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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY

(7th Ed)

Chapter 2 Neuroscience, Genetics

and Behavior

James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University

Worth Publishers

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Understanding the Brain….D—Ohhhhh!!!

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Neural Communication

Biological Psychology branch of psych concerned w/ links between

biology & behavior some biological psychologists AKA:behavioral neuroscientistsneuropsychologistsbehavior geneticistsphysiological psychologists…..orbiopsychologists

Neuron a nerve cell It’s the basic building block of the nervous

system

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Parts of a Neuron: Dendrite: bushy, branching extensions of a

neuron that receive messages & conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon: extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers,

-messages are sent thru it to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin [MY-uh-lin] Sheath: a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons enables vastly greater transmission speed of

neutral impulses… deterioration can = multiple sclerosis

Another “demyelinating” disease: Guillain-Barre Syndrome: Action potentials in peripheral NS

--faulty immune reaction attacks the myelin

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Neural Communication

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Neural Communication

Synapse [SIN-aps] Where the end of 1 neuron (axon terminus) &

dendrite of next neuron join up… tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic

gap or cleft EACH neuron can make up to 10,000

connections!!!

Neurotransmitters chemical messengers that cross the synaptic

gaps between neurons when released by the sending neuron, N-T’s

travel across the synapse & bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, & this influences whether it will generate a neural impulse

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Cell A: Sending neuronCell B: Receiving neuron

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Neural networks or connections Inset shows vesicles + receptor sites +

neurotransmitters being released from axon of sending to dendrite of receiving..

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Neural Communication

Action Potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical

charge that travels down an axon generated by the mov’t of positively

charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

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Neuron’s (elec.) impulse = action potential:

[“I sing the body electric!” (WW) ]

Signals from other neurons can be excitatory (accelerator) or inhibitory (brakes)

“party animal vs. party pooper”: fires if animals win!

Reaction = is “All-or-nothing”: Like a gun: It fires …or doesn’t

Strength of stimulus does NOT = stronger a impulse

It IS just more neurons firing EX: Light touch … or big hug?

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Synapse = 1/millionth of inch wide! N-T’s jump this & carry impulse across thru chem. Process

(What does “N-T” stand for???)

Chemical process: is “selectively permeable”

i.e., blocks out sodium ions when “resting”…When hits threshold, charge comes …GATES open & let in sodium (Na)This carries charge down to terminal buttons…Then neurotransmitters (N-T’s) take over

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(+) & (-) ions: • Fluid inside = (-) ions • Fluid outside = (+) ions

When it’s like this it is a resting potential (ain’t fired up yet!) Gates open …..(+)Na ions get in = firing as

reaches threshold…when +Na inside = more than -Na inside

Refractory (resting) period: As each section of axon fires & carries the impulse, it then “rests” (refractory) & it pumps the Na back out…

Analogy: like a camera battery..get green light…take pic…

get red light… camera has to “rest & recharge It’s then able to fire again

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Neural Communication

Cell body end of axon

Direction of neural impulse: toward axon terminals

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Neural Communication

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Neural connections in a neural network: What they really look like…

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Neural Pathways:• Neurotransmitters: Each N-T has specific routes thru brain… …& these = “pathways”• Functions: see table 2.1, p.

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EX: Endorphins (“morphine w/in”): released to deal w/ pain….w/ psych. stress….& also w/ strenuous exercise

(Endor. can also affect moods)

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Pathways: Route each N-T takes… Route thru brain is different for each N-T

Serotonin Pathways Dopamine Pathways

The Dopamine Pathway hits a LOT of areas that deal with pleasure, emotion, etc. Dopamine is plays a large role in many drug addictions

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Neural Communication…p. 62 KNOW THESE!!!

