit microprocessors coexist with

16-bit microprocessors as the design

standard. Although 16-bit chips provide

higher performance computationally, 8-bit

designs have more than adequate power

for many applicationsplus the advantage

of lower cost. As originally design, most

16-bit microprocessors were limited to

packages with a maximum of 40 to 48

pins. This was not due to physical, butrather to economic, constraints: industrial

tester of the time was generally limited to

40-pin DIPs. The ancestor of todays 8-bit

microprocessors was the Intel 8008,

introduced in 1972-1973. The 8008 was

not intended to be a general-purpose

microprocessor. IT was to be a CRT

display controller for Data point. Taking

into account all of its design inadequacies

and its limited performance, the 8008 was

an overwhelming success.

INTEL (8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS):

The 8080, designed as a successor to

Intels 8008, was the first powerful

microprocessor introduced on the market.

Several other microprocessors of similar

performance were introduced on the

market within a year after the 8080

appeared, and several additional powerful

designs were introduced later.

Technically, however, the 8080 long

remained the most powerful product on the

market. Furthermore, Intel was the first

company to invest in the development of

support chips and software for its products.

This ensured the continued success of the

8080 because its performance was then

sufficient for many applications. The early8080 competitors were introduced with at

least a nine-month delay and failed to

dislodge it. The 8080 is still sold today

thought It has been largely eclipsed by

successor productsmost notably the

8085 microprocessor. Today, the 8085

accounts for roughly one of every four 8-

bit microprocessors sold.


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MOTORALA (8-BIT

MICROPROCESSORS): The 6800 was

introduced by Motorola as a direct

competitor to the 8080. The design of the

6800 was obviously inspired by the 8008and the then prevalent minicomputer

philosophy. The 6800 has essentially the

same internal architecture as the 8080,

though there are some differences at the

register level. The internal architecture of

the 6800 is equipped with tow

accumulators. The 6800 has a special

indeed register (IX) that facilitates access

to tables stored in the memory. The 8080

does not have an indeed register but is

equipped with register pairs than can be

used to provide a similar facility. The

6800 instructions reflect the fact that it was

introduced after the 8080. They tend to be

somewhat more complex but generally

similar to those of the 8080. Depending

on the function used in the comparison,

either of the two microprocessors can be

said to be marginally faster. The mostsignificant different in performance is

achieved not by comparing a standard

8080 to a standard 6800their

performance is essentially similarbut by

considering a faster version of either the

8080 or the 6800. The 8080 is available in

three versions: the standard 8080A with a

2MHZ clock, the 8080A-2, and the

8080A-1 with a 3MHZ clock. The 6800 is

also available in two versions. The

standard 6800 use a 1MHZ clock.

However, the clock rates do not mean that

the standard 6800 is twice as fast as the

standard 8080A. The clock simply

supplies the pulses needed by the internal

micro program of the control unit. In the

average, the 8080 uses simpler

microinstructions and requires twice as

many microinstructions as the 6800. Ittherefore uses a faster clock. The overall

performances of the 8080 and the 6800 are

similar. A typical instruction is executed

in two microseconds on either

microcomputer. In the 1990s the number

of transistors on microprocessorscontinued to double nearly every 18

months. The rate of change followed an

early prediction made by American

semiconductor pioneer Gordon Moore. In

1965 Moore predicted that the number of

transistors on a computer chip would

double every year, a prediction that has

come to be known as Moore's Law. In the

mid-1990s chips included the Intel

Pentium Pro, containing 5.5 million

transistors; the Ultra Spark-II, by Sun

Microsystems, containing 5.4 million

transistors; the PowerPC620, developed

jointly by Apple, IBM, and Motorola,

containing 7 million transistors; and the

Digital Equipment Corporation's Alpha

21164A, containing 9.3 million transistors.

By the end of the decade microprocessors

contained many millions of transistors,transferred 64 bits of data at once, and

performed billions of instructions per

second. .

MICROPROCESSOR

APPLICATIONS:

When microprocessors appeared, they

were first used in computer systems for a

negative reason. In the early 1970s therewere few support chips and

microprocessors were programmed to

perform functions that are now done by a

wide variety of hardware chips. For this

reason assembling a complete

microprocessor-based system required

both hardware and software expertise.

