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REVIEW: PRIMATES HERB GARDENS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS 341

Int. Zoo Yb. (2006) 40: 341–350 © The Zoological Society of London

Review of the use of herb gardens and medicinal plantsin primate exhibits in zoosD. COUSINS78 Green Street, Eastbourne, East Sussex BN21 1RF, United Kingdom

Primates in captivity have been observed eatingplants with medicinal properties that grow naturallyaround their enclosures. In this way they appear tobe self-medicating, although this behaviour has notbeen scientifically proven. This article reviews theliterature on the benefits of herbs and medicinalplants positioned in and around primate enclosures.There are some descriptions of the effectiveness ofsuch plants for treating specific ailments, followed bydetails of the methods by which the primates haveaccess to the plants; for example, within the enclo-sure, outside the enclosure but within arm’s reach orin wiremesh-covered troughs. The properties andactive constituents of some herbs and medicinalplants are also given.

Key-words: diet, enrichment, health, herb gardens,medicinal plants, plantings, primates, toxicity,woolly monkey, zoos

It has been reported in the literature thatwild animals utilize medicinal plants(Engel, 2002). It has been suggested thatChimpanzees Pan troglodytes have self-medicated for parasitosis and related ill-nesses (Huffman, 1997), and Pygmychimpanzees Pan paniscus and GorillasGorilla gorilla are known to consume thesame parts of medicinal-plant species thathumans do (Cousins, 2002). The commonnames of European herbs often bear thename of the animal that seeks them outfor medication (e.g. Catmint/CatnipNepeta cataria, Goose grass Galiumaparine, Hogweed Heracleum sphondy-lium, Sheep’s sorrel Rumex acetosella,Chickweed Stellaria media, sow thistleSonchus spp and Henbane Hyoscyamusniger).

Melbourne Zoo, Australia, successfullyused herbal medicine (Evening primroseoil Oenothera biennis capsules) to treat a

Gorilla that had a skin complaint(P. Bamford, pers. comm.).

A placebo-controlled study at TheTisch Family Zoological Gardens, Jeru-salem, Israel, on ten Chimpanzees thatshowed flu-like upper-respiratory ailmentsof varying severity, revealed that the fouranimals treated regularly with the Elder-berry Sambucus nigra extraction Sam-bucol were three times less likely tobecome ill with influenza-type conditionsthan the control group given the placebotreatment (Burge et al., 1999). Black elderhas a long tradition of being used to treatinfluenza and the flowers are used thera-peutically to treat common colds andsinusitis in humans (British HerbalPharmacopoeia, 1983). The plant alsocontains high levels of flavonoids, whichare naturally occurring substances thathave established antiviral properties.

In captivity, Woolly monkeysLagothrix lagotricha and squirrel mon-keys Saimiri spp are notoriously prone tohypertension-stress, probably caused bythe way they metabolise carbohydrates, aprocess that can be impaired easily,especially during pregnancy. On a carbo-hydrate-rich diet, carbohydrate-meta-bolism impairment in these primates maypresent in a similar way to diabetes mel-litus in humans, and most of the animalswill eventually succumb to cardiac and/orrenal insufficiency and aneurysms. AtApenheul Primate Park, Apeldoorn, TheNetherlands, the keepers carry out routinemanagement activities at the same timeeach day to reduce stress for the animals.When a Woolly monkey is found to be,

342 THE DEVELOPING ZOO WORLD

the conditions in the enclosure(s), groupcomposition and husbandry methods areexamined to see if anything has changedthat could be causing stress. If none ofthese factors appear to be the source, theaffected animal is given garlic-mistletoe-hawthorn tablets, used for improvingvitality and stimulating heart performanceand a healthy heart, at a dosage of1–3 tables per day depending on theseriousness of the condition (Vermeer,1994).

High blood pressure is the predominantsymptom in hypertension and, althoughthere are no physical signs, internally sev-eral organs and affiliated vessels aresystematically damaged. The kidneys areparticularly vulnerable and kidney failureis one of the most common outcomes ofhypertension. High blood pressure alsoresults in several forms of heart disease,including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy,coronary-artery disease and congestiveheart failure. High blood pressure is alsoa significant cause of strokes and maycause impotence.