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Some major N-T’s: Acetylcholine [ah-seat-el-KO-leen] = ACh

Some of its functions: triggers muscle contractions… motor activ.

muscle action + invol. mov’t (heart, etc.) joints possible memory & arousal (Alzheimer’s) NOTE: many poisons block or mimic Ach

Endorphins [en-DOR-fins] “morphine within” natural, opiate-like N – T’s more linked to pain control & to pleasure Ease pain sensation, help mood: happiness, feel

good (“sense of well-being”), etc… Stress…pain….strenuous exercise

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Dopamine: involved in volun. mov’t • Also atten. & basic learning• “reward centers” (pleasure)• too little: Parkinson’s too much: SchizophreniaSerotonin: affects mood; also pain control… control of eating, sleep, & arousal May affect dreaming too much = mania too little, depress.Norepinephrine: alertness, wakefulness…& moodGABA: Sleep eating disordersGlutamate: a major excitatory N-T• Involved in memory• Too much: over-stimulates brain & = migraines (MSG in Chinese food?)

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SSRI’s(selective serotonin reuptakeinhibitors)Stops re-

absorption

of serotonin back into vesicles, allowing more to be processedused to fight depression

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Agonists & Antagonists:

Agonist: similar enough to mimic NT It excites & gets receptors going more than usual… EX: morphine does this to endorphin receptor sites

Antagonist: it inhibits N-T’s Similar enough to take NT’s place, but not cause

needed action in receptor EX: ACh & poison curare: blocks reception of NT Muscles (which?) don’t work…& we’re paralyzed …& die2 ways: Antagonists can inhibit (hold back) NT's release

OR… can be enough like the NT that it occupies the site & blocks (EX: curare) its effect, but can't mimic it, so does NOT stimulate the receptor

Note: DVD: Brain, Univ. w/in: Evolution

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N-T “Lock & key” system Neurotransmitter molecule

Receiving cellmembrane

Receptor site onreceiving neuron

Agonist mimicsneurotransmitter

Antagonistblocksneurotransmitter

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Other Neurotransmitters & drugs that block or mimic them… (What are those called? Block? Mimic?) Note “alcohol!!”

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Blood/Brain barrier & N-T’s Lets brain block out unwanted chem. in blood…So

some can't sneak thru…

EX: Dr’s can't just inject dopamine for Parkinson's (has a shortage of dopamine) b/c blood-brain barrier blocks it… But another substance, L-dopa, can get in…

THEN once it’s in, it converts to dopamine, so helps those w/ Parkinsons

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Facts RE: Dopamine & Parkinson’s:

Dopamine is found only in the brain -produced in mid-brain & is chiefly

involved in movement & the “reward system” (pleasure)

When production slows (like in Parkinson’s), a person has tremors & shuffling movement b/c of loss of dopamine's ability to regulate large movts.

Usually also a loss of weight & less interest in sex as there's less dopamine for the pleasure pathways

There are dopamine agonists that could treat Parkinson's symptoms, but the problem is getting past the blood-brain barrier.

-L-dopa will cross the barrier, but for some reason the brain slowly stops converting L-dopa into dopamine.

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The Nervous System(s)

Nervous System body’s speedy, electrochemical

communication system NS = all the nerve cells of the

peripheral & central nervous systems Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain & spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory (afferent) & motor (efferent) neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

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The Nervous System

Central(brain and

spinal cord)

Nervoussystem

Autonomic (controlsself-regulated action of

internal organs and glands)

Somatic: (controlsvoluntary movements of

skeletal muscles)

Sympathetic (arousing)

Parasympathetic (calming)

Wants homeostasis

Peripheral

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The Nervous System

Nerves

neural “electrical cables” made of neurons …carries info

are part of the peripheral nervous system connect the central nervous system with

muscles, glands, and sense organsEX: optic nerve for vision, auditory for

hearing

*Are 3 kinds of neurons in nervous system…

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The Nervous System3 types of Neurons: 1) Sensory Neurons (aka afferent): sends info from

body's tissues & sensory organs into the brain & Sp. cord for processing

-carry incoming info from sense receptors to the CNS

2) Interneurons: in sensory neuron’s processing, these are used by CNS to allow internal commmun. betwn. motor & sensory neurons

CNS neurons that internally communicate & intervene between the sensory inputs & motor outputs

3) Motor Neurons (aka efferent): CNS uses these to send instructions back out to the body's tissues carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles

& glands

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Nervous System: = CNS (brain + sp.cord) + PNS PNS 2 main parts...

