1 - Afilado de Herramientas Cortantes Para La Industria de La Madera

8/12/2019 1 - Afilado de Herramientas Cortantes Para La Industria de La Madera

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MN LBEL@NFLEINF]C

<. @ulfmc bls runmls fc nstìf nf usc mnknf snr ùimlmcslenftn lbel`nflmcs.

;. ]cmls bls runmls qun alf simc nxpunstl8 lb jungc, ifufmlìðf c vicbnftcs`lekics mn tnepnrlturl, mnknf snr ifspn`ìcflmls y prcklmls lftns mn uslr.

0. Bcs nstlftns plrl nb lbel`nfleinftc mn bls runmls. mnknf snr sðbimcs y sif

mnjcrelìcfns.

=. Nb buglr mn lbel`nfleinftc mnkn snr sn`c y fc nxpunstc l grlfmns `lekicsmn tnepnrlturl c l bl auenmlm.

>. ]cmls bls runmls qun alf lkscrkimc lgul, punmnf `rnlrsn nf nbbls,`cfmiìcfns mn mnsklblf`nc. Fc bls utibi n.

MN ECF]LON

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trlklolr.

;. Znrijiqun bls krimls, `cf rnspn`tc lb miìentrc mn bl runml. Mnknf snr igulbnsnftrn si y tnfnr uf tnrìc mn miìentrc mn bl runml. Nb miìentrc mn bls krimlsmnknf snr `cf`éftri`c. Mnknf tnfnr uf kloc rnbinvn nf su plrtn iftnrfl, mnecmc qun bls supnrjiìns mn lpcyc snlf igulbns nf lfàc. Lmneìs mnknfnstlr biepils y pblfls.

0. ^sn bls ntiquntls mn bls runml§, fc bls quitn nf `lsc mn fc nxistir `cbcqun ufl`lrtubifl, mn igulb tlelüc mn bls krimls, sirvnf mn enmic plrl lpbi`lr prnsiðfufijcren, mn kriml l runml, y rnmu`n nb mnsglstn mn bls krifmls (tlekiéf nvitlqun rnsklbnf bls krimls).

=. Lftns mn ecftlr ufl runml nf bl elquifl, mcfmn vl l trlklolr, mnknf al`nrbnbl ‒prunkl mn scfimc―. Miàl prunkl `cfsistn nf bc siguinftn? suspnfml bl




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runml mnb aun`c `nftrlb, `cf uf plslmcr c `lf nb mnmc, gcbpnn bl runmlsulvnenftn `cf uf ifstruenftc fc entìbi`c (nb elfgc mn uf mnstcrfibblmcr).

Nb scfimc mn ufl runml qun fc tinfn jisurls, ns mn uf tcfc entìbi`c, nf

ùlbquinr sitic mn bl pinmrl mcfmn sn gcbpnn. Lb al`nr nstl prunkl mnknftnfnrsn nf ùnftl, qun bls runmls `cf bigl rnsifcimn, fc mlf nb eisec scfimcentìbi c `blrc, qun nb mn bls runmls vitriji`lmls.

>. Fc lprintn nx`nsivlenftn bl tunr`l mn ecftlon mn bl runml, sn punmn mnjcrelr bl kriml c rnvnftlr bl runml.

:. Fc lbtnrn nb tlelüc mnb aun`c `nftrlb mn bl runml. Tunmn `luslr mns`nftrn mnbl eisel.

7. ^sn lftncocs mn sngufmlm u ctrc tipc mn prctn`ìðf, ùlfmc nsenribn‒T[C]NOL P^P COCP―

MN PNG^[IMLM

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;. Elfnon bls runmls `cf nb elycr ùimlmc, nvitn bls låmls y gcbpns.

0. Mnbieitlr enmilftn mivisicfns lmnùlmls, bl zcfl mn trlkloc `cf nb jif mnprctngnr l bcs cpnrlrics qun nstìf `nr`l.

=. ]cml runml mnkn snr rnvislml ùimlmcslenftn pcr enmics visulbns nf kus`lmn grintls {jisurls} u ctrcs mnjn`tcs qun punmlf alknr simc c`lsicflmcs nf nbtrlfspcrtn.

>. Bl pnrijnril mn ufl runml sn nstì ecvinfmc l ufl vnbcìmlm mn 0> ets/sng. (cplrtns} ufl runml qun sn mntnfgl l éstl vnbcìmlm, c`lsicflrål uf junrtniepl`tc.

:. Ns ifmispnfslkbn qun bcs cpnrlrics, nstéf prctngimcs `cf gljls, sngÿf nb `lsc,gulftns, mnblftlb, els`lribbl lftipcbvc, prctn`tcr lumitivc, ùlfmc sn nsenribn.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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AN[[LEINF]LP LK[LPIZLP

<. ³\ué scf prcmu`tcs lkrlsivcs supnrmurcs3

Trcmu`tcs lkrlsivcs?

<. Milelftn

;. @KF @uki` kcrcf fitråmn(Fitrurc mn kcrc `ristlbizlmc `ÿki`c)

Pn mnfceiflf supnrmurcs pcrqun, nf bc qun l murnzl sn rnjinrn, supnrlflepbilenftn l bcs lgnftns lkrlsivcs `cfvnfìcflbns `crifmðf y lrkurc mn sibiìc.

Nb milelftn sn nfùnftrl nf bl flturlbnzl, pnrc tlekiéf sn punmn cktnfnr pcr såftnsis enmilftn uf prc`nsc sieiblr lb utibizlmc plrl bl cktnfìðf mnb@KF.

@cf ufl prnsiðf nxtrnelmlenftn nbnvlml y kloc nb njn`tc mn tnepnrlturlsnbnvlmls, nb `lrkcfc purc (`) sn trlfsjcrel nf milelftn y, lså eisec, bcsnbnenftcs quåei`cs kcrc (K) y fitrðgnfc (F) sn ufnf nf nb prc`nsc mn såftnsis `cfnb qun sn cktinfn nb fitrurc mn kcrc `ristlbizlmc nf nb sistnel `ÿki`c. Zlrilfmc bls

`cfmiìcfns mnb prc`nsc mn såftnsis mn nstcs prcmu`tcs sn punmnf `cfjnrir l bcseltnrilbns lkrlsivcs mijnrnftns `lrl`tnråsti`ls mn `crtn.

;. ³\ué vnftlols cjrn`nf !ls anrrleinftls mn jri ìðf jlkri`lmls `cfprcmu tcs lkrlsivcs supnrmurcs jrnftn l !ls anrrleinftls mn jri ìðf`cfvnfìcflbns jlkri`lmls `cf `crifmðf c `lrkurc mn sibiìc3.

Nx`npìcflb murlìðf y elftnfieinftc mn! pnrjib. ]inepcs mn en`lfizlmc `crtcs.

[nmu`ìðf mn tinepc plrl `lekics, punstc qun rlrls vn`ns snrì fn`nslric ufrntcqun c uf `lekic mn anrrleinftl. Nbieiflìðf mn bcs mlücs térei`cs mn bl anrrleinftl, punstc qun scbc sn

lb`lfzlf tnepnrlturls mn lecblmc klols. Fivnb mn `lbimlm mn grlf acecgnfnimlm plrl uf nbnvlmc fÿenrc mn

pinzls.




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0. ³\ué `lepcs mn utibizlìðf sn alf mn mijnrnfìlr plrl nb nepbnc mnbmilelftn y mn! @KF3.

Bcs lgnftns lkrlsivcs milelftn y @KF fc sn al`nf eutul `cepntnfìl, sifc

qun sn `cepbnenftlf nftrn si.

Tlrl bcs trlklocs nf l`nrcs sn mns`lrtl nb milelftn, punstc qun sn prcmuìrì uflrnl`ìðf quåei`l nftrn nb ainrrc (Jn) mnb l`nrc y n! `lrkcfc (@) mnb milelftn, bcqun c`lsicflrål uf rìpimc mnsglstn mn bl anrrleinftl mn milelftn. Tcr nstnectivc nb en`lfizlmc mn! l`nrc `cf milelftn ns pcr bc gnfnrlb lftin`cfðei`c.

Nstl blgufl sn `cepnfsl, `cf nb @KF. Tunstc qun su murnzl scbc ns bignrlenftnifjnricr l !l mnb milelftn (vnr grìji`c) y fc rnl`ìcfl `cf nb ainrrc (Jn) mnb l`nrc.

Tcr nstl rlzðf, sn nstlkbn`nf bls siguinftns rn`cenfmlìcfns plrl bl utibizlìðfmn bls anrrleinftls mn milelftn y mn @KF?

Anrrleinftls mn milelftn nb en`lfizlmc mn?

- Entlb murc (siftnfizlmc)- Entlb murc (Grufbifg)- Zimric- @nrìei`l

- Tcr`nblfl- Pcbmlmurl mn lpcrtn

- Jnrritl

- Pibiìc

- Grljitc nbn`trcmcs

- Murcpbìsti`cs

- Tbìsti`cs rnjcrzlmcs `cf jikrl mn vimric




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- Tinmrls flturlbns y lrtijåìlbns- Eltnrilbns rnjrl`tlrics

Anrrleinftls mn @KF plrl nb en`lfizlmc mn?- L`nrcs rìpimcs- L`nrcs mn anrrleinftls- L`nrcs mn `nenftlìðf- L`nrcs mn rcmleinftcs- L`nrc lb `rcec nt`.

=. ³@ðec sn mnjifn nb tlelüc mnb grlfc3

Tlrl !ls anrrleinftls mn milelftn y @KF pcr bc gnfnrlb sn ifmi l nb tlelüc mn

grlfc sngÿf bls nspnìji`lìcfns mnb Ptlfmlrm JNTL (JNTL 5 Jnmnrlìðf Nurcpnlmn Jlkri`lftns mn Trcmu`tcs Lkrlsivcs). N! tlelüc mn grlfc vinfn mlmc pcr blmistlf il fceiflb nftrn bls elbbls mn ufl `rikl y mnjifn lprcxielmlenftn nbmiìentrc mnb grlfc nf ue. Ns mnìr uf fÿenrc lbtc ifmi`l uf grlfc grunsceinftrls qun uf fÿenrc kloc ifmi`l uf grlfc jifc.

>. ³\ué sigfiji l `cf`nftrl iðf mn grlfc3.

Tcr `cf`nftrlìðf mn grlfc sn nftinfmn n! fÿenrc mn grlfcs pc r ufimlm mn

vcbuenf mnb rnùkrieinftc lkrlsivc.

Alkitulbenftn sn utibizl bl ]lkbl mn `cf`nftrlìcfns lmouftl). Pn l`cstuekrl lnxprnslr bl grlfubcentrål mn! milelftn y n! @KF nf bl ufimlm mn pnsc quibltn (`t).Tlrl bl `cf`nftrlìðf @ ;> sn cktinfn nftcf`ns, plrl `lml è0 mn vcbuenf mnbrnùkrieinftc lkrlsivc, uf pnsc nf quibltns mn <.< `t. Tlrl ufl `cf`nftrlìðf mn@ ;;4, nb pnsc nf quibltns pcr è0 mn rnùkrieinftc lkrlsivc ns mn 9,:1 `t.

^fl `cf`nftrlìðf nbnvlml `cfjinrn l bl anrrleinftl ufl nbnvlml rnsistnfìl lb

mnsglstn bc qun ns euy jlvcrlkbn, nspnìlbenftn nf bcs trlklocs mn rn`tiji`lmcsmn pnrjibns c rn`tiji`lmcs `cf miìentrcs euy pnqunücs.

Bls vnftlols cktnfimls `cf tinepcs mn snrviìc eìs prcbcfglmcs, glrlftizlfmcpcr ufl elycr `cf`nftrlìðf mn grlfc, `cepnfslf gnfnrlbenftn bcs elycrns`cstns mn nstls anrrleinftls (gnfnrlmcs pcr ufcs vcbÿenfns mn grlfc mnmilelftn c mn @KF supnricrns).




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Tunmn cùrrir qun, `cf `cf`nftrlìðf mn grlfcs nbnvlmcs, sn prnìsnf elycrnsjunrzls mn rn`tiji`lmc y sn lb`lf`nf tnepnrlturls mn prc`nsc eìs nbnvlmls, bcqun punmn tnfnr ufl ifìmnfìl mnsjlvcrlkbn. Bc qun `cfjirel qun ufl nbnvlml`cf`nftrlìðf mn grlfc fc sigfiji`l sineprn bl enocr scbuìðf, tlftc mnsmn nb

puftc mn vistl té`fi`c `cec n`cfðei`c.

@ceplrlìðf mn tlelücs mn grlfcs? Ptlfmlrm JNTL / ^P ensa

tlelücs mn

grlfc

Mnfceiflìðf mn bl

grlfubcentrål

Ptlfmlrm JNTLplrl `ceplrlr

F. mn elbbls / pubglml mn ufl `rikl ^P

ensaMilelftn Fitrurc mn kcrc

Euy jifc M=: K=: 0;>/=44

M>= K>= ;74/0;>

M:= K:= ;04/;74

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Euy grunsc M<44< K<44< <1/;4

]lkbl mn `cf`nftrlìcfns@cf nftrl iðf Tnscs nf quibltns

`lml è0

Zcbuenf mn grlfc (%)

Zcb. mnb rnùk. Mn rn`tij.

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@ ;;4 9,:1 >>,4




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<4

LGBCEN[LMC MN [NPIFL PIF]É]I@L

Nb rnùkrieinftc lkrlsivc mn jls anrrleinftls mn mnsklstlr mn milelftn @KF `cflgbcenrlftns mn rnsifl siftéti`l `cfstl mn bcs siguinftns `cepcfnftns?- Grlfc lkrlsivc- Lgbcenrlftn- Eltnrilb mn rnbbnfc

N! lgbcenrlftn ns prnfslmc mnfsc, ns mnìr sif bl enfcr pcrcsimlm (vnr nb mikuoc).

Znftlols

Bls anrrleinftls mn milelftn y @KF `cf lgbcenrlftn mn rnsifl siftéti`l nstìf`lrl`tnrizlmls pcr ufl rnsistnfìl mn ufiðf `ceplrltivlenftn klol.

Nstls `lrl`tnråsti`ls bns `cfjinrnf bls siguinftns vnftlols mn utibizlìðf?

- @lplìmlm mn lrrlfqun euy nbnvlml

- ]inepcs mn rn`tiji`lmc `crtcs

- Ns`lsc mnslrrcbbc mn `lbcr, ns mnìr "rn`tiji`lmc eìs jråc".




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@lepcs mn Lpbi`lìðf

Bls anrrleinftls mn rn`tiji`lmc mn milelftn y @KF `cf lgbcenrlftn mn rnsiflsiftéti`l, sn alf iepunstc `cf fctlkbn rlpimnz nf nb rn`tiji`lmc mn anrrleinftls

(rn`tiji`lmc nf sn`c y aÿenmc). Bcs eltnrilbns mn `crtn l trlklolr? entlb murc (`cfmilelftn), c kinf l`nrc rìpimc ð l`nrc mn anrrleinftls `cf (@KF) prnìslf ufgrlfc lkrlsivc `cf bl eìxiel rnsistnfìl lb mnsglstn qun gnfnrn !l eåfiel`lftimlm mn `lbcr. Lmneìs nxistn uf grlf fÿenrc mn prc`nscs mn prcmu`ìðf nfbcs qun bcs mis`cs mn rn`tiji`lmc mn milelftn y @KF `cf lgbcenrlftn mn rnsiflsiftéti`l alf mnecstrlmc uf nx`nbnftn `cepcrtleinftc.

[n`tiji`lmc Aÿenmc c nf Pn`c

Mnpnfminfmc mnb prc`nsc mn lpcrtlìðf mn! lgbcenrlftn mn rnsifl siftéti`l nspcsikbn njn`tulr uf rn`tiji`lmc aÿenmc ð sn`c `cf nstls anrrleinftls. Ifmi`lrbcpcr jlvcr, nf nb pnmimc. ]n`fcbðgi`lenftn, nb prc`nsc mn rn`tiji`lmc aÿenmc nsalkitulbenftn supnricr lb rn`tiji`lmc nf sn`c. Nstc ns vìbimc tlftc plrl bcs tinepcsmn murlìðf mn bls anrrleinftls `cec plrl bls `lplìmlmns mn lrrlfqun mn virutl.Nb nfjrileinftc sn njn`tÿl `cf neubsiðf c `cf l`nitn purc, si kinf nb nfjrileinftc`cf nb l`nitn purc luenftl mn ecmc euy lprnìlkbn nb tinepc mn murlìðf mn blanrrleinftl.