HERB GARDENS IN ZOOSNo doubt the delicate physiological andpsychological balance of Woolly monkeysin captivity first initiated the practice ofcultivating medicinal plants in primateexhibits. Apenheul Primate Park wasprobably the first institution to experi-ment with herb gardens c. 20 years ago. Asmall selection of herbs was planted in thelarge 1·5 ha wooded enclosure containingWoolly monkeys. In 1990 the gardenswere extended and advice was soughtfrom a herbalist on the most useful andappropriate medicinal plants. In thesummer of that year a Woolly monkeyjumped into a moat and entered the ter-ritory of another group. The Woolly mon-keys in the second group became highlyexcited and went to the herb gardens andbegan to eat plants that would reducestress, suggesting that they were self-med-icating (Vermeer, 1995). By 1993 over 150

plant species were available to the pri-mates (Vermeer, 1995). (See also Table 1.)

Several zoos, particularly in the UK,have been influenced by the achievementsat Apenheul Primate Park but not everyinstitution has large enclosures where herbgardens can be planted. A grid method,where seedlings are planted under small-gauge wiremesh, has been used to growherbs at some zoos. The herb containersare placed either in the enclosure or justoutside and within arm’s reach of themonkeys. As the plants grow through thewiremesh the monkeys can pluck off andeat the accessible parts without uprootingthe whole plant.

When Howletts Wild Animal Park,Bekesbourne, UK, received six Woollymonkeys from Apenheul Primate Park, asmall garden of herbs was provided in theoutdoor enclosure. This was covered witha hinged weldmesh lid that could beopened to allow access for maintenance,planting and weeding. A selection ofplants, such as Chives Allium schoeno-prasum, Thyme Thymus vulgaris,Feverfew Tanacetum parthenium, mintMentha spp and Viola spp, was grown inthe area but they had to be at least 8 cmhigh before they grew through the weld-mesh and were accessible for the monkeys(E. Thetford, pers. comm.). Some plants,such as Hawthorn Crataegus oxyacantha(laevigata), Barberry Berberis vulgarisshrubs, Cotoneaster spp, Arrow bambooPseudosasa japonica, sedge Carex spp andSycamore Acer pseudoplatanus, wereplanted (unprotected) in the enclosure butthe limited space and the attentions of thesix monkeys ensured that the plants onlyexisted, rather than flourished.

At Howletts Wild Animal Park therewas some concern about the possible con-tamination (e.g. from faeces) of the herbsin the grid system because they were atground level. Planted troughs were brack-eted c. 1 m above the ground and theseprovide cleaner plants that can beaccessed through the wiremesh. In thisraised position the plants are protected


condition/properties medicinal plant or herb

Liver problems DandelionTaraxacum officinale

Milk thistleSilybus marianum

YarrowAchillea millefolium

Sedatives Lemon balmMelissa officinalis

Passion flowerPassiflora incarnata

Wild catmintNepeta cataria

Wild chamomileMatricaria chamomilla

Diarrhoeic BilberryVaccinium myrtillus

TormentilPotentilla erecta

Anaemia Stinging nettleUrtica dioica

Kidney problems and bladder inflammation GoldenrodSolidago virgaurea

Antibiotic Nasturtium or Indian cressTropaeolum majus

Problems related to oestrus cycle Lady’s mantleAlchemilla vulgaris

Table 1. Some primary medicinal herbs planted in the Woolly monkey Lagothrix lagothricha exhibit at ApenheulPrimate Park, Apeldoorn, The Netherlands. The properties of some of the medicinal plants and herbs or conditionsthey may treat are also given. (J. Ruys & W. den Braber, pers. comm.)

from the monkeys, easier to care for andit is simpler to assess which plants arebeing consumed. The troughs can berotated, replaced, replanted and grown-onelsewhere with ease (E. Thetford, pers.comm.). The Woolly monkeys showed apreference for the young growth of DillAnethum graveolens and Chives (althoughChives have no known medicinal proper-ties), and also a variety of plants growingnaturally in the enclosure, such asStinging nettles Urtica dioica, Garlic mus-tard Alliaria petiolata, Hogweed, Dande-lion Taraxacum officinale, sow thistle andRussian vine Polygonum aubertii.