Somatic Nervous System: voluntary things… the division of the peripheral nervous system that

controls the body’s skeletal muscles

Autonomic NS: involuntary the part of the peripheral nervous system that

controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)….

ANS is divided into 2 sections….

Sympathetic NS division of the autonomic nervous system that

arouses the body, mobilizing (Spends) its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic NS (p. 66--functions) division of the autonomic nervous system that calms

the body, conserving (Preserves) its energy

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The Nervous System: Sympathetic nervous system gets you going for physical exertion & exercise OR for emergencies

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The Nervous System:

The Para-Sympathetic Nervous System calms you down and brings you back to homeostasis (what is that?)

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The Nervous System Neural Networks interconnected

neural cells

with experience (learning), networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results

computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning

Inputs Outputs

Neurons in the brain connect with one

another to form networks

The brain learns by modifyingcertain connections in response to feedback

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The Nervous System: The spinal cord: Reflex: simple neural paths to the sp-cord: often = 1

sensory neuron + 1 motor neuron "talking thru" a interneuron simple, automatic, inborn response to a

sensory stimulus EX: "knee-jerk" …headless warm body could do

this! EX2: pain reflex…flame to fingers = auto reflex…in

fact, jerks away b4 info actually hits brain

Skinreceptors

Muscle

Sensory neuron(incoming information)

Motor neuron(outgoing information)

Brain

Interneuron

Spinal cord

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But if sp-cord severed at top, you'd not feel pain--or pleasure…Would do the knee-jerk, but just wouldn't feel the tap

So…Males could get erection & females could auto-lubricate if stimulated…but can’t feel the pleasurable feelings of sex-stim.

Neural networks: May put ?’s into the answersRead (on p. 68) & explain this process: a) How is your brain like a computer? b) How do they use Kobe Bryant’s b-ball skills as EX: for this? c) How does Fig. 2.9 show this? Explain this figure d) But how is our brain beyond this simplistic figure?

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The Brain Lesion: tissue

destruction a brain lesion is a

naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

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How do the brain & the mind differ? Read p. 69 & we will discuss…

B4 PET, electron microscope, etc., How did ppl study the brain?

Dead ppl: could look at & dissect…but is the mind there? Brain vs. mind: the old philosp. ?

Alive: could use lesions…wounds, damage, disease, etc, & have for 5000 yrs. (EX?)

-Only in last 200 yrs began to do it scientifically (E---?)

-areas of damage changed behaviors certain ways

NOW: can use elec., chem., or magnetic signals to stimulate brain to see effects In animals, can inflict lesions to see effects

EX: in hypothalamus: 1 area = starving self to death…another = drastically overeating

New ways to study the brain: EEG’s, CT’s, PET’s, MRI’s:

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Electroencephalogram(EEG) : brain gives off signals that can be picked up various ways…thru EEG's: see brain elec. activity on graph

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface

these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

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2 EEG views

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How we study The Brain today:CT (computed tomography

—”CAT”) Scan: series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles & combined by computer into a composite

Representation of a slice thru the body; x-ray photos that show damage

PET (positron emission tomography) Scan:

More dramatic: Shows use of ionized glucose…

Neurons consume glucose as they are being used, so inject radioactive glucose & watch it being used as person does stuff …“while the brain performs a given task” (EX: p. 83,

bottom)

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PET SCANS5 Activities

Parkinson’s/

Norm.