LGBCEN[LF]N @N[ÌEI@C

^fl `lrl`tnråsti`l iepcrtlftn mnb lgbcenrlftn `nrìei`c ns bl flturlbnzl pcrcslmnb rnùkrieinftc (vnr nb mikuoc) yl qun nb lgbcenrlftn `nrìei`c ns nb ÿfi`c tipcmn ufiðf qun pnreitn cktnfnr ufl nstru`turl `cf pcrcs. Bcs nbnenftcs mnbrnùkrieinftc lkrlsivcs scf?- Grlfc lkrlsivc




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- Lgbcenrlftn- Tcrcs

Znftlols

Bls `lvimlmns pcrcsls mnb lgbcenrlftn `nrìei`c jl ibitlf murlftn nb prc`nsc mnrn`tiji lmc. Nb trlfspcrtn mn bls virutls y bl lpcrtlìðf mnb lgnftn rnjrignrlftn. Nstnlspn`tc ns mn nspnìlb iftnrés ùlfmc `cec nf nb nsenriblmc mn zcfls iftnrfls -nxistnf ufls `cfmiìcfns mn `cftl tc mnsjlvcrlkbns, ns mnìr grlfmns supnrjiìnsl rn`tiji`lr y lb anrrleinftl bc qun mijiùbtl fctlkbnenftn tlftc bl lpcrtl iðf mnbrnjrignrlftn `cec bl nvlùlìðf mn bl virutl.

Lmneìs bls anrrleinftls mn @KF scf lgbcenrlftn `nrìei`c sn punmnf

mnsnekczlr `cf bcs eisecs rnsubtlmcs qun bls anrrleinftls `cfvnf icflbns mn`crifmðf c mn Pi@. Nb ljiblmc (lpnrturl) mn bl anrrleinftl alkitulbenftn prnìscplrl bls anrrleinftls `cf lgbcenrlftn mn rnsifl siftéti l, sn nbieifl.

Bls `lrl tnråsti`ls mn bl nstru`turl mnb lgbcenrlftn `nrìei`c (murnzl mnlgbcenrlftn, vcbuenf mn `lvimlmns mn pcrcs), sn punmnf lmnùlr `cf bl elycr nxl`titum y prnìsiðf l bls nxignf ils mnb prc`nsc mn rn tiji`lmc. @cf nstc cktinfnviml su anrrleinftl ðptiel.

@lepcs mn Lpbi`lìðf

Anrrleinftls mn rn`tiji lmc mn @KF `cf lgbcenrlftn `nrìei`c scf utibizlmls `cfgrlf éxitc nf bcs prc`nscs mn rn`tiji lmcs iftnrfcs mn l`nrcs (grlfmns supnrjiìnsmn `cftl`tc). Lmneìs nxistn uf grlf fÿenrc mn prc`nscs mn rn`tij i lmcs mnprcmu`ìðf nf bcs qun punmnf iftrcmuìr `cf éxitc glrlftizlmc bls anrrleinftls`cf lgbcenrlftns `nrìei`cs.

Bcs eltnrilbns `cf lgbcenrlftns `nrìei cs sn utibizlf kìsi lenftn nf prc`nscs

mn rn`tiji`lmc aÿenmc. Tunstc qun bl lpcrtlìðf mnb l`nitn tinfmn l luenftlr mnecmc euy lprnìlkbn bcs tinepcs mn murlìðf mn bls anrrleinftls.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<=

nspnìlbenftn lmnùlmls plrl eltnrilbns kblfmcs `cec pcr nonepbc rnsiflssiftéti`ls rnjcrzlmls `cf jikrls mn vimric.

Nb en`lfizlmc mn eltnrilbns eìs murcs nxign ckvilenftn ufl grlfubcentrål els

jifl. Bl `lpl mn fåqunb cktnfiml glbvìfi`lenftn ns nx`npìcflbenftn murl y `cfufl nbnvlml rnsistnfìl lb mnsglstn. Bl nxtrlcrmiflril murnzl mn jiolìðf mn bcsgrlfcs mn milelftn y @KF pnreitnf utibizlr nstn eétcmc mn jlkri`lìðf. Fc scbcplrl bl nblkcrlìðf mn ùnrpcs plrl rn`tiji`lmc sifc tlekiéf plrl bl jlkri`lìðf mnbiels, bls biels mn milelftn nfùnftrlf lpbi`lìðf nf bcs l`nrcs tnepblmcs ð nbentlb murc.

K[NZN IF][CM^@@IÐF L BCP T[CM^@]CP LK[LPIZCP

Bcs prcmu`tcs lkrlsivcs `cec bls biols, runmls c pinmrls y bcs mis`cs, scfanrrleinftls qun sn utibizlf plrl `crtlr, mnsklstlr, pubir y kribblr supnrjiìnsmivnrsls, nstls jufìcfns bls ùepbnf bcs grlfcs lkrlsivcs `cf bcs ùlbns nstìfanàls y qun scf nf rnlbimlm bls anrrleinftls enfìcflmls.

Bcs prcmu`tcs lkrlsivcs sn mivimnf nf mcs grlfmns rlels qun scf? L) Lkrlsivcs Lgbcenrlmcs.K) Lkrlsivcs [nùkinrtcs.

L) Bcs lkrlsivcs Lgbcenrlmcs? scf prcmu`tcs tlbns `cec runmls nf gnfnrlb,

mis`cs, nt`. y scf jlkri`lmcs pcr ecbmnc, pcr `ceprnsiðf nf jråc mn bls enz`blsmn bcs grlfcs lkrlsivcs `cf ctrcs prcmu`tcs qun sn mnfceiflf BIGLP y qunsirvnf mn ufiðf l bcs grlfcs nftrn så. Miàc lgbcenrlmc ns scentimcpcstnricrenftn l trltleinftc térei c nf acrfcs c nstujls nspnìlbns `cf nb jifmn cktnfnr bl `cansiðf mn bcs grlfcs y bl rnsistnfìl en`ìfi`l mnb prcmu`tc.

Pn utibizlf mcs tipcs mn bigls mn jcrel eìs jrnùnftn?

l. Bigl Zitriji`lml c @nrìei`l? @cec su fcekrn <c mi`n ns bl eisel flturlbnzlmn ufl `nrìei`l, c snl qun nf su `cepcsiìðf sn utibizlf bcs eisecsprcmu`tcs qun plrl bl `nrìei`l, tlbns `cec Jnbmnspltcs, lrìbbls, ùlrzcs,jritls, nt`., enz`blmcs `cf bcs grlfcs lkrlsivcs. Bungc mnb ecbmnc, nstcsprcmu`tcs scf qunelmcs nf acecs l <.044¿ @nftågrlmcs, lb igulb qun ufl`nrìei`l.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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Bcs prcmu`tcs lså qunelmcs lmquinrnf `lrl`tnråsti`ls tlbns `cec tiekrnentìbi`c, scf jrìgibns y euy qunkrlmizcs `cec nb vimric, pnrc pcsnnf bls`cfmiìcfns en`ìfi`ls fn`nslrils plrl ùepbir bls jufìcfns mn anrrleinftlsmn `crtn, mnsklstn c pubimc, kloc nb elfnoc lmnùlmc.

k. Bigl [nsifcimn u Crgìfi`l? L nstl bigl ns `cfjcrelml pcr ufl rnsifl mnb tipcjnfðbi`l enz`blml `cf bcs grlfcs lkrlsivcs, miàl rnsifl ns mnb eisec tipc mnbl utibizlìðf plrl jlkri`lr plstls plrl klfmls mn jrnfcs mn `lrrcs. Bungc mnbprnfslmc mnb prcmu`tc pcr ecbmnc sn scentn l trltleinftc térei`c nf nstujlsnspnìlbns l <14¿ @nftågrlmcs, `cf bc ùlb bl rnsifl sn pcbienrizl y ufn bcsgrlfcs nftrn så. Nstl rnsifl mnspués mnb pcbienrizlmc c ùrlmc cktinfnùlbimlmns tlbns `cec nx`nbnftn lmanrnfìl, rnsistnfìl en`ìfi`l yrnsistnfìl lb `lbnftleinftc gnfnrlmc pcr bl jri`ìðf mnb trlkloc.

Bcs prcmu`tcs rnsifcimns fc pcsnnf nb tiekrn entìbi`c `lrl`tnråsti`c mn bcsvitriji`lmcs, pnrc si scf eìs rnsistnftns y enfcs jrìgibns qun lqunbbcs,scpcrtlfmc elycrns vnbcìmlmns mn trlkloc.

K) Bcs Lkrlsivcs [nùkinrtcs sn mnfceiflf tlekiéf BIOLP, bcs ùlbns scfjlkri`lmcs sckrn scpcrtns c klsns, gnfnrlbenftn mn plpnb, jikrl, tnbls, nt`.Bcs grlfcs lkrlsivcs scf pnglmcs sckrn nstcs scpcrtns pcr enmic mn rnsifls,

`cbls c gnbltifls qun l`tÿlf `cec bigls c lmanrnftns y qun sirvnf mn ufiðf mnbcs grlfcs nftrn så y mn nstcs sckrn bls klsns c scpcrtns.

T[CM^@]CP LK[LPIZCP [NPÊNF

L) LK[LPIZCP LGBCEN[LMCP K) LK[LPIZCP [N@^KIN[]CP

[unmls, mis`cs, nt`.

Bigls sirvnf mn ufiðf mn bcs grlfcs nftrn så

ZN[IJI@LMLP(@nrìei`l)

[NPIFCIMNP(Crgìfi`ls)

BIOLP

Anàls sckrn klsns c scpcrtns(plpnb, jikrl, tnbl, nt`.)

Lmanrnftns c pnglftns (rnsifls, `cbls, cgnbltifls

Pcf biols qun ufnf bcs grlfcs nftrn så y sckrnbls klsns c scpcrtns




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<:

G[LFCP LK[LPIZCP

Bcs grlfcs lkrlsivcs scf sieiblrns l pnqunüls lrnfls c pinmrnìbbls, scfprcmu`tcs lrtijiìlbns n iepcrtlmcs l funstrc plås mn mijnrnftn prc`nmnfìl

(Nurcpl, Krlsib y bcs Nstlmcs ^fimcs). Zinfnf `blsiji lmcs pcr tlelücs nftrngrunscs, enmics v mnbglmcs, jifcs y nxtrljifcs. Bcs grlfcs plrl bcs prcmu`tcslgbcenrlmcs scf mn jcrel eìs c enfcs rnmcfmnlml, pcr bc qun sus lristls c jibcsscf rcecs. Nf `lekic, bcs grlfcs plrl bcs prcmu`tcs rnùkinrtcs c biols, tinfnfjibcs c lristls `crtlftns c vivls. Nstc sn nxpbi`l pcr bls jufìcfns qun ùepbnf`lml ufc mn nbbcs, puns nf bl biol, bl prnsiðf mn trlkloc ns enfcr qun nf nb `lsc mnbls runmls

Tlrl `blsiji`lr miàcs grlfcs nf mijnrnftns tlelücs, bcs jlkri`lftns utibizlf

tlei`ns c elbbls mn mijnrnftns mienfsicfns mn aun`cs, pcr mcfmn sðbc plslf bcsgrlfcs qun `lknf, rntnfiéfmcsn sckrn bl elbbl bcs eìs grunscs y lsåsu`nsivlenftn alstl cktnfnr snplrlmcs tcmcs bcs tlelücs. Nf uf tleiz c elbblbcs aun`cs c lguonrcs scf nxl`tlenftn igulbns y plrl mntnreiflr nb fÿenrc mnbgrlfc (grlfubcentrål) qun plsl pcr nstn, sn ùnftlf bcs aun`cs qun aly nf uflpubglml bifnlb mnb tleiz y nstl `lftimlm mn aun`cs snrì nb fÿenrc mnb tleiz.

]ITCP MN G[LFCP LK[LPIZCP

Bcs tipcs mn grlfcs lkrlsivcs `cfcìmcs ufivnrslbenftn scf?

L) Cximc mn Lbueific c @cfmðf Lrtijiìlb. ùyl jðreubl quåei`l ns Lb ; 40. Pnbn cktinfn lrtijiìlbenftn jufminfmc nf lbtcs acrfcs nb eifnrlb Kluxitl. Bl elsljufmiml sn triturl pcr iepl`tc c pcr gcbpn ùlfmc sn mnsnlf lristls c pcr enmic mn rcmibbcs (ecbifc) ùlfmc sn mnsnlf lristls rcels. Bungc scf`blsiji`lmcs bcs mijnrnftns tlelücs mn grlfc pcr enmic mn tlei`ns c elbbls

Nstn lkrlsivc sn utibizl tlftc nf bl jlkri`lìðf mn prcmu`tcs lgbcenrlmcs `cec

mn prcmu`tcs rnùkinrtcs.

Pu usc eìs `crrinftn ns plrl trlklolr sckrn entlbns jnrrcscs (lbnl icfns mnainrrcs-`lrkcfc). Nstls lbnlìcfns pcsnnf gnfnrlbenftn kunfl rnsistnfìlen`ìfi`l.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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Pn jlkri`lf trns vlrinmlmns mn cximc mn lbueific,

l. Ðximc mn Lbueific Kblf`ck. Cximc mn Lbueific [cslmc

`. Cximc mn Lbueific Elrrðf c rngublr.

l. Cximc mn Lbueific Kblf`c? Ns nb eìs purc mn bcs trns, sn bn utibizlnspnìlbenftn plrl trlklocs sckrn lbnlìcfns mn entlbns murcs tnepblmcs(l`nrcs) alstl :; [ W @ , bcs ùlbns scf euy snfsikbns lb lbcr y lmneìsjrìgibns y qunkrlmizcs.Nstn lkrlsivc tinfn bl prcpinmlm mn snr J[ILKBN, c snl, qun sn rnjrignrlpcr si eisec, nvitlfmc nb nx`nsivc `lbnftleinftc gnfnrlmc pcr bl jri`ìðfmnb trlkloc, `cf bc ùlb sn prnvinfn qun bl pinzl mn trlkloc sn mntnricrn

mnkimc lb `lbnftleinftc sn bn mnfceifl lkrlsivc plrl `crtn rìpimc y jråc.

k. Ðximc mn Lbueific [cslmc? Ns mn enfcr purnzl qun nb kblf`c pnrc `cfprcpinmlmns sieiblrns l éstn.

`. Cximc mn Lbueific Elrrðf c rngublr ? Ns nb enfcs purc mn tcmcs, snutibizl plrl trlklocs sckrn lbnlìcfns mn ainrrc `ceÿf.

Nstls trns vlrinmlmns tinfnf bl prcpinmlm mn qun sus lristls scf eìs kinf

kblfmls `ceplrlmcs `cf ctrcs lkrlsivcs, pnrc scf euy rnsistnftns v tnfl`ns(fc sn plrtnf c jrl`turlf jììbenftn murlftn nb trlkloc)

K) @lrkurc mn Pibiìc? @uyl jðreubl quåei`l ns Pi @. sn bn cktinfn lrtijiìlbenftnpcr jusiðf mnb `lrkðf mn @chn `cf Påbi`n c lrnfl nf lbtcs acrfcs Pigun nbeisec prc`nsc mn triturlmc y `blsiji`lìðf qun plrl bcs ðximcs mn lbueific.]lekiéf sn bn utibizl nf bl jlkri`lìðf mn lgbcenrlmcs y mn rnùkinrtcs y .sususcs nspn`åji`cs scf plrl trlklocs sckrn entlbns fc jnrrcscs (Lb. @u . Ta. _f.Pf) y sus lbnlìcfns (Krcf`n, Plel`, Bltðf, nt`). scf entlbns gnfnrlbenftn

mn klol rnsistnfìl en`ìfi`l.

Ctrcs eltnrilbns mn klol rnsistnfìl en`ìfi`l tlbns `cec elsibbls, vimric,ùnrc, plpnb, pbìsti`cs, pinmrl, eìrecb, blmribbc, klbmcsl, `luàc v rnjrl`tlrics,scf trlklolmcs `cf nstn lkrlsivc




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

;4

NP][^@]^[L MN ^F T[CM^@]C LK[LPIZC

Bl nstru`turl sn rnjinrn l bl snplrlìðf qun pumn nxistir nftrn bcs grlfcslkrlsivcs, mntnreiflml pcr bl bigl.

