10 Botanical Report Robina Rafiq 1992 1995
-
Upload
river-golden -
Category
Documents
-
view
87 -
download
2
Transcript of 10 Botanical Report Robina Rafiq 1992 1995
REPORT ON THE BOTANICAL STUDIES IN PALAS VALLEY (1992-1995)
THE FLORA OF PALAS VALLEY AND PLANT CONSERVATION PRIORITIES
BY RUBINA A RAFIQ
NATIONAL HERBARIUM NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTER
ISLAMABAD
REPORT PREPARED FOR HIMALAYAN JUNGLE PROJECT, PALAS VALLEY, KOHISTAN.
1
ABSTRACT
Flora, vegetation and phytogeographical affinities of Palas valley have been studied for the first time. An attempt is made to highlight the floristic peculiarities for biodiversity conservation of Palas valley. The valley is characterised by a marked change in the climate, soil and vegetation from east to west. The study provides a checklist of plants of Palas valley. Seven species endemic to Pakistan are found in Palas. Three new species, Jasminum leptophyllum R.A.Rafiq, Delphinium palasianum R.A.Rafiq and Pseudomertensia flavescens R.A.Rafiq were discovered during the present investigation. Rare species endemic to Pakistan collected during the present survey include Rhamnella gilgitica, Pseudomertensia sericophylla which were known from the type locality only. Some other rare species found in Palas are mentioned.
The chorological spectrum of species show a high percentage of species with a distribution range restricted to adjoining areas. A significant proportion of species is confined to the Northern mountains of Pakistan, Kashmir and east Afghanistan. A considerable number of Central Asian and Sino-Himalayan species are also found in the valley. About one third of the flora has wider distribution with palaeotropical elements represented in lower elevations. Holarctic and boreo-temperate elements are represented in the montane and sub-alpine and alpine zones. Some selected examples are discussed with their status in Palas valley.
Three main vegetation zones determined by climate and topography are recognized in the valley. In each vegetation zone, micro-scale habitats pattern is influenced by soil, moisture, exposure to solar radiation, inclination of the slope and snow accumulation. According to a great diversity of micro-habitats, plant communities are highly diversified in each vegetation zone. Diversity of small scale habitat offers an oppurtunity to a variety of discrete plant communities which host some unique species of plants peculiar to Palas valley. The unique features of each plant community are descibed in detail and natural and human threats are mentioned.
Recommendations are made for conservation of plant diversity of Palas valley.
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Guy Duke, Project Coordinator, BirdLife/WWF Himalayan Jungle Project (HJP), Islamabad (Pakistan), for proposing and encouraging my botanical work in Palas which led to PhD study in Vienna University. I am grateful to Dr Mumtaz Malik, Conservator (Wildlife) NWFP, for his encouagement, support and help during my field work. I am grateful to Dr Zafar Altaf, (ex-)Chairman Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Pakistan, for supporting PARC-HJP collaboration. I am deeply indebted to professors Dr. H Riedle and Dr. G. Grabherr for their guidance and supervision during my studies at Vienna. I am grateful to Dr. G. Grabherr who visited Palas valley in 1995 during my field work for his help and valuable discussions in the field. I am grateful also to my field colleagues and assistants Naeem Ashraf Raja, Abdul Ghafoor and Noor Naeen of HJP, and Sikander Hayat of NARC; and to the people of Palas for their hospitality. My thanks to Razwal Kohistani for collecting information on socioeconomic uses of plants of Palas. I thank the Directors of the Herbaria, Natural History Museum, Vienna, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for providing facilities to study the specimens and type material. I also wish to thank Mr. Bernhard Dickory for his help during identifications of grasses and sedges and his valuable suggestions. This study was made possible by generous financial assistance from the Austrian goverment and HJP. HJP (1991-1994) was implemented by BirdLife International in partnership with the NWFP Forest, Fisheries and Wildlife Department, World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), National Council for Conservation of Wildlife and World Pheasant Association; HJP was financed predominantly by the British Overseas Development Administration (ODA), WWF, US Fish and Wildlife Service, and Biodiversity Support Program (a USAID-funded joint venture of WWF-US, the Nature Conservancy and World Resources Institute).
3
CONTENS INTRODUCTION 5
AIMS AND OBJECTIVE 8
BACKGROUND 8
TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, CLIMATE 10
METHODOLOGY 13
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 15
FLORAL DIVERSITY 15
PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES 19
VEGETATION 41
COLLINE/SUBMONTANE ZONE 42
QUERCUS BALLLOOT FOREST 45
MONTANE ZONE 46
CEDRUS DEODARA FOREST 47
ABIES PINDROW-PICEA SMITHEANA FOREST 48
BROAD-LEAVED DECIDUOUS FOREST 50
SUB-ALPINE AND ALPINE ZONE 53
MIXED SHRUB COMMUNITY 53
BETULA UTILIS FOREST 54
DWARF JUNIPER-RHODODENDRON SCRUB COMMUNITY 54
SUB-ALPINE PASTURE SIBBALDIA CUNEATA COMMUNITY 54
KOBRESIA COMMUNITY 56
RUMEX NEPALENSIS COMMUNITY 57
SNOWBED FORB COMMUNITY 58
KOBRESIA COMMUNITY WITH MABY FORBS 59
ROCK SCREE VEGETATION 61
GRAZED AVALANCHE MEADOW 62
AVALANCHE MEADOW 64
AVALANCHE SHRUB COMMUNITY 66
TALL FORBS SPECIES RICH COMMUNITY 68
RUMEX SAMBUCUS COMMUNITY 69
NATURAL AND HUMAN IMPACTS ON VEGETATION 71
RECOMMENDATIONS 76
REFERENCES 78
ANNEX 86
CHECKLIST OF PLANTS OF PALAS VALLEY 86
PLANTS OF SOCIO ECONOMIC VALUE 140
4
1. INTRODUCTION
Considerable progress has been made during the past two
decades on taxonomic studies for Flora of Pakistan in
collaboration with National Herbarium, PARC and
Herbarium Botany Department, Karachi University, but
floristic information is far from complete. New
information is becoming available as more areas are
opening up to researchers due to improved transportation
facilities especially in the mountainous areas of the
country. Several areas in these mountain ranges are not
well known to science because of difficult terrain, lack
of transportation facilities and socio-cultural and
political reasons.
Northern Pakistan is among some of the most fascinating
regions where three great mountain ranges: Himalaya,
Karakoram and Hindukush meet with several peeks rising
more than 7000 m above sea level. The great variety of
habitats found in steep high mountains and deeply
incised valleys with diversified topography have
resulted in special ecological niches that store large
number of endemic species of plants and animals. The
flora in these mountains has characteristics and
diversity not found in other parts of world. Due to
close proximity the flora has stronger influence of
flora of Central Asian mountains.
In Pakistan, according to an estimate natural forests
cover less than 5% (4.29 million hectares) of the total
land area. A large proportion of our natural forests are
mainly coniferous forests (1.78 m ha about 41.4% of
total forest area) which are confined to northern
mountain ranges. During the past few decades extensive
5
deforestation has been done and vast areas in the
mountains have been cleared for commercial timber
extraction and expanding human settlements especially in
Kashmir, Kaghan and Swat valley. According to some
recent study in Kaghan valley potential forest area has
decreased by about 50% (Schickoff 1995). In Siran valley
the forest cover has decreased by 45% between 1979 and
1988 (GTZ report 1990), the information is based upon
remote sensing data (Landsat MSS and TM). In 1992 these
areas suffered most due to heavy rains resulting in
devastating flood that damaged property and human life
on a large scale.
The physical environment is changing as a result of
increased concentration of greenhouse gases causing
global warming and depletion of ozone layer bringing
climate changes on global scale. The global climate is
expected to warm between 1o and 5o C during the next 100
years. Biotic responses to global climate change are
difficult to predict and rate of change is accelerated
by anthropogenic influences. These large scale changes
in our environment are effecting our ecosystems in
different ways and to various extents (Solomon & Shugart
1993). High mountain ecosystems are particularly
vulnerable in a changing environment (Markham et
al.1993). Global warming leads to a reduction in alpine
biodiversity as a result of upward migration of lowland
species, especially in mountains rich in endemic species
(Grabherr et al. 1995).
Natural habitats are shrinking due to man induced
changes in the form of clearing of forest areas for
agriculture, forest plantations of exotic species,
expanding human settlements due to population growth,
6
construction of roads and large dams, etc. Large scale
development projects fragment large ecosystems of rich
biodiversity into smaller units. In such a fragmented
system rate of extinction or loss of species is faster
than in a larger habitat because ecological niches
available for survival are proportionally reduced. We do
not know exactly at this stage how different plant
species will respond to climatic and ecological changes
and to what degree the local flora will become
impoverished and intermingle with introduced weedy
species following human activities.
In response to environmental and anthropogenic pressures
on biological resources there is a growing need for the
conservation of natural ecosystems. In this context it
is necessary to preserve biodiversity at all
organizational levels. Preservation of pristine
ecosystems with habitats, communities and species that
have unique characteristics of scientific interest and
importance is necessary for long term ecological well-
being.
Palas valley remained isolated for a long time due
to its difficult terrain and tribal culture. It
lies in the transition zone between regions of
monsoon and Mediterranean climate. Representative
vegetation types and floristic elements from Sino-
Japanese and Mediterranean region found in the
valley provide an opportunity to study the
interaction of different floras. Palas valley
offers a great variety of niches due to its
topographic and climatic diversity and hosts a
number of unique species of animal and plant. It is
generally believed that organisms in borderline
7
regions are more vulnerable to ecological changes
and they either migrate or evolve new ranges of
tolerance. Palas valley can also serve as reference
area for measuring and documenting long term
ecological changes. In the present study an attempt
is made to provide information on the diversity of
species, communities and habitats of scientific
interest to select Palas valley as a representative
site for biodiversity conservation.
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVE
To prepare preliminary checklist of the plants of Palas valley
To evaluate the floral diversity and Botanical importance of Palas Valley, and to highlight species and communities of particular interest.
To analyse the phytogeographic affinities of the Palas Flora
To identify and describe the variety of the plant communities in Palas
To assess the human impact on plants and plant communities in Palas, identify threats to them, and prepare recommmendations for their conservation.
To prepare a preliminary checklist of plants of Socioeconomic value in Palas, as a basisfor further ethnobotanical work for sustainable use of plants.
2. BACKGROUND
Palas valley district Kohistan, Northwest Frontier
Province (see Fig. 1 & 2) is one of the inner valleys of
Northwestern Himalaya that has been isolated from the
rest of the world due to socio-cultural reasons. Palas
valley has a distinct position among neighboring valleys
for its variety of habitats and forest communities of
8
near primary condition distributed over an altitudinal
range of 800 m to over 5151 m.
Apart from floral diversity Palas contains a variety of
wild birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, insects. Over
140 bird species have been recorded so far including
seven of the eight 'restricted range' West Himalayan
species and the largest known population of the globally
threatened western tragopan-Tragopan melanocephalus (Guy
Duke 1995). Many rare and threatened species of mammals
are noted including Kashmir gray langur Presbytis
entellus, black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, leopard cat
Felis benghalensis, musk dear Moschus chrysogaster and
markhor Capra falconeri and many others. Rich diversity
of biological resources makes it suitable for future
scientific research to monitor response of individual
species, communities and ecosystem as a whole to global
climatic change and other ecological disturbances
induced by human activities.
Palas has a population of about 40,000 and their economy
depends mainly on forest resources. It is one of the
least developed areas of Pakistan with no industry in
the area and literacy rate of 1.4%. Employment
opportunities do not exist in the area and people go to
big cities for labour in construction work or other
minor jobs.
Agricultural activities are not self sustaining, only
4.8% of the land is under cultivation, mean farm size is
about 1-2 ha. Maize is the main crop cultivated, some
vegetables are also grown on a small scale. Crop yields
are low due to poor seed, inadequate irrigation and
fertilizer, poor cropping practices and uncontrolled
9
pests and diseases. Additional food is brought in the
valley from other areas to meet the shortages.
Traditional life style of people of Palas involves
seasonal transhumance, in which most of the population
move seasonally with their livestock between winter
villages and summer pastures. Generally people spend
most of their time sitting around and enjoying each
others company. There is no social pressure towards any
accomplishment or industriousness. Maize bread is the
staple food in the area supplemented by vegetables grown
around maize fields or wild herbs collected from
forests. Sometimes locally produced honey and milk
products are also consumed additionally when available.
Severe inter-family disputes are common and disrupt
agriculture and livestock herding. In some cases people
migrate to other areas abandoning their farms and
houses. In 1995 dispute over Chaur pastures with the
neighboring valley forced people to go to Khabkot
pastures where severe overgrazing was observed due to
over crowding during data collection for vegetation
study.
Palas valley escaped the attention of botanists for a
long time due to its difficult terrain and tribal
culture, although the adjacent valleys of Kaghan and
Swat were visited by several collectors since the last
century. During the preparation of an inventory of the
plants of the valley for The Himalayan Jungle Project
(1992-1994), some interesting discoveries were made
which led to the present study. An attempt is made to
identify species, communities and habitats of special
10
interest in Palas as representative site for
conservation of biodiversity in Pakistan.
2.1 TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, CLIMATE
Palas valley (34o 48/-35o 12/ N & 73o 35/-75o 52/ E) lies
East of the River Indus in District Kohistan, Hazara
Division, NWFP (see Fig. 2). Palas is bounded to the
North by Jalkot valley (District Kohistan), to the East
by Kaghan valley (District Mansehra) and to the South by
Allai valley (District Mansehra).