Only five years later in 1976 companies

realized that microprocessors could beused to build inexpensive personal


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computers. It then took several more years

to manufacture computers that were

adequate for business and professional

purposes. Yet the technology had been

there all along. (Naturally with time costshave diminished and integrated circuits

have been improved). Many of the early

microprocessor applications found markets

by accident rather than by design. New

product development had generally been a

direct result of the dissemination of

technical information.

In the early 1970s the necessary

combination of hardware and softwareexpertise was rarely found outside the

computer manufacturing industry. This

was not perceived as a problem, because

when microprocessors were introduced,

the computer establishment saw them only

as low-cost processors for simple control

applications. In fact, the first 8-bit

microprocessor, the Intel 8008, was

designed for direct control of a CRT

display. Microprocessors are now used for

controlling virtually every computer

peripheral that does not require bipolar

speeds. Initially, such applications were

limited by the relatively low speed of early

microprocessors. But now, with the faster

microprocessors coupled with specialized

peripheral controller chips, such as CRT

and floppy disk controllers, it is possible to

control fast devices such as CRTs anddisks.

Microprocessors are utilized in computer

systems ranging from notebooks

computers to small personal computers to

supercomputer-class workstations.

Programs include word processing,

electronic mail, spreadsheets, animation,

graphics, and database processing. Owing

to their low cost and flexibility,

microprocessors appear in many everyday

household products, such as microwave

ovens, handheld electronic games, washing

machines, programmable videocassette

recorders (VCRs), and programmablethermostats. Newer cars incorporate

microprocessor controlled ignition and

emission systems to improve engine

operation, increasing fuel economy while

reducing pollution.

With the continuing progress of LSI

technology, most microprocessor systems

actually use multiple processors distributed

over several chips. Processors can often be found in the peripheral chips of the

system, i.e., the PIO, the UART, or other

system chips. This makes the

programming tasks more difficult than

with traditional systems; however, it does

result in standardized systems, all of the

traditional chips that were merely interface

devices in the past are now fully

programmable. Programmed instructions

are sent to these devices by the

microprocessor. These processors,

residing in peripheral devices, should be

considered as slaves.

FUTURE TRENDS: Cheaper systemswill result from greater integration of

support circuitry within the

microprocessor chip. The trend of

incorporating larger portions of thecomputer system may advance to placing

multiple microprocessors on a single chip.

Additional processing capacity will

support abstractions, such as productivity-

motivated object-oriented programming,

while maintaining acceptable response

times. Higher degrees of system

integration and additional performance on

a chip will open new arena for

microprocessor use, as well as new


10/21

products, including speech and pen-based

character recognition systems, virtual

reality, simulations of other architectures,

compression, and enhanced graphics. In

2000-chip manufacturer Advanced MicroDevices debuted a 1 GHz microprocessor,

the fastest microprocessor ever mass-

produced for personal computers. The

high-speed processor contains

approximately 22 million transistors.

RECENTLY LAUNCHED

MICROPROCESSORS:

Intels Pentium-4 processor: ThePentium-4 is fabricated in Intel's

0.18-micron CMOS process. Its

die size is 217 mm2, power

consumption is 50W. The Pentium

4 is available in 1.4GHz and 1.5Hz

bins. At 1.5GHz the

microprocessor delivers 535

SPECint2000 and 558

SPECfp2000 of performance.

Currently it is the second-

performing general-purpose

microprocessor. The world

champion is Compaq/Digital

Alpha 21264B CPU delivering 544

SPECint2000 and 658 28

SPECfp2000 at 833 MHz The

previous Intel chip, Pentium-III

"Coppermine", had 442

SPECint2000 and 335SPECfp2000 results at 1GHz.

Pentium-4 is the first completely

new x86-processor design from

Intel since the Pentium PRO

processor, with its P6 micro-

architecture, was introduced in

1995. Pentium-4' micro-architecture is known as Net Burst.

It has many interesting features.

Compared to the Intel Pentium-III

processor, Intel's Net Burst micro-

architecture doubles the pipeline

depth to 20 stages. In addition tothe L1 8 KB data cache, the

Pentium 4 processor includes an

Execution Trace Cache that stores

up to 12 K decoded micro-ops in

the order of program execution.

The on-die 256KB L2-cache is

non-blocking, 8-way set

associative. It employs 256-bit

interface that delivers data transfer

rate of 48 GB/s at 1.5 GHz.