Nf bcs prcmu`tcs rnùkinrtcs nxistnf rngublrenftn trns tipcs mn nstru`turls?l. Nstru`turl Lkinrtl? Grlfcs euy snplrlmcsk. Nstru`turl Enmil? Grlfcs snplrlmcs`. Nstru`turl @nrrlml? Grlfcs euy ouftcs

Nf bcs prcmu`tcs lgbcenrlmcs bl nstru`turl sn mntnreifl pcr enmic mn fÿenrcsqun vlf mnb < lb <:, sinfmc bl nstru`turl < bl eìs `nrrlml v bl <: bl eìs lkinrtl.

I l ;? Euy @nrrlml

0 y =? @nrrlml> y 1 Enmil7 y 9? Lkinrtl9 y <; Euy lkinrtl<0 y <: Tcrcsl

FC]L? Bl nstru`turl ns iepcrtlftn plrl jlìbitlr nb trlkloc mnb grlfc lkrlsivc, R'lqun bls nstru`turls lkinrtls nvitlf nb nekctleinftc mn bcs grlfcs y bls nstru`turls`nrrlmls jlìbitlf nb l`lklmc jiflb.

Pn nftinfmn qun bl bigl nstì snplrlfmc bl mistlfìl nftrn bcs grlfcs

G[LMC C M^[N_L MN BCP T[CM^@]CP LGBCEN[LMCP

Ns bl elycr c enfcr `cf`nftrlìðf l `lftimlm mn bigl nepbnlml plrl ufir bcsgrlfcs lkrlsivcs, sn mntnreifl pcr enmic mn bntrls qun vlf mn bl L l bl _, sinfmcnb grlmc c murnzl eìs kblfmc nb mn bl bntrl L y bl eìs murl mn bl bntrl _ lså?

KBLFMLP? L K @ M N J G A I O

ENMILP? H B E F C TM^[LP? C [ P ] ^ W Z Q Y _

FCENF@BL]^[L MN BCP T[CM^@]CP LGBCEN[LMCP

Ns bl elfnrl mn imnftiji`lrbcs mn lùnrmc l su tipc, enmimls c mienfsicfns, `blsnmn grlfc, tlelüc mn grlfc, murnzl c grlmc, nstru`turl y tipc mn bigl




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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Nstls `lrl`tnråsti`ls scf `cec sus fcekrns prcpics y lpnbbimcs

<. ]ipc mn runml (Mis`c, @cpl, @cfc, Kbcqun, Nt`);. Enmimls c mienfsicfns? Tlrl bls runmls, mis`cs, `cpls v `cfcs sn `cbc`l?

l. Nb miìentrc elycr.k. Nb nspnscr c lbturl`. Bl enmiml mnb aun`c

0. Grlmulìðf?

l. ]ipc mn Grlfc (L - LL- [ZL - @ - @Z - @L - ML y ctrls enz`bls)k. ]lelüc mn Grlfc.

`. Murnzl c Grlmc.m. Nstru`turl.n. ]ipc mn bigl? Zitriji`lml y [nsifcimn.

FC]L? Ctrls `lrl`tnråsti`ls lb `ceinfzc c lb jiflb mn bl grlmulìðf scfmnfceiflìcfns c `ðmigcs mnb jlkri`lftn.

Nonepbc?

<.[. ]p. < 5 [unml ]ipc <@. ]p. ; 5 @cpl ]ipc ;

@cfc ]p <: 5 @cfc ]ipc <:M. ]p ;7 5 Mis`c tipc ;7 (Tubimcr)M ]p < 5 Mis`c ]ipc < (mn crtn)

;.Enmimls

[. ]p < mn <>4 (miìentrc) x ;4 (nspnscr) x 0<,7> ee (aun`c)

0.Grlmulìðf

LL”””---””-=:-”””----””-H””--”-””1””-”---””ZCximc mn ]lelüc mn Murnzl Nstru`turl ]ipc mn

Lbueific Grlfc c grlmc (lkinrtl) b.iglKblf`c (Grunsc) (Enmil) (Zitriji`lmc)




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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IFPTN@@IÐF ZIP^LB

Lb mnsnepl`lr tcml bl runml mnkn snr ifspn`ìcflml `cf rnspn`tc l rlolmurlsplrl lsngurlrsn mnb elbtrltc nf nb trìfsitc nt`. Mnknf scentnrsn l bl "Trunkl mnb

Pcfimc".

T[^NKL MNB PCFIMC

Tlrl runmls qun fc snlf mnelsilmc pnslmls, suspnfmnrbls mnb aun`c pcr ufpnqunüc plslmcr c `cf nb mnmc.

Bls runmls pnslmls sn `cbc`lf nf pcsiìðf vnrti`lb sckrn uf pisc biepic y murc.

Gcbpnlr bl runml sulvnenftn `cf uf ifstruenftc fc entìbi`c, nonepbc? Nb elfgcmn uf mnstcrfibblmcr c elrtibbc pbìsti`c, nf runmls pnqunüls Elzc mn elmnrl plrlrunmls pnslmls.

Nb puftc ns `nr`l mn => grlmcs nf ufc u ctrc blmc mn su båfnl `nftrlb y lbrnmnmcr mn ;> l >4 ee mn bl pnrijnril .Pi sn gcbpnl mirn`tlenftn sckrn bl båfnl `nftrlb, nb"scfimc" ns lbgufls vn`ns lplglmc y punmn mlr bl ieprnsiðf mn nstlr rctl(jisurlml). Nstc punmn su`nmnr `cf runmls grlfmns lpcylmls sckrn nb pisc.

Nb scfimc mn ufl runml kunfl ns mn uf tcfc entìbi`c. Mn bc `cftrlric snrì"lplglmc". [npitl nstl prunkl lftns mn ifstlblr ùlbquinr runml funvl c uslml,

plrtiùblrenftn si nstl al simc lbel`nflml c al nstlmc junrl mn snrviìc pcr lbgÿf tinepc. Lb njn`tulr nstl prunkl, mnkn tnfnrsn nf ùnftl qun bls runmls `cfbigl rnsifcimn fc mlf nb eisec scfimc entìbi`c `blrc qun nb mn bl runml vitriji`lml.]lekiéf bls runmls mnknf nstlr sn`ls y bikrns mn lsnrråf lb scentnrbls l blprunkl, plrl qun nb scfimc fc snl lecrtigulmc

ZNBC@IMLMNP IET[CTILP

<. ^tibizlr runmls mn klol vnbcìmlm `cf eìquifls plrl lbtl vnbcìmlm. Nxistnfmcs tipcs mn eìquifls nsenriblmcrls pcrtìtibns mn usc `ceÿf.

l. Mn klol vnbcìmlm Cpnrl alstl 0;,> ets/sng jcf nstls eìquifls sn punmnfutibizlr enmls vitriji`lmls.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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T[IF@ITLBNP JBÎMCP ^]IBI_LMCP @CEC L^QIBIL[NP NF NBNPEN[IBLMC

<. L`nitns mn `crtn? Tunmnf tnfnr crignf eifnrlb, lfielb c vngntlb, rngublrenftn

scf lmiìcflmcs `cf mntnrgnftns y ctrcs lmitivcs `cec nb `bcrc y nb lzujrn, blsùlbns rnmu`nf bl jri`ìðf mn trlkloc. Fc scf tlf rnjrignrlftns `cec bcs l`nitnsscbukbns nf lgul, puns nb enocr rnjrignrlftn ns nb lgul.

;. [njrignrlftn Pcbukbn nf Lgul? Tunmnf snr mcs `blsns?

l. L`nitns Pcbukbns nf lgul? mn crignf eifnrlb, bcs ùlbns `cftinfnf olkcfns yeltnrilbns grlscscs8 lbgufls vn`ns tlekiéf scf trltlmcs `cf `bcrc ylzujrn.

k. Pcbuìcfns c neubsicfns quåei`ls? l bls ùlbns sn bns mnfceifl siftéti`ls.Fc `cftinfnf l`nitn, scf lbtlenftn mntnrgnftns y elftinfnf biepil bl `lrlmn bl runml.

Bcs `cepunstcs mn plstls tlekiéf scf `blsiji`lmcs `cec l`nitns scbukbnsnf lgul y `cftinfnf olkcfns y lbgufcs eltnrilbns grlscs.

0. Glsns? Nb lirn ns nb gls eìs utibizlmc `cec jbuimc plrl nb nsenriblmc. Nb

nsenriblmc sn usl nf sn`c nf bl ifmustril entlbÿrgi`l y ns euy kinfrnjrignrlftn.

=. Ieprngflftns? Nxistn grlf vlrinmlm mn bukri`lftns sðbimcs utibizlmcs plrlieprngflr bls runmls lkrlsivls y qun lyumlf lb kunf mnsnepnüc mn blseisels.Bcs eìs `ceufns scf? @nrl, Grlsl, L`nitn, Lzujrn.

Bl @nrl y bl Grlsl rntlrmlf nb nekctleinftc8 nb l`nitn prcpcrìcfl bukri`lìðf

y jlìbitl nb `crtn8 nb lzujrn prcbcfgl bl viml mn bl runml, nspnìlbenftn nfrunmls lfibblmls y tlekiéf plrl rn`tiji`lmc iftnrfc.@cf`busicfns?

Bcs l`nitns mn `crtn prcmu`nf enfcs mnsglstn mn bl runml, fn`nsitlf enfcr junrzl mn trlkloc, gnfnrlf enfcs `lbcr, nsenriblf ìrnls elycrns, pnreitnf nbusc mn runmls `cf grlfcs eìs jifcs y mlf uf l`lklmc eìs mnbi`lmc.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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FC]L? [nlbenftn sn gnfnrl enfcs `lbcr `cf bcs l`nitns mn `crtn, pnrc nb`lbnftleinftc gnfnrlb ns elycr pcrqun fc ns kunf rnjrignrlftn. Bcs l`nitnsscf uslmcs gnfnrlbenftn nf nsenriblmc mn jibntns y nf rn`tiji`lmc mn jcrels.

Bcs l`nitns scbukbns nf lgul, sn uslf tlftc nf nb MNPKLP]N `cec nf nb L@LKLMC. Nf nb `lsc mnb mnsklstn, sn mibuyn nb l`nitn crigiflb mn < l 14 ð<>4. Tlrl nb l`lklmc, sn bcgrl enocr supnrjiìn luenftlfmc bl `cf`nftrlìðf,c snl, < l <4 (< plrtn mn l`nitn pcr <4 plrtns mn lgul).

Bls scbuìcfns c neubsicfns quåei`ls `cfsnrvlf biepil bl `lrl mn bl runml, snutibizl plrl lbtc rnecvimc nf mcfmn nb l`lklmc fc ns tlf iepcrtlftn.

Nb rn`tiji`lmc nf sn`c fc ns rn`cenfmlmc plrl eltnrilbns mnbglmcs c

snfsikbns lb `lbcr.

Bcs rn`tiji`lmcs nf sn`c fc scf rn`cenfmlmcs plrl eltnrilbns mnbglmcs csnfsikbns lb `lbcr.

Bcs rn`tiji`lmcs sif `nftrcs ìbåfmri`cs, iftnrfcs y mn supnrjiìns vnrti`lbns,mnknf al`nrsn nf aÿenmc, lb igulb qun cpnrlìcfns `cf runmls grlfmns.

IFJB^NF@IL MN BCP [NJ[IGN[LF]NP NF NB [NFMIEINF]C MN BLP

[^NMLP LK[LPIZLP

Murlftn bls cpnrlìcfns mn nsenriblmc `cf runmls lkrlsivls, sn utibizlf jbuimcsqun ounglf uf iepcrtlftn plpnb nf nb rn`tiji`lmc. Miàcs jbuimcs punmnf ljn`tlf nbrnfmieinftc mn bls runmls, `cec tlekiéf bl njiìnfìl nf bl prcmu`ìðf, bl eisel`lbimlm jiflb mnb prcmu`tc, bl nxl`titum nf bls enmimls y bcs `cstcs nf bl cpnrlìðf.Bcs eétcmcs utibizlmcs nf bl lpbi`lìðf mn miàcs jbuimcs, ljn`tlf tcmcs bcsjl`tcrns.

Bcs rnjrignrlftns c jbuimcs plrl nsenriblr, sn utibizlf plrl bcgrlr ìnrtls`cfmiìcfns qun fn`nsitl nb nsenriblmc, l slknr?

l. Bukri`lr nb puftc mn `cftl`tc nftrn nb lkrlsivc y bl runml.k. Elftinfnf tnepnrlturl ufijcren nf nb ìrnl mn `cftl`tc nftrn bl runml y nb

lkrlsivc, `cf nb jif mn nvitlr `lekics krus`cs mn tnepnrlturl nf bl pinzl mntrlkloc, bl ùlb pcmrål mntnricrlrsn.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

;:

`. [neunvnf virutls c bielmurls mnsprnfmimls mn bl pinzl mn trlkloc, nvitlfmcqun bl runml sn nekctn.

m. Ifjbuynf nf nb rnfmieinftc mn bl runml, puns nb jbuimc, l bl vnz qun rneunvn nb`lbcr gnfnrlmc pcr bl jri`ìðf mnb nsenriblmc, bukri`l bl runml y nvitl qun bl

runml pinrml su jcrel, bc qun lyuml l bl runml l prcmuìr enocrns l`lklmcs.

LK[LPIZCP LGBCEN[LMCP

@CFPIMN[L@ICFNP PCK[N NB LJIBLMC MN ^FL @^@AIBBL.

@ulfmc sn ljibl ufl ùàibbl, mnkn tnfnrsn nf ùnftl?

Pu `cepcsiìðf y su murnzl. Bl flturlbnzl mn bl eunbl.

Nb pnrjib mn bl eunbl.

Bl jcrelìðf c `cfsnrvlìðf mn bcs ìfgubcs mn `crtn `crrn`tcs.

<. Flturlbnzl y Murnzl mn bl @uàibbl.

Bl murnzl nf `lbinftn, bl murnzl nf jrið y bl tnfl imlm scf bls trns ùlbimlmnsjufmlenftlbns mn ufl ùàibbl8 bls trns tinfnf ufl grlf ifjbunfìl sckrn bl

`lplìmlm mn crtn.

@cf rnspn`tc lb ljiblmc, mnknf tnfnrsn nf ùnftl prifìplbenftn susùlbimlmns c `lrl`tnråsti`ls nf jråc. @ulftc eìs murl ns bl ùàibbl, elycr nssu jrlgibimlm, bc eisec qun su tnfmnfìl l mnspcrtibblrsn c lgrintlrsn.

Mnknf tnfnrsn, puns, eìs ùimlmcs nf nb ljiblmc mn bls ùàibbls euy murls,tlftc eìs ùlftc qun bls jisurls mnkimls l uf ljiblmc elb rnlbizlmc fc sineprnpunmnf lprnìlrsn l siepbn vistl. Lså pcr nonepbc, ufl ùàibbl `cf plstibbl mn

`lrkurc murc ns eìs mnbi`lml qun ctrl mn l`nrc rìpimc.

;. Nstumic mn bls Eunbls.

Nb trlkloc mn ufl eunbl punmn `ceplrlrsn euy kinf lb mn ufl jrnsl (jåg. 744),ùyls ùàibbls pcstizls junsnf bcs grlfcs lkrlsivcs.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

;7

Klstl plrl nbbc `cfsimnrlr qun nb ecmc mn jiolìðf mn bls ùàibbls, plslmcr c`blviol, sn sustituyn pcr nb lgbcenrlftn y qun nb plsc mnb mnftlmc nquivlbn l blpcrcsimlm. Bl anrrleinftl, `cfsimnrlml mn nstl elfnrl, ns ufl jrnsl `cfifjifimlm mn minftns.

Bcs prifìplbns nbnenftcs qun `cfstituynf ufl eunbl scf, puns, nb lkrlsivc

(ùàibbls), nb lgbcenrlftn (enmic mn jiolìðf mn bls ùàibbls) y bl pcrcsimlm(mistlfìl c plsc mn bcs minftns).