Palas is reached by crossing river Indus from Karakorum
Highway at Pattan, and taking the unmetalled Pattan-
Ziarat road (under construction) c.12 km to the roadhead
near Karat, at the mouth of Musha’Ga. Beyond the
roadhead, access is only by foot. An alternate route is
to take the unmetalled road to Badakot and cross the
Sherakot pass. In July-September, mountain passes are
open to Kaghan and Allai.
Palas valley lies among the front ranges of the
westernmost extension of the Himalayas -- the Kohistan
Arc. Altitudes range from 750 m to 5151 m. The
topography is steep to precipitous, with a number of
narrow gorges. The main river--the Musha’Ga, is about 75
km long and joins the River Indus at 73o05'E, 35o08'N.
Palas (including the independent catchments of Sherakot
and Kolai) covers a map area of 1413 sq. Km.
The main Palas river or Musha’Ga starts in the high
mountain chain bordering Kaghan valley and flows in the
East West direction meeting River Indus near Pattan.
Several small streams coming from various side valleys
meet Musha’Ga at different points. Main Palas valley is
11
narrow and deep for most of the part, however, it
broadens somewhat near Wulbela and bifurcates into two
gorges. Chaur Nala and Neela Nala come from these gorges
and meet to form Musha’Ga (or Chauru river)--the main
river of Palas valley.
A series of secondary spurs run in North-South direction
ranging in elevation from 2000 m (Shukiser) to 4200 m
(Kunari Pass). At higher elevations heavy snow
accumulates during winter and melts slowly during summer
and trickle into small streamlets which join eventually
and meet main Musha’Ga river at different points down
the valley. These streams cut narrow deep gorges and
ravines flanked by tall high ridges. A vast area of more
or less undulating alpine meadows is found at the crest
of these ridges ranging from 3200-4000 m from Muro to
Gutab. There is an interesting tendency for many of
these ridges to raise their crests in to narrow peaks
rising to up 4000 m or more, especially Kunari top and
Tikoh top along Khabkot valley, where alpine area is
represented by steep slopes only. Most of these spurs
make an abrupt descent to the bottom of the valley along
Musha’Ga and character of vegetation changes suddenly.
Average elevation of these ridges varies from 1800 to
3200 m asl. The highest peak is ‘Bahadar ser’ c.5151 m
situated in the North between Palas and Jalkot valley
Climatic figures are not available, Khan (1989) gives an
estimated mean annual precipitation of 900 mm to 1350
mm. According to personal experience in the field and
reports from local people Palas valley has warm to hot
summers, and cold winters. Area along main Palas river
in lower Palas valley experience hot summer and mild
winter. High altitude (above 3000 m) areas receive heavy
12
snow fall during winter (October to March) and remain
under snow from October to June. Snow fall starts at
higher altitudes as early as late September. Alpine
areas have a very short snow free period for plant
growth during summer from late June to early September.
From March to June there is generally a rain free dry
period. The summer rains start in July, but the valley
is somewhat sheltered from the monsoon rains by
mountains to the South and the amount of rains is
decreased in Palas.
Information on geology of the area is not available.
Generally rocks are granitic, quartz and shale,
silicious bedrock material is predominant.
3. METHODOLOGY
The floristic exploration of Palas valley was started in
September 1992. In 1993-1995 more surveys were conducted
during early summer and late summer season starting from
early June to mid September. The survey was made by
trekking through different valleys and ridges up to
approachable height of 4300 m to cover all vegetation
zones in the area including colline, montane, sub-alpine
and alpine zone.
I feel it necessary to mention the extraordinary
difficult conditions for field work in the area. There
are no roads in the valley and survey can be made only
by walking through difficult paths on steep slopes used
by local people and their livestock. Logistic facilities
do not exist and food stuff for field team and porters
has to be taken in to the valley for the period planned
for field work. All these factors together make it
13
almost practically impossible to spend more than two
weeks at a time for survey.
FLORAL INVENTORY AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHY
For the preparation of checklist of flora, suitable
plant specimens were collected and pressed for
herbarium. Field data was recorded about locality,
habitat, altitude, habit of plant, flower color, etc.
Specimens were later dried and mounted according to
standard herbarium procedures at National Herbarium,
Islamabad. The specimens were identified subsequently
and deposited in the National Herbarium (RAW), NARC,
Islamabad. The inventory of plant species was prepared
on the basis of plants collected in the area and the
distribution range of each species was taken from the
existing literature. Flora of Pakistan (1970- ) and
other regional floras were used for identification and
distribution information. Further information was
collected at KEW herbarium and Herbarium, Natural
History Museum, Vienna.
ECOLOGY AND PHYTOSOCIOLOGY
For phytosociological study Braun-Blanquet method was
applied as described in Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg
(1974). Representative releves were selected in all
already recognized plant communities in different
vegetation zones in the area. The releve of suitable
size was selected in a homogenous vegetation area. A
total of 84 releves were studied.
Each releve recorded include an inventory of species in
each plot and estimate of the percentage cover for each
14
species according to the Braun-Blanquet scale. The
altitude of the plot was recorded with a Thomen
altimeter. Exposure and gradient were recorded with a
Suunto clinometer. The size of releve varied from 9 to
400 m2 depending on the type of community studied and
availability of homogenous plots.
All the samples were taken in late June to early August.
Late June and early July period was most suitable for
forest communities between an altitude of 1000-2800 m
when grazing was minimum but most of the herbaceous
flora was in its early stages of development. However,
above 2800 m there was still too much snow and there
were no plants at that time. Most of the alpine and sub-
alpine communities were recorded from late July to early
August when grazing was moderate. In late August and
September the vegetation in montane and alpine zone was
strongly affected by grazing and it was impossible to
select any sample plot with some homogenous natural
vegetation and identifiable plants.
Classification of releves was carried out using the
computer program ‘TWINSPAN’ developed at Cornell
University by Hill (1979) with some modifications by Dr.
Karl Reiter, Department of Vegetation Ecology and
Conservation Biology, University of Vienna.
The original two way table output is given in Table 1.
This study provides a first reconnaissance of the
communities of Palas valley. No attempt is made to
arrange it in a syntaxonomical hierarchy and to describe
syntaxa according to the recommendations of the code of
phytosociological nomenclature (Barkman, Moravec &
Rauschert 1986). To do syntaxonomical work much more
15
must be known about the floristic composition of plant
communities of Northwestern Himalaya.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 FLORAL DIVERSITY
The present inventory is based on plants collected from
the area during visits of the valley from 1992-1995
mainly in monsoon season, no collections were made in
spring season. About 600 species have been recorded for
the area so far, including 19 species of pteridophytes.
The families, genera and species are arranged in
alphabetical order. The species name is followed by its
general distribution and range of altitude.
Gymnosperms are represented by 4 families and 11
species. Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Abies
pindrow, Picea smithiana form the dominant forest tree
species and cover large area in the montane zone
throughout the valley. Juniperus semiglobosa replaces
Cedrus deodara and forms open forest communities with
Pinus wallichiana on dry rocky scree slopes in upper
Palas valley. Juniperus communis and J. squamata are
common throughout the valley above 2700 m in sub-alpine
and alpine scrub vegetation. Ephedra gerardiana is also
common in steppic kind of vegetation in upper Palas
valley. Ephedra ciliata is frequently found as a
scattered species in the colline zone. Tall trees of
Taxus wallichiana are generally found as a scattered
tree in mixed conifer forest but in some localities
branched shrubby form is growing gregariously in broad-
leaved forests along Khabkot river.
16
Angiosperm taxa are represented by 96 families. The
families represented by the highest number of genera and
species are given below:
FAMILIES NO OF GENERA NO. OF SPECIES
1. Poaceae 40 62
1. Compositae 36 53
1. Labiateae 17 29
1. Rosaceae 14 28
1. Ranunculaceae 11 26
1. Umbelliferae 17 23
1. Papilionaceae 13 21
1. Polygonaceae 8 17
1. Caryophyllaceae 10 16
1. Cyperaceae 4 16
1. Scrophulariaceae 9 15
1. Boraginaceae 8 14
1. Brassicaceae 12 13
1. Caprifoliacea 3 13
1. Gentianaceae 5 10
The remaining families are represented by less than ten
species, 40 families are represented by one genus and
one species.
Seven species endemic to North Pakistan were collected
from Palas including three new species. Jasminum
leptophyllum, Pseudomertensia flavescens and Delphinium
palasianum, were collected during a botanical survey
from Palas -- the only locality known so far. Rhamnella
gilgitica, a rare species known only from the type
collection. It is rediscovered in Palas after it was
collected from Gilgit in 1937 by Troll. The type was
destroyed in Berlin herbarium during second world war.
Pseudomertensia sericophylla is also known from the type
specimen which was collected from Nathia gali area in
1907 by Harold Dean.
17
Pseudomertensia, an endemic genus to Western Himalaya
and East Afghanistan, is represented by four species in
Palas. P. trolli is confined to Pakistan and Kashmir and
P. moltkioides is also found in Afghanistan
Some other rare species confined to North Pakistan are
Fraxinus raibocarpa and Rhododendron collettianum which
are known from Hindukush range as far West as Chitral
and Dir. This is the first record for these species East
of Indus river extending the range to NW Himalaya.
Several other rare species confined to North Pakistan
and Kashmir are found in Palas. Some selected examples
are given.
Meconopsis aculeata is a rare species, known only from
Kaghan valley and adjacent Kashmir in Pakistan. It was
collected from Palas at 2400 m on a shady snow swept
rock scree along Khabkot river.
Delphinium tenuipes, a rare species known from Hindukush
area, grows as single plant in dry montane areas with
some damp soil in upper Palas valley.
Aquilegia nivalis, an alpine species with attractive
deep blue flowers is restricted to special habitats in
shady and moist rocky areas above 3000 m, infrequent in
the valley.
Saussurea costus, a medicinal plant collected on
commercial scale, is included in appendix III of CITES
(Convention on International Trade of Endangered
Species).
Inula royleana, a rare species found in sub-alpine fir
forest is seen only in a few localities in Palas.
18
Saxifraga stenophylla, a high altitude species seen
above 3800 m in wet rocky areas in Palas.
Ulmus wallichiana, an endangered species listed in IUCN
Red data book, is found in broad-leaved forest in
Khabkot valley. A small population, appears to be
reproducing well with several trees of different ages,
grow along Khabkot river at the base of slopes on valley
floor from 1800-2700 m.
Ulmus villosa, a rare West Himalayan elm is seen only in
one locality around Paro village in Palas.
Cypripedium cordigerum, a rare orchid grows in the
montane forest zone as a scattered plant, is often
picked up by people walking through the area for its
fascinating flowers. Only few plants can develop mature
seeds which are hidden in the herbage.
Herminium piogioniforme, another rare small orchid grows
in alpine meadows in Palas, no herbarium specimens were
seen from Pakistan although it is expected in the area.
The flora is characterized by a high percentage of
species with a restricted range of distribution in the
adjoining areas. Most of the species are found over a
wide range of altitude. More than half of the species
are distributed in montane and alpine habitats. About
120 species are found only in alpine and sub-alpine
areas above 2700 m. The high percentage of cosmopolitan
species, mostly weedy elements, are mainly represented
in the colline zone.
19
4.2 PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES
The geographical location of Palas valley in the inner
Himalayan range in relation to Kashmir Himalaya,
Karakoram, and Hindukush make it interesting for
phytogeographic studies of its flora. It occupies a
transitional zone between moist monsoon climate and dry
Mediterranean type climate with winter precipitation. In
this area interaction of the floras of Central Asia, the
Mediterranean (Irano-Turanian) and Sino-Japanese region
can be studied. The present work will contribute
information towards a better understanding of the
phytogeographic affinities of the West Himalayan region
as a whole. A detailed analysis of the distribution
pattern of all taxa in other area is needed to draw a
definite conclusion about relationship of the flora.
Phytogeography of Himalayan mountains has been studied
by a number of botanists such as Clarke, Hooker, Troll,
Meusel, Schweinfurth, Hara, Kihara, Landon, Gupta, Mani
and others and valuable information is available mainly
on Central and Eastern Himalaya and Kashmir-NW India
Himalaya. However, floristic and biogeographic
information about areas West of Kashmir is still
fragmentary. A broader approach is adapted in this study
to give a general view of the flora and its relationship
to adjacent regions.
Hooker (1906) recognized West Himalaya as a distinct
botanical province within Himalaya extending from Kumaon
(Uttar Pradesh, India) in the East through Kashmir to
Chitral in the West. There is much confusion and general
disagreement on the precise boundaries of the major
subdivisions of phytogeographic regions proposed by
20
various authors and affinities of the flora with
adjacent areas.
According to Kitamura (1960) the Sino-Japanese region
extends through Western Himalaya into East Afghanistan.
Kitamura’s view was followed by Hara (1966), Zohary
(1973), Ali & Qaiser (1986). Meusel (1971) concluded
that Mediterranean elements are strongly represented in
the West Himalayan flora. Mountains West of Indus river
are included in the Irano-Turanian region (Ali & Qaiser
1986). Wendelbo (1971) recognised stronger influence of
Central Asian elements in East Afghanistan and adjoining
mountains of Pakistan. Hedge (1986) suggested a review
of currently used phytogeographic terminology as our
knowledge of the flora has increased over the past
decades and the concepts developed in phytogeographic
region need to be redefined.