The Pentium 4 processor expands

the floating-point registers to a full

128-bit and adds an additional

register for data movement.

Pentium-4' Net Burst micro-

architecture introduces Internet

Streaming SIMD Extensions 2

(SSE2). This extends the SIMD

capabilities that MMX technology

and SSE technology delivered by

adding 144 new instructions. These

instructions include 128-bit SIMD

integer arithmetic and 128-bit

SIMD double-precision floating-

point operations.

Pentium 4 processor's 400 MHz

(100 MHz "quad pumped") system bus provides up to 3.2 GB/s of

bandwidth. The bus is fed by dual

PC800 Rambus channel. This 29

compares to 1.06 GB/s delivered

on the Pentium-III processor's 133-

MHz system bus. Two Arithmetic

Logic Units (ALUs) on the

Pentium 4 processor are clocked at

twice the core processor frequency.

This allows basic integer


11/21

instructions such as Add, Subtract,

Logical AND, Logical OR, etc. to

execute in a half clock cycle. The

integer register file runs also runs

at the double frequency. Interestingis that this method was firstly

introduced by Elbrus team in

their E2K processor design. The

E2K design was described in

Microprocessor Report article by

Keith Diefendorff in Feb 1999.

(Alexin Pylkin,)

Elbrus E2K: Russian company

Elbrus International has disclosed

the technical details of its

revolutionary new microprocessor

E2K. The microprocessor will

function 3 to 5 times more quickly

than Intel Merced while still

running all legacy MS DOS and

Windows software. Fabricated in a

0.18-micron process, the chipwould run at 1.2GHz and deliver

135 SPECint95 and 350

SPECfp95, yet require only 35

Watts of power and occupy 126

mm2 of silicon. By contrast, Intel's

forthcoming processor, which will

be manufactured in the same

process, would operate at

800MHz, occupy 300 mm2,consume 60 Watts, and score only

45 SPECint95 and 70 SPECfp95.

30 Elbrus technology does not

infringe on any Western

intellectual property and it is

protected by 70 US patent

applications. The technology

underlying the E2k delivers

computing performance that

exceeds all other existing and

planned processors, including

Digital/Compaq Alpha. This

extraordinary performance results

from an incredibly efficient

architecture design that has beencontinually refined by the Elbrus

team. Over the decades, it turns

out, it was often far ahead of

Western rivals, introducing

cutting-edge techniques such as

super scalar design, shared-

memory multiprocessing and

explicitly parallel instruction

computing (EPIC) before similar

products or even papers on the

subjects were available here. The

Elbrus team, led by a

supercomputer architect Boris

Babaian (another transcription --

Babayan), has worked together for

nearly 40 years, mostly for the

former Soviet Union's and Russia's

defence establishment. Since 1992

the team works in tight cooperationwith Sun Microsystems. The same

team has taken a great part in

developing Sun UltraSPARC

processor, Sun UltraSPARC

compilers, and Sun Solaris

operating system. The E2K project

is a commercial version of the

design has already been used in the

Russian Space Mission Control

and the Russian Missile Defence

System. The previous chip was

manufactured in February 1998 in

0.5-micron process. (Pylkin,

Alexei)

Intel announced new brand name

for its Merced IA-64

microprocessor Itanium: So, new

HP/Intel microprocessor familyhas rather long list of brand names,


12/21

code names, etc: Itanium, Merced,

McKinley, Madison, Deerfield,

IA-64, EPIC, P7, PlayDoh, Super-

Parallel Processor Architecture

(SP-PA), Wide-Word. Itanium issampling now. Experimental

systems with Itanium samples

inside were demonstrated at last

Intel Developer Forum.

Nevertheless still it is not known

about future Itanium performance

as well as other metrics. (Pylkin,

Alexei)

MICROCONTROLLER: Amicrocontroller (also microcontroller unit,

MCU or C) is a small computer on a

single integrated circuit consisting of a

relatively simple CPU combined with

support functions such as a crystal

oscillator, timers, watchdog, serial and

analog I/O etc. Program memory in the

form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also

often included on chip, as well as a,typically small, read/write memory.

Microcontrollers are designed for small

applications. Thus, in contrast to the

microprocessors used in personal

computers and other high-performance

applications, simplicity is emphasized.