@lml ufc mn nstcs nbnenftcs tinfn ufl ifjbunfìl prnpcfmnrlftn sngÿf snl nbusc l qun sn mnstifn bl eunbl. Tcr nsc mnknf nstumilrsn snplrlmlenftn.

l) Bcs lkrlsivcs y nb grlfc mn bcs eisecs? Bcs lkrlsivcs sn `blsiji`lf nf mcsgrlfmns `ltngcråls?

- Bcs lkrlsivcs lbueifcscs y

- Bcs lkrlsivcs sibi icscs.

Bcs lkrlsivcs lbueifcscs sn jlkri`lf plrtinfmc mn bl kluxitl, ùyc prifìplb`cfstituynftn ns nb ðximc mn lbueific, lb ùlb sn lülmn, nf prcpcrìcfnsvlrilkbns, ðximcs mn sibiìc, mn ainrrc y mn titlfic.

Nb lkrlsivc ns nb nbnenftc `crtlftn mn bl eunbl. Tcr nsc sn jlkri`l nfgrlfcs mn mistiftcs tlelücs y tlekiéf mn jcrels mijnrnftns.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

;1

Mnkn tnfnr, sngÿf bl lpbi`lìðf plrl bl ùlb sn jlkri`l bl eunbl(mnsklrklmc, ljiblmc c rn`tiji lmc), ufls `lrl`tnråsti`ls mn murnzl ytnflìmlm pnrjn`tlenftn lprcpilmls.

]lekiéf mnkn tnfnr bl plrtiùblrimlm mn jrl`turlrsn mnspués mn alknr rnlbizlmc uf mntnreiflmc trlkloc, plrl prnsnftlr funvcs jiocs murlftn nbrnstc mn bl cpnrlìðf.

Bcs lkrlsivcs sibiìcscs sn cktinfnf enz`blfmc nb `cqun `cf lrnfl sibi icslpurl, snrråf mn elmnrl y `bcrurc sðmi`c.

@lbnftlfmc nstl enz`bl nf uf acec nbé`tri`c l nbnvlml tnepnrlturl, nb

`lrkcfc sn `cekifl `cf nb sibi ic plrl prcmuìr uf `lrkurc mn sibi ic(`lrkcrufmc) qun `ristlbizl y lmquinrn ufl grlf murnzl lb nfjrilrsn.

Nxistnf mcs `blsns mn `lrkcrufmc?- Nb fngrc, mn grlfcs rnmcfmcs.- Nb vnrmn, eìs jrìgib y eìs crtlftn.

Bcs lkrlsivcs sn nepbnlf gnfnrlbenftn mn bl siguinftn elfnrl?

Nb nsenrib, plrl nb mnsklrklmc mnb l`nrc. Nb `crifmðf crmiflric, cf 9:% mn Lb;C0 plrl mnsklrklr l`nrcs `cf grlf

rnfmieinftc, mnsklstn y ljiblmc mn ùàibbls lftns mnb trltleinftctérei`c.

Nb `crifmðf nspn ilb, kblf`c c rcsl, `cf 99% mn Lb;C0, plrl tcmcs bcstrlklocs mn rn`tiji`lmc y ljiblmc mn ùàibbls trltlmls.

Nb `lrkurc mn sibiìc c `lrkcrufmc, plrl nb lecblmc mn bl jufmiìðf,krcf`n, `ckrn y tcmcs bcs entlbns kblfmcs. (Nb `lrkcrufmc vnrmn nstìplrtiùblrenftn rn`cenfmlmc plrl nb ljiblmc mn bcs `lrkurcs entìbi`cs).

Nb pcbvc mn milelftn, acy mål euy nepbnlmc plrl bcs trlklocsnspnìlbns y prifìplbenftn plrl nb l`lklmc, ùyc plpnb ns tlfiepcrtlftn nf nb ljiblmc mn bls ùàibbls `cf plstibbl mn `lrkurc murc.

Bcs lkrlsivcs, yl snlf lbueifcscs c sibiìcscs, nstìf fuenrlmcs mnb 1 lb:44, sinfmc nb mnb fÿenrc 1 nb mn elycr grlfc y nb fÿenrc :44 nb mn grlfceìs jifc.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

;9

Nb grlfc grlfmn sn nepbnl plrl trlklolr bcs entlbns kblfmcs sif l`lklmcnspnìlb.

Pi nb entlb ns murc, sn nbign uf tlelüc mn grlfc eìs pnqunüc y sn cktinfn

uf enocr l`lklmc.Bl tlkbl BQQbbb ml bls mnsigflìcfns mn bcs grlfcs y bl jigurl 74< ml ufl`ceplrlìðf mn bcs bblelmcs grlfcs rnmcfmcs.

k) Nb grlmc? Nb téreifc grlmc sirvn plrl mnsigflr bl murnzl mn bl eunbl. Ifmi`lbl rnsistnfìl mnb lgbcenrlftn y su grlmc mn `cansiðf.

^fl eunbl kblfml tinfn uf lgbcenrlftn qun ml l bcs grlfcs bl pcsikibimlmmn mnsprnfmnrsn jììbenftn, einftrls qun bcs grlfcs mn ufl eunbl murl sn

lmainrnf junrtnenftn bcs ufcs l bcs ctrcs.

Tcr su grlf murnzl y su grlf jrlgibimlm, bls ùàibbls scf snfsikbns lbljiblmc, `rnìnfmc nstl snfsikibimlm cf bl murnzl.

]LKBL BQQIII. Mnsigflìcfns mnb Grlfc mn bls Eunbls.

Mnsigflìðf Fc. mnb Grlfc Mnsigflìðf Fc. mnb Grlfc

:1

<4<;

1494

Euy grunsc Jifc <44<;4<>4

<=<:;4;=

<14;44;;4;=4

;14

Grunsc Euy jifc

040:=:

>=:474

0440;4=44

>44:44

Enmilfc NxtrnelmlenftnJifc




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

04

Nsqunel @ceplrltivc mn bcs bblelmcs grlfcs ‒[nmcfmcs―.

Ns`lbl mn murnzl

J B T ^G E \ W

A F [ _I C PI ]Bls ùàibbls mn `lrkurc scf plrtiùblrenftn snfsikbns l bl jcrelìðf mngrintls ùlfmc bls tnfsicfns iftnrfls mnkimls lb `lbnftleinftc bbnglf l snr nx`nsivls, l `cfsnùnfìl mn bls elbls `cfmiìcfns mn ljiblmc c pcr nb

nepbnc mn ufl eunbl nekctlml.

Tcr nstl rlzðf, bls eunbls mnstiflmls lb ljiblmc mn bcs `lrkurcs murcs scfkblfmls, `cf nb jif mn pnreitir qun bcs grlfcs nekctlmcs sn mnsprnfmlf

jììbenftn.

Bl eunbl mnkn mnsglstlrsn rngublrenftn sif ufl prnsiðf nx`nsivl. Tcr nbbcmnkn rn`tiji`lrsn mn tlftc nf tlftc, plrl `cfsnrvlr sus prcpinmlmnsprieitivls.

Bcs grlmcs J l B scf mn uf nepbnc `crrinftn.

`) Nb lgbcenrlftn? Nb plpnb mnb lgbcenrlftn `cfsistn nf suontl bcs grlfcslkrlsivcs.

Lsngurl bl jiolìðf mn bcs grlfcs, mn bl eisel elfnrl qun bls ùüls y`blviols elftinfnf nf su buglr bls ùàibbls mn bls jrnsls mn minftns

Euy Kblfmls

Kblfml

EnmilsMurls

Euy Murls




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

0<

pcstizcs. Nf bl elycrål mn bcs `lscs sn `cepcfn mn lr ibbls qun snvitriji`lf l lbtl tnepnrlturl (<044 l <=44´, sngÿf nb `lsc),

Bls lrìbbls nepbnlmls jcrelf lbrnmnmcr mn bcs grlfcs uf nbnenftc

suji inftnenftn rnsistnftn plrl nvitlr qun bl eunbl sn rcepl y qun bcsgrlfcs sn mnsprnfmlf pcr bl junrzl mn `crtn ùlfmc sus jibcs fc nstìfnekctlmcs. Pngÿf bls `blsns mn ljiblmc, sn alf `rnlmc ufcs tipcs mnlgbcenrlftns. Nb lgbcenrlftn mnkn snr bc eìs rnsistnftn pcsikbn, mn tlbelfnrl qun plrl ufl murnzl mntnreiflml mnkl nepbnlrsn bl eåfiel`lftimlm, puns bl eunbl imnlb ns bl qun sn `cepcfn ÿfi lenftn mn grlfcslkrlsivcs. Ns prnìsc tlekiéf qun su pcsi iðf nftrn bcs grlfcs pnreitlcktnfnr bl pcrcsimlm mnsnlml.

]lekiéf nxistnf ufcs lgbcenrlftns l klsn mn sibi`ltcs, mn ðximcselgfési cs, mn gcel bl`l, mn `luàc, mn rnsifls n, if`busc, lgbcenrlftnsentìbi`cs.

m) Bl pcrcsimlm? Bl pcrcsimlm sn mnjifn pcr nb nsplìc `ceprnfmimc nftrn bcsgrlfcs.

Zlrål sngÿf bl `lftimlm mn eltnrilb qun sn quinrl lrrlf`lr, bl `blsn mn nstnÿbtiec y nb lspn`tc mnsnlmc mn bl supnrjiìn.

Bc eisec qun nb mnftlmc mn ufl jrnsl, mnkn `lbùblrsn tnfinfmc nf ùnftl

ufls `cfmiìcfns mn `crtn, ns ifmispnfslkbn qun bl nstru`turl mn bl eunblsnl tlb qun sus pcrcs pcsnlf `lplìmlm plrl lbcolr bls virutls.

Pi fc cùrrn lså, bl eunbl sn "ìngl", bc qun prcvc`l ufcs `lbnftleinftcseuy pnroumi ilbns plrl bl prcmu`ìðf (elb rnfmieinftc) y nb l`lklmc mnbtrlkloc (mnjn`tc mn `lbimlm).

Nf nspnìlb plrl nb lecblmc mn bcs l`nrcs rìpimcs y mn bcs l`nrcsnspnìlbns, bl eunbl mnkn snr bl lprcpilml plrl nvitlr nb mntnricrc mn bcsjibcs pcr bcs `lbnftleinftcs bc`lbns. Tcr nsc, nb luenftc `cfstlftn mn blmurnzl mn bcs l`nrcs rìpimcs nxign nb nepbnc mn eunbls kblfmls euypcrcsls.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

0;

Lbgufls eunbls punmnf bbnglr l tnfnr uf >;% mn pcrcsimlm. Blspcrcsimlmns sn rnprnsnftlf pcr ìjrls, `crrnspcfminfmc nb fÿenrc < l bleìs `cepl`tl (Jig. 74;).

0. Nsqunel mn pcrcsimlmns.

Nbn`ìðf mn bls eunbls, Yl sn al miàc qun bl lmcpìðf mnjifitivl mn ufl eunblmnkn mnìmirsn mnspués mn uf nfslyc prnvic. Iftnrnsl, puns, plrl nbngir bleunbl mn plrtiml, snguir nb siguinftn eétcmc. Nb tlelüc mnb grlfc snsnbn`ìcfl mn lùnrmc `cf bl tlkbl BQQIZ. Nstl tlkbl prunkl qun nb l`lklmc ybl nstru`turl scf euy iepcrtlftns plrl bl cktnf iðf mn bcs jibcs mn blsùàibbls8 tcml bl mijiùbtlm rnsimn, puns, nf bl nbn`ìðf mnb grlmc. Nstl nbn` iðfmnpnfmn?

- mn bl lbimlm mnb lrkurc murc- mn bl elfnrl mn trlklolr (sngÿf qun bl anrrleinftl sn suontn l elfc l

en`ìfi`lenftn).- mnb nstlmc en`ìfi`c mn bl eìquifl (nf kunfc c nf elb nstlmc), mnb ecmc

mn ljiblr, yl snl sckrn bl pnrijnril c sckrn bl `lrl bltnrlb mn bl eunbl.- mn qun sn ljibn nf sn`c c cf rnjrignrlìðf




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

00

]LKBL BQQIZ. ]lelücs mn Grlfc [n`cenfmlmcsTlrl nb Ljiblmc mn Anrrleinftls.

@uàibbl Cpnrlìðf L`lklmc Grlfc Lkrlsivc

L`nrc[ìpimc cNstibitl

Mnsklstn l elfc c l eìquifl L`lklmc l elfc....................

[ugcsc[ngublr

0:-=:14

Cximc mn lbueificCximc mn lbueific

L`lklmc l eìquifl............... [nùblr :4 Cximc mn lbueific

L`lklmc mn bl jl`ntl mnifìmnfìl l elfc.................. Jifc <>4 Cximc mn lbueific

L`lklmc mn bl jl`ntl mnifìmnfìl l eìquifl...... Jifc <;4 Cximc mn lbueific

L`lklmc mn bcs jibcs.............. Jifc <>4 Cximc mn lbueific

L`lklmc mn bl jl`ntl mnifìmnfìl l elfc c l eìquifl

Euyjifc 0;4 @lrkurc mn sibiìc

@lrkurc

Mnsklstn l elfc c l eìquifl L`lklmc l elfc mn bl jl`ntlmn ifìmnfìl. ...................

[ugcsc

[ngublr

=:-:4

<44

@lrkurc mn sibiìc

@lrkurc mn sibiìc

L`lklmc l eìquifl mn bljl`ntl mn ifìmnfìl…………. [ngublr <44 Milelftn

L`lklmc l elfc mn bl jl`ntlmn ifìmnfìl........................... Jifc <14 Milelftn

L`lklmc l eìquifl mn bljl`ntl mn ifìmnfìl.............. Jifc <>4 Milelftn

L`lklmc mn bl jl`ntl mnifìmnfìl l elfc c l eìquifl

L`lklmc mn bl jl`ntl mn

ifìmnfìl l elfc c leìquifl.

EuyJifc

NxtrlJifc

0;4

144

Milelftn

(@acrrnlmc)

An lquå lbgufls rn`cenfmlìcfns plrl bl mntnreiflìðf mnb grlmc nf jufìðfmn nstcs jl`tcrns?

<. ^f `lrkurc euy murc rnquinrn ufl eunbl eìs kblfml qun uf `lrkurc`crrinftn.

;. Tlrl ljiblr ufl uàibbl suontlml en`ìfi`lenftn, sn prnìsl ufl eunbl eìs

kblfml qun plrl ljiblr ufl ùàibbl suontlml `cf bl elfc.0. Nf ufl eìquifl mn ljiblr nf nx`nbnftn nstlmc en`ìfi`c, mnkn nepbnlrsn

ufl eunbl eìs kblfml qun ùlfmc bl eìquifl nepbnlml nstì elb`cfsnrvlml.

=. PÅ sn ljibl pcr nb blmc mn bl eunbl, éstl tinfn qun snr eìs kblfml qun si snljibl pcr su pnrijnril.

>. Pi sn ljibl nf sn`c, bl eunbl mnkn snr eìs kblfml qun plrl ljiblr `cfrnjrignrlìðf.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

0=

:. Mnftrc mn ìnrtcs båeitns, mnknf nepbnlrsn plrl ljiblr bls ùàibbls grlfmnseunbls eìs kblfmls qun plrl bls pnqunüls.

Bl mntnreiflìðf mnb grlmc nbngikbn nf prienrl lprcxielìðf punmn al`nrsn

jììbenftn nepbnlfmc bls siguinftns tlkbls?

]LKBL BQQZ. Zlbcrlìðf mn bcs Mistiftcs @cf`nptcs `cf Zistls l blMntnreiflìðf mnb Grlmc.

LJIBLMC

@cf`nptcs Zlbcrlmcs nf < Tuftc @cf`nptcs Zlbcrlmcs nf ; Tuftcs

@lrkurc crmiflric l elfcNf eìquifl nf elb nstlmc

Tcr bl pnrijnril mn bl eunbl`cf lgul.

@lrkurc euy murc `cf blanrrleinftl ecftlml

en`ìfi`lenftn.Nf eìquifl nf kunf nstlmc

Tcr bl `lrl bltnrlb mn bl eunbl nfsn`c.