Analysis of the distribution range of all the species
showed that a large proportion of the flora has range
restrictions of various degrees. About 2/3 of the
species show restricted distribution in Himalaya and
adjoining mountain ranges. About 1/3 of the species have
wider distribution in the Northern hemisphere with some
cosmopolitan elements. On the basis of different levels
of endemism following major categories can be
recognized:
1. widely distributed species
2. species endemic to the Palas valley and Pakistan
3. species endemic to N Pakistan, Kashmir & NW
India
4. species endemic within Himalaya
21
5. species endemic to Himalaya and Hindukush (E
Afghanistan)
6. species endemic to Himalaya, Hindukush and
Central Asia
7. species endemic to East Afghanistan Himalaya,
Tibet, SW China, NE India, Burma
The largest group comprising more than 200 taxa is
represented by species which are widely distributed.
These taxa are mainly distributed in the temperate
regions of Northern hemisphere from Europe, Siberia,
North Africa, N. America , SE Asia to Japan. Many
species are cosmopolitan and weedy elements which are
spread by human activities and grazing animals. Some
common weeds include Cynoglossum lanceolatum, Amaranthus
spp., Stellaria media. Several species common in colline
and sub-montane areas in Palas valley have palaeotropic
distribution pattern. A large number of widespread
grasses are included in this group, like Poa annua,
Dichanthium annulatum, Setaria pumila, Apluda mutica,
Brachypodium sylvaticum, Dactylis glomerata, Digitaria
spp., Heteropogon contortus, etc.
Eurasian species include elements like Prunella
vulgaris, Solidago virga-aurea, Lotus corniculatus. Some
species like Aster flaccidus common to Siberia and SW
China reach NW Himalaya through Central Asia. Phleum
alpinum common in alpine areas in Palas is a trans-
Palearctic or Euro-Siberian species also found in
mountains of South Chile. Some species common in alpine
areas in Palas have a circumboreal distribution like
Oxyria digyna, Trisetum spicatum, Sagina saginoides,
22
Circaea alpina, Geranium sibiricum, Epilobium
angustifolium, etc.
Some Sino-Japanese elements represented in Palas valley
are: Euonymus hamiltonianus, Spiranthes sinensis,
Dioscorea deltoidea, Geranium nepalensis, Artemisia
japonica, A. roxburghiana. Mimulus nepalensis commonly
grows in marshy areas along water channels in lower
Palas, and was not known from Pakistan before.
Wickstroemia canescens, a Himalayan species, ranges from
South China through Himalaya to East Afghanistan, also
reported from Sri Lanka. It is common in the under
growth in dry montane forests in Palas.
The Irano-Turanian elements are represented by Celtis
caucasica, Daphne mucronata etc
Pistacia khinjuk, an Irano-Turanian species, main range
extends from Southeast Anatolia, North Syria, Iran,
Northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan (from Makran to
Northern areas) also penetrating South Jordan, through
Sinai to Northwest Saudi Arabia.
Some examples of plants reaching N Africa and South
Europe include Bunium persicum, Chenopodium foliosum,
Ficus palmata, Debregeasea salicifolia etc. Fraxinus
xanthoxyloides has a disjunct distribution. In its
western range it extends from Northwest Africa, Morroco
to Algeria and then in the East it is found in East
Afghanistan, Pakistan through Kashmir to Kumaon in
Northwest India. It is an important component of the
Quercus balloot-Olea ferruginea community in the colline
zone.
23
Plants endemic in Himalaya and neighboring mountain
ranges to the East and West make up about 2/3rd of the
flora of Palas. For most of the species (about 40%)
either Northwest Himalaya or Hindukush in East
Afghanistan form the western border. Only a small
proportion (about 9%) of species reach Central Asian
mountains in the Northwest and almost the same
percentage extend up to Burma and China in the East.
These results show that Himalaya as such forms an easily
distinguishable unit, that may be subdivided into
smaller units and Northwest Himalaya is certainly a
distinct sub-unit of Himalaya with Palas valley a part
it. The number of endemic species for each area is given
below
Areas Endemic taxa
Palas 2 North Pakistan 5 N Pakistan & Kashmir 26 Pakistan, Kashmir, NW India 43 E Afghanistan, Pakistan to NW India 40 E Afghanistan, Pakistan to Nepal 33 E Afghanistan, Pakistan to Bhutan 32 SW China to Pakistan 30 SW China to E Afghanistan 25 Central Asia to NW India 26 Pakistan to Bhutan 74
Species endemic to Pakistan and Palas include seven taxa
all confined to the Northern mountains of Pakistan.
Three species are endemic to Palas valley found only in
one or two localities in a relatively small area.
Jasminum leptophyllum is found in the colline and sub
montane zone. Pseudomertensia flavescens, another
endemic to the Palas valley, grows in the upper montane
and sub-alpine zone. Rhamnella gilgitica, Delphinium
palasianum and Mattiastrum howardii are confined to
24
25
Palas and Gilgit. Rhamnella is a monotypic genus endemic
to Pakistan. Rhamnella gilgitica is common in the sub-
montane sclerophyllous zone, and Delphinium palasianum
is found in open scree slopes in the montane region.
Mattiastrum howardii grows on sub-alpine scree slopes in
upper Palas valley. Ranunculus stewartii is endemic to
Palas and Baltistan found in sub-alpine and alpine
areas. Pseudomertensia sericophlla is endemic to
Pakistan (Palas, Nathia gali, Parachinar).
Species confined to North Pakistan, Kashmir and
Northwest India include 69 species. 26 species are
confined to N Pakistan and Kashmir and 43 species extend
to Northwest India and two species extend to Tibet.
Ulmus villosa endemic to Pakistan, Kashmir and NW India,
is a rare elm, not common in Palas, a small population
grows in the colline zone around Paro area along
Musha’Ga.
Ziziphus oxyphylla, endemic to Pakistan, Kashmir and NW
India, is infrequent in the colline zone in lower Palas
valley.
Impatiens edgeworthii, I. flemingii, I. thomsonii are
common throughout Palas valley from the colline and
montane to the sub-alpine zone.
Berberis brandisiana endemic to N Pakistan and Kashmir
is frequent in the montane zone.
Hackelia macrophylla and Epimedium elatum are
distributed in moist montane forests of N Pakistan and
Kashmir.
26
Delphinium denudatum and D. cashmerianum infrequent in
coniferous forests in upper Palas are endemic to
Pakistan and Kashmir.
Androsace foliosa is a common species in the montane
forest zone in Palas and is endemic to Pakistan and
Kashmir.
Smilax vaginata is a rare species in Palas confined to
Pakistan, Kashmir and NW india.
Alchemilla trollii, common in alpine & sub-alpine
meadows in Palas is restricted to Pakistan to Kashmir.
Saussurea atkinsonii, a common species in alpine meadows
in Palas is endemic to Pakistan and Kashmir.
Rhododendron anthopogon var hypenanthum together with
Salix flabellaris are the common species in alpine
communities in Palas, and are restricted to Pakistan
Kashmir and NW India, the latter species is also found
in East Afghanistan.
Bupleurum thomsonii and Vicatia wolffiana frequent in
alpine and sub-alpine meadows in Palas, are confined to
Pakistan, Kashmir and Ladakh.
Cortia depressa, a true alpine species infrequent in
Palas, is confined to Pakistan and Kashmir.
Trachydium roylei common in Kobresia-Carex meadows in
Palas is confined to Pakistan, Kashmir and NW India.
Dubyaea oligocephala is found in the sub-alpine area in
Palas and is endemic to Pakistan and Kashmir.
27
Codonopsis ovata is found in moist shady rock crevices
in the alpine zone in Palas, it is endemic to Pakistan
and Kashmir.
Hierochloe laxa endemic to Pakistan and Kashmir is found
in the alpine zone in Palas, not common. Duthiea
bromoides also found in the alpine zone is rare in
Palas, restricted to Pakistan, Kashmir and NW India.
There are about 73 species which have different range
restrictions within Himalaya.
Arnebia benthamii, an infrequent species in the sub-
alpine and alpine areas of Palas is confined to N
Pakistan India up to C. Nepal.
Aconitum laeve is a gregarious species in montane
coniferous forests but not very common in Palas. It is
found from Pakistan to W Nepal.
Allium humilis extend from Pakistan eastward up to W
Nepal. It is common throughout the Palas valley in
alpine areas.
Arcyospermum primulifolium, a monotypic genus endemic to
Himalaya, is distributed throughout Himalaya from
Pakistan to Bhutan, found in rocky moist and shady
habitats in alpine areas in Palas.
Staphylea emodi, a Himalayan species, ranges from Nepal
through Kashmir to North Pakistan up to Safed Koh in
East Afghanistan. It is a common shrub in the understory
in broad-leaved forest in moist shady ravines.
28
Rhamnus purpurea a common shrub in the montane zone in
forests and shrub communities in Palas, is restricted to
the area from Central Nepal to Pakistan.
Rheum webbianum a rare species in Palas, is confined to
sub-alpine rocky slopes, distributed from Pakistan East
to West Nepal
Lindelofia longiflora, a common gregariously species
grows in montane and alpine areas in Palas. It is
distributed from Pakistan to Nepal.
Lactuca lassertiana is common throughout the alpine and
sub-alpine meadows in Palas distributed all over
Himalaya and Tibet.
Trollius acaulis, uncommon in sub-alpine and alpine open
places in Palas, is found from Pakistan to W. Nepal.
Viburnum grandiflorum is found throughout Himalaya from
Pakistan to Bhutan and also in Tibet. It is not as
common in Palas as in outer Himalaya.
Jurinea dolomiaea, found above 3500 m in the Kobresia
community on Kunari slopes in Palas, is endemic to
Himalaya found from Pakistan to Nepal
Plants which extend their distribution in the East to
Southwest China, Burma and Tibet include 55 species.
Prunus cornuta, a common tree in Montane forests and
also on disturbed slopes occupied by shrubs is
distributed from East Afghanistan throughout Himalaya
and SW China.
29
Populus ciliata, a Himalayan species also found in
Southwest China. It is a common tree in broad-leaved
forests in Palas.
Hackelia uncinata is found throughout Himalaya and also
in West China. It is one of the commonest herbs in the
broad-leaved forests and open slopes in Palas.
Lonicera webbiana is a Himalayan species; it ranges from
East Afghanistan to Burma and China (Tibet & Szechwan).
It is common in the moist montane forests in the
undergrowth in Palas valley.
Isodon rugosus, common throughout the valley found from
the colline to the sub-alpine zone in Palas is more
common on dry slopes. It is distributed throughout
Himalaya and East Afghanistan also found in SW China.
Indigofera heterantha is one of the commonest shrubs in
forests and shrubberies, found throughout the valley
from the colline to the sub-alpine zone. It is
distributed throughout Himalaya and extends to East
Afghanistan also found in China.
Dioscorea deltoidea, a frequent climber in montane
forests in Lower Palas valley, is distributed from
Afghanistan through Himalaya to Indo-China and China.
Fragaria nubicola common throughout the montane forest
zone, extends through eastern Himalaya to West China.
Geum elatum common in alpine and sub-alpine meadows
extends from Pakistan to Central Himalaya, also SE
Tibet.
30
Rosa macrophylla, common in forest understory and in
open shrub communities throughout Palas, is distributed
from Afghanistan through Himalaya to China.
Ribes alpestre and Ribes himalensis found throughout
Himalaya and also in China, are infrequent in subalpine
and alpine areas throughout the Palas valley.
Gaultheria trichophylla is a mat forming alpine species
infrequent in Palas and is distributed from Pakistan
through Himalaya to SW China.
Species extending to Hindukush (East Afghanistan) make a
large proportion of taxa (105 species). It includes most
of its woody taxa which make dominant components of
major forest communities, including Pinus wallichiana,
Cedrus deodara, Abies spectabilis.
Olea ferruginea and Quercus balloot are the dominant
species of the sclerophyllous community widely
distributed in the colline zone all along Musha’Ga. Both
species are distributed from Afghanistan to West Nepal
in the East but they are more common in the Western part
of their range.
Ulmus wallichiana is the red data book species found
from West Nepal to East Afghanistan, it is not common in
the West of its range. It does not form pure forest but
it is found as a scattered tree in broad-leaved forests
accompanied by other broad leaf species.
Aesculus indica is a West Himalayan species common in
the moist broad-leaved forests as a scattered tree that
reaches East Afghanistan and Hindukush. Acer caesium
31
extends from Central Nepal to East Afghanistan in the
West.
Pistacia chinensis ssp integrrima is found from West
Nepal to East Afghanistan but it is more common in
eastern Part of its range, infrequent in Palas.
Sorbus lanata is frequently seen in upper montane forest
and sub-alpine shrub communities, it ranges between
Nepal and East Afghanistan. Syringa emodi, common in
under story in montane forests in Palas, is distributed
from Central Nepal to East Afghanistan.
Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana ranges from Northwest India
in the East to East Afghanistan in the West. It is
gregarious and forms dense understory in some forest
communities and sometimes forms almost pure dense
shrubberies on disturbed slopes, more common in lower
Palas valley in the montane zone.
Jaeschkea oligosperma is distributed from Kashmir to
East Afghanistan and is common in alpine meadows and
open shrub communities.
Viburnum cotinifolium is a Himalayan species, it ranges
from Bhutan to East Afghanistan in the West, common in
forests and open moist slopes throughout Palas valley.
Abelia triflora is a Himalayan species found from East
Afghanistan to Central Himalaya but not common in East
Afghanistan; it is rare in Palas valley seen only around
Bar ser area. Paeonia emodi is infrequent in Palas
valley. Its distribution ranges from West Nepal to East
Afghanistan.
32
Rhododendron collettianum is a rare species found only
in a small area in East Afghanistan (Nuristan and
Paktia) and Chitral in Pakistan. It is seen only in a
small area in lower Palas valley in sub-alpine scrub
with Salix, Juniper spp on a moving scree slope along
Muro river at 2700 m.