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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging):

Uses magnetic fields to show soft tissues--like very detailed photo (compared to CT)

fMRI's (functional MRI's) Special MRI that works by

monitoring blood flow Can photogr. activity, like

a more detailed PET scan Shows when things happen,

how areas change, & how areas work together

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MRI Scans:Noting ventriclesBelow:Pituitary

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These techniques = what the microscope did for biology & telescope for astronomy

New discoveries are constantly coming in*Look at bottom of p. 71 for new samples of

info

Parts of The Brain:Lower brain: Ratio of body wt. to brain

wt. ? -capabilities give better view: -primitive vertebrates (EX:shark): breathe,

rest, feed…but lower mammals (EX: rats) = more emotion & memory…

--even more advanced…humans…have foresight--ability to plan & think ahead

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The Lower Brain:

Brainstem: the oldest part & central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull…looks like “walking stick” responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla [muh-DUL-uh] base of the brainstem where sp-cord enters

brain controls heartbeat and breathing can cut this from the higher brain & can still

breathe & live

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The Lower Brain (cont’d.): Reticular Formation: nerve network in the

brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

(aka reticular activation system: RAS)

-is higher into stem, above medulla, betwn. our ears…& goes up into the thalamus

--responsible for arousal…activity levels: awake? excited? asleep? EX: cat experiments…p. 72

Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss]: 2 (joined) egg- shaped structures at top of brainstem receives all sensory info (except smell) & transmits replies to the cerebellum & medulla (brain’s “relay station for info”)

also seems to help w/ keeping us asleep & help us come awake

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The Lower Brain Pons: middle-”bump” = Facial expressions + Sleep & attentionSo…thalamus…pons…medulla…& reticular form. goes across it all…( the blue section)

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The Lower Brain functions = no conscious effort, as is most brain activ. (we know we're seeing, but not how we are seeing…) Cerebellum [sehr-uh-BELL-

um] the “little brain”

attached to the rear of the brainstem

automatic (nonverbal) learning & memory

but main function = coordinating movement, balance, etc.

damage = mov’t. becomes jerky, exaggerated

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The Brain: moving on up… Limbic System:

Doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem & cerebral hemispheres associated w/ (not totally responsible

for) emotions such as rage, fear & aggression, & drives such as those for food & sex (4 F’s??)

also assoc. w/ forming emotional memories

includes the hippocampus, amygdala, & hypothalamus.

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Ch 1 test info on grading

Common problems in Ch 1 test:

Need more &/or better details—more SPECIFIC (“look in depth”…like how? Type of data collected? “Collect testing info, med. records, family interviews, subject interviews, etc.”)

Write in complete sentences—do not just bullet short phrases. To organize info well, may USE A) B) C) etc., but still need to write out

Clarify: info is often too vague—comes close but “no cigar…” Be specific

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Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la]:

2 almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system & are linked to emotions: anger, joy/pleasure, & fear Influences memory,

especially those tied to emotion

Hippocampus: Part of limbic system that

turns short-term memory into long-term memory so it can be retrieved later

Those w/ damaged hippocampus can’t store new memories…

…so they live in the past They don’t lose their old

memories, however

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The Brain

Hypothalamus neural structure lying below

(hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities

-Eating, drinking, & body temperature helps govern the endocrine

system via the pituitary (master gland) gland

is linked to emotion & the “pleasure centers” (aka “reward centers”…cortex= nucleus accumbens)

--these centers seem to have assoc. w/ dopamine release

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The Limbic System

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The Limbic System (D-M Arch. #26, Motivation, disc 2)

Electrode implanted in “reward center”

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The Cerebral Cortex:

Cerebral Cortex: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the

cerebral hemispheres (see p. 77: fig. 2.17) -body’s ultimate control & info processing

center……that “wrinkly grey cap…” --if opened w/o folds/wrinkles, would = about

size of large pizzaGlial Cells: N-S cells (“glue cells”) that… -support -nourish -guide connections -provide myelin -protect neurons -mop up ions & NT’s (“house-keeping cells”) -may help w/ transmitting info & memory

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The Cerebral Cortex:

**Be careful w/ saying “…is in this area” …b/c it’s all tied & interrelated!!

Frontal Lobes: involved in … -speaking -muscle movements -in making plans & judgments -higher level thinking -contains motor cortex Parietal Lobes: include the sensory (aka

“somatosensory”) cortex: sense of body in space Occipital Lobes: include the visual areas, which

receive visual information from the opposite visual field; contains visual cortex