Mnspués mn vlbcrlr `lml ufc mn bcs `cf`nptcs mn bl tlkbl BQQZ, sn albbl blsuel mn bcs puftcs cktnfimcs. Nf jufìðf mn nstn fÿenrc mn puftcscktnfimcs, sn mntnreifl nb grlmc enmilftn bl tlkbl BQQZB

]LKBL BQQZB Mntnreiflìðf mnb Grlmc nf Jufìðf mnb

Fÿenrc mn Tuftcs Cktnfimcs.Fÿenrc mn puftcs Grlmc mn bl eunbl

Mn mnsklstnGrlmc mn bl eunbl

Mn l`lklmc

> B H: H O7 O I1 I A9 A G<4 G J

Nstls tlkbls sn rnjinrnf l bls eunbls mn nstru`turl fcrelb 7 u 1. Pi snrnquinrnf nepbnlr eunbls pcrcsls mn nstru`turl <;, sn rn`ceinfml nbngir eunbls mcs grlmcs eìs kblfmls.

Nf nb ljiblmc mn anrrleinftls mnknf nepbnlrsn lvlf`ns euy pnqunücs, plrlnvitlr bcs luenftcs mn tnepnrlturl.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

0>

^fl eunbl euy murl nstrcpnl nb jibc, luenftl bl tnepnrlturl mnb ljiblmc y,jrnùnftnenftn, lgrintl c rcepn bl ùàibbl.Oleìs mnkn ckontlrsn bl `crtl murlìðf mn bls eunbls kblfmls plrl nbngir eunbls eìs murls.

^f lgbcenrlftn kblfmc pnreitn qun bcs grlfcs mn lkrlsivc nekctlmcs snmnsprnfmlf eìs jììbenftn, pcr bc qun sn jlìbitl nb trlkloc mn bl eunbl.Nf nb ljiblmc mn bls ùàibbls, bl vnbcìmlm mn bl eunbl oungl uf plpnb euyiepcrtlftn, punstc qun gulrml ufl rnblìðf `cf su murnzl njn`tivl.

Lb miseifuir bl vnbcìmlm mn ufl eunbl mnsìnfmn bl murnzl njn`tivl mn bleisel.Tcr nstl rlzðf, ufl eunbl, qun plrl uf trlkloc mntnreiflmc rnsubtn euy murl,punmn nepbnlrsn rnmuìnfmc su vnbcìmlm.

Tlrl nvitlr uf nx`nsc mn `lbcr lb ljiblr, mnkimc lb nepbnc mn vnbcìmlmnsmnelsilmc nbnvlmls, sn tinfn iftnrés, pcr bc gnfnrlb, nf rnmuìr bls vnbcìmlmnsmn bls eunbls. Nf bls eìquifls ecmnrfls, bls eunbls vlf mirn`tlenftnl`cpblmls lb ìrkcb mnb ectcr y fc punmn miseifuirsn bl vnbcìmlm mn bl eunbl,pcr bc qun mnkn rnmuìrsn su miìentrc.

=. Eunbls mn milelftn.

l) Lkrlsivcs y eunbls mn milelftn? Tlrl ljiblr bcs `lrkurcs murcs sn nepbnl

uf lkrlsivc jcrelmc pcr pcbvc mn milelftn.

Pinfmc eìs murc nstn pcbvc qun bcs `lrkurcs, éstcs sn ljiblf jììbenftn`cf ufl prnsiðf pnqunül y, pcr `cfsiguinftn, `cf uf `lbnftleinftcrnmuìmc.

Fc mnkn cbvimlrsn qun bls eunbls mn lkrlsivcs sibi icscs tinfnf tnfmnfìll nbnvlr bl tnepnrlturl, bc qun sn trlmu`n nf rnsqunkrlolmurls clgrintleinftcs mnb jibc (Jig. 740)




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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Bls eunbls milelftlmls mn kunfl `lbimlm rnsubtlf ifenocrlkbns plrl nbl`lklmc l elfc mn ùàibbls mn tcec y mn `npibblmcrl y tlekiéf plrltcmls bls cpnrlìcfns mn prnìsiðf rnlbizlmls pcr ljiblmc lutceìti`c(jrnsls, ns`lrilmcrns, jcrelìðf mn rcepnvirutls).

Pu prifìplb vnftlol ns su `crtn rìpimc, sif luenftc mn tnepnrlturl, y supnqunüc mnsglstn, ùlbimlmns qun al`nf qun su nepbnc rnsubtnn`cfðei`c.

k) Lgbcenrlftns nepbnlmcs nf bls eunbls mn milelftn. Nf bl jlkri l iðf mneunbls mn milelftn sn nepbnlf, nf gnfnrlb, trns tipcs mn lgbcenrlftn?

<. Lgbcenrlftn rnsifcsc. Bls eunbls mn lgbcenrlftn rnsifcsc scf mn

`crtn rìpimc. Fc luenftlf bl tnepnrlturl.Pn rn`ceinfml plrl nb ljiblmc mn anrrleinftls mn jibcs eÿbtipbns,jrnsls, ns`lrilmcrns y plrl bl prnplrlìðf mn bcs rcepnvirutls.@ulfmc sn ljibl l elfc, mnkn prcùrlrsn nvitlr nb nonr`nr ufl prnsiðfmnelsilmc nbnvlml, plrl fc nstrcpnlr su supnrjiìn l`tivl.

;. Lgbcenrlftn entìbi`c. Bls eunbls `cf lgbcenrlftn entìbi`c scf blsgnfnrlbenftn nepbnlmls plrl nb ljiblmc l elfc mn anrrleinftls,nspnìlbenftn ùlfmc bl murlìðf mn bl eunbl c bl rnsistnfìl lb

mnsglstn mnknf snr tcelmls nf `cfsimnrlìðf.

0. Lgbcenrlftn vitriji lmc. Bls eunbls mn milelftn vitriji lmls `cekiflfbl l`ìðf mn `crtn rìpimc mn bls eunbls rnsifcsls `cf bl rnsistnfìl lbmnsglstn c l bl mnjcrelìðf mn bls eunbls entìbi`ls.

Tlrl su jlkri`lìðf sn al kus`lmc qun nb rnùkrieinftc mn bcs grlfcsmn milelftn pcr nb lgbcenrlftn snl bc eìs pnrjn`tc pcsikbn, `cf nb jifmn al`nrbcs trlklolr lb eìxiec lftns mn nekctlrsn y qun sn rceplf y

mnsprnfmlf kloc ufl prnsiðf fcrelb mn trlkloc.

Bls eunbls vitriji`lmls sn rn`ceinfmlf nspnìlbenftn plrl blrnplrlìðf mn bls ùàibbls enbblmls. Tlrl mnsklstlr, nb grlfcnepbnlmc ns nb <44 y plrl nb l`lklmc nb ;;4.




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Nstls eunbls tinfnf uf `crtn eìs rìpimc qun bls eunbls mnlgbcenrlftn rnsifcsc c entìbi`c, yl qun bcs grlfcs mn milelftnsckrnslbnf eìs mn su supnrjiìn.

`) ]lelüc mn bcs grlfcs. Bcs grlfcs eìs nepbnlmcs scf bcs siguinftns?

- 14, plrl nb mnsklstn rìpimc l elfc.- ;;4-;=4, plrl nb l`lklmc mn bls anrrleinftls, tlftc l elfc `cec l

eìquifl.

m) Grlmcs. Bls eunbls mn milelftn sn jlkri`lf `cf vlrics grlmcs plrl `lmltlelüc y `lml tipc mn lgbcenrlftn.

Bls eunbls rnsifcsls sn jlkri`lf `cf bcs grlmcs A, O, B, F y [. Bcsgrlmcs fcrelbns nstìf `ceprnfmimcs nftrn nb B y nb F, vlrilfmc `cf nbtipc mn eunbl.

Bls eunbls entìbi`ls fcrelbns scf mn grlmc B plrl nb snglmc y mn grlmcF plrl tcmcs bcs ctrcs tipcs.

Bls eunbls vitriji lmls sn jlkri`lf `cf bcs grlmcs O, B, F, T y [. Blsfcrelbns scf mn grlmc B plrl bls eunbls pblfls, T plrl bls eunbls mn

`cpl ìbåfmri`l y F plrl bls eunbls mn cpl `ðfi`l.

n) @cf`nftrlìðf. Bl `cf`nftrlìðf `lrl`tnrizl nb `cftnfimc mn milelftn mnbl elsl lkrlsivl.

Nxistnf trns `ltngcråls mn eunbls milelftlmls? <44 (grlf `cf`nftrlìðf),>4 (`cf`nftrlìðf enmål), ;> (pnqunül cf`nftrl iðf).

Nstls ìjrls nxprnslf bls mnfsimlmns rnbltivls mn milelftn nf bl eunbl?

ufl eunbl mn `cf`nftrlìðf <44 tinfn ufl mnfsimlm mn milelftn ùltrcvn`ns elycr qun ufl eunbl mn `cf`nftrlìðf ;> (Jig. 74=).

@cf`nftrlìðf <44

Bls eunbls mn eìxiel `cf`nftrlìðf sn nepbnlf plrl tcmls blscpnrlìcfns `cf eìquifl lutceìti`l, tlbns `cec nb ljiblmc mn




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mn grlfc y nb tlelüc mnb eisec, bl bigl lmnùlml, y bl jcrel mn bl runml nftrnctrcs. Mn nsc eisec sn mnjifn bl murnzl y bl nstru`turl mn !l runml lkrlsivl qunscf `lrl`tnråsti ls mnìsivls plrl cktnfnr nb rnsubtlmc ðptiec rnqunrimc nf nbnsenriblmc.

[^NMLP MN NPEN[IB.

Bl runml mn nsenrib ns nb prcmu`tc eìs `cenrìlb nftrn tcmcs bcs lkrlsivcslgbcenrlmcs c rågimcs.

Nf ðximc mn lbueific

- Tlrl tcmc tipc mn entlbns, l`nrcs kblfmcs, lb lrkðf c ifcximlkbns.- Tlrl entlbns fc-jnrrcscs, nsenriblmc mn jufmi iðf gris, c ljiblmc mn sinrrls `cf

runmls pnrjiblmls.

Nf `lrkurc mn sibiìc- Tlrl nsenriblmc mn `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc. wimil, `lrkurcs `nenftlmcs,

rnjrl`tlrics nf gnfnrlb v entlbns fc jnrrcscs.

Nf ðximc mn lbueific kblf`c

- Tlrl nsenriblmc mn l`nrcs rìpimcs, tnepblmcs. lb `lrkðf y tcmc tipc mn l`nrcs.- Tlrl n! ljiblmc mn anrrleinftls mn l`nrc.

Mispcfikbns nf `cmcs bcs grlfcs8 euy grunscs, grunscs, enmics y jifcs plrlcktnfnr rnecìðf mn grlf `lftimlm mn eltnrilb c l`lklmcs euy jifcs.Nxistnfìl plrl tcmls bls jcrels `cenrìlbns y nftrngl `cfjilkbn. [unmls rn`tls,`cpls `ðfi`ls c rn`tls, pbltcs tipc <; y mn rnslqun tipc > y 7, plrl tcmc tipc mneìquifl rn`tiji`lmcrl.




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]ITCP MN [^NMLP MN NPEN[IB




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LK[LPIZCP

Pcf nbnenftcs `cf lristls `crtlftns qun fcs pnreitnf rlylr eltnrilbns bcgrlfmcmnsklstlr c pubir, nf ùlbquinr eltnrilb, sineprn y ùlfmc sn snbn`ìcfn

`crrn`tlenftn mnpnfminfmc mnb eltnrilb l trlklolr.

Nstcs lkrlsivcs sn nfùnftrlf nf bl flturlbnzl, pnrc su nxtrl`ìðf ns euy`cstcsl y fc scf acecgéfncs.

Tcr bc lftnricr sn jlkri`lf lrtijiìlbenftn. ]nfnecs nftcf`ns, mcs grlfmns grupcs?Nb grupc mn ðximcs y nb grupc mn bcs `lrkcfcs.

Eltnrilbns - Anrrleinftls Lkrlsivcs

CQIMC MN LBÊIFIC KBLF@CImnftiji`lìðf LL@cbcr ------------ kblf`c[lyl ----------- l`nrc rìpimc (AP) y l`nrc nxtrl rìpimc (APP)

Anrrleinftls jlkri`lmls mn nstcs eltnrilbns- Krc`ls- Jrnsls cf vìstlgc

- Jrnsls plrl ìrkcb- @uàibbls rn`tls y mn jcrel

- Anrrleinftls plrl tlbbl- Anrrleinftls plrl tcrfc

CQIMC MN LBÊIFC [CPLMCImnftiji`lìðf [ZL@cbcr ------------- rcslmc[lyl ------------- l`nrc rìpimc (AP) y l`nrc nxtrl rìpimc (APP)

Anrrleinftls jlkri`lmls mn nstcs eltnrilbns- Krc`ls- Jrnsls cf vìstlgc- Jrnsls plrl ìrkcb- @uàibbls rn`tls y mn jcrel- Anrrleinftls plrl tlbbl- Anrrleinftls plrl ]crfc




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CQIMC MN LBÊIFIC [NG^BL[Imnftiji`lìðf L@cbcr ------------- elrrðf[lyl ------------- l`nrcs lb `lrkðf

Anrrleinftls jlkri`lmls mn nstcs eltnrilbnsPinrrl @iftl 5 lfàc ‐ ²―, 0/1―, µ―. <―, <²―, ….0―Pinrrl klfml 5 lfàc ‐ 0 ", 0²―, =―,......... <;"

@L[KCFC MN PIBI@IC FNG[CImnftiji`lìðf @@cbcr ------------ fngrc[lyl ------------ eltnrilbns fc jnrrcscs? `ckrn, krcf`n, lbueific, pbcec,

Tinmrls `lbizls, eìrecb.Fc sn utibizl nf bl ifmustril mn bl elmnrl.

@L[K^[C MN PIBI@IC ZN[MNImnftij i lìðf @v@cbcr ----------- vnrmn[lyl ----------- l`nrcs supnricrns nf murnzl l :> [c`hwnII @ y `lrkurc mn

tufgstnfc.Anrrleinftls jlkri lmls `cf nstcs eltnrilbns krc`ls, jrnsls `cf vìstlgc, jrnsls

plrl ìrkcb, sinrrls ìrùblrns. (Mis`cs)Tcr su prnsnftlìðf (jcrel) nf nb `cenrìc y tlelücs mn grlfc, sn rn`ceinfml

ljiblr? bls krc`ls, jrnsls y sinrrls ìrùblrns `cf pinmrls milelftlmls c milelftnifmustrilb (lrtijiìlb).

LK[LPIZCP

LK[LPIZCP BIK[NP? scf utibizlmcs nf bl ifmustril `cec slbnf mn jlkri`lìðf.

Tlrl su nepbnc sn utibizlf enmics `cec lgul, lirn, l`nitn y grlsl. Nb enmic `ceceìs utibizlmc ns nb mn lirn `ceprieimc y ns `cfcìmc `cec snekblstifg.

Nstn prc`nsc sn utibizl plrl al`nr l`lklmcs c enocrlr supnrjiìns plrl bungcal`nr lbgufl lpbi`lìðf, pcr bc tlftc sn `lekil nb lkrlsivc pcr lrnfl `cf`lrl`tnråsti`ls nspnìlbns plrl qun sn bcgrn nb ckontivc.




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LK[LPIZCP JBNQIKBNP? Nf funstrcs prc`nscs sn utibizlf bigls mn mcs tipcs?vitriji`lmls y rnsifcimns.Bls vitriji lmls pnreitnf grlf rnec iðf mn eltnrilb y l`nptlkbns l`lklmcs y fc snljn`tlf pcr nb `cftl`tc `cf nb lgul, ììmcs c l`nitns

Bcs rnsifcimns nstìf misnülmcs plrl trlklolr nf lbtls rnvcbuìcfns y enocrnsl`lklmcs y uf nsenriblmc rìpimc.

LK[LPIZCP LGBCEN[LMCP? Pn tcel nb lkrlsivc, sn enz`bl y sn bbnvl ljrnsls aimrìubi`ls mcfmn sn mcfmn sn jcrel nb lkrlsivc sngÿf bcs ecbmns qun sntnfglf, bungc sn bbnvlf l bcs acrfcs y mnspués mn su `c`ìðf sn rn`tiji`lf mlfmcbls enmimls rnqunrimls pcr nb binftn.

IMNF]IJI@L@IÐF MN BCP LK[LPIZCP LGBCEN[LMCP

Fcrels mn Pngurimlm

Fc lprntlr mnelsilmc nb lkrlsivc `cf bl tunr`l mn suonìðf.