Despite provision of herbs and othermedicinal plants, certain individuals in thegroup continued to suffer from chronicdiarrhoea. Giardia, campylobacter, enta-moeba and candida were all identified asprobable causes of the problem, togetherwith the diet and other factors, such asstress (E. Thetford, pers. comm.).

The severe diarrhoea was only con-trolled once the Woolly monkeys weretransferred to Monkey World Ape RescueCentre, Wareham, UK, where the dosageof antibiotics given was reduced andextra-strength pro-biotic paste wasadministered to re-establish healthy gut


flora. It was probable that gut functionhad been disrupted by prolonged and con-stant use of antibiotics to treat the diar-rhoea (A. Ames, pers. comm.).

The Woolly Monkey Habitat con-structed at Monkey World incorporatesmany ideas originating from ApenheulPrimate Park and includes two herb gar-dens in the outdoor enclosure, protectedby mesh. At least six species of herbs aregrown in these gardens and other speciesare rotated periodically. Yarrow Achilleamillefolium, Chives, Garlic Allium sativum,Wild chamomile Matricaria chamomilla,Hawthorn, Lemon balm Melissa officin-alis, Passion flower Passiflora incarnata,Dandelion, Stinging nettle, Lady’s mantleAlchemilla vulgaris, Barberry, Catmint/Catnip, Tormentil Potentilla erecta, Nas-turtium Tropaeolum majus, ChervilAnthriscus cerefolium and Bilberry Vac-cinium myrtillus are all utilized. The mon-keys pick the herbs according topreference (Ames & Cronin, 1999).

At Twycross Zoo, UK, herb gardenshave been established in the enclosures ofWoolly monkeys, colobus Colobus sppmonkeys and langurs Presbytis spp. Theprimates also have access to ParsleyPetroselinum crispum (although this herbis a known abortive so caution should beexercised when making it accessible toanimals), Shepherd’s purse Capsellabursa-pastoris, Chickweed, Dandelion,Woodruff Galium odoratum, Ribwortplantain Plantago lanceolata, GoldenrodSolidago virgaurea, Couch grass Agro-pyron repens, Wild chamomile, Pot mari-gold Calendula officinalis, LungwortPulmonaria officinalis, Yarrow andCreeping cinquefoil Potentilla reptans.Observations show that the herbs arepicked selectively, with mint, Sage Salviaofficinalis, Chives and other leafy herbsbeing favoured, and while some plants arecropped to the wire, others are hardlytouched (J. Ray, pers. comm.).

The Monkey Sanctuary, Looe, UK, hassuccessfully maintained Woolly monkeysfor many years. The facilities are spacious

and the monkeys are offered an extremelyvaried diet. Herb gardens are maintainedadjacent to the enclosures and the mon-keys stretch through the wire to pick theplants they can reach. The main enclosureis a large open-topped structure that hasa circumference of 160 m, containing twomature Beech Fagus sylvatica trees and ahost of shrubs. The size and density of thefoliage prevents the monkeys fromdepleting the edible plants. Leaves are col-lected from the surrounding area andfrom a dedicated garden on a daily basisand offered as browse (R. Hevesi, pers.comm.). In this way the primates are pro-vided with a rich variety of plants, manyof which have medicinal properties.About 36 species are eaten regularly anda further 11 species are consumed as occa-sional forage (Table 2).

Infants appear to learn what plants toeat from taste aversion and they spit outany toxic/unpleasant material. Nomonkey at the Sanctuary has beenobserved to become ill after eating a poi-sonous plant or too much of one speciesof herb. When it has a gastric complainta monkey may show a preference for theleaves of willowherb Epilobium spp, Cam-panula spp and Lemon balm, over the dietof fruit, salad and vegetables provided bythe keepers. One animal that had achronic ulcer on a wound ate plantainPlantago sp leaves, only stopping whenthe wound had healed (R. Hevesi, pers.comm.).