Some microcontrollers may operate at

clock frequencies as low as 32 KHz, as

this is adequate for many typicalapplications, enabling low power

consumption (milliwatts or microwatts).

They will generally have the ability to

retain functionality while waiting for an

event such as a button press or other

interrupt; power consumption while

sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals

off) may be just nanowatts, making many

of them well suited for long lasting battery

applications.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically

controlled products and devices, such as

automobile engine control systems, remote

controls, office machines, appliances,

power tools, and toys. By reducing the size

and cost compared to a design that uses a

separate microprocessor, memory, andinput/output devices, microcontrollers

make it economical to digitally control

even more devices and processes.

History: The first single chip

microprocessor was the 4 bit Intel 4004

released in 1971, with other more capable

processors available over the next several

years.

These however all required external

chip(s) to implement a working system,

raising total system cost, and making it

impossible to economically computerise

appliances.

The first computer system on a chip

optimised for control applications -

microcontroller was the Intel 8048

released in 1975, with both RAM andROM on the same chip. This chip went on

to be found in over a billion PC keyboards,

and numerous applications.

Most microcontrollers at this time had two

variants. One had an erasable EEPROM

program memory, which was significantly

more expensive than the PROM variant

which was only programmable once. In

1993, the introduction of EEPROM


13/21

memory allowed microcontrollers

(beginning with the Microchip PIC16x84)

[1]) to be electrically erased quickly

without an expensive package as required

for EPROM, allowing both rapidprototyping, and In System Programming.

The same year, Atmel introduced the first

microcontroller using Flash memory.

Other companies rapidly followed suit,

with both memory types. Cost has

plummeted over time, with the cheapest

microcontrollers being available for well

under $0.25 in 2009, and 32 bit

microcontrollers under $5.

Embedded Design: The majority of

computer systems in use today are

embedded in other machinery, such as

automobiles, telephones, appliances, and

peripherals for computer systems. These

are called embedded systems. While some

embedded systems are very sophisticated,

many have minimal requirements for

memory and program length, with nooperating system, and low software

complexity.

Typical input and output devices include

switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs, small or

custom LCD displays, radio frequency

devices, and sensors for data such as

temperature, humidity, light level etc.Embedded systems usually have no

keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other

recognizable I/O devices of a personal

computer, and may lack human interaction

devices of any kind.

ADDRESSING MODES:

An instruction specifies the location of the

data that it is going to process by using one

of the existing .for examples; M68HC11

has the following six different addressing

modes:

Inherent addressing

Immediate addressing

Extended addressing

Direct addressing

Indexed addressing

Relative addressing

INTERRUPTS: It is mandatory that

microcontrollers provide real time

response to events in the embedded system

they are controlling. When certain events

occur, an interrupt system can signal the

processor to suspend processing the

current instruction sequence and to begin

an interrupt service routine (ISR). The ISR

will perform any processing required

based on the source of the interrupt before

returning to the original instructionsequence. Possible interrupt sources are

device dependent, and often include events

such as an internal timer overflow,

completing an analog to digital conversion,

a logic level change on an input such as

from a button being pressed, and data

received on a communication link. Where

power consumption is important as in

battery operated devices, interrupts may

also wake a microcontroller from a low


14/21

power sleep state where the processor is

halted until required to do something by a

peripheral event.

PROGRAMS: Microcontroller programs

must fit in the available on-chip program

memory, since it would be costly to

provide a system with external,

expandable, memory. Compilers and

assembly language are used to turn high

level language programs into a compact

machine code for storage in the

microcontrollers memory. Depending on

the device, the program memory may be

permanent, read only memory that canonly be programmed at the factory, or

program memory may be field alterable

flash or erasable read-only memory.

OTHER FEATURES: Since

embedded processors are usually used to

control devices, they sometimes need to

accept input from the device they are

controlling. This is the purpose of the

analog to digital converter. Since

processors are built to interpret and

process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they

wont be able to do anything with the

analog signals that may be being sent to it

by a device. So the analog to digital

converter is used to convert the incoming

data into a form that the processor can

recognize. There is also a digital to analog

converter that allows the processor to senddata to the device it is controlling. In

addition to the converters, many embedded

microprocessors include a variety of timers

as well. One of the most common types of

timers is the Programmable Interval

Timer, or PIT for short. A PIT just counts

down from some value to zero. Once it

reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the

processor indicating that it has finished

counting. This is useful for devices such as

thermostats, which periodically test the

temperature around them to see if they

need to turn the air conditioner on, the

heater on, etc.