[npcfnr bls `lrtubifls ùlfmc mnslplrnz`lf.

@ulfmc nb cpnrlric pcfgl nf ecvieinftc uf lkrlsivc, nstn mnkn nstlr l ufblmc.

Fc gcbpnlr nb lkrlsivc.

^tibizlr nb lkrlsivc pcr nb blmc lprcpilmc, sngÿf su jcrel.

Znriji lr nb scfimc lftns mn su ecftlon nf bl elquifl.

^tibizlr `lrntl ð prctn`ìðf nf bcs cocs. Fc utibizlr nbnenftcs nf bls elfcs `cec gulftns, nstcpls c eltnrilbns jììbns

mn ltrlplr pcr uf lkrlsivc nf ecvieinftc.

Nf nb lkrlsivc nxistnf ctrcs mltcs mienfsicflbns?Miìentrc nxtnricr x nspnscr x miìentrc iftnricr (;44ee x <0ee x 0<.7>ee)[nvcbuìcfns eìxiels plrl snr trlklolmc nb lkrlsivc (0;44 r.p.e)

JLK[I@L@IÐF?

Nonepbc? LL :4 O 1 Z ;4W LL ‐ ]ipc mn grlmc:4 ‐ ]lelüc mn grlfcGrlmcs `cenrìlbns? ;:, 0:, =:, :4, 14, <44, <;4O - Murnzl mnb lkrlsivc. @lftimlm mn lgbcenrlftnPn utibizl nb lkn`nmlric L... Euy kblfmc _ .Euy murc




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1 ‐ Nstru`turl - snplrlìðf mn bcs grlfcsBl nstru`turl vl mnb <(euy `nrrlml) alstl <=(euy lkinrtl)Z - tipc mn bigl

Pn tinfnf > bigls.

L - Bigl vitriji`lml?

Tlrl trlklolr `cf lgul c sif lgulNstn ns uf lkrlsivc `cìmc l <;>4 ´@ y nf nb `lsc mn L (cximc mn lbueific rngublr)qun ns mn `cbcr elrrðf `lekil mn `cbcr l gris tcrfìfmcsn euy murc.

K - Bigl rnsifcimn?

Tlrl trlklolr nf sn`c, sif lgulNs uf lkrlsivc `cìmc l<14 ´@. Fc `lekil `cblr. ]crfìfmcsn uf lkrlsivc qunpnreitn els lbbì vnbcìmlm mn `crtn. Pu tinepc plrl snr utibizlmc ns mn 0 lücs,

Bigl nf `luàc. Pu nbnenftc mn pngl plrl bcs grlfcs ns `luàc - plrl al`nr tnreiflmcs nf anrrleinftl.

Bigl nf `cràc. Pu nbnenftc mn pngl ns nb `cràc, tlekiéf plrl snr tnreiflmcs

nf anrrleinftl.Bigl mn entìbi`l. Tlrl lkrlsivcs milelftlmcs




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BLP AN[[LEINF]LP MN @L[K^[C MN ]^FGP]NFCJLK[I@L@IÐF Y LJIBLMC

Jlkri`lìðf mnb @lrkurc mn ]ufgstnfc y Trcpinmlmns Jåsi`ls

Nb `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc ns uf pcbvc cktnfimc enmilftn `cekiflìðf quåei`l mnb`lrkcfc y mnb tufgstnfc. Nstn `cepunstc quåei`c sn lgbcenrl kloc bl l`ìðfsieubtìfnl mn ufl junrtn prnsiðf y mn ufl tnepnrlturl lbtl, nf prnsnfìl mn uflgbutiflftn qun ns nb `cklbtc rnmuìmc l uf pcbvc euy tifc (mikuoc fuenrc <). Nstnprc`nmieinftc mn lgbcenrlìðf, bblelmc siftnrizlìðf, pnreitn cktnfnr ufprcmu`tc mn grlf murnzl y qun sðbc punmn snr en`lfizlmc `cf pinmrls mc ljiblr nspnìlbns. Nb `cepunstc quåei`c cktnfimc fc ns `cepltikbn l uf entlb qun ns uf

ùnrpc siepbn8 fc ns uf l`nrc, punstc qun nb ainrrc fc nftrl nf su `cepcsi iðf.

Tlrl bls jlkri l icfns mn snrins, bl siftnrizl iðf sn rnlbzl `cf ecbmn qunprcpcrìcfl pbl`ls qun prcpcr icfl pbl`ls qun snrìf bungc en`lfizlmls yscbmlmls sckrn bls anrrleinftls.

Pngÿf nb tlelüc mn bcs grlfcs mn `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc bl prcpcrìðf mn `cklbtc ybl lmiìðf mn pnqunüls `lftimlmns mn ctrcs ùnrpcs, tlbns `cec nb `lrkurc mn

]ufgstnfc @lrkcfc

@lbnftleinftc

<>44¿ @

@lrkcfc mn

]ufgstnfc

@cklbtc

Jig. > @lbik

`cf fcfic mn plt

Piftnrizlìðf Mnjifitivl

@lbnftleinftc <>44¿ @

Tblquitls ]nreiflmls




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titlfic, sn cktinfnf vlrics elti ns mn `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc. Nstcs scf mijnrnftnspcr su murnzl, sus prcpinmlmns mn `crtn y su jrlgibimlm. Tlrl bls anrrleinftlsmnstiflmls l bl eilülrål qun trlklolf pcr gcbpn, sn rnjinrn sl`riji`lr bl rnsistnfìllb mnsglstn mnb `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc nf knfnji ic mn mn bl tnflìmlm. Bl lbnlìðf

mn eltiz ns lsuftc mn jlkri`lìðf mn anrrleinftls.

^fl mn bls `lrl`tnråsti ls iepcrtlftns mnb `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc ns su `cnji inftnmn mibltl iðf qun ns mcs vn`ns ifjnricr lb mnb l`nrc, bc ùlb bieitl bl mienfsiðf mnbls pbl`ls qun ns pcsikbn scbmlr sckrn uf scpcrtn mn l`nrc.

Bl prcpinmlm eìs fctlkbn mn bls anrrleinftls mn `cbc`l iðf lmi icflb `cf lrkurcmn tufgstnfc ns su grlf murlìðf mn `crtn.

@ulfmc sn rnspntlf tcmls bls `cfmi icfns mn jlkri lìðf, mn ljiblmc y mnutibizlìðf, bl murlìðf mnb `crtn mn bl elmnrl punmn snr, sngÿf bl en`lfizlìðf y

bl nspnìn ifjnricr l ìfùnftl vn`ns bl mnb bls anrrleinftls mn l`nrc lbnlmc`crrinftn, lprcxielmlenftn quif`n vn`ns elycr qun bl mn bcs l`nrcs rìpimcs.

Jlkri`lìðf mn bls Anrrleinftls.

Bl té`fi l mn jlkri l iðf mn bls anrrleinftls ns snenolftn l bl mn blsanrrleinftls `bìsi`ls, pnrc eìs mnbi`lml mnkimc l mcs prckbnels? bl scbmlmurl mnbls pbl`ls y mienfsiðf mnjifitivl mn bl anrrleinftl.

Nb ìfgubc mn puftl eåfiec qun ns pcsikbn, mlr luf `crtlftn mn `lrkurc mntufgstnfc ns mn =>´ lprcxielmlenftn. Tcr mnkloc mn nstn vlbcr, bl jrlgibimlmmnb `lrkurc ns tlb qun bl anrrleinftl lpnfls si tinfn rnsistnfìl. Mn nstl jcrel,lbgufcs `lscs nspnìlbns fc punmnf snr rnsunbtcs `cf anrrleinftls mn `lrkurc.

Bl scbmlmurl mn pbl`ls mn `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc sn al`n `crrinftnenftn sckrnbcs minftns mn bls ùàibbls mn sinrrls ìrùblrns y bl elycrål mn bls jcrels




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Nstn mnsglstn nstì prcvc`lmc pcr bls ei rcgrintls, eìs c enfcsmnslrrcbblmls, rnsubtlftns mnb ljiblmc. Bl `lbimlm mnb ljiblmc ifjbuyn pcr bc tlftc`cfsimnrlkbnenftn sckrn nstl prienrl jlsn mnb mnsglstn.

Pngufmc tinepc? Mnspués mn nstn prienr pnråcmc, bl anrrleinftl pcsnn ufllristl qun rnsistn kinf nb mnsglstn. Nf nsl ntlpl, bl anrrleinftl prnsnftl bls`lrl`tnråsti ls mn ljiblmc qun snrìf bls mn su utibizlìðf fcrelb. ^f mnsglstnbnftc y rngublr prcgrnsc, eìs c enfcs rìpimlenftn, sngÿf ©I pcmnr lkrlsivcmnb eltnrilb y bls `cfmi icfns mn trlkloc.

]nr`nr tinepc? Bl prcgrnsiðf sn l`nftÿl krus`lenftn y nb mnsglstn sn aliepcrtlftn8 nstì prcvc`lmc pcr ufl nspnìn mn "eiflmc" mnb `cklbtc qunelftinfn8 nfglstlmcs bcs grlfcs mn `lrkurc8 éstcs sé mnsprnfmnf mn bl

anrrleinftl y prcvc`lf krnàls rnbltivlenftn prcjufmls qun ns fn`nslricnbieiflr nf nb ecenftc mnb ljiblmc. Nstcs trns pnråcmcs mn trlkloc sn vnfrnjbnolmcs nf nb mikuoc fÿenrc 0. Ns mn snülblr bl iepcrtlfìl mnb mnsglstnnf nb ÿbtiec pnråcmc mn trlkloc mn bl anrrleinftl, nstn mnsglstn ns euàlsvn`ns eìs iepcrtlftn nf nstn pnråcmc rnbltivlenftn `crtc, qun nf nbpnricmc mn utibizlìðf fcrelb mn bls anrrleinftls.

sn alf utibizlmc bls anrrleinftls alstl bl tnr`nrl ntlpl, bcs tinepcs mn ljiblmc alfsimc luenftlmcs, lså `cec bcs glstcs mn pinmrls mn ljiblr8 nf njn`tc, ns fn`nslricrntirlr ufl grlf `lftimlm mn eltnrilb sckrn bl anrrleinftl, lftns mn vcbvnr lnf`cftrlr ufl klsn mn lristl sltisjl`tcril. Nb rnfmieinftc gbcklb mn bl anrrleinftlns lså ifjnricr lb qun aukinrl simc nb mn ufl anrrleinftl ljiblml lb jiflbizlr blsngufml ntlpl. Pn punmn `cfsimnrlr qun uf rlmic mn 4.< erf. Tlrl nbrnmcfmnlmc mnb mnsglstn nf uf eìxiec, situìfmcfcs kloc nb puftc mn vistl mnbn`cfceistl. Lplrté mnb mnsglstn fcrelb ml bl lristl prifìplb, sn prcmu`n ufmnsglstc qun ljn`tl l bls lristls bltnrlbns nf vlrics eibåentrcs.

Tinmrls Milelftlmls mn Ljiblr

Pðbc bls pinmrls ml ljiblr milelftlmls `cfvinfnf plrl nb ljiblmc mn blsanrrleinftls mn `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc. Bls pinmrls mn ljiblr milelftlmls tinfnfufl plrtn l`tivl `cfstruiml pcr plrtåùbls mn milelftn, prc`nmnftns mn mnsnàcsmnb tlbblmc c mn milelftns mn sngufmc crmnf, y mnsmn al`n lbgufcs lücs mnmilelftns siftéti cs. Tlrl lgbcenrlr bcs grlfcs klstcs, sn utibizlf lgbutiflftnsentìbi`cs (krcf`n) Y lgbutiflftns rnsifcimns (klqunbitl) plrl bcs grlfcs jifcs Bl




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

>;

grlfubl iðf c grcscr mn bcs grlfcs mn milelftn ns nb nbnenftc prifìplb qunifjbuyn sckrn bcs nstlmcs mn supnrjiìn mnb ljiblmc. Nb grcscr mc bcs grlfcs nstìifmi`lmc pcr ìjrls, `ceprnfmimls nftrn ;44 y :44. Bl prienrl ìjrl ifmi`l bcsgrlfcs klstcs plrl nb nskczc, y bl sngufml, bcs grlfcs jifcs plrl nb l`lklmc. Nb

nspnscr mn bl `lpl milelftlml vlrål mn 4,1 l 0 ee. Nstn nspnscr ifjbuyn sckrn nbpnsc mn milelftn y, pcr `cfsiguinftn, sckrn nb prnìc mn bl pinmrl mn ljiblr

Bl lfàurl mn bl klfml mn bl `lpl milelftlml vlrål mn : l <4 ee. Blvnbcìmlm pnrijéri`l c mn `crtn mn bls pinmrls mn ljiblr milelftlmls mnkn snr? plrlbls pinmrls mn ljiblr `cf lgbutiflftn entìbi c 5 <7 l ;= e/s.8 plrl bls pinmrls mnljiblr `cf lgbutiflftn rnsifcimn 5 ;; l ;1 e/s.

@cec plrl bls anrrleinftls mn l`nrc lbnlmc, nb ljiblmc mn bls anrrleinftls `cf

`lrkurc punmn al`nrsn nf sn`c c `cf ringc. Nstcs mcs eétcmcstinfnf `lml ùlb tinfnf sus vnftlols y sus if`cfvnfinftns.

Ctrl té`fi`l? nb ljiblmc `cf pubvnrizlìðf, al simc lmcptlml pcr nb G.].J.]. alìl<9>=, mnspués mn nxpnrienftcs anàcs nf nb blkcrltcric `nftrlb mn bl lrelml.Bl pubvnrizlìðf prnsnftl rnlbns vnftlols `cf rnblìðf lb ringc `bìsi`c. Puprien blprcyn`ìðf elsivl mnb båquimc qun c`lsicfl ecbnstils lb cpnrlric. Bcs lplrltcsplrl bl pubvnrizl iðf scf snf ibbcs y punmn lmlptlrsn l ùlbquinr tipc mn ljiblmcrlprcvistl mn sus sistnels mn ringc. Tlrl bl pubvnrizl iðf, ns lkscbutlenftn

fn`nslric mispcfnr mn ufl junftn mn lirn `ceprieimc l klol prnsiðf (< Hg/è;). Nbbåquimc sðbc sn utibizl ufl vnz y bls prcyn` icfns alìl nb nxtnricr mn bl pinmrl mn

ljiblr scf `lsi ifnxistnftns. Nb `cfsuec mn båquimc ns ns`lsc, punstc qun nblplrltc pubvnrizl ufl enmil mn < l <,> bitrcs murlftn càc acrls mn trlkloc¡ififtnrruepimc.

Nf nb `cenrìc nstìf l bl vnftl båquimcs nspnìlbns plrl nb ringc c bl pubvnrizlìðf.Pn bns mibuyn nf pnqunüc pcr`nftlon nf nb lgul




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

>0




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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]N[EIFCBCGÅL TL[L BLP ACOLP MN PIN[[L

<. @CJIG^[L@ICFNP MN MINF]NP

Minftn PupnrjiìnTblfl

Pn nepbnl nf acols mn sinrrl plrl `crtlr elmnrlskblfmls y murls l bc blrgc mnb grlfc

Minftn Kisnblmc Lbtnrflmc

Kisnblmc supnricr mnrnàc n izquinrmc lbtnrflmc. Pnnepbnl nf acols mn sinrrl plrl lpbi`lìcfns gnfnrlbns ymn `crtn trlfsvnrslb

Minftn Kisnblmc LbtnrflmcEcmiji`lmc

Kisnblmc supnricr eìs nbnvlmc `cf minftn eìs blrgcqun funstrc kisnblmc nstìfmlr lbtnrflmc. Pn nepbnl nfbls acols mn sinrrl mn bl Pnrin "EK" y al simcnspn`åji`lenftn misnülmc plrl `crtlr enblfifl siflstibblr nf sinrrls mn ensl.