Temporal Lobes: include the auditory areas: (think “temples”); left hemisphere contains Wernicke’s area & the auditory cortex

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The Cerebral Cortex

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The Cerebral Cortex

Motor Cortex area at the rear

of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Sensory Cortex area at the

front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations

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The Cerebral Cortex (& the “humunculus”):

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The Cerebral Cortex

Functional MRI (f MRI) scan

Shows the visual cortex activated as the subject looks at faces

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Phrenology: 1800’s: The “science” that wasn’t

Bumps were thought to indicate character traits & abilities

Was not tested scientifically …BUT…it did lead to idea of specific abilities in certain brain regions

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Some brain areas are “uncommitted” areas…But some are “dedicated” …like Visual & Auditory Cortex

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Association AreasMore intelligent animals have

increased“uncommitted”or association areas of the cortex:Extra memory banks Discov. Psych: Prg. 25: Cognitive Neuroscience:

Phineas Gage Measuring brain’s activity Vision; retinal-topic mapping

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The Cerebral Cortex: When things go wrong…what is affected?

Aphasia Impairment of language, usually caused by left

hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)

Broca’s Area: actually speaking an area of the left frontal lobe that

directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke’s Area: understand & think of a response an area of the left temporal lobe involved

in language comprehension & expression

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QUICK QUIZ!!!!!! Ck. yrself…• 1. The molecular shape of some drugs prevents them

from passing thru the ______ ______• 2. The CNS sends messages TO the body’s tissues by

means of __ ___.• 3) Info comes into the CNS from the body by means

of __ __.• 4) The ____ division of the autonomic system

produces relaxation & brings the body back to homeostasis. (Write at bottom!!)

• 5) At the top of the brain is the ____ which serves as the brain’s “switchboard” to the areas of the brain.

• 6) The ability of the brain to repair itself is known as _____.

• 7) Between the brainstem & the cerebral hemispheres is the ____ system.

• 8) (See # 7) One part of this system that processes memory is known as the ___ ___.

• 9) The non-neural cells that support, protect, & nourish cortical neurons are called ____ cells.

• #10) 11) 12) & 13): In alphabetical order….what are the 4 lobes of the brain?

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Specialization & Integration: “Dedicated” areas (dedicated = “wired” for specific type of info)

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Specialization & Integration Brain activity when hearing, seeing, & speaking

words

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Brain Reorganization

Plasticity The brain’s capacity for modification, as

evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) & in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

Brain reorganizes info areas…

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PRUNING:

1) “Use it …OR Lose it!”Pruning the unused neurons (“data storage area” or ... Association area)

2) Neural Networks: How neurons formcollections of connections & can lead to a “train of thought…” EX: Apple???

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Our Divided Brain Corpus

Callosum large band

of neural fibers

connects the two brain hemispheres

carries messages between the hemispheres

Corpus callosum

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Our Divided Brain

The information highway from the eye to the brain

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Split Brain

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them

(1st in 1961)

(vid.: Sci. Am. )

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Split Brain

2 words separatedby a dot are momentarily projected.

or

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Hemispheres: Lateralization Split brain shows different functions…

left controls rt., rt. controls left But…vision doesn’t change b/c….?

Hemispheric dominance: For about 10% of total population, right

hemisph. controls speech, etc. (but 25% of left-handed folks)

--can put 1 hemisph. to sleep & look at behaviors in other

Some...NOT ALL...hemispheric functions

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LEFT BRAIN l RIGHT BRAIN .

Speech Spatial reasoningLanguage ArtLogic, sequence MusicWriting GeometryMath (arithmetic, Emotions algebra) Recognizing facesHearing hi tones Hearing low tonesBroca’s & Wernicke’s Language Areas

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brilliantabacus.com/images/Brain_Functions_Pi

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Handedness: (+ -) 10% = left-handed -slightly more males A human trait…most other

primates 50/50… Chimps & gorillas = about

35% L

Left-handed: In past it = a negative trait (gauche, etc) -more reading disabilities,

migraines, allergies BUT… more musicians,

artists, certain ball-players, mathematicians…& tends to disappear w/ age

Chimp gets termites w/ left-hand

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Disappearing Southpaws The % of left-handers decreases sharply in samples

of older people (adapted from Coren, 1993).