Time Processing Unit or TPU for short is a

sophisticated timer. In addition to counting

down, the TPU can detect input events,

generate output events, and perform other

useful operations. Dedicated Pulse Width

Modulation (PWM) block makes it

possible for the CPU to control power

converters, resistive loads, motors, etc.,

without using lots of CPU resources in

tight timer loops. Universal AsynchronousReceiver/Transmitter (UART) block

makes it possible to receive and transmit

data over a serial line with very little load

on the CPU.

For those wanting Ethernet one can use an

external chip like Crystal Semiconductor

CS8900A, Realtek RTL8019, or

Microchip ENC 28J60. All of them allow

easy interfacing with low pin count.

HIGHER INTEGARATION: In

contrast to general-purpose CPUs,

microcontrollers may not implement an

external address or data bus as they

integrate RAM and non-volatile memory

on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer

pins, the chip can be placed in a much

smaller, cheaper package. Integrating the

memory and other peripherals on a single

chip and testing them as a unit increases

the cost of that chip, but often results in

decreased net cost of the embedded system

as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that

has integrated peripherals is slightly more

than the cost of a CPU + external

peripherals, having fewer chips typically

allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board,

and reduces the labour required toassemble and test the circuit board.


15/21

A microcontroller is a single integrated

circuit, commonly with the following

features:

central processing unit - ranging

from small and simple 4-bit

processors to complex 32- or 64-bit

processors

discrete input and output bits,

allowing control or detection of the

logic state of an individual package

pin

serial input/output such as serial

ports (UARTs)

other serial communications

interfaces like IC, Serial

Peripheral Interface and Controller

Area Network for system

interconnect

peripherals such as timers, event

counters, PWM generators, and

watchdog

volatile memory (RAM) for data

storage

ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash

memory for program and operating

parameter storage

clock generator - often an oscillator

for a quartz timing crystal,resonator or RC circuit

many include analog-to-digital

converters

in-circuit programming and

debugging

Support

This integration drastically reduces the

number of chips and the amount of wiring

and circuit board space that would be

needed to produce equivalent systems

using separate chips. Furthermore, and on

low pin count devices in particular, each

pin may interface to several internal

peripherals, with the pin function selected

by software. This allows a part to be used

in a wider variety of applications than if

pins had dedicated functions.

Microcontrollers have proved to be highly

popular in embedded systems since their

introduction in the 1970s.Some

microcontrollers use Harvard architecture:

separate memory buses for instructions

and data, allowing accesses to take place

concurrently. Where Harvard architecture

is used, instruction words for the processor

may be a different bit size than the length

of internal memory and registers; for

example: 12-bit instructions used with 8-bit data registers. The decision of which

peripheral to integrate is often difficult.

The microcontroller vendors often trade

operating frequencies and system design

flexibility against time-to-market

requirements from their customers and

overall lower system cost. Manufacturers

have to balance the need to minimize the

chip size against additional functionality.

Microcontroller architectures vary widely.

Some designs include general-purpose

microprocessor cores, with one or more

ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated

onto the package. Other designs are

purpose built for control applications. A

microcontroller instruction set usually has

many instructions intended for bit-wise

operations to make control programs morecompact. For example, a general purpose


16/21

processor might require several

instructions to test a bit in a register and

branch if the bit is set, where a

microcontroller could have a single

instruction to provide that commonly-required function. Microcontrollers

typically do not have a math coprocessor,

so fixed point or floating point arithmetic

are performed by program code.

Volumes: About 55% of all CPUs sold in

the world are 8-bit microcontrollers and

microprocessors. According to Semi co,

Over 4 billion 8-bit microcontrollers were

sold in 2006.A typical home in adeveloped country is likely to have only

four general-purpose microprocessors but

around three dozen microcontrollers. A

typical mid range automobile has as many

as 30 or more microcontrollers.

They can also be found in any electrical

device: washing machines, microwave

ovens, telephones etc.

Manufacturers have often produced special

versions of their microcontrollers in order

to help the hardware and software

development of the target system.

Originally these included EPROM

versions that have a "window" on the top

of the device through which program

memory can be erased by ultra violet light,

ready for reprogramming after a

programming ("burn") and test cycle.

Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and

have been replaced by EEPROM and

flash, which are easier to use (can be

erased electronically) and cheaper to

manufacture. Other versions may be

available where the ROM is accessed as an

external device rather than as internal

memory, however these are becoming

increasingly rare due to the widespread

availability of cheap microcontroller

programmers.

The use of field-programmable devices on

a microcontroller may allow field update

of the firmware or permit late factory

revisions to products that have been

assembled but not yet shipped.

Programmable memory also reduces the

lead time required for deployment of a

new product. Where hundreds of

thousands of identical devices are required,

using parts programmed at the time of

manufacture can be an economical option.

These Mask Programmed parts have theprogram laid down in the same way as the

logic of the chip, at the same time.

Programming environments:

Microcontrollers were originally

programmed only in assembly language,

but various high level programming

languages are now also in common use to

target microcontrollers. These languages

are either designed especially for thepurpose, or versions of general purpose

languages such as the C programming

language. Compilers for general purpose

languages will typically have some

restrictions as well as enhancements to

better support the unique characteristics of

microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers

have environments to aid developing

certain types of applications.Microcontroller vendors often make tools

freely available to make it easier to adopt

their hardware.

Many microcontrollers are so quirky that

they effectively require their own non-

standard dialects of C, such as SDCC for

the 8051, which prevent using standard

tools (such as code libraries or static

analysis tools) even for code unrelated tohardware features. Interpreters are often


17/21

used to hide such low level quirks.

Interpreter firmware is also available for

some microcontrollers. For example,

BASIC on the early microcontrollers Intel

8052; BASIC and FORTH on the Zilog Z8as well as some modern devices. Typically

these interpreters support interactive

programming. Simulators are available for

some microcontrollers, such as in

Microchips MPLAB environment. These

allow a developer to analyze what the

behaviour of the microcontroller and their

program should be if they were using the

actual part. A simulator will show the

internal processor state and also that of the

outputs, as well as allowing input signals

to be generated. While on the one hand

most simulators will be limited from being

unable to simulate much other hardware in

a system, they can exercise conditions that

may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will

in the physical implementation, and can is

the quickest way to debug and analyze

problems. Recent microcontrollers areoften integrated with on-chip debug

circuitry that when accessed by an In-

circuit emulator via JTAG, allow

debugging of the firmware with a

debugger.

TYPES OF DEBUGGER: List of

common microcontrollers as of 2008 there

are several architectures:

68HC11

8051

ARM

Atmel AVR

Free scale CF (32-bit)

Free scale S08

Hitachi H8, Hitachi SuperH

MIPS (32-bit PIC32)

NEC V850

PIC (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-bit

dsPIC33 /

PIC24)

PowerPC ISE

PSoC (Programmable System-on-

Chip)

Rabbit 2000

TI MSP430 (16-bit)

Toshiba TLCS-870

Zilog eZ8, eZ80

And many others, some of which are used

in very narrow range of applications or are

more like processors than

microcontrollers.

Interrupt Latency: In contrast to general-

purpose computers, microcontrollers used

in embedded systems often seek to

minimize interrupt latency over instruction

throughput. When an electronic device

causes an interrupt, the intermediate

results, the registers, have to be saved

before the software responsible for

handling the interrupt can run, and thenmust be put back after it is finished. If

there are more registers, this saving and

restoring process takes more time,

increasing the latency. Low-latency MCUs

generally have relatively few registers in

their central processing units, or they have

"shadow registers", a duplicate register set

that is only used by the interrupt software.


18/21

COMPUTER: The computer is an

electronic device performing multilevel

operations on input data and producing

desirable output. The computer is a system

consisting of hardware and software.

Computers can be either a digital or analog

type. Digital computers operate on discrete

numbers 0 or 1 (series of on and off

switches). Switch On corresponds to 1

and 0 to off. (0 Voltage = 0 and 5 V = 1).

Each 0 and 1 is referred to as BIT. Most

computers use eight bits to represent a

number or a letter.

Architecture: The computer architecture

refers to the design and construction of a

system:

Processor: It is the brain of a

computer. The CPU (centralprocessing unit) consists of a CU

and an ALU. Control Unit (CU), it

directs and coordinates the

operations of the entire computer.

CU fetches the instructions from

RAM and stores it in theinstruction register.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): It performs

mathematical operations.