DISCUSSIONIn captivity permanent access to selectedmedicinal plants appears to help maintainthe health of some primate species, parti-cularly leaf-eaters, and there is a sugges-tion of self-medication. Although most ofthese herbs are foreign to the native coun-tries of the monkeys, the animals quicklylearn how to select the most appropriateplants to treat any medical condition. Vir-tually nothing is known about self-medi-cation in most wild primate species but itis possible that some natural plant foods


eaten regularlyGarlic mustard Bramble aggAlliaria petiolata Rubus spp

Ramsons RaspberryAllium ursinum Rubus idaeus

Wild onion Common sorrelAllium vineal Rumex acitosa

Lesser burdock Sheep’s sorrelArctium minus Rumex acetosella

False oat grass Curled dockArrhenatherum elatius Rumex crispus

Lemon balm Broad-leaved dockMelissa officinalis Rumex obtusifolius

Slender thistle ElderCarduss teniflorus Sambucus nigra

Rosebay willowherb Red campionEpilobium augustifolium Silene dioica

Fat hen Prickly sow thistleChenopodium album Sonchus asper

Enchanted nightshade Smooth sow thistleCircaea lutetiana Sonchus oleraceus

Hazel DandelionCorylus sp Taraxacum officinale

Hawthorn Stinging nettleCrataegus oxyacantha Urtica dioica

Wild carrotDaucus carota eaten occasionally

Great willowherb Cow parsleyEpilobium angustifolium Anthriscus sylvestris

Broad-leaved willowherb Ground elderEpilobium montanum Aegopodium podagraria

Wych elm ChamomileUlmus glabra Matricaria chamomilla

English elm Common stork’s billUlmus procera Erodium cicutarium

Beech Stinking iris (root only)Fagus sylvatica Iris foetidissima

Ash Ribwort plantainFraxinus excelsior Plantago lanceolata

Goose grass GooseberryGalium aparine Ribes uva-crispa

Hogweed Field roseHeracleum sphondylium Rosa arvensis

Crab apple Dog-rose aggMalus sylvestris Rosa spp

Hart’s-tongue fern AlexandersPhyllitis scolopendrium Smyrnium olustratum

Self-heal ChickweedPrunella vulgaris Stellaria media

Table 2. Plant species consumed by Woolly monkeys at The Monkey Sanctuary, Looe, UK (R. Hevesi, pers.comm.): agg. aggregate, inclusive of two or more closely related species.

that are rich in phytochemicals provide asource of preventative medicine as well asnourishment (Huffman, 1997; Cousins &Huffman, 2002) (Table 3).

A note of caution is required here asalmost all medicinal plants are toxic and,if used excessively or unwisely, can haveadverse effects on an animal’s health.


id properties

caryo-phyllaceaeChickweedStellaria media contains saponin; essence of fresh leaves taken to ease rheumatic pains

and psoriasiscompositaeDandelionTaraxacum officinale the root and latex of stem contain the bitter lactupicrine, tannin, inulin

and indian rubber; a cholagogic, diuretic and stomachicGoldenrodSolidago virgaurea contains saponins, flavonoids, an essential oil, a bitter compound and

tannin; a diuretic, expectorant and antidiarrhoealMilk thistleSilybus marianum seeds contain a flavonoid (silymarine), amine (thyramine and histamine),

a bitter substance and an oil; in homeopathy used for liver disorders,jaundice, gallstones, peritonitis, coughs and bronchitis; stimulates boththe production and flow of bile

Wild chamomileMatricaria chamomilla the deep blue essence produced from the flower (Oleum Chamomillae)

contains chamazuline, which is effective in treating inflammations andallergies; in the flowers there are flavonic heterodises (palustrine,quercetol and apigeinine); the spasmolytic action is the result of thepresence of dicyclic ether; the flower heads are used as a carminative,stomachic, antispasmodic, vulnerary and antiallergic; also known tohave a soothing effect

YarrowAchillea millefolium the essential oil (Oleum Millofolii) contains cineol and proazuline, as well

as achillein, which is a bitter component of the plant; the whole plant,apart from the roots, is used as a bitter tonic, carminative andspasmolytic; cineol is antiseptic, expectorant and stomachic; proazulineis a spasmolytic, astringent and bitter

cruciferaeGarlic mustardAlliaria petiolata contains a glycoside (sinigrine) and essential oils; used as a diuretic and

to sooth rheumatism and asthmaericaceaeBilberryVaccinium myrtillus fruit contain tannin, arbutin, myrtillin, organic acids, sugars and pectin

while leaves possess glucoquinine, which lowers the blood-sugar level;properties as an astringent, antidiarrhoeal, tonic, antiseptic andhypoglycaemic

fagaceaeBeechFagus sylvatica pressed seeds produce a fine edible oil, while the outer covering contains

an alkaloid and an active unidentified substance; dry wood producescreosote

labiataeLemon balmMelissa officinalis contains an essential oil (Oleum Melissae) which contains small quantities

of citronellal, citral but principally linacol, geraniol and aldehydes; astomachic, carminative, diaphoretic, sedative and antispasmodic