Minftn ]ripbn Kisnb Nb minftn lbtnrflmc pblfc `cf uf trlpnìc eìs nbnvlmcmivimn virutls plrl bcgrlr `crtns nf eltnrilbns murcs,elmnrl

Minftn @cekiflmc Grupc mn minftns `cf kisnblmc lbtnrflmc y uf minftn`cf supnrjiìn pblfl, mivimimc pcr ufl glrglftlnsplìcsl nf bl acol mn bl sinrrl. Pn nepbnl nf acolsmn sinrrl `cekiflmls plrl lpbi`lìcfns gnfnrlbns

Minftn mn Jcrel@ðfi`l

Pn nepbnlf nf acols mn sinrrl `ðfi`ls plrl nfeuns`lr.Bl lfàurl mnb tloc luenftl `cf bl prcjufmimlm mnpnfntrlìðf

Minftn Kisnblmc Lbtnrflmc Mnrnàc

Pn nepbnl nf oungcs mn mlmc nf nb blmc mnrnàc.(@lml snxtc minftn al simc lecblmc `cf supnrjiìnpblfl).

Minftn Kisnblmc Lbtnrflmc Izquinrmc

Pn nepbnl nf oungcs mn mlmc nf nb blmc izquinrmc.(@lml snxtc minftn al simc lecblmc `cf supnrjiìnpblfl).




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

>:

;. ÌFG^BCP MN MINF]NP Ìfgubc mn @crtn : l

<1 GrlmcsBcs eltnrilbns kblfmcs rnquinrnf uf ìfgubc mnlprcxielmlenftn <1 Grlmcs, bcs Eltnrilbnsmurcs rnquinrnf ufc mn lprcxielmlenftn :

Grlmcs. Bls acols mn sinrrl plrl `crtlr lbueificy en! leifl tinfnf uf ìfgubc mn `crtn fngltivc.

fgubc mn buzsupnricr

<; l <> Grlmcs

Nstn ìfgubc `lekil sngÿf bl murnzl mnbeltnrilb? <; Grlmcs plrl eltnrilbns murcs y <>plrl eltnrilbns eìs kblfmcs.

Ìfgubc mn KisnblmcPupnricr mn 1 l <;

Grlmcs

Ìfgubc mn @crtlmc[lmilb mn < l ;

Grlmcs

Fcrelbenftn mn <4 Grlmcs, qun pnreitn uflpnfntrlìðf grlmulb lb eltnrilb

Tnreitn qun alyl buz l bc blrgc mnb minftn

0. GNFN[LB

]loc (‒K―)

Tbl`l (‒@―)

Pn rnjinrn l bl lfàurl eìxiel mnb minftn mnsinrrl y sn rnprnsnftl nf ufimlmns mnìelbnsy/c eibåentrcs.

Pn rnjinrn lb nspnscr mnb ùnrpc mn bl sinrrl mnl`nrc sckrn bl ùlb sn sunbmlf bcs minftns mn`lrkurc. Bl mienfsiðf sn rnprnsnftl nfufimlmns mnìelbns y/c eibåentrcs.Fctl? Bl elycrål mn bls pbl`ls mn acols mnsinrrl ifmustrilbns scf `crtlmls `cf rlycsBìsnr.

Tlsc (‒T―) Pn rnjinrn l bl mienfsiðf lprcxielml (bcfgitum)nftrn mcs minftns y sn rnprnsnftl nf eibåentrcs

Miìentrc Iftnricr Pn rnjinrn lb miìentrc mnb lguonrc plrl nb ìrkcb ysn rnprnsnftlf nf jrl`ìcfns mn eibåentrc




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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NB K^NF @C[]N

EL]N[ILBNP ‐ PIN[[LP @I[@^BL[NP (MIP@CP)

(]ITC Y # MN MINF]NP)

Ns mn lfctlr qun bls rn`cenfmlìcfns qun l `cftifulìðf sn pblftnlf, ns ufl

crinftlìðf plrl nbngir nb mis`c lprcpilmc, nf nb `crtn mn eltnrilbns mn bl ifmustril

mn bl elmnrl. Nstc fcs pnreitn snbn`ìcflr bl anrrleinftl plrtinfmc mn bc qun

cjrnz`l nb `cenrìc.

Eìquifl c Nquipc.]cml eìquifl tinfn ufcs tinepcs ÿtibns y plrl qun éstcs snlf eìs njn`tivcs

mnknf tnfnr? elftnfieinftc rutiflric, prnvnftivc c prnmi`tivc. Pi nstc sn al`n,

fc aly qun njn`tulr nb `crrn`tivc, pnrc l su vnz tnfnecs bl `nrtnzl qun su

jufìcfleinftc snl ðptiec.

@lbikrlìðf y Elfipublìðf mn bl Anrrleinftl mn @crtn.

Ns euy iepcrtlftn nb `crrn`tc ecftlon mn bl anrrleinftl `crtlftn, nb mis`c ð

bcs ifìscrns. Nb lbel`nflon mnkn snr mn tlb jcrel qun nf fifgÿf ecenftc

tnfgl gcbpn c jri`ìðf `cf lbgÿf entlb, pcrqun nstc c`lsicfl jrl`turl nf nb

`lrkurc mn tufgstnfc (minftns). Nstn `lrkurc pcsnn lprcxielmlenftn 94¿

[c`hwnbb @. nf murnzl, bc qun bc `cbc`l nf uf puftc mn jrlgibimlm euy lbtc8 fcs

pnreitn lbtl vnbcìmlm mn `crtn, pnrc nb gcbpn `cf plrtåùbls murls ns jltlb.

Nf ]cmc Ecenftc?

Pu lbel`nfleinftc, elfipublìðf, trlfspcrtn8 éstls anrrleinftls mnknf nstlr prctngimls, pcr bc enfcs nf bcs neplqun qun trlnf mn jlkri`lìðf.

Nb Ljiblmc?

Ns fcrelb qun lb fc cktnfnr uf nx`nbnftn `crtn, fcs rneitlecs

ifenmiltlenftn lb ljiblmc, pnrc nf bl rnlbimlm ns lb ÿbtiec puftc qun fcs




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

>1

rneitiecs. Ns euy iepcrtlftn qun lb njn`tulr nb ljiblmc sn tnfglf nf ùnftl

bcs siguinftns lspn`tcs?

- ]lelüc mn grlfc y `cf`nftrl iðf mn milelftn.

- Tlrl trlkloc nf sn`c, lb fc tnfnr rnjrignrlftn lbgufc, sn rn`ceinfml uflkrlsivc milelftlmc `cf uf tlelüc mn grlfc ;;4 y `cf`nftrlìðf mn

milelftn <44.

- Tlrl trlkloc nf aÿenmc, bls `cfmi icfns `lekilf? tlelüc mn grlfc >44 y

`cf`nftrlìðf 7> nf milelftn.

- @nrc vikrl icfns. Nf nb prc`nsc mn ljiblmc, si tnfnecs `nrc vikrl iðf y fcs

pnreitn bbnglr lbbå? scbimnz nf nb ùnrpc (klstimcr mn bl eìquifl) y tnfnr lf`blon

lb pisc.- @cec sn mioc lftns, nb `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc ns euy jrìgib y si fc sn tinfn nb

lkrlsivc lprcpilmc sngÿf nb `lsc (aÿenmc ð sn`c), eìs vikrlìðf c nxtrnel,

fcs prnsnftl jrl`turl mnb `lrkurc mn tufgstnfc, nb ùlb fcs c`lsicfl enfcs

fÿenrc mn `crtns.

Nbn`ìðf mn ufl Acol mn Pinrrl.

Pn mnkn tnfnr nf ùnftl?

<. ]ipc mn Eltnrilb l @crtlr.

Elmnrl sðbiml (nf nb snftimc mn bl jikrl)

- ]ipc mn minftn? rn`tc

- Fÿenrc mn minftns? :4

- Miìentrc nxtnricr? 044 ee (<;―),

Elmnrl sðbiml (l trlvés mn bl jikrl).- ]ipc mn minftn? lbtnrfc

- Fÿenrc mn minftns? :4.

- Miìentrc nxtnricr? 044 ee (<;―)




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

>9

]ripbnx.

- ]ipc mn minftn? lbtnrfc

- Fÿenrc mn minftns? nftrn :4 l 74

- Miìentrc nxtnricr? 044 ee (<;―)EMJ.

- ]ipc mn minftn? lbtnrfc

- Fÿenrc mn minftns? nftrn 7; l <41


Elmn`cr c Eibleåfi`cs

Nxistnf trns lbtnrfltivls?

L. Nf Pinrrl @irùblr @cfvnfìcflb

- ]ipc mn minftn? trlpnzcimlb

- Fÿenrc mn minftns? nftrn :4 l 14


K. Nf Pinrrl Nsùlmrlmcrl `cf ifìscr c ìslmcr

- ]ipc mn minftn? Lbtnrfc

- Fÿenrc mn minftns? :4


Nb ifìscr punmn snr minftn.

@. Nf sinrrl @irùblr [lmilb

- ]ipc mn minftn? lbtnrfc (ìfgubc fngltivc)

- Fÿenrc mn minftns? :4- Miìentrc nxtnricr? 044 ee (<;―)

Nstn mis`c tinfn uf miìentrc euy lgumc, pcr tlb ectivc rnquinrn uf

ùimlmc enocr, plrl nvitlr qun sn jrl`turnf sus puftls.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

:4

FC]L. Nb mis`c lprcpilmc nf ufl sinrrl rlmilb, mnkn snr `cf minftns

lbtnrfcs, pnrc `cf nb ìfgubc mn slbiml mn virutl fngltivc. Ns iepcrtlftn

slknr `ðec jufìcfl nb mis`c mn ìfgubc pcsitivc nf nstl eìquifl8 pcr bl

pcsiìðf qun tinfn nb minftn nf nb mis`c y nstn l su vnz sckrn nb eltnrilb,sn lutc lbienftl ùlfmc nstì nf jufìcfleinftc, pcrqun pnreitn qun sn

nftinrrn nf nb eltnrilb mn `crtn. Tcr tlb ectivc fcs cjrn`n lbtcs rinsgcs mn

l`ìmnftlbimlm plrl nb cpnrlric.

]lekiéf ns iepcrtlftn tnfnr ùimlmc `cf éstls anrrleinftls nf bcs

prc`nsc mn trlfspcrtn (nfgul`lblr mnkimlenftn).

Bl neprnsl qun cjrnz`l nb snrviìc mn ljiblmc mnkn tnfnr su nquipc `cf

`nrc vikrlìcfns y utibizlr lkrlsivc milelftlmc lprcpilmc sngÿf nb

prc`nsc (ljiblmc nf sn`c y ljiblmc nf aÿenmc)

;. ]ipc mn Eìquifl Mcfmn ]rlklolrì nb Mis`c (Bl Anrrleinftl)

L. Pinrrl @irùblr @cfvnfìcflb

Pn mnkn utibizlr mis`c `cf ìfgubc pcsitivc.

K. Pinrrl @ir ublr Nsùlmrlml.

Nf éstl eìquifl mnkn alknr mnkn alknr uf ifìscr c sislmcr. Pn utibizl

uf mis`c `cf ìfgubc pcsitivc.

@. Pinrrl @irùblr [lmilb.

Pn utibizl uf mis`c `cf ìfgubc fngltivc. Pi utibizlecs pcsitivc fcs punmn

c`lsicflr jììbenftn uf l`ìmnftn (lb cpnrlric)

Nf ùlftc l bl vnbcìmlm mn `crtn tnfnecs?

]cml anrrleinftl `crtlftn, nx`nptc bls jrnsls `cf vìstlgc, mnknf trlklolr

nftrn =4 l >4 e/sng. Ns bl vnbcìmlm qun sn gnfnrl nf bl lristl els lbtl mn

tcml anrrleinftl `crtlftn8 sn `lbùbl `cf bl siguinftn jðreubl ?




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

:<

Z@ 5 r.p.e. x Ñ x :4.444

r.p.e. 5 mnb non pcrtl anrrleinftls.

Ñ 5 Miìentrc mn bl anrrleinftl nf (ee) 5 0,<=<:

:4.444 5 @cfstlftn

Pi fc `cfc`necs bls r.p.e. mnb non pcrtl anrrleinftl, bls `lbùblecs nf bl

siguinftn jcrel?

f; 5 f< x m<

m;

f; 5 r.p.e. mnb non pcrtl anrrleinftl

f< 5 r.p.e. mnb ectcr

m< 5 miìentrc mn bl pcbnl ectriz

m; 5 miìentrc mn bl pcbnl `cfmuìml.

]lekiéf bcs pcmnecs `lbùblr (r.p.e. mnb non pcrtl anrrleinftl) nf bl

siguinftn jðreubl

r.p.e. 5 Z@ x :4.444Ñ x




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

:;

ELF]NFIEINF]C Y LJIBLMC MN PIN[[LP @I[@^BL[NP

Tlrl qun ufl sinrrl ìrùblr mn entlb murc mé su rnfmieinftc eìxiec mnknrì snr

kinf ùimlml.

Bl plrtn eìs iepcrtlftn mn su elftnfieinftc ns nb rnljåblmc.

Mnknrì rnljåblrsn nf nb ecenftc cpcrtufc.^fl sinrrl ìrùblr mn entlb murc mnknrì rnljåblrsn sineprn lftns mn qun sn alylmnsglstlmc su jibl Y lftns mn qun nb `lbcr prcmuìmc pcr bl jri`ìðf mntnricrn nbtnfsicflmc mn bl ìrùblr.

Nb båeitn n`cfðei`c plrl nb rnljåblmc nstì lprcxielmlenftn lb lb`lfzlrsn ufmnsglstn mn kisnb mn 4,; ee.

Fcrelbenftn ufl sinrrl ìrùblr mn entlb murc punmn ljiblrsn mn ;4 l ;> vn`ns,

sngÿf nb tlelüc mn bl pbl`l mn entlb murc. @ulfmc bl pblquitl mn entlb murc altnfimc uf mnsglstlmc mn 4,0 ee. fc rnsubtl yl rnftlkbn nb rnljiblmc. Bcs `cstns mnrnljåblmc rnsubtlf mnelsilmc lbtcs y pcr bc tlftc bl ìrùblr mnknrì snr mnsnàlml.

Nstn rnljiblmc mnkn al`nrsn `lml <44 acrls mn trlkloc `cfsnùtivc.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

:0

[nljåblmc lmnùlmc.

Nstn ns nb prc`nsc fcrelb mn trlkloc lb rnljåblr bls sinrrls ìrùblrns mn entlb murc?

<. Biepinzl.;. Ifspn`ìðf.0. Pcbmlmc mn bcs minftns.=. Lpblflmc y tnfsicflmc.

Ljiblmc mn bl plrtn pcstnricr mn bcs minftns.>. Ljiblmc mnb ìfgubc mn slbiml.

<. Biepinzl mn bl Pinrrl.Bl scml `ìusti`l (< mn scml pcr > mn lgul) nf uf rnìpinftn pbìsti`c sn

mnpcsitl bl anrrleinftl y sn mnol pcr <> eifutcs, bungc sn blvl `cf lgul y snrneunvn bl rnsifl `cf uf `npibbc pbìsti`c.

;. Pcbmlmc mn Minftns.

@cftrcblr si aly lbgufcs minftns mntnricrlmcs. Pi jlbtlf pbl`ls mn entlb murc cnstìf euy mntnricrlmls mnknrì prn`nmnrsn l su rnpcsiìðf.

L. \uitlr bcs pcsikbns rnstcs mn entlb murc `lbnftlfmc `cf ufl pnqunülbblel. Biepilr y rnklolr nb lbcoleinftc mn bl pbl`l mn entlb murc.

K. Mnsnfgrlsn bl pblquitl mn entlb murc y nb lsinftc mn bl eisel,blvìfmcbls `cf tri`bcrcntibnfc c l`ntcfl.

@. ^ftlr nb lsinftc mn bl pbl`l y nb l`nrc mn bcs lbrnmnmcrns `cf jufmnftn.

Pcbmlmurl Nbé`tri`l




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

:=

M. @cbc`lr nb eltnrilb mn scbmlmurl nf nb lsinftc mn bl pbl`l. Nepbnlr uflspifzls c anrrleinftl sieiblr. ]nfnr ùimlmc mn fc tc`lr nb eltnrilb mnscbmlmurl mnsnfgrlslmc `cf bcs mnmcs.

N. Nb minftn sn alrì `cifìmir nf nb lbcoleinftc nepbnlfmc ufls pifzls. Bl

plrtn pcstnricr mnb minftn mnsnfgrlslmc fc mnknrì tc`lrsn `cf bcsmnmcs.