Angelica glauca frequently found in the montane and sub-
alpine areas in Palas is distributed from Afghanistan,
Pakistan to NW India.
Berberis aitchisonii, endemic to Pakistan and
Afghanistan, grows in the montane and sub-alpine zone in
Palas. Delphinium tenuipes found only in East
Afghanistan and Chitral in Pakistan, is a rare species
in Palas valley.
Paeonia emodi is found from East Afghanistan to West
Nepal. Not common in Palas, grows gregariously on shady
slopes or in open forests in the upper montane zone.
Jaeschkea oligosperma, common on open slopes and
subalpine meadows in Palas, is restricted to East
Afghanistan, Pakistan and Kashmir.
Asyneuma thomsonii is endemic to East Afghanistan
Pakistan and Kashmir. It is frequent in upper montane
forests and sub-alpine scrub communities on shady
aspects in Palas.
Aquilegia fragrans, an infrequent species in upper Palas
valley on dry rocky scree slopes is confined to the area
from East Afghanistan to NW India.
33
Themeda anathera and Pennisetum lanatum are common
grasses in Palas valley, distributed from Northwest
India to Afghanistan, the latter is also found in Tibet.
Plants which extend their distribution to Central Asian
mountains through Hindukush in the West comprise about
49 taxa. Central Asia is used here in the sense of
former Soviet Russian Botanists who call the mountainous
part of Central Asia “centralnyaya Aziya” and lowland
Aralo-Caspian area - the “srednyaya Aziya” (Middle
Asia).
Several species coming from Central Asia have the
eastern limit in NW Himalaya.
Cicer macranthum, common in upper Palas valley on rocky
and stony slopes above 2700 m, is distributed from Pamir
Alai, East Afghanistan to Pakistan.
Codonopsis clematidea, found in the upper montane zone
and sub-alpine meadows in Palas, is found from Central
Asia, East Afghanistan to NW India.
Chorispora sabulosa, a Central Asian species extends to
NW India. Also common in moist rock crevices in alpine
zone in Palas valley.
Lindelofia anchusoides, extends its distribution from
Central Asia through Afghanistan to NW India, it is
common throughout the valley from the colline to the
sub-alpine zone in monsoon season.
Acer cappadocicum, a frequent tree in the broad-leaved
montane forests in Palas is distributed from Central
Asia, East Afghanistan through Himalaya up to Assam.
34
Acer pentapomicum common along Palas river in the
colline zone, is found from Central Asia, East
Afghanistan up to NW India.
Fraxinus raibocarpa, a rare species in Pakistan, was
known from Hindukush area, its presence in Palas valley
is an extension of range to NW Himalaya.
Sorbaria tomentosa is a Central Asiatic species and
extends up to Nepal in the East through East Afghanistan
and North Pakistan. It is a common shrub in Palas valley
in moist places in forests and on open slopes. Ribes
villosum is a high mountain species and ranges from
Pamir Alai mountain to East Afghanistan, Pakistan to
Kashmir. It is common in sub alpine scrub vegetation.
Rosa webbiana ranges from Central Asian mountains,
Southwest and West China, North Afghanistan through
Pakistan and Kashmir up to Nepal. It is a common species
in Palas valley in montane forests, open slopes and in
mixed shrub communities in the sub-alpine zone.
Sibbaldia cuneata, common throughout the alpine and
subalpine zone is a dominant element in several alpine
communities and is distributed from Central Asia, SW
China, Afghanistan through Pakistan to eastern Himalaya.
Lonicera asperifolia is a Himalayan species frequent in
Pakistan, Kashmir and NW India, it reaches Pamir in the
West where it is rare. It is found in alpine scrub
vegetation on dry rocky and stony slopes in Palas.
Kobresia capillifolia is an important species in the
alpine meadows and often a dominant species in the
Kobresia-Carex communities in Palas. The Central Asian
35
species extends through Hindukush to West Himalaya in
the East.
4.3 VEGETATION
A preliminary survey of the plant communities of the
Palas valley is presented in this study. The study is
not complete yet and it deals only with general pattern
of community distribution in the area. The description
of plant communities is mainly based on the data
collected from Khabkot and surrounding areas including
Sherakot, Sharyal, Muro, Magri, Shushe bek, Gutab,
Kunari pass, Tikohsar. A great diversity of habitats and
communities is represented in the valley which are
relatively undisturbed as compared to the adjacent
valleys.
Three main vegetation zones can be identified in the
valley. Communities in each zone are described below.
4.4 COLLINE / SUB-MONTANE ZONE 1000-2000 m
Most of the areas along main Palas river (Musha’Ga)
comes under colline/submontane zone ranging from 850-
2000 m. This zone is characterized by dry slopes and
does not show any strong influence of monsoon rains in
the summer months. Lower parts of the valley from 1000-
2000 m are widely covered by evergreen sclerophyllous
vegetation mainly dominated by Quercus balloot and Olea
ferruginea. The trees appear stunted in growth, heavily
lopped and reduced to scrub and form an open kind of
vegetation. Some large patches of tall oak and olive
trees forming almost closed canopy forest can be seen in
certain areas especially Karuser, Pochmoru. Some oak
36
trees infested with a parasitic plant Korthalsella
opuntia are not uncommon throughout the area.
The vegetation is not very dense at any given point
rather on several areas it is more open and scattered
but it exhibits rich species diversity which may be
attributed to a wide variety of niches provided by
topographic diversity. A few scattered shrubby trees of
Acacia modesta and Dalbergia sissoo are growing near
Indus river. Several species of deciduous trees are
found throughout the valley forming indistinct
communities along with oak and olive.
In interior parts of the valley and on lower slopes
Quercus balloot forms more or less pure stands which can
be seen near Shukiser, Bar Ser and Bangah areas. Olea
ferruginea is gradually replaced by Fraxinus
xanthoxyloides on drier slopes with some scattered trees
of Pistacia khinjuk. A typical community is described in
detail at the end of the section.
Acer pentapomicum is common throughout the valley up to
Pichbela area along Palas river and its tributaries.
Other notable deciduous trees are Ziziphus jujuba, Ficus
palmata ssp virgata, Ulmus villosa, Celtis caucasica,
Acer pentapomicum, species of Salix and Populus are
common.
The undergrowth varies from place to place depending on
the topography, soil and moisture availability. Some of
the common shrubs found throughout the area are
Cotoneaster spp., Rhamnella gilgitica, Punica granatum,
Maytenus royleanus, Caragana brevispina, Ziziphus
oxyphylla,etc. Rhamnella gilgitica, a tall shrub with
edible black fruits, previously known only from the type
37
locality in Gilgit, is fairly common in the lower zone
from 1000-2500 m. The newly described species Jasminum
leptophyllum a much branched shrubby plant with simple,
narrow alternate leaves and strongly fragrant bright
yellow flowers is growing in a narrow gorge along Sarteh
Nala between Bar Ser and Bangah. A small population
grows in association with other low growing shrubs like
Cotoneaster spp, Isodon rugosus, Fraxinus
xanthoxyloides, Abelia trifolia etc., in thin, open
forest of oak.
Common climbers include Vitis jaquemontii, V.
parvifolia, Hedera nepalensis, Jasminum officinale.
Vitis jaquemontii is common throughout the area, an
extensive vine covering rocks and climbing trees, and
has edible fruits relished by travelers.
A variety of perennial and annual herbaceous plants form
a thin ground layer in the colline and montane zone.
Rumex hastatus a low growing bushy perennial with
striking fruits is common especially on steep moving
slopes. Mimulus nepalensis a small herbaceous plant with
bright yellow flowers, recorded for the first time from
Pakistan, is common in marshy and shady areas along
water channels and small streams from 900-2000 m. Other
frequent species include Nepeta spp., Dianthus spp.,
Delphinium swatense, Bupleurum subuniflorum, Fallopia
convolvulus, Rosularia adenotricha, etc.
Bunium persicum, locally known as 'hayon', is an
economically important species common in the lower zone.
The young seeds, used as flavoring spice/condiment, are
collected from the wild plants and sold in the market. A
38
number of other species are used locally for medicinal
purposes.
Some open grassy patches are common throughout the area
dominated by many species more common among these are
Apluda mutica and Themeda anathera, Setaria spp.
Phacelurus speciosus, Digitaria spp., Pennisetum spp.,
Tripogon purpurascens. Phragmites karka and
Calamagrostis pseudophragmites genellay grow in moist
localities. Tall bunches of Aristida cyanantha are
common on steep dry slopes. Extensive areas on dry
slopes in the interior of the valley are covered by
Cymbopogon jawarancusa. Grasses play an important role
in this colline zone for grazing animals during winter
when higher pastures are covered by snow. Several
species are important for fodder such as Bothriochloa
spp., Apluda mutica, Themeda anathera,. Eulaliopsis
binata is extensively used for floor covering in the
villages. Most of the grasses have a widespread world
wide tropical and colline distribution.
Near the settlements and villages some trees with edible
fruits like Diospyros lotus, Morus nigra and Crataegus
songarica, are occasionally growing along cultivated
fields and near houses. Weedy and ruderal plants are
common in and around cultivated areas, e.g. Cannabis
sativa, Urtica dioica, Conyza canadensis, Amaranthus
spp., Bidens bidentata, Hibiscus trionum, Commelina
benghalensis.
At higher elevations deodar and blue pine trees are
growing among the Quercus balloot forest above 2000 m
above Shukiser and Sherakot Quercus floribunda appear
39
with some Quercus balloot and Cedrus deodara but it is
not a dominant species in the area.
4.4.1 QUERCUS BALLOOT FOREST
About 26 species were recorded in this community.
Quercus balloot is the dominant species with a cover of
about 30-50 % of the area. Few scattered trees of
Fraxinus xanthoxyloides and Acer pentapomicum are found
in the community. Undergrowth is relatively thin and
consists of few species of shrubs and a loose herbaceous
layer covering less than 10 % of the area.
The community is found on a moderate to steep slope
below Shukiser village. The soil is dry, stony and
compact. Grazing is common and stunted trees show signs
of intense lopping. It also provides fuelwood to the
nearby village.
4.5 MONTANE ZONE 2000-3000 m
The montane zone includes some of the best preserved
virgin forests in the Northwest Himalaya. Three main
types of forests can be identified in this zone (see
table 1).
1. Cedrus deodara forests on dry slopes distributed between 2000-2800 m
2. Abies-Picea forests on moist slopes found
between 2500-3200 m
3. Deciduous broad-leaved forests mainly found on
valley floor from 2200-2800 m
40
The distribution pattern of these dominant communities
mainly depends on the aspect of the slope and altitude.
In some areas all species can be seen forming mixed
patches. Some shrubs and herbaceous species are common
throughout the montane zone in all types of forest
communities like Viburnum grandiflorum, Rosa
macrophylla, Podophyllum hexandrum, Dryopteris ramosum,
Hackelia macrophylla, Stellaria monosperma, Trillidium
govanianum etc.
Continuity of the forests along steep slopes is
frequently interrupted by vertical strips created by
moving snow avalanche. These strips are generally
occupied by various species of shrubs or herbs depending
on the degree of disturbance caused by moving snow and
accumulated soil. The composition and structure of these
communities changes vertically with increasing
elevation. In some places dense growth of shrubs with
occasional broad-leaved deciduous trees occupy these
strips where enough deep soil and moisture is available.
Species of Salix and Lonicera with some small trees of
Sorbus lanata, Prunus cornuta and Acer caesium with some
Betula utilis generally occupy upper shady and moist
slopes. At lower elevations Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana
form dense shrubby growth with some other species like,
Sorbaria tomentosa, Indigofera heterantha Acer
cappadocicum, etc.
4.5.1 CEDRUS DEODARA FOREST
Cedrus deodara forest adjoining the Quercus balloot
forest generally occupies fairly dry southern and
western slopes and sometimes forms pure stands in areas
41
like Sherakot and the ridge above Shukiser. Mature trees
are more than 40 m tall. On exposed sunny slopes due to
insufficient moisture in the soil shrubs do not form an
important component of the vegetation. Some perennial
herbs and annuals like Artemisia, Lespedeza, Pimpinella,
Viola, Brachypodium sylvaticum, etc., form a loose
herbaceous ground layer.
Cool shady eastern and Northern slopes with some
moisture in soil favor the growth of Pinus wallichiana
with relatively dense undergrowth. In some localities
Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana form a dense understory with
a reduced herbaceous layer in areas like Shiryal and
ridge above Shukiser. A small population of Fraxinus
raibocarpa is growing from 1800-2500 m in the Cedrus-
Pinus zone on a steep slope below Bosh in Khabkot
valley.
In some localities Quercus floribunda is found as
associated species above 2000 m. At lower altitudes from
1800-2200 m Quercus balloot and Q. floribunda grow side
by side together with a few trees of Pinus wallichiana.
Generally shrubs and herbs form thin growth in the
Cedrus forest but on shady areas relatively dense
patches of shrubs like Cotoneaster spp, Indigofera
heterantha, Abelia triflora, Lonicera quinquelocularis,
Jasminum humilis, Euonymus hamiltonianus are growing
with few herbaceous species on the ground. Common
herbaceous species include Lespedeza juncea,
Leptorhabdos parviflora, Clinopodium umbrosum, Fragaria
nubicola, Viola canescens, Brachypodium sylvaticum,
Dactylis glomerata, Piptatherum gracilis etc.
42
4.5.2 ABIES PINDROW-PICEA SMITHIANA FOREST
These communities were studied in Khabkot valley, Shushe
bek ridge, and forests around Muro pasture area. These
forests are generally found on moist upper slopes facing
North or East or along ridge crests from 2500-3000 m.