Self-healPrunella vulgaris contains tannin, a bitter compound, resins and an essential oil; used as an

astringentWild catmintNepeta cataria produces an essential oil containting carvacrol, nepetol, thymol and

nepetalactone; antidiarrhoeal properties


id properties

liliaceaeRamsonsAllium ursinum the whole plant produces an essential oil containing glycosides, divinyl,

disulphides, vitamin C and an aldehyde; a stomachic, vermifuge,antispasmodic, carminative, intestinal antiseptic, diuretic andexpectorant; also known as bear’s garlic

oleaceaAshFraxinus excelsior bark contains glycosides, fraxin, fraxetol and rutin (fraxin is very diuretic

and purgative), and yields sugars, resins and malic acidongraceaeWillow herbEpilobium angustifolium the rhizome and roots contain tannin, pectin and miculage; root used for

digestive problems accompanied by diarrhoeapassifloraceaePassion flowerPassiflora incarnata contains alkaloids of the pyridino-indolic group (passiflorine, harmine

and harmol) and flavonic derivatives; the whole of the aerial part ofthe plant used primarily as a general antispasmodic and as atranquillizer for anxiety and insomnia

plantaginaceaeRibwort and Rat’s tail plantainPlantago lanceolata andPlantago major both plants produce mucilage and a heteroside, aucubine and sugar;

antidiarrhoeal, expectorant, emollient and vulnerarypolygonaceaeSorrelRumex acetosa contains 1·3% potassium oxalate and oxalic acid, which are harmful to

kidneys; also contains anthracene derivatives and vitamin C; a diureticand laxative

polypodiaceaeHarts-tongue fernPhyllitis scolopendrium the fronds contain tannin, mucilage and sugar; mucilaginous, diuretic

rosaceaeBrambleRubus fruticosus leaves are rich in tannin, inosite and organic acids; properties as an

astringent; fruits excellent for diarrhoeaCrab appleMalus silverstris rich in pectin and contains malic and citric acids, sugars, arabane,

galactane, tannin, quercetin and enzymes; antidiarrhoealHawthornCrataegus oxyacantha leaves, flowers and fruit contain flavonoids (hyperoside and vitexin-

rhamnoside), leucoathocyanidine and their tri-terpencic derivatives, andcrataeguslactone, which possesses crataegolic, ursolic and oleanolicacids; a strong cardiac tonic which helps in the treatment of high andlow blood pressure, tachycardia and arrhythmia; antispasmodic andsedative

Lady’s mantleAlchemilla vulgaris active constituent is tannin properties as a tonic, astringent, depurative;

used for conditions of intestine, loss of appetite and particularly toregulate menstrual cycle

RasperryRubus idaeus fruit contains 1–2% organic acids, 90% of which is citric acid; also

contains 24% fatty oil; the leaves are used as astringents for diarrhoeaTormentilPotentilla erecta the rhizome contains up to 20% tannin; the glycoside tormentiline and

the bitter chinovic acid; a powerful astringent and antidiarrhoeal


id properties

rubiaceaeGoose grassGalium aparine contains glycoside, asperuloside; properties as vulnerary cicatizing;

reduces blood pressure and temperaturetropaeolaceaeIndian cressTropaeolum majus contains a glucoside, glucotropaeoline, which on hydrolysis forms sulphur

compounds with an antibiotic action; in professional medicine acts as adisinfectant for treating the urinary tract and the skin; also used totreat influenza

ulmaceaeElmUlmus campestris bark contains large quantity of tannin, mucilages and bitter compounds;

the bark is astringent and mucilanginous; can be used as a diuretic,diaphoretic and antidiarrhoeal

umbelliferaeHogweedHeracleum sphondylium produces an essential oil consisting of various butyrates, a

furanocoumarin (bergaptene), pimpinellin, spondrin; affects bloodpressure, is a tonic, stimulant and digestive; also shown to have adistinct aphrodisiac effect