Read pp. 90-91 & summarize: Why did some think this was happening? Who disagreed? Who got angry & why? Goes into writing folders….

The percentage of lefties sharplydeclines with age

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90Age in years

14%

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10

8

6

4

2

0

Percentage ofleft-handedness

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Summary: Brain Structures & their Functions

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Endocrine System

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system

(Which is FASTER system???)

a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

influence growth, reproduction, metabolism & mood

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Hormones chemical messengers…mostly those

manufactured by the endocrine glands produced in 1 tissue & affect another

Gonads: Ovaries in females (estrogen & progesterone) Testes in males (mainly testosterone, a type of androgen that affects production of male sex

traits) Pituitary Gland

under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth & controls other endocrine glands: “master gland”

hGH: human growth hormone (see BIG article) aka somatotrophine

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Gigantism & Dwarfism: Problems in the pituitary gland

Click for Video Below:

Leonid Stadnik Ukrainian with Gigantism

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Adrenal [ah-DREEN-el] Glands a pair of endocrine glands just above the

kidneys secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline)

& helps to arouse the body in times of stress (F—F??)

-norepinephrine (aka noradrenaline): calms back down/homeostasis; helps with mood, etc.

Adrenal glands also produce cortical steroids for strength and muscle building

The HULK???

Endocrine system works w/ “feedback system”brain pituitary other glands hormones

brain*Be sure to make note (p. 95) of all the other

glands & their functions from diagram

Endocrine system’s “feedback”…Epinephrine (aka??) & Estrogen/Progesterone

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Summary: Remember… everything psychological is

___?____

And although sci. have learned tremendous amts., what we still don’t know is way more than what we know.

Psych study has gone from phrenology—which did make scientist start looking at the idea that certain areas of the brain were associated w/ certain functions—to neuroscience

-will continue w/ biological aspects with next chapter, Genetics & Behaviors: Nature vs. Nurture

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Read & Respond: Read pp. 92-93: Left/Right Brain? Respond (paragraph form) w/ min. 3-

4 sentences for each item belowA) What do people mean by left

brained? right brained?B) Why is this an exaggeration? C) Explain the problems with info in

the media that goes “...from scientist to reader.”

D) Then why does the author caution students to “…not discount everything you read?”

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F. Neurotransmitters: Name that N-T!!!!!!

1. controls muscle action + involuntary mov’t (heart, etc.); joints

-possible memory & arousal -poison works to block, etc.

2. voluntary mov’t -atten. & basic learn. -too little = Parkinson’s too much =

schizophrenia3. mood; also pain control… -control of eating, sleep, & arousal; maybe

dreaming -too much = mania; too little = depress.4. alertness, wakefulness…& mood (related to

depres.)5. sleep, eating disorders; too much can =

migraines6. pain sensation, mood: happiness, feel good,

“sense of well-being”, etc.; chem. related to opiates

7. inhibitory NT that affects seizures, tremors, & insomnia

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CH 2 (cont.’d) MATCH each!

-thalamus 1. change STM LTM *Limbic system: 2.thirst, hunger & sex

drives -medulla + aggression + reward

ctr. -pons 3. activity levels; attention -amygdala 4. controls “4 F’s” -hippocampus 5. balance & some

classic. condi. + dexterity -hypothalamus 6.emotions, aggression,

fear -reticular formation 7.breathing & heart-rate -cerebellum 8.“switch board” of the brain

9. facial expressions

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Endocrine system match-up:

-Adrenal glands 1. set point; metabolism

-Pituitary gland 2. fight/flight; stress -Pancreas 3. hGh (somatotrophine) -Thyroid & master gland - pineal gland 4. puberty; sex

hormones -gonads 5. maintains glucose levels