The main species include Abies pindrow and Picea
smithiana, occasionally in some areas Pinus wallichiana
and Cedrus deodara are also growing in these forests.
Some tall isolated trees of Taxus wallichiana reaching
considerable height (c. 40 m) are occasionally found in
these forests. It is difficult to distinguish between
Abies pindrow and A. spectabilis in middle altitudes but
trees growing at higher elevation (3000 m and above) are
distinct in habit and shape from ones at lower
elevations.
These forest communities are some of the most impressive
remaining forests of the Northwest Himalaya. Tall trees
reaching a height of 40-60 m forming more or less close
canopy forest are frequent especially in areas like
Magri ridge and ridges along Muro river and Khabkot
river from 2500-3100 m.
The undergrowth is species rich as well as dense to
moderate depending on the humus accumulation and slope
inclination. Several species of shrubs form the
understory, e.g., Viburnum spp., Rosa macrophylla,
Indigofera heterantha, Rubus irritans, Lonicera spp.
A rich variety of herbaceous species appear just after
the snow melt which include Primula macrophylla, P.
rosea, Trollius acaullis, Anemone spp, Podophyllum
hexandrum, Paeonia emodi, and some fern species. The
43
early spring flora is later followed by monsoon summer
flora forming more dense herbaceous layer with species
like Pseudomertensia spp, Viola spp. , Impatiens spp.,
Sambucus wightiana, Lindelofia longiflora, Silene
vulgaris, Senecio chrysanthemoides Aconitum
heterophyllum, A. laeve, Polemonium coeruleum, etc.
Narrow strips between forest areas are common which are
created by sliding snow avalanche which prevent growth
of tall trees. These areas have rich growth of
herbaceous plants and low growing shrubs. Common species
in these areas are Lonicera spp., Salix spp., Viburnum
spp., Rosa macrophylla Euonymus fimbriatus and Betula
utilis. Dense shrubbries are not uncommon at higher
elevations (above 2800 m) where stunted trees of Abies
spectabilis mixed with Betula utilis, Salix spp.,
Lonicera obovata, L. heterophylla, Ribes himalensis,
Ribes villosum. In these disturbed habitats occasionally
Pinus wallichiana trees occupy open spaces.
In places where soil is less stable mainly tall
herbaceous species grow gregariously like Sambucus
wightiana, Impatiens glandulifera, Aconitum laeve,
Paeonia emodi, with other low growing herbs.
Caltha alba is common along marshy areas around melting
snow at higher elevations. Bergenia stracheyi is
frequent on moist, shady rocky habitats and form large
patches. Some fern species sometimes also form dense
growth like Osmunda claytoniana forming almost pure
community along Muro river above 2700 m.
Most of the small summer villages are situated in these
conifer forests. Graziers moving in these villages
during summer depend on these forests for firewood and
44
logs for repair of their huts. These forests are the
only source of fodder to grazing animals in early spring
which move to higher alpine pasture later in the season.
Some areas show signs of intense grazing with hardly
anything left in the late monsoon season. The
regeneration of the main tree species is also declining
in these areas with a few young trees and some times no
seedlings are observed. Some patches of dead old trees
are scattered throughout the area.
4.5.3 BROAD-LEAVED DECIDUOUS FOREST
This community was studied in Khabkot valley. Deciduous
broad-leaved tree communities occupy the valley floor
along streams from 2200-2800 m. In some places some
times narrow strips of broad leaved trees ascends higher
up along scree slopes where deeper soil and enough
moisture is available. Typical examples of this kind of
forests can be seen in other valleys like Sharyal and
Muro river valleys. A variety of species form more or
less close canopy forests including Juglans regia, Acer
caesium, A. cappadocicum, Aesculus indica, Prunus
cornuta, Ulmus wallichiana, Populus ciliata, Alnus
nitida, Sorbus lanata, etc. The dominant species and
percentage area cover vary from place to place.
Generally Juglans regia, Ulmus wallichiana, Aesculus
indica, Alnus nitida and Acer spp, make up patches
dominated by one or two species covering about 30-40% of
the area and accompanied by other species thus giving
the community a mosaic kind of appearance. The community
is multi-layered with trees of different heights which
give it a dense appearance. At higher elevations along
the valley floor Betula utilis becomes dominant in the
community replacing Juglans regia, Ulmus wallichiana and
45
Aesculus indica which are more common at lower
elevations. Height of the main tree species varies from
8-20 m approximately. On several locations the ground is
filled with large rocks and big boulders. Seeds
collected from different tree species showed severe
insect attack.
Ulmus wallichiana generally grows as a scattered tree in
its distribution range. It is included in the list of
endangered species in IUCN red data book. In Khabkot
valley it forms the second largest known population, and
sufficient regeneration is observed in the area. Several
mature trees attaining a height of about 20 m are
scattered in broad-leaved forest from 2000-2600 m. Seeds
are produced profusely but most of the seeds fall
prematurely. The trees show signs of heavy insect
attack.
Root bark is collected from Juglans regia trees on
commercial scale. For this purpose two year old roots of
mature trees are dug out and bark is removed and dried
for sale. Several mature trees are dying due to
excessive damage.
The undergrowth also varies from place to place
depending on the density of canopy and depth of humus
layer and underground substrate. Common species of
shrubs in these communities include Viburnum
cotonifolium, V. gradiflorum, Staphelia emodi, Sorbaria
tomentosa, Syringa emodi. Herbaceous species in the
forest include Hackelia macrophylla, H. uncinata,
Podophyllum hexandrum, Trillidium govanianum, Asparagus
filicinus, Polygonatum multiflorum, P. geminiflorum,
Epipactis veratrifolia etc.
46
In some localities, especially on shady places, much
branched shrubby form of Taxus wallichiana grows in
association with the broad-leaved trees with little
herbaceous under growth. On some shady sites thick layer
of humus is accumulated.
Dense herbaceous growth is characteristic on the valley
floor at the edge of broad-leaved forests especially
along stream banks. Various species making up these
communities at different localities are: Sambucus
wightiana, Viola biflora, Polemonium coeruleum,
Impatiens glandulifera, Impatiens sulcata, Corydalis
stewartii, Thalictrum elegans, Clematis connata,
Clematis montana, Senecio chrysanthemoides, Campanula
latifolia, Cypripedium cordigerum, Lilium polyphyllum,
etc.
Broad-leaved forest are subjected to heavy grazing by
passing herds which make their way through these
forests. Young roots of Juglans regia are extracted on
commercial scale. This unchecked practice is not only
killing several mature trees but it is also disturbing
the balance of the entire community. There is little
under growth in those areas where the soil is regularly
disturbed by grazing animals preventing the
establishment of herbs or shrubs.
4.5.4 GRAZED AVALANCHE MEADOW
The community is dominated by Isodon rugosus covering
about 30% of the area. Other accompanying shrubs include
Rosa webbiana, Cotoneaster spp., Jasminum humile,
Euphorbia wallichiana which cover about 10% of the area.
Qeurcus floribunda is rare in the community. Common
47
herbs include Thymus linearis, Valeriana stracheyi,
Androsace rotundifolia, Nepeta connata, Fragaria
nubicola, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Hypericum perforatum,
Jaeschkea oligosperma growing on about 5% of the area.
Remaining species grow in about 3% area. Among grasses
Chrysopogon gryllus ssp echinulatus is the codominant
species in the community occupying about 30% of the
area. Piptatherum munroi is covering about 5% of the
area. Verbascum thapsus is a rare herb in the community.
A common community on open slopes ranging from moderate
to steep inclination about 20o to 30o. In general the
slope is rocky and stony with varying degrees of soil
depth and moisture contents. The community is two
layered dominated by shrubs growing to a height of about
50 cm forming open kind of canopy. In the ground layer
the tussock forming grass Chrysopogon gryllus ssp
echinulatus grows up to 40 cm high, develops on open
spaces between shrubs. The herb layer is about 10 cm
high in average. Several communities of shrubby species
can be observed in the area: Rosa webbiana, Sorbaria,
tomentosa, Cotoneaster spp. are more frequent and
sometimes form almost pure patches. Some scattered young
plants of Pinus wallichiana grow among these shrubby
patches which characteristically fill up open places
created by natural or anthropogenic disturbances. The
area is subjected to heavy grazing pressure by goats and
cattle during the summer months. The vegetation cover
varies from place to place depending on the degree of
grazing pressure. Most of the shrubs appear stunted in
growth due to heavy grazing in the area.
48
4.5.5 AVALANCHE MEADOW MODERATELY GRAZED
A mixed community of low growing shrubs like Rosa
webbiana, Spiraea vaccinifolia, Euphorbia wallichiana,
Cotoneaster spp., etc. covering about 20% of the area.
Viburnum cotinifolium, Indigofera heterantha, Asparagus
filicinus cover about 5% of the area. Bistorta
amplexicaulis is a common herb, covering almost 20% of
the area along with the common sedge Carex kashmirensis.
The remaining species cover about 3% of the area.
Species rich community growing on rocky steep slopes
with a varying degree of soil depth and soil moisture. A
typical avalanche swept area with changing species
diversity and vegetation cover depending on soil and
moisture level. In general throughout the avalanche
field dominance of different shrub species also varies
in correlation with grazing pressure (goat grazing from
Ilobek). Spiraea and Cotoneaster show signs of heavy
grazing. The shrub layer is about 70 cm high and the
underlying herb layer is about 20cm high. Shrubs in
general show stunted growth and are scattered in the
community leaving open spaces in between for herbs and
grasses.
4.5.6 AVALANCHE SHRUB COMMUNITY DOMINATED BY RHAMNUS-
VIBURNUM
The shrub layer in this community forms a more or less
close canopy. The community is dominated by Rhamnus
purpureus which occupies about 50% of the area. The
codominant species are Viburnum cotinifolium and Prunus
cornuta covering about 20% of the area. Viburnum
grandiflorum, Syringa emodi, Indigofera heterantha, Rosa
49
macrophylla, Berberis aitchisonii, Lonicera microphylla,
Salix sp., Abies pindrow are found in about 10% of the
area. Other shrubs like Cotoneaster sp., Taxus
wallichiana, Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Betula
utilis forms a component of less than 5%.
A large number of herbaceous species form the lower
layer. Dominant among these are Bistorta amplexicaulis,
and Fragaria nubicola which cover about 10% of the area.
Geranium wallichianum, Origanum vulgare, Androsace
foliosa, Aquilegia pubiflora, Viola canescence have a
coverage of about 5%. Remaining species are less
frequent and have a coverage of less than 5%. Rheum
webbianum and Podophyllum hexandrum are rare in the
community.
This is a two-layered species rich close canopy forming
shrub community. Shrub layer have a average height of up
to 3m. Several species mainly of herbs form the ground
layer with average height of up to 20 cm growing under
the shade of shrubs.
This kind of community is characteristic of steep to
moderate slopes with an inclination from 20o to 30o and
heavy snow accumulation during winter. The dominance of
different species of shrubs varies all along the slope
possibly depending on the soil, rocky and stony
substrate, movement of snow on the slope, and grazing
pressure. The composition of species also changes with
increasing elevations. Betula utilis gradually increase
and dominate the ccommunity with increasing elevation.
These slopes are regularly used for grazing during
summer.
50
4.6 SUB-ALPINE AND ALPINE ZONE 2800-4500 M
It is difficult to draw a definite line between sub
alpine and alpine zone. Generally sub alpine dwarf shrub
communities and Betula forest start within upper montane
forest communities from 2800 m and extend up to the zone
of alpine meadows up to 3500 m. At higher elevations,
above 3300 m vast areas are covered by dense meadows of
Kobresia spp. which are occasionally interrupted by tall
herbaceous communities of species of Swertia,
Pedicularis, Potentilla, Nepeta, Primula, etc.
Typical sub-alpine plants include Sibbaldia cuneata,
Bistorta affine which carpet the area in large patches
with some deep soil. On moist rocky outcrops Rhodiola
quadrifida, Pedicularis punctata, Saxifraga asarifolia,
S. stenophylla, Burgenia stracheyi are dominant.
A great variety of communities is found in the alpine
and sub-alpine zone which occupy different habitats.
Some representative communities are described below.
4.6.1 MIXED SHRUB COMMUNITY
Several species of shrubs occupy disturbed habitats
created by sliding snow which prevent the establishment
of tall tree species. Mixed shrub communities are also
typical on the base of the ridges at higher elevations
in the valley especially around Kunari village in
Khabkot and Muro river valley. The growth is especially
dense along the edges of avalanche scree slopes. More
common associated species include Salix denticulata, S.
disperma, S. daphnoides, Lonicera heterophylla L.
obovata, etc. The herbaceous species associated with
these communities include Primula macrophylla, P. rosea,
51
Ranunculus munroanus, R. hirtellus, Carex kashmirensis,
Sibbaldia cunueata, etc.
4.6.2 BETULA UTILIS FOREST
Characteristically Betula utilis communities are found
at the edge of snow avalanche slopes from 2500-3500 m
but some thickets of Betula can be seen as low as 1800 m
in Khabkot valley growing in the deciduous broad-leaved
forests. With increase in elevation on valley floor
broad-leaved deciduous trees are gradually replaced by
Betula utilis. Occasionally Acer caesium, Prunus
cornuta, Sorbus lanata are found among Betula stands as
high as 2900 m. Tree trunks are typical in shape,
growing horizontally near the ground bending upwards due
to action of moving snow. Sometimes they form almost
pure stands with thin undergrowth. In other localities a
variety of other shrub species forms mixed shrubby
vegetation. Common species of shrubs forming mixed
vegetation include Ribes villosa, Rosa macrophylla,
Skimmea anquetilia, Syringa emodi, Lonicera spp, Salix
spp, Viburnum spp., etc. Herbaceous undergrowth is dense
and varied in places with deeper soil and enough
moisture.