ParsleyPetroselinum crispum whole plant (seeds in particular) contains an essential oil (petroselini)

which itself contains apiol and myristicin; also contains flavones,apiine, vitamin C and provitamin A; a diuretic, stomachic, carminative,emmenagogic, expectorant and aphrodisiac; also be used as an abortive

Wild carrotDaucus carota contains vitamins C, B1, B2 and provitamin A (carotene); sugars (glucose

and sucrose) and pectin; antidiarrhoeal, because of pectin content, anda good source of vitamins

urticaceaeStinging nettleUrtica dioica leaves contain formic acid, silicon, potassium, tannin, glucoquinines and

chlorophyll; haemostatic, antianaemic, antidiabetic, diuretic, depurativeand galactogenic

Table 3. Known active constituents of some medicinal plants (Schauenberg & Paris, 1977; Thomson, 1980).

Most primates live in tropical forests andare surrounded by these potentially lethaltoxins. The example of peers, and oral(toxic plants usually taste extremely bitter)and olfactory experience, are all part ofthe learning curriculum. However, thesenatural learning processes may berepressed under the confined conditions ofcaptivity. Those responsible for the main-tenance of herb gardens should beequipped with a basic knowledge of herbs,a fount of common sense and keen obser-vational powers.

The dedicated fieldwork of researcherslike Professor M. Huffman of Kyoto Uni-versity, Japan, and Dr J. Berry of Cornell

University, Ithaca, NY, USA, has pro-duced enough convincing data for us tomove forward from the sceptical phase toone of more positive thinking, for higherprimates at least. It makes sense that anyanimal when sick should have access to anatural dispensary to help it become well,even if its quest for the appropriate com-pound(s) may be instinctive.

Quite apart from improved health, herbgardens can provide other benefits. Apen-heul Primate Park reports the following.1. Environmental enrichment The animalsspend a lot of time foraging for plants.2. Education The public is enthusiasticabout the herb-garden project and is


interested in the medicinal properties ofthe plants.3. Diet enrichment The different plantswith a range of nutritional values providean extremely varied diet for the primates.In addition, insects are attracted to theflowers and are then caught and con-sumed by the monkeys (Vermeer, 1995).

Spacious enclosures provide the bestenvironment for the planting and survivalof a whole range of herbs and plants.Where space is limited mesh gardens areprobably best situated adjacent to out-door enclosures, within reach of the pri-mates. Alternatively, raised troughs, likethose described at Howletts Wild AnimalPark, can be used. Zoos in rural areasoften have access to wild-growing herbsand plants on a seasonal basis but urbanzoos may need to establish herb nurseriesand dedicated gardens.

At Apenheul Primate Park sakisPithecia spp, marmosets Callithrix spp,tamarins Saguinus spp, capuchins Cebusspp and Ring-tailed lemurs Lemur cattaare all maintained in the same area of thePark as the Woolly monkeys and all theseprimates have been seen eating herbs.Squirrel monkeys in another area of thePark have also shown an interest in suchplants (Vermeer, 1995).

To date herb gardens have been lesssuccessful for great apes. Denver Zoo,Colorado, USA, planted medicinal gar-dens in the Gorilla and Orang-utan Pongopygmaeus exhibits but these species havenot shown much interest in the plants(M. M. Moore, pers. comm.). Herb gar-dens have been provided in the Gorillaexhibit at Columbus Zoo, Ohio, USA(Frisch & Monska-Wright, 1995), but itremains to be seen if the apes exploit anyof the plants. Medicinal plants may bemore acceptable to great apes if they areoffered as browse. For many yearsGorillas and other primates have beengiven a wide range of herbs grown in theorganic nursery at Howletts Wild AnimalPark (E. Thetford, pers. comm.)