MICROPROCESSOR: In

mainframe computers CU and

ALU are both separate units but

since 1971 both units have existed

on the same chip. This was the

beginning of the microprocessor

era and PC computers. The quality

of the microprocessor performance

is measured by several parameters.

Two of them are: Clock rate and

word size.

CLOCK RATE: The

computer has a master clock

that determines the speed at

which the microprocessor canexecute an instruction. The


19/21

speed at which the

microprocessor completes an

instruction execution cycle is

measured in MHz

megahertz (Millions of cycles per second) or GHz

gigahertz (Billions of cycles

per second).

WORD SIZE: The number of

bits the microprocessor can

manipulate at one time varies

from computer to computer. A

microprocessor with a large

word size can process moredata in each instruction cycle.

(A 32 bits word size computer

can process 32 bit data at a

time.)

Memory: Memory is one of the

most important elements of every

computer. The computer memory

is electronic circuitry that holds

data and program instructions until

it is their turn to be processed.

There are three types of computer

memory: RAM, CMOS, andROM.

RAM Random Access

Memory: It is a temporary

holding area for data before

and after they are processed.

It is like scratch papervolatile (after the computer is

turned off all data is gone). It

consists of thousands of

circuits that each hold one bit

of data. The computer holds

(stores) data in RAM and

copies it to the CPU and from

the CPU (processor) back to

RAM. RAM is a holder of

data and also instructions.

When the processor turns into

a word processor the

instructions for this activity

are copied from the disk to

RAM. 32 MB RAM means

that the RAM can hold 32

million bytes of data.

CMOS ComplementaryMetal Oxide Semiconductor:

This is a battery-powered chip

that retains data about the

computer configuration when

the computer is turned off.

ROM Read Only Memory:

A set of chips containing

permanent instructions about

the boot process. BecauseRAM is empty at the

beginning of the processing,

the computer must have a

separate system for loading all

the instructions to RAM. All

this is done through the

BOOT PROCESS. The

processor performs step by

step instructions that are given

by ROM. The boot process is


20/21

therefore a series of

instructions from ROM that

are preparing the computer to

perform its work.

Bus: BUS is an electronic path that

connects the main parts of the

computer. The system bus

transports data back and forth

between the processor and RAM or

hard disk drive. Data bus transports

data between the processor and

parts of the computer. A 32-bit bus

transports 32 bits of data at a time.

It works like a normal bus with32 seats. (Data bus is a sub-unit of

system bus).

Storage: None of the computer

operations would be useful for

practical life if we did not have a

place to store it. The main storage

computer device is the hard disk

drive.

Hard disk drive: It consists of

one or more platters (flat and

rigid disks made of

aluminium or glass that are

coated with magnetic oxide.)

Each platter has a read-write

head associated with it. The

hard disk drive is formatted

into the tracks, cylinders,

sectors and groups of sectors.Tracks are concentric circles

in a disk that hold the data

Cylinders are stacks of tracks

in a disk. Sectors are

subdivisions of the platters

and tracks (9 sectors eachstores 512 bytes) and 40

tracks usually.

Capacity of hard disk drive =

cylinders x surfaces x sectors

x 512

EX. Floppy diskette, CD-

ROM, CD-RW, DVD

OPERATING SYSTEM: Operating

system consists of Set of computer

programs that manage and control

hardware resources and provide an

interface between the user and computer.

Examples: DOS, OS2, WINDOWS,

UNIX, Macintosh and Linux operating

system.

CONCLUSION: This whole conclude us

that microprocessor contributes to

microcontroller and in same fashion

microcontroller contribute to computers.With invention of microprocessor (4004)

we go towards the first step of technology,

which further on further on goes to a fully

equipped Gadget generation.Now, days the

Electronics instrument consist of these

microcontrollers even from a small watch

to a super computer. I remember about

Morley Wordings, that technology is

doubled in 1X1/2 yrs. Such that a

microcontroller used in our PC becomes


21/21

old in a year. Thanks to the

technology.......

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http://www.howstuffworks.com/micro

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midmarket.techtarget.com/sDefinition/

0,,sid183_gci212568,00.html

Microprocessor-based control systems

-Naresh Kumar Sinha

Microprocessor architecture and

programming-William F. Leahy

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1180070082 Term Paper Submission ECE301 RC6701A01

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