4.6.3 DWARF JUNIPER-RHODODENDRON SCRUB COMMUNITY
The Betula community is gradually replaced by dwarf
shrub communities of Juniperus communis, J. squamata and
Rhododendron anthopogon growing up to 1 m high. In some
localities Lonicera myrtillis and L. obovata are not
uncommon. Dense thickets of prostrate shrubs of Juniper
cover large areas. In between empty places, cushion-like
growth of Cassiope fastigiata, Androsace mucronifolia
52
and carpet forming species of Gaultheria trichophylla,
Salix flabellaris and Rhododendron anthopogon ssp
hypenanthum cover more rocky ground. Large dense patches
of Bistorta affine are common throughout the valley in
sub-alpine and alpine areas.
4.6.4 SUB-ALPINE PASTURE SIBBALDIA CUNEATA COMMUNITY
A total of 19 species were recorded in the community.
The dominant species is Sibbaldia cuneata which covers
about 60% of the total area. The codominant species are
Thymus linearis, and Agrostis pilosula which contribute
more than 10% of the area. The remaining species have
cover less than 5% of the area.
In general the area is characterized by more or less
flat land and undulating gentle slopes. This is a man
made pasture land created by removing trees. Some
scattered fir trees are still found on surrounding
slopes. The area is regularly used for grazing by
livestock moved during summer from lower villages.
Generally the community gives the impression of very low
growing prostrate kind of herbaceous plants with average
height of 2-5 cm. The ground cover is relatively high
showing fast growth rate, the soil is rich with
sufficient moisture. Several streams coming from melting
snow on surrounding slopes produce some marshy patches
in the depressions.
The area is under heavy grazing pressure by goats,
sheep, cows and buffaloes. Some large patches of
Pteridium aquilinum and Cirsium wallichii are expanding
around small village settlements. Some thickets of
Viburnum grandiflorum are scattered throughout the area.
53
Night camping bare sites of live stock are surrounded by
vigorously growing pure communities of Rumex nepalensis
and Polygonum paronychioides. Some scattered stunted and
lopped trees of Abies grow on surrounding slopes.
4.6.5 KOBRESIA COMMUNITY with moderate grazing
About 19 species are recorded from this community. The
dominant species is Kobresia royleana which covers about
50% of the total area. The codominant species are
Leontopodium himalayanum, Sibbaldia cuneata, Phlomis
bracteosa, Potentilla cathaclinis, which cover up to 20%
of the total area. Other species have up to 5% coverage.
The area is sub-alpine meadow with gentle wind swept
slopes and pronounced snow gradation. The community is
mainly composed of low growing herbaceous species with
rossette leaves. Growth is fairly dense and ground cover
is continuous with creeping species. The soil holds
enough moisture for dense growth. It appears to be
relatively species rich community with moderate grazing.
The grazing starts in late June when people move from
lower winter villages to alpine pastures.
In surrounding area on scree slopes patches of Juniperus
communis , J. squamata, Salix sp., Lonicera microphylla,
dwarf Pinus wallichiana are found. In snowbed
depressions Swertia speciosa-Sibbaldia cuneata community
is dominant on shaddy aspects.
4.6.6 RUMEX NEPALENSIS COMMUNITY - nitrogen rich site
Rumex nepalensis is dominant in the community covering
more than 60% of the area. Senecio chrysanthemoides,
Sibbaldia cuneata and Poa supina cover about 10% of the
54
area. The remaining species form together a component of
less than 5%.
The area is more or less flat spot on the top of the
ridge. It is the night camping site of livestock, the
soil is rich in nitrogen. It is a typical community of
disturbed habitats often seen around cattle pens near
human settlements. Most of the species are weedy which
occupy the bare areas created by trampling and resting
of grazing animals Polygonum paronychioides, Arenaria
serpyllifolia, Sagina saginoides, Epilobium hirsutum,
Veronica biloba, Taraxacum sp., etc., predominantly
herbaceous species show luxuriant growth and are up to
30 cm tall or more.
4.6.7 SNOW BED FORB COMMUNITY
Sibbaldia cuneata, Saussurea atkinsonii and Geum elatum
are dominant in the community covering 40-50% of the
area. Phlomis bracteosa and Bistorta affine are
codominant covering up to 5% of the area. Kobresia
royleana and Carex pseudobicolor are character species
of the community covering about 10% of the area. The
remaining species cover less than 5% of the community
area.
The community is characteristic of high altitude alpine
meadows found on gentle to steep slopes. Soil is rich
with sufficient moisture contents. Tall growing species
grow to a height of up to 20cm. Most of the species are
low growing with basal rossets of leaf like Geum elatum
and Saussurea atkinsonii cover the ground.
There is moderate grazing in the area showing sufficient
regeneration by the plants. Mainly creeping and
55
spreading species form more or less continuous cover on
the ground. In surrounding areas some thickets of
shrubby Juniperus squamata, Juniperus communis,
Rhododendron sp. form scrub vegetation on the margins of
meados. On moist shaddy rocks Rhodiola quadrifida is
common.
4.6.8 KOBRESIA COMMUNITY WITH MANY FORBS
The dominant species in this community is Kobresia
capillifolia covering about 30% of the area. Saussurea
atkinsonii, Potentilla monanthes, Rhodiola quadrifida,
Swertia speciosa are codominant species covering about
20% of the area. Achillea millaefolium, Androsace
mucronifolia, Anaphalis nubigena, Tanacetum
dolichophyllum form up to 10% of the covered area. The
remaining species are found on less than 5% of the area.
This is a characteristic alpine community at higher
altitudes on moderate to steep slopes. Vegetation is
developed on morain deposits of small rocks and gravel
of about 0.20 cm in diameter. The humus layer is
relatively shallow and shows effects of cryoturbation.
Tall herbs grow to an average height of 15 cm. Most of
the species are low growing covering the ground with
basal leaves or prostrate habit. Close to the releve
Kobresia capillifolia forms a dense strip 1.5-4 m wide,
a prominent feature at the edge of ridge along a deep
ravine.
4.6.9 ROCK SCREE VEGETATION WITH DRABA TRINERVA.
The dominant species is Draba trinerva covering less
than 20% of the area. Rhodiola quadrifida and Androsace
mucronifolia are the character species growing on about
56
10% of the area. The remaining species have less than 5%
of the cover area.
This is relatively species poor community characteristic
of exposed rocky drier areas. About 12 species were
recorded in the area. Plants grow in rock crevices where
they find some soil and moisture.
The slope is very steep characterized by big boulders
and rocks with much fine rocky material in between.
Heavy snow accumulates which melts slowly in summer and
water infiltrates the rocks so that very little moisture
is available near the surface for plant growth. The
accumulated snow moves along with large rocks making the
slope very unstable.
From a distance the slope appear to be without any
plants but close examination of the area reveals a
number of species forming cushions or clumps growing in
rock crevices where some soil and moisture is available.
A number of species grow at different elevations
throughout the slope. Thawing snow patches provide water
during summer.
Some stunted shrubs of Lonicera semenovii grow near the
top of the slope. Some tall species of Carex are
prominent throughout the slope growing between the
rocks.
4.6.10 TALL FORB SPECIES RICH COMMUNITY WITH LNDELOFIA
DOMINATING
This relatively species rich community is dominated by
Lindelofia longiflora which covers about 50% of the
area. Euphorbia wallichiana and Aconitum heterophyllum
are codominant occupying about 20% of the area. Senecio
57
chrysanthemoides, Fragaria nubicola, Primula
denticulata, Sibbaldia cuneata, Lotus corniculatus,
Origanum vulgare, are other frequently occurring species
which cover about 5% to 10% of the area. The remaining
species occupy less than 5% of the area. A total of 35
species is recorded from the community. Grasses and
sedges also form a considerable component of the
community with Carex spp cover of about 20% and Agrostis
stolonifera covering about 10% of the area.
Tall herb layer up to 40 cm tall is dominant in the
community. Low growing tufted species and creeping and
trailing species form the ground layer. The community is
typically found on moderate to steep slopes ranging from
20o-35o and characterized by sufficient snow
accumulation. The rich soil, sufficient moisture and
comparatively deeper humus layer support high
productivity.
4.6.11 RUMEX-SAMBUCUS COMMUNITY OF DISTURBED HABITATS
The community is characterized by Rumex nepalensis which
covers about 60% of the area. The other codominant
species is Sambucus wightiana which covers up to 20% of
the area. The remaining species form less than 10%.
The community is predominantly composed of tall forbs
which grow around bare areas where local live stock camp
during summer season. Luxuriantly growing tall
herbaceous species form a two-layered community with
Sambucus wightiana forming the tall layer up to 70 cm or
more. The second layer is up to 30 cm tall, occupied by
Rumex nepalensis and Senecio chrysanthemoides. Grasses
are insignificant in this kind of communities and are
58
confined to the ground level. Generally, the species
which do not have grazing preference occupy the area.
Soil is deep and rich in nitrogen.
59
5. CONCLUSION
Geographically Palas valley is situated in the dry inner
ranges of Northwest Himalaya. The present study is the
first botanical investigation in the valley ever done.
The results reveal that the area is rich in plant
biodiversity. At present the vegetation shows minimum
human impact. Most parts of all vegetation zones have
plant communities in almost natural state.
A checklist of the plants contain about 600 species of
flowering plants and pteridophytes. Three new species,
Jasminum leptophyllum R.A.Rafiq, Delphinium palasianum
R.A.Rafiq and Pseudomertensia flavescens R.A.Rafiq were
discovered during the present investigation. Seven
species endemic to Pakistan are found in Palas. Some
rare species endemic to Pakistan collected during the
present study include Rhamnella gilgitica and
Pseudomertensia sericophylla which were known from the
type locality only. Some other rare species are
collected from the valley which have limited
distribution range and are known from small scattered
populations.
Most species are found in a wide range of altitude from
lower montane to alpine zone.
The chorological spectrum of species shows that about
2/3 of the species have restricted distribution in
adjoining mountain ranges. Only about 1/3 of the species
have a wideranging distribution pattern.
There are 2 species endemic to Palas and 5 species are
endemic to Palas and North Pakistan. About 26 species
found in Palas are confined to North Pakistan and
60
Kashmir, 43 species extend from Pakistan to NW India. 40
species are distributed from East Afghanistan, North
Pakistan and Kashmir to NW India. 33 species are
distributed between East Afghanistan and Nepal. 33
species are distributed in East Afghanistan and
throughout the Himalaya. There are about 48 species
distributed from Central Asia to Himalaya and half of
the species have their easternmost boundaries up to NW
India. About 55 species are distributed between SW China
and East Afghanistan, 30 species have the westernmost
limits in Pakistan, the remaining 23 species extend up
to East Afghanistan.
The phytosociological study shows that a great variety
of habitats is found in different vegetation zones which
host some unique species of plants. Most plant
communities are regenerating naturally. All vegetation
zones have some characteristic communities and species
which deserve protection. A remarkable variety of
communities is found in the sub-alpine and alpine zones
due to the relatively large area available above 3000 m.
One new species was collected from each vegetation zone.
Endemics and restricted range species are also
distributed in all vegetation zones. However, a high
percentage of species with restricted range of
distribution is found in alpine areas because of the
great variety of habitats available.
This study will provide baseline information for future
research and sustainable development planning for the
area.
61
6. RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CONSERVATION PRIORITIES-APPROACHES AND MECHANISMS
1. Designate Palas as a protected area
Based on the results of present study, Palas appears
to merit protected status as an outstanding example
of West Himalayan vegetation. This protected status
should extend to all four main vegetation zones -
dry scrub forest, temperate forest, sub-alpine
birchwood and alpine zone - and over as great an
area of the valley as possible.
2. Strengthen community natural resource management
Given that Palas is not state property, protected
status must be secured with local participation,
rather than imposed from above. Most forest and
pasture resources in Palas are managed under common
property regimes, which include ecologically
sophisticated rotational use of the resource through
the practice of transhumance. Traditional tribal
institutions remain strong. These institutions,
regimes and practices should be strengthened to
ensure ecologically sustainable use, and to serve as
a pilot for government-community partnership in the
management of protected areas in Pakistan.
3. Consider nomination of Palas as Biosphere Reserve
Palas, as one of the least modified examples of
typical West Himalayan vegetation in Pakistan, would
serve as a valuable benchmark site for monitoring of
global environmental change. Consideration should
62
therefore be given to nomination of Palas as a
Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and Biosphere
Programme, and provision should be made for
monitoring of vegetation change in Palas.
4. Address key threats to each major vegetation zone
Safeguard dry scrub forest against commercial
firewood exploitation and road construction, or
where common property regimes are breaking down.
Safeguard temperate forest against excessive
commercial exploitation and institute community
controls against excessive local use.
Rehabilitate degraded alpine pastures and check
gulleying.
5. Introduce species specific conservation measures
Introduce measures to safeguard Juglans regia
against unsustainable collection of root-bark
('dandasa').
Safeguard CITES listed species Sassurea costus
('menyal') and Podophyllum hexandrum ('shangoy') and
Dioscorea deltoidea ('chalyon') against
unsustainable exploitation.
Safeguard Taxus against possible threat of
exploitation (for taxol).
6. Prevent introduction of exotic species
Exotic species are being introduced into District
Kohistan by the Forest Department under the various
programmes. The Forest Department should adopt a
63
policy not to plant any exotic species in Palas,
which would threaten the biodiversity value of the
area. (An exception is on-farm fruit trees, for
which there appears to be significant potential for
introduction.)