Nevertheless, Gorillas at Paignton Zoo,UK, have shown an interest in introducedherbs. The apes are kept on an island, apermanent feature of which is a robustwooden herb container firmly pinned tothe ground and with the usual mesh top.The following herbs are planted in thecontainer: Onions Allium spp, Chives,Dill, Chervil, Tarragon Artemisia dracun-culus, Coriander Coriandrum sativum,Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis and BasilOcimum basilicum. Preferences have beendifficult to observe but Onions and Chiveshave both been utilized. One Gorilla inparticular spends much time at the con-tainer fiddling with the herbs and the apesgenerally appear to be as interested in theinsect life attracted to the area as in theherbs.

A range of unprotected herbs are alsoplanted on the Gorilla island at PaigntonZoo, including Yarrow, Wild garlic, BugleAjuga reptans, rocket (Brassicaceae),Fennel Foeniculum vulgare, mint, Parsley,Wild sage, Thyme and Nettle, but it is dif-ficult to judge how often the apes respondto them. Occasionally packs of herbs,such as Thyme, mint, Rosemary andParsley, are added to the evening feedsand these appear to be relished by theanimals (K. Pullen, pers. comm.).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author thanks sincerely the following for alltheir help: Jacqueline Ruys and Wendy den Braber,Apenheul Primate Park, The Netherlands; ErniThetford, Howletts Wild Animal Park, UK; RachelHevesi, The Monkey Sanctuary, UK; Alison Ames,Monkey World Ape Rescue Centre, UK; John Ray,Twycross, UK; Merle M. Moore, Denver Zoo, CO,USA; John Bamford, Melbourne Zoo, Australia;Kirsten Pullen, Paignton Zoo, UK.

REFERENCESAmes, A. & Cronin, J. (1999): Monkey World’swoolly monkey habitat. International Zoo News 46:214–220.British Herbal Medicine Association (1983):British herbal pharmacopoeia. Keighley: BMHAPublications.Burge, B., Mumcuoglu, M. & Simmons, T. (1999):The effect of sambucol on flu-like symptoms in


APPENDIX

GLOSSARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS AND HERBS AND THEEFFECTS THEY PRODUCE WHEN CONSUMED

property effect

antiallergic relieving or controlling allergic symptomsantianaemic preventing or correcting anaemiaantidiabetic relieving diabetesantidiarrhoeal preventing or relieving diarrhoeaantispasmodic preventing or relieving spasms or convulsionscarminative expelling gas from alimentary canalcholagogic inducing an increased flow of bilecicatrisant healing woundsdepurative purifying agentdiaphoretic inducing sweatingdiuretic increasing flow of urineemmenagogic promoting menstruationemollient soothing agent for skin or mucus membraneexpectorant discharging or expelling mucus from respiratory tractgalactogenic promoting lactationhaemostatic slowing or stopping bleeding

chimpanzees: prophylactic and symptom-dependenttreatment. International Zoo News 46: 16–19.Cousins, D. (2002): African apes and ethnomedicine.Gorilla Journal 25 (December): 10–12.Cousins, D. & Huffman, M. A. (2002): Medicinalproperties in the diet of gorillas: an ethno-pharma-cological evaluation. African Study Monographs23(2): 65–89.Engel, C. (2002): Wild health: how animals keepthemselves well and what we can learn from them.London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.Frisch, D. & Monska-Wright, L. (1995): Animalenrichment at the Columbus Zoo. Animal Keepers’Forum: Special Enrichment Issue 22: 167–169.Huffman, M. A. (1997): Current evidence of self-medication in primates: a multidisciplinary perspec-tive. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 40: 171–200.

Schauenberg, P. & Paris, F. (1977): Guide to medic-inal plants. Guildford: Lutterworth Press.Thomson, W. A. R. (Ed.) (1980): Medicines from theearth. A guide to healing plants. London: Macmillan.Vermeer, J. (1994): Notes on the management of thewoolly monkey in captivity. International Zoo News41(6): 8–13.Vermeer, J. (1995): A garden of enrichment. AnimalKeepers’ Forum: Special Enrichment Issue 22:165–167.

Manuscript submitted 19 March 2003;accepted 21 April 2005; revised 30 Jan-uary 2006

hypoglycaemic lowering blood-sugar levelpurgative purging agentspasmolytic relieving spasms or convulsionsstomachic improving appetite or digestionvermifuge destroying or expelling parasitic wormsvulnerary healing wounds

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