7. Land utilization for development work
Construction of roads and landuse for agricultural
purposes must protect plant communities with rare
and endemic species. For example Jasminum
leptophyllum (endemic to Palas) and Rhamnella
gilgitica (endemic to N Pakistan)are found in lower
slopes along main Palas river where road is under
construction.
8. Settelment of ownership rights and other
political disputes
Due to disputes over ownership rights on some
pasture lands between neighboring vallies and
disputes over forest revenueamong different tribes
is necessarry to remove pressure on forest and
pasture areas.
6.2 FURTHER RESEARCH PRIORITIES
• The present study is based on data collected from a
part of the Palas valley. Other parts of the valley
needed to be explored to complete the study which
include Plant collection and community study from
upper Palas valley.
• Collection of spring flora from lower Palas valley.
• Collect information on plants of socioeconomic value.
64
6.3 PAPERS TO BE PREPARED FOR PUBLICATIONS
• Some rare plants of the area
• phytogeographic affinities of Palas valley.
• Plants of socio-economic value
7. REFERENCES
1. Ahmad, M. (1988): Plant communities of some northern temperate forests of Pakistan.- Pak. J. For. 38, 1,
33-40
2. Ahmad, M. U. & S. A. Qadir (1976): Phytosociological studies along the way of Gilgit to Phunder. Pak. J.
For. 26, 93-104.
3. Ali S. I. (1978): The Flora of Pakistan: Some general and analytical remarks. -In: Notes from Roy. Bot.
Gard. Edinburgh 36, 2, 427-439.
4. Ali, S. I. & M. Qaiser (1986): A Phytogeographic
Analysis of the Phanerogams of Pakistan and Kashmir
In proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
89B:89-101.
5. Allan, N. J. R. (1987): Ecotechnology & Modernization in Pakistan Mountain agriculture. In: Pangtey, Y. P.
S. & s. C. Joshi ( eds.): Western Himalaya:
Environment , Problems & Development, vol. II, 771-
789. Nainital.
6. Allan, N. J. R. (1989) Kashgar to Islamabad: Impact of Karakoram highway on mountain society and habitat.
Scott. Geog. Mag. 105, 3, 130-141.
65
7. Barkman, J. J., Moraves J, Rauschert, S. (1986): Code of Phytosociological nomenclature. Code der
Pflanzensoziologischer Nomenklatur code. De
nomenclature phytosociologique. Vegetatio, 32:131-
185.
8. Breckle, S. W. (1971): Vegetation in alpine region of Afghanistan. In: Davis, P. H. et al. (Eds): Plant
life of South West Asia, 107-116. Edinburgh.
9. Breckle, S. W. (1974): Notes on alpine and nival
flora of the Hindukush, East Afghanistan.-Bot.
Notiser 127, 278-284.
10.Browicz, K. & Zielinski, J. (1982- ): Chorolology of
trees and shrubs in South West Asia and adjacent
regions. Vol. 1-9. Polish Scientific Publications,
Warsaw
11.Casimir, M. J. & A. Rao (1985): Vertical control in
the western Himalaya: some notes on the pastoral
ecology of the nomadic Bakarwal of Jammu and Kashmir.
Moun. Res. & Develop. 5, 3, 221-232.
12.Champion, H. G., s. K. Seth & G. M. Khattak (1965):
Forest Types of Pakistan. Pakistan Forest Institute.
Peshawar.
13.ChandBasha S., Sankar, S. Balasubramanyan, K. (1992):
Biodiversity of Silent Valley National Park: A
Phytogeographical analysis. Indian Forest.,
118(5):361-366.
14.Clayton, W. D. (1981). Evolution & distribution of
Grasses. Ann. Miss. Bot. Gard. 68:5-14
66
15.Cope, T. A. (1977). Computer aided Chorology of
Middle Eastern Grasses
16.Dhar U. (1993). Himalayan Biodiversity: Conservation
Strategies. Publisher Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital,
India. ISBN 81-85097-33-X
17.Goldsmith, E., Allen, R., Allaby, M., Davull, J. &
Lawrence, S. (1972): A blueprint for survival. 1-172.
Tom Stacey Limited. London.
18.Gomez-Pampa, A. et al (1972): The tropical
Rainforest, A renewable resource. Science, 117: 762-
765.
19.Grabherr, G. (1989): On community structure in high
alpine grasslands. Vegetatio 83, 223-227
20.Gupta R. K.: Arcto-Alpine & Boreal Elements in the
High Altitude Flora of NW Himalaya. In High altitudes
of Himalaya eds. Pangtey, Y. P. S. & Rawal R. S.
Pp11-32 India.
21.GTZ (1990): Forest development project Siran Valley-
Pakistan. Project Preparation Report. Executive
Summary.Eschborn.
22.Hajra, P. K. & Rao R. R. (1990): Distribution of
vegetation types in North West Himalaya with brief
remarks on floral resource conservation. Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. (Pl. Sc.) 100, 4, 263-277.
23.Hara, H. (1966): The Flora of Eastern Himalaya.
Tokyo. University of Tokyo Press.
67
24.Hara, H. et al. (1978-82): An Enumeration of the
Flowering Plants of Nepal, 3 vols. Trustees of the
British Museum (Nat. Hist.), London.
25.Hedge, I. C. (1986): Labiatae of Southwest Asia in
proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
89B:23-35
26.Hill, M. O., R. G. H. Bunce & M. W.Shaw (1975):
Indicator species analysis, A divisive polythetic
method of classification, and its application to a
survey of native Pinewoods in Scotland. J. Ecol.
63:597-613
27.Hill, M. O. (1979): “TWINSPAN” - A FORTRAN program
for arranging multivariate data in an ordered two-way
table by classification of the individuals and
attributes. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
28.Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British
India, 7 vols. L. Reeve, London.
29.Ives, J. D. & Messerli, B., (1989): The Himalaya
dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation.
The United Nations University, Routledge, London.
30.Kachroo,P. (1995): Central Asia and Kashmir Himalaya
-Archaeobotany and Floristics, Scientific Publishers,
India.
31.Kitamura, S (1960): Flora of Afghanistan. Vol. 2.
Kyoto
32.Komarov, V. L. et al. (1934-64): Flora of U.S.S.R.,
31 vols. Botanical Institute of the Academy of
68
Sciences, Leningrad. Translated into English by
Israel Program for Scientific Translations (1963-).
33.Lucas, G. L. & A. H. M. Synge (1978): The IUCN Red
Data Book. IUCN Switzerland.
34.MacArthur, (1967): Theory of Island Biogeography.
Princeton University. Press, Princeton, N. J.
35.Mani, M. S. (1974): Ecology & Biogeography in India.
Dr. W. Junk b.v. Publishers, The Hague.
36.Mani, M. S. (1978): Ecology and Phytogeography of
High altitude Plants of the Northwest Himalaya.
Oxford & IBH publishing Co., New Delhi.
37.Markham S, Dudley, N. & Stolton S. (1993): Some like
it Hot. WWF International. Gland, Switzerland
38.Meusel, H. (1971): Mediterranean elements in the
flora and vegetation of the West Himalaya in “Plant
Life of South-West Asia” eds. P. H. Davis et al. Bot
Soc. Edinb. 53-72.
39.Miehe, G. (1988): Preliminary report on
Phytogeographical fieldwork in the langtang-Helambu-
area, C. Nepal, 1986. News lett. Him. Bot. 4, 1-5.
40.Mueller-Dombois, D. & H. Ellenberg (1974): Aims and
methods of vegetation ecology. New York.
41.Nasir, E. & Ali, S. I., eds. (1970-1991): Flora of
Pakistan. Nos. 1-193. Islamabad-Karachi.
42.Nayar, M. P. & Ahmad, M. (1984): Phytogeographical
significance of the endemic genera ( Angiosperms)
69
common to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. Bull. Bot.
Surv. India, 26, 65-70.
43.Pangtey, Y. P. S. & R. S. Rawal (1994): High
altitudes of the Himalaya. Biogeography, Ecology &
Conservation. Publisher Gyanodaya Prakashan,
Nainital, India. ISBN 81-85097-32-1
44.Pangtey,Y. P. S.& S. C. Joshi (1987). Western
Himalaya: Environment, Problems & Development.
Publisher Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India. ISBN
81-85097-28-3
45.Pant, G. B. Himalayan Environment & Development;
Problems & Perspective. Compiled by Institute of
Himalayan Environment & Development. Publisher
Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India. ISBN 81-85097-
28-3
46.Parker, R. N. (1918): A forest flora for the Punjab
with Hazara and Delhi. Lahore.
47.Rafiq, R. A. (1996): three new species from Palas
valley, Dist. Kohistan, NWFP, Pakistan, NOVON 6:295-
297.
48.Rawat G. S.; Protected Areas & Conservation of Rare
Endemic Plants in Himalaya.
49.Raven, R. H. & Axelrod, D. (1974): Angiosperm
Biogeography & Past Continental movements. Annal.
Missouri. Bot. Gardn. 61, 529-573.
50.Rechinger, K. N. (1963-): Flora Iranica. Akademische
Druck u. Verlaganstalt, Graz, Austria.
70
51.Richardson, I. B. K. (1978): Endemic Taxa and the
Taxonomist. In Street, H. E. (Ed.) Essays in Plant
Taxonomy. pp 245-262. Academic Press.
52.Royle, J. F. (1839-40): Illustrations of the botany
and other branches of the natural history of the
Himalayan mountains and of the flora of the Cashmere.
2 vols. W. N. Allen, London.
53.Schickhoff, U. (1995) Himalayan Forest Cover Changes
in Historical Perspective: A case Study In The Kaghan
Valley in Northern Pakistan. Mountain Research and
Development, 15(1):3-18
54.Shmida, A. & Burgess, T. L. (1988). Plant growth form
strategies and vegetation types in arid environments.
In: plant form and vegetation structure (ed. by M. J.
A. Werger, P.J.M. van der Art, H.J. During and T.J.A.
Verhoeven), pp. 211-241. SPB Academic Publishing, The
Hague.
55.Solomon, A. M., Shugart, H. H. (1993):Vegetation
dynamics and global change. Chapman & Hall. Newyork
56.Stebbins, G. L. & Major, J. 1965: Endemism and
Speciation in the Californiadet Flora. Ecol. Monogr.
34:1-35.
57.Stebbins, G. L. (1980): Rarity of Plant Species. A
synthetic view point. Rhodora 82, 829:77-86
58.Stewart, R. R. (1972): An annotated catalogue of the
vascular Plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir. Karachi
Uni Herb., Karachi.
71
59.Subedi, M.N. (1992): Usage of Eastern and Western
Himalaya in relation to floristic study. Newsl. Him.
Bot. 12:17-21.
60.Wendelbo, P. (1971): Some distributional patterns
within Flora Iranica Area in Davis, P. H. et al.
(Eds): Plant life of South West Asia, 29-41.
Edinburgh.
61.Zohary, M (1973): Geobotanical Foundations of The
Middle East. Vol. 1&2. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer
Verlag.
72
8. ANNEX
8.1 CHECKLIST OF PLANTS OF PALAS VALLEY
8.2 PHYTOGEOGRAPHY
8.3 ECOLOGY LOCALITIES OF TABLE -.1
DATE REL. LOCALITY COMMUNITY
ALT.
(m)
EXP. INCL.
(O)
AREA
(m2)
2/7 01 Sherakot pass
Cedrus-Pinus
2340 E 12 400
2/7 02 Shawalay Mix conifer 2300 NW 15 400
2/7 03 Shawalay Cedrus-Pinus 2300 NE
15 400
2/7 04 Shawalay
Cedrus-Pinus
2200 E 25 400
3/7 05 Sharyal Mix shrub 2000 W 15 300
3/7 06 Sharyal Mix shrub 2350 NW
25 225
3/7 07 Burchhin Cedrus-Pinus 2550 S 30 400
3/7 08 Burchhin
Cedrus-Pinus 2570 W 30 400
3/7 09 Magri Picea-Cedrus 2650 N 25 400
3/7 10 Magri Picea-Abies 2800 N 22 225
3/7 11 Magri-Muru Picea-Abies 2800 N 20 400
4/7 12 Above Muru Picea-Abies 2800 NW
22 400
4/7 13 Beyond Muru Picea-Abies 2800 N 30 200
4/7 14 Above Khawari Picea-Abies 2900 W 30 200
4/7 15 Above Khawari Picea-Abies 2900 NW 25 200
4/7 16 Above Khawari
Picea-Abies 2800 E 27 400
4/7 17 Shushe bek Picea-Abies 3050 W 30 200
5/7 18 Shushe bek Picea-Abies 3050 W 35 400
5/7
19 Above Khabkot Picea-Abies 3000 E 35 400
5/7 20 Above Khabkot Salix-shrubs 3000 E 35 400
5/7 21 Above Khabkot Salix-shrubs 3000 N 25 200
5/7 22 Above Khabkot Abies-Pinus 3000 N 35 200
5/7 23 Khabkot Right Broad-leaved 2470 W 30 400
5/7 24 Khabkot Right Broad-leaved 2480 W 25 400
5/7 25 Khabkot Right Broad-leaved 2510 NW
25 400
5/7 26 Khabkot Right Broad-leaved 2520 W 20 400
5/7 27 Khabkot Right
Broad-leaved 2470 NW 25 400
6/7 28 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2470 NE
20 400
6/7 29 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2480 E 30 400
6/7 30 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2520 NE 35 400
6/7 31 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2550 NE
35 400
6/7 32 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2550 E 25 400
6/7 33 Khabkot Left Betula-Shrub 2550 NE
15 400
6/7 34 Khabkot Left Betula-Shrub
2700 E 30 400
6/7 35 Khabkot Left Salix-Shrub 3000 E 20 400
6/7 36 Khabkot Left Salix-Shrub 3000 W 25 225
7/7 37 Khabkot Right Salix-Shrub 3050 NW 25 100
7/7 38 Khabkot Right Salix-Shrub 2950 W 30 200
7/7 39 Khabkot Right Betula-Shrub 2950 W 30 100
7/7 40 Khabkot Right Betula-Shrub 2950 SW 25 400
7/7 41 Khabkot Right Betula-Shrub 2850 NW
20 400
7/7 42 Khabkot Right
Betula-Shrub
2850 W 35 400
8/7 43 Ilobek-Bosh Mix Shrub 2300 SW
20 400
8/7 44 Ilobek-Bosh Que. flor 2400 S 20 400
8/7 45 Ilobek-Bosh Cedrus-Q. flo 2400 SW 22 400
8/7 46 Ilobek-Bosh Cedrus-Q. flo 2400 SW 30 400
141
8/7
47 Near Bosh
Cedrus-Pinus 2450 W 35 400
8/7 48 Bosh Cedrus-Pinus 2450 NW 15 400
8/7 49 Bosh Cedrus-Pinus 2450 NE 20 400
8/7 50 Above Bar ser Cedrus-Pinus 2280 E 35 400
9/7 51 Above Bar ser Cedrus forest 2060 W 35 400
9/7 52 Shuki Ser Cedrus forest 1980 N 25 400
9/7 53 Shuki Ser Cedrus-Q. ball 1870 E 35 225
9/7 54 Shuki Ser Cedrus-Q. ball 1920 NW 35 225
9/7 55 Shuki Ser Cedrus-Q. ball 2000 W 25 225
9/7 56 Near Bosh Cedrus-Q. ball 2060 W 15 225
9/7 57 Near Bosh Cedrus forest 2100 NW 20 225
9/7 58 Near Bosh Cedrus forest 2200 W 20 225
9/7 59 Near Bosh Cedrus forest
2200 N 25 225
9/7 60 Khabkot Ridge Cedrus-Pinus 2330 W 35 400
9/7 61 Khabkot Ridge
Cedrus-Q. flo
2340 SW 35 400
10/7 62 Khabkot left Broad-leaved 2300 NE 10 400
10/7 63 Khabkot left Betula mix for 2280 E 15 400
10/7 64 Khabkot left Broad leaved 2250 SE 10 400
10/7 65 Khabkot Right Broad leaved 2130 SW
20 225
10/7 66 Khabkot Right Quer balloot 1900 W 20 225
10/7 67 Khabkot Right Quer balloot 1800 W 20 225
10/7
68 Khabkot Right
Quer balloot
1700 N 20 225
1/8 69 Muru Sibbaldia 2800 N 10 9
1/8 70 Muru Sibbaldia 2800 N 12 9
1/8 71 Muru Sibbaldia 2800 N 10 9
2/8 72 Above Gutab Kobresia
3670 E 23 16
2/8 73 Above Gutab Rumex 3670 - -- 16
2/8 74 Above Gutab Sibbaldia 3670 E 30 16
142
3/8
75 Kunari Kobresia
4100 E 30 9
3/8 76 Kunari Draba 4100 W 35 9
4/8 77 Ilobek Mix Shrub 2500 W 27 15
4/8 78 Ilobek Mix Shrub 2600 W 30 15
4/8 79 Ilobek Mix Shrub
2650 W 30 400
5/8 80 Ilobek Betula 2740 W 30 200
5/8 81 Tikohsar Lindelofia
3150 SW
30
25
5/8 82 Tikohsar
Sambucus 3200 N 5 16
6/8 83 Bosh Cedrus forest 2440 NE
20 300
6/8 84 Bosh Cedrus forest 2440 N 20 400
8.4 PLANTS OF SOCIO ECONOMIC VALUE
Local name Latin Name Altitudinal range (m)
Distribution Statusin Palas
Habit Parts used Utilization
1. aoon Viburnum cotinifolium 900-3500 HM V T fruit food
1. ashano Aesculus indica 1600-2700 HK, HM V T seed medicine
1. azano Artemisia brevifolia. 1500-4200 HK, HM V S leaf medicine
1. badbatin Salix spp. 2400-3500 F S wood fuel
1. bani Quercus baloot 900-2200 Hk, NWH V T leaf fodder
1. banke Polygonum paronychioides 2400-4300 CA, HK, NWH C S leaf/seed medicine
1. beon Salix Spp. 2400-3500 F T leaf fodder, fuel
1. bhang Cannabis sativa up to 2500 weed C S leaf medicine
143
1. bhareet Prunus cornuta 2300-3200 HK, HM, China V T wood firewood, fodder, medicine
1. burbur Anthriscus nemorosa 2400-3500
Widespread F H ? ?
1. buti Geum elatum 2700-4300 HM V H leaf medicine, vegetable
1. chain Acer cappadocicum 2000-3000 CA, HK, HM V T leaf fodder
1. chalyon Dioscorea deltoidea 2200-3000 HK, HM, China V C root medicine
1. chin Acer caesium 2000-3000 HK, HM V T wood firewood
1. chodan Taxus wallichiana 2200-3000 Widespread V T fruit/bark medicine, food
1. choee Pinus wallichiana 1800-3300 HK, HM C T wood firewood, timber, torchwood
1. chokibeiyon Celtis caucasica 900-2200 MED F S leaf medicine
1. choko Aconogonum alpinum 1500-3000 TNH F S leaf ?
1. chotyal Rheum webbianum 2400-4300 HM T H root medicine
1. chukni Jurinea dolomiaea 3200-4300 HM T H root medicine, chewingum, mouth freshner
1. chur Angelica glauca 2000-4000 HK, HM V H root to attract honeybees
1. danon Punica granatum 700-2700 MED F T fruit/bark food, medicine
1. dindhasa Juglans regia 1000-2800 TNH V T rootbark, medicine, cosmetic
1. geroli Quercus baloot 900-2200 HK, HM V T seed medicine
1. ghanari Amaranthus hybridus 1200-2000 Weed C H leaf vegetable
1. ghandli Sambucus wightianum 2400-4000 HK, HM C S root medicine
144
1. gorte Sorbus lanata 2300-3400
HK, HM V T fruit food
1. guchi Morchella esculenta 3000-3500 T F fruit food
1. gup Senecio chrysanthemoides 1400-4000 HM, China C H leaves fodder
1. gurtu Sorbus lanata 2300-3400 HK, HM V T fruit food
1. hargoli Ribes orientale 2200-4000 HK, HM, China R S fruit food
1. hatoi Pteridum aquilinum 1800-3200 TNH C H leaf food
1. hayon Bunium persicum 1000-2000 NH V H seed spices
1. hobobal Rumex spp 800-2000 HK, HM, China C S root/leaf fodder
1. isperki Thymus linearis 2500-3500 HK, HM V H seed, leaf medicine, tea
1. jacho Cirsium falconeri 2700-3500 HM C H root food
1. jau Artemisia scoparia 800-4000 NH C H plant medicine
1. jhojh Betula utilis 2000-4000 HM, China V T bark/leaf paper, medicine, fodder, fuel, tinder
1. jomi Urtica dioica 900-3500 TNH C H leaf/root medicine, vegetable
1. juglote, jhul Viburnum grandiflorum 1500-3000 HM V T fruit, wood food, fuel
1. kalbeer Sorbus microphylla HM R T root medicine
1. kao Olea ferruginea 500-2500 HK, HM C T leaf medicine
1. karal Picea smithiana 2400-3200 HK,HM C T wood firewood, timber
1. karhi Sorbaria tomentosa 1200-3200 IT, SHM C H leaf ?
145
1. kasodar Fraxinus xanthoxyloides 900-2000
HK, HM C T leaf medicine
1. kasti Indigofera heterantha 600-3300 HK, HM, China C S root medicine
1. kathan Wickstroemia canescens 1800-3200 HK, HM, China F S ? ?
1. kaur Cardamine macrophylla 2200-3000 HM, China F H plant vegetable
1. kaur palao Seseli libanotis 1800-4000 TNH F H ? ?
1. kaymat gul Taraxacum sp. 800-4000 Weed F H root medicine
1. khakhai Juglans regia 1000-2800 TNH V T nuts food
1. khako Pistacia chinensis 500-2200 HK, HM V T fruit/bark food, medicine
1. kikloh mukbursa Chenopodium foliosum 2500-3800 TNH F H ? ?
1. koindaru Valeriana straceyi 1200-2800 HK, HM V H ? medicine
1. kondroi Impatiens glandulifera. 2400-4000 HM F H seed food
1. kono Chenopodium album 800-4000 Weed C H leaf vegetable
1. korat Bergenia ciliata 900-2800 HK, HM V H root medicine
1. lagan Melia azidarich 800-1200 T leaf ?
1. lilyo Viola spp. 2000-4000 F H flower medicine
1. loh Galium aparine 800-3600 Weed C H plant medicine
1. loni Cotoneaster bacillaris 1800-3000 HK, HM V S fruit food
1. magrath Vitis jaquemontii 900-2400 HM V C fruit food
146
1. makoth Rhamnella gilgitica 1000-2500
Endemic T S leaf vegetable
1. malkaloh Bistorta affine 2500-4300 HK, HM C S ? ?
1. malphatoi Pedicularis spp. 2500-4300 C H ? ?
1. mamekh Paeonia emodi 2200-3000 HK, HM V H root medicine
1. mamere Corydalis govaniana 2400-4000 HM V H root medicine
1. maniri Aconitum laeve. 2700-4000 NWH V H root medicine
1. minyal Saussuria costus 2000-3300 NWH V H root medicine
1. mukbursah Fragaria nubicola 1800-3300 HM, China C H fruit food
1. mushkbala Valeriana jatamansi 1400-3400 HK, HM V H root medicine
1. muskoro Astragalus subumbellatus 1500-3000 HK, NWH V S root medicine
1. namero Skimmea anquetilia 2400-4000 HK,HM V S leaf medicine
1. nik Jasminum leptohyllum 1500-2000 Endemic T S leaf fumigant for fleas
1. palon Allium humile 3000-4300 HM V H leaf food
1. paloojh Cedrus deodara 1800-3000 HK, HM C T wood firewood, timber
1. pashay Myosotis alpestris 2800-4300 PA F H ? ?
1. pashkar Lonicera caucasica 2000-4000 HM F S ? ?
1. pashot Parrotiopsis jaquemontiana 1500-2500 HK, NWH V S wood firewood
1. peechli Sedum ewersii 2300-4000 IT V H flower medicine
147
1. phagoi Ficus palmata 800-2500
F T fruit food
1. phebel Mentha royleana 1000-3800 TNH C H leaf medicine
1. pulpulak Aconogonon alpinum 1500-3000 TNH F S leaf fish poison
1. punar Inula royleana 2700-4000 NWH R H ? ?
1. rain Abies pindrow 1800-3500 HK, HM C T wood firewood,
1. rain Bistorta amplexicaulis 1800-4300 HK, HM, China V H leaf, root vegetable, medicine
1. rangsalu Lonicera myrtillus 2500-4000 HK, HM V S fruit food
1. raon Achillea millefolium 1800-4000 TNH F H ? ?
1. ratanjokh Geranium wallichianum 2000-4000 HK, HM V H root medicine
1. rath Vitis jaquemontii 900-2400 HM V S fruit food
1. ratrati Arnebia benthamii 2700-3900 HM V H root medicine, dye
1. sezen Ziziphus jujuba 900-2000 MED, IM, SHM F T rootbark medicine
1. shangoy Podophyllum hexandrum 2400-4000 HK, HM, China V H root medicine
1. shegay Rosa webbiana 1800-4300 HM V S flower medicine
1. sheteel Crataegus songarica 1500-2700 CA, HK, HM F S fruit food
1. shugloo Berberis brandisiana 2400-4000 NWH V S seed/root medicine
1. shukhan Aesculus indica 1600-2700 HK, HM V T wood, fruit timber, fuel, medicine
1. shwansh Filipendula vestita 2100-3300 HK, HM V H ? medicine
148
1. sumbul Adiantum venustum 1800-2200
HK, HM,China V H leaf medicine
1. tali Dalbergia sissoo 800 F T bark ?
1. taran Rosa brunonii 900-2500 HM, China F S fruit food
1. thoktokoe Caltha alba 2500-4300 HM V S leaf medicine
1. titrin Euphorbia wallichii 2500-3500 HK, HM, China F S root medicine
1. tondel Rhamnella gilgitica 1000-2500 Endemic V T fruit food
1. trepath Saussurea candolleana 2400-4000 HM F H ? ?
1. tubukoi Jasminum humile 1500-3000 TNH F S ? ?
1. urni Corylus jacquemontii 2400-2700 HM V T seed medicine
1. yumpi Napeta sp 2500-3500 F H leaf medicine
1. zalzalo Isodon rugosa 900-3000 HK,HM,China F S leaf medicine
1. zarotsal Malva parviflora 800-2400 MED C H leaf vegetable
1. zekeeni Rubus niveus 900-3000 F S fruit food
ABBREVIATIONS USED:
CA:Central Asia; HK: Hindukush; HM: Himalayan; IM: Indo-Malayan; IT: Irano-turanian; MED: Mediterrannean
NWH: Northwestern Himalayan; PA: Palaearctic; SHM:Sino-Himalayan; TNH:Temperate Northern Hemisphere
V : vulnerable; T : Threatened; R : Rare ; C : Common : F : frequent
H:Herb; S:Shrub; T:Tree; C:Climber
149