J. Elftnfnr nb minftn nf nb lbcoleinftc `cf ufl anrrleinftl lmnùlmlmurlftn tcmc nb tinepc qun murn bl scbmlmurl. @lbnftlr ùimlmcslenftn`cf ufl bblel pnqunül nb eltnrilb situlmc lbrnmnmcr mnb minftn. @ulfmcnb eltnrilb mn scbmlmurl sn jufml sn cprieirì nb minftn mn ecmc qunnftrn nf su lbcoleinftc.

Pcbmlmurl pcr Gls

G. Mn bcs sistnels qun nxistnf nf bl ifmustril, nb eìs rn`cenfmlmc ns nb

mn cxil`ntibnfc. Al`nr `lekic tctlb FC ns rnftlkbn y mntnricrl euàc nbùnrpc mnb mis`c.

Pi aly vlrics minftns mntnricrlmcs ufc lb blmc mnb ctrc, mnknrì nvitlrsn suscbmlmurl `cfsnùtivl, yl qun nb `lbcr sn nsplr`n alstl nb prðxiec minftn.Pcbmlr pcr bc tlftc ufl mn `lml mcs minftns (<,0,>, nt`.) y vcbvnr bungc lnepnzlr (;,=,:, nt`.)

0. Lpblflmc y tnfsicflmc.@cftrcblr qun bl sinrrl nsté pblfl y qun tnfgl nb tnfsicflmc `crrn`tc. ^f klf`cmn trlkloc lmnùlmc y kinf nquiplmc jlìbitl nb trlkloc mn nfmnrnzlmc. @uimlr qun bl buz ifìml mnsmn mnblftn. Pi bl acol nstì kinf tnfslml sn vnrì ufllknrturl mn buz nf tcmc su miìentrc.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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Pi bl vnbcìmlm mn `crtn ns supnricr sn rnquinrn uf tnfsicflmc elycr. Nbtnfsicflmc mnknrì nstlr kinf mistrikuimc pcr tcml bl ìrùblr. @cftrcblr nstc `cfufl rngbl, qun mnknrì tnfnr lprcxielmlenftn bl eisel bcfgitum qun nb rlmicmn bl ìrùblr. Pi sn mnsùkrnf elfàls sunbtls c jiols, mnknrìf igulblrsn `cf

uf elrtibbc rnmcfmc. Mn fc al`nrsn sc pnrmnrì bl ufijcreimlm nf bl elràl mcbl ìrùblr. @cbc`lr bl ìrùblr vnrti`lb sckrn nb lpcyc, `cftrcblr `cf ufl rngbl

blrgl si bl ìrùblr nstì pblfl pcr lekcs blmcs. Pi bl acol tinfn prctuknrlfìls cnstì mnsigulb, mnknrì snr igulblml `cf uf elrtibbc.

=. Ljiblmc mn bl plrtn pcstnricr mn bcs minftns.

Bl plrtn pcstnricr mn bcs minftns (ùnrpc mn bl sinrrl) sn rnklolrì,lprcxielmlenftn 4,0 ee. (Grlfubcentrål :4, murnzl O-H). @uimlr qun sn

elftnfgl nb nsplìc mn virutls crigiflb mn bl sinrrl. Pi nb nsplìc mn virutlsmnkimc lb mnsglstn mnb minftn ns mnelsilmc pnqunüc, mnknrì ljiblrsn nb jcfmcmnb minftn.

044 -=44 ->44 -:<4 -:>4 -7>4 -

044 ee=44 ee>44 ee:<4 ee:>4 ee7>4 ee1:4 ee944 ee

4,< - 4,0 ee4,; - 4,> ee4,0 - 4,: ee4,> - 4,1 ee4,: - 4,1 ee4,1 - <,4 ee<,4 - <,; ee<,; - <,= ee

ЭЭЭЭЭЭЭЭ

9>4 ee <,= - <,: ee<444 ee <,: - <.7 ee<4>4 ee <,7 - <,1 ee<<44 ee <,1 - <,9 ee<<>4 ee <,9 - ;,4 ee<;44 ee ;,4 - ;,< ee<;>4 ee ;,< - ;,; ee<044 ee ;,; - ;,0 ee




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

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Nb lvlf`n pcr ecvieinftc mn péfmubc mnknrì snr mn 4,4< - eìx. 4.4;

]nfnr ùimlmc nspnìlbenftn ùlfmc nb ljiblmc snl nf sn`c, mn ecmc qun fc snprcmuz`lf grintls supnrjiìlbns nf nb entlb murc. Pi bl eunbl sn al ckstruimc, pcr nonepbc, mnspués mn alknr ljiblmc nb ùnrpc mn bl acol, mnknrì biepilrsn `cf uflanrrleinftl. Pi bl eunbl nstì mntnricrlml c lblknlml mnknrì rnplrlrsn `cf bl

anrrleinftl mn milelftn.

Elftnfnr bcs ìfgubcs crigiflbns mnb minftn mn bl sinrrl,

Mnjifiìcfns mn ìfgubcs?

L 5 Ìfgubc mn ifìmnfìl supnricr.K 5 Ìfgubc mn ltlqun.@ y @ 5 [lmilbns c bltnrlbns.M 5 Ifìmnfìl mnblftnrc.




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Ìfgubc mn ifìmnfìl Pupnricr.Pn rn`ceinfml qun snl mn <4 - <;´. Bl junrzl mn `crtn fc rnsubtl enfcr si nbìfgubc ns elycr mn <;´ pnrc sn mnkibitl nb jibc.

Ìfgubc mn ifìmnfìl tlfgnfìlb.Pn rn`ceinfml qun snl mn 0´.

Ìfgubc mn ifìmnfìl rlmilbPn rn`ceinfml qun snl mn <,>´. Pi sn cktinfnf prckbnels `cf bls if`rustlìcfnsnf bl sinrrl, nb ìfgubc punmn if`rnenftlrsn l ; ð 0´.

Ìfgubc mn kisnb mnblftnrcPn rn`ceinfml `cec eìxiec mn >´. Pi nb ìfgubc ns elycr sn mnkibitl nb jibc.

Ìfgubc mn LtlqunTunmn snr mnsmn ->´ alstl +0> , sngÿf nb eltnrilb qun sn al mn lsnrrlr?->´ ]rcfzlmc mn elmnrl nf sinrrl pnfmublr.

Lsnrrlmc prnvic mn tlkbnrcs nfàlplmcs.+>´ Lsnrrlmc mn pbìsti`cs murcs y mn tlkbnrcs nfàlplmcs y bleiflmcs.

Lsnrrlmc mn entlbns.+7´ Lsnrrlmc mn entlbns.+1´ Lsnrrlmc mn acreigðf pcrcsc y mn blmribbcs.

+<4´ Lsnrrlmc mn elmnrl. Nsùlmrlmc mn tlkbnrcs y mn jikrl mn elmnrl, mnynscs, tlkbnrcs lgbcenrlmcs y tlkbnrcs nfàlplmcs.

+<>´ Lsnrrlmc mn tlkbnrcs nfàlplmcs, `cftrlàlplmcs, bleiflmcs, tukcs mn`lrtðf (kckifls), y lsnrrlmc mn elmnrl lb ifgbntn.

+;4´ Lsnrrlmc bcfgitumiflb mn elmnrl sn`l y lsnrrlmc mn pbìsti`cs kblfmcs.+04-0>´ Lsnrrlmc bcfgitumiflb mn elmnrl vnrmn.

Mnspués mnb ljiblmc mn bls sinrrls `cf minftns KL y KM mnknrì `cftrcblrsn qunbls puftls mn bcs minftns nstéf l bl eisel lbturl nf nb blmc izquinrmc y mnrnàc.

Tunmn vnriji`lrsn jììbenftn si bcs minftns nstìf kinf alìnfmc girlr bl sinrrl`cftrl trczc mn plrljifl.




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Lbel`nfleinftc

Ifenmiltlenftn mnspués mnb ljiblmc mnknrì `cbc`lrsn bl sinrrl ìrùblr mn ecmcqun, qunmn prctngiml `cftrl gcbpns. ^fl sinrrl mn entlb murc fc mnknrì `cbc`lrsn

fuf`l sckrn ufl klsn murl. ]lbns `cec acreigðf `blvcs c tceibbcs, Gulrmlr sineprn bls sinrrls nf neklblons prctn`tcrns. Bcs minftns mn bls sinrrls grlfmnsmnknrìf prctngnrsn lmneìs `cf ufl jufml mn pbìsti`c.

Ecftlon^sn uf ifmi`lmcr mn `lrìtubl plrl `ceprcklr qun nb pbltc fc nstì tcrìmc finstrcpnlmc fi suìc. @uimlr tlekiéf qun bl ìrùblr nsté kinf `cbc`lml `cf rnblìðf

lb snftimc mnb lvlf`n




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]ipcs mn Tblquitls

LL. Minftns rn`tcs.Nstn tipc tinfn minftns rn`tcs sif kisnbns. Pn nepbnl plrl nb `crtn

bcfgitumiflb mn elmnrl, lsnrrlmc eÿbtipbn. Tunmn nepbnlrsn plrllbtls vnbcìmlmns mn lvlf`n `cf nxignfìls fcrelbns mnsupnrjiìns mn `crtn.

KL. Minftns mn Kisnb Pupnricr LbtnrfcNstn mnftlmc punmn nepbnlrsn tlftc plrl nb `crtn bcfgitumiflb`cec plrl nb trcfzlmc mn elmnrl y tlekiéf plrl nb lsnrrlmc mn ufgrlf fÿenrc mn ctrcs eltnrilbns. Pn nepbnl tlekiéf plrl nbnsùlmrlmc mn tlkbnrcs. Nstn tipc mn mnftlmc prcpcrìcflsupnrjiìns mn `crtn jifls lb lsnrrlr eltnrilbns qun fc scf jrìgibns.Nb mnftlmc KL ns nb eìs usulb.

KM. Minftns mn kisnbns supnricr y jrcftlb lbtnrfcs.Nstn tipc mn mnftlmc tinfn, grlìls lb ljiblmc ckbiùc mnb kisnb, ufl grlf `lplìmlmmn `crtn. [nsubtl pcr bc tlftc lmnùlmc plrl nb lsnrrlmc mn eltnrilbns jrìgibns,`cec pcr nonepbc, `cftrlàlplmcs, elmnrl nfàlplml, kckifls y tukcs mn plpnb

y `lrtðf, nt`.

@L. Minftns `cf kisnb supnricr alìl bl mnrnàl.

ML. Minftns `cf kisnb supnricr alìl bl izquinrml.Nstn tipc tinfn tcmcs bcs minftns ljiblmcsckbiùlenftn alìl nb eisec snftimc (@L alìl blmnrnàl, ML alìl bl izquinrml). Nstn tipc mn mnftlmcprcpcrìcfl `crtns `cf supnrjiìns jifls. Pn nepbnl plrl nbprn`crtlmc, trlzlmc, nfslekblmc l nspigl y plrl nbnsùlmrlmc mn tlkbnrcs.




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[L. Minftns `cf plrtn supnricr ljiblml rn`tl y blmcs `ðfi`cs.

Nstn tipc mn mnftlmc tinfn minftns `cf plrtn supnricr ljiblml nfrn`tc y blmcs `ðfi`cs. Pn nepbnl plrl trlzlr y plrtir tlkbnrcs.

NL/NLE. Mnftlmc trlpnzcimlb.

Minftns mn prn`crtlmc y pcst`crtlmc. Nb prienr minftn `crtl lelycr prcjufmimlm qun nb sngufmc nb ùlb l su vnz al`n uf `crtneìs lfàc. Mn nstl elfnrl bls virutls sn mivimnf nf trns plrtns.Pn nepbnl plrl nb lsnrrlmc mn entlbns, pbìsti`cs murcs y plrl nblsnrrlmc bcfgitumiflb mn elmnrl. Grlìls l bl jcrel mn bcsminftns sn rnmu`nf `cfsimnrlkbnenftn bcs nsjunrzcs bltnrlbns ypcr bc tlftc prcmu`nf uf `crtn eìs rn`tc. [nsubtlmc lmnùlmcplrl nb lsnrrlmc eÿbtipbn mn elmnrl.

LJIBLMC MN @^@AIBBLP [N@]LP




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Bc prienrc qun mnknecs `cfc`nr ns nb eltnrilb. Aly euàcs eltnrilbns lptcsplrl jlkri`lr ùàibbls rn`tls, pnrc nb qun cjrn`n bls `cfmiìcfns eåfiels ns nbh<44. Miàc eltnrilb ns rn`tiji`lmc, bungc sn bn al`n uf trltleinftc térei`c l :4´[c`hwnII @ y bungc uf rn`tiji`lmc, sn bn ml nb jibc rnqunrimc.

Fcrels mn utibizlìðf plrl ùàibbls rn`tls?

<- Pn utibizl alstl `cfsueir nb 04% mnb lfàc ifiìlb. Mn nstl enmiml nf lmnblftnns euy rinsgcsc utibizlr bls ùàibbls.

;- Bls ùàibbls mnknf tnfnr? igulb blrgc, igulb lfàc n igulb nspnscr plrl qunfcs mn igulb pnsc. Pi fc tnfnecs igulb pnsc nf nb oungc mn ùàibbls, fcspunmn c`lsicflr rinsgcs mn l`ìmnftn y bcs rcmleinftcs sn mntnricrl eìs

rìpimc.

0- Fc ns rn`cenfmlkbn ljiblr bls ùàibbls elfulbenftn, pcrqun nstn prc`nsc fcprnsnftl `cfmiìcfns ðptiels plrl uf kunf ljiblmc.

=- Ns rn`cenfmlkbn ljiblr bls ùàibbls nf elquifl, plrl miàc prc`nsc sn mnknal`nr `cf `cpl rn`tl, nstc fcs pnreitn ufl supnrjiìn pblfl y bl vnbcìmlm mn`crtn `cfstlftn. Bl `cpl `ðfi`l l enmiml qun miseifuyn nb miìentrc (`cfc),miseifuyn bl vnbcìmlm mn `crtn mlfmc `cec rnsubtlmc, mnjiìnfìl nf nb

ljiblmc. Pi tnfnecs lkrlsivcs tipc ufc fcs ml ufl supnrji in `ðf`lvc, bl ùlbsn rcepn (puftl) murlftn nb `crtn.

>- Tlrl rnljiblr bls ùàibbls rn`tls, mnknecs tnfnr uf ecftlon, qun fcs pnreitltnfnr nb oungc `cepbntc ecftlmc nf bl eìquifl8 nstc fcs pnreitn qun blsùàibbls qunmnf igulbns.

:- Mnspués mn tnreiflr nb rnljiblmc sn prc`nmn lb l`nftlmc mn bls ùàibbls `cf

uf lkrlsivc euy jifc (punmn snr jifc mn <;4 l ;;4). Nf éstn prc`nsc kus`lecsmcs `csls? ufl, quitlr bl rnklkl y ctrl, klolr bcs rlycfns mnolmcs pcr nblkrlsivc mn bl eìquifl qun gnfnrlbenftn utibizl grlfc :4.

7- Ns mn rnslbtlr qun ljiblr `cf prnsnfìl mnb rnjrignrlftn fcs pnreitn cktnfnr enocrns rnsubtlmcs.




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Nb lkrlsivc plrl ljiblr mnkn snr? tipc `cpl rn`tl y rnjnrnfìl LL:4O1Z.

Nb ìfgubc mn bls ùàibbls plrl elmnrl murl mnkn snr mn >;´.

Nb ìfgubc mn bls ùàibbls plrl elmnrl enmilfl murnzl mnkn snr mn =>c

Nb ìfgubc mn bls ùàibbls plrl elmnrl kblf`l mnkn snr mn 04´

Nb ìfgubc prcenmic nf nb ljiblmc mn ùàibbls rn`tls ns mn? =0´ L =:'

@CFP][^@@IÐF Y LJIBLMC MN @^@AIBBLP MN JC[EL C ECBM^[L

Bcs eltnrilbns lprcpilmcs plrl `cfstru`ìðf mn ùàibbls mn jcrel scf? H<44,H<4>, H<<4, QW>, QW<4, QW=<, ];414, C<. Nstcs scf l`nrcs nspnìlbns bcsùlbns sn lmquinrnf nf pbltifls.

Miàl pbltifl sn rn`tiji`l, bungc sn al`n trltleinftc térei`c plrl cktnfnr uflmurnzl mn :4 [c`hwnII @, mnspués mn nstn prc`nsc sn prc`nmn l rnlbizlr ufrn`tiji lmc jiflb, qunmlfmc nb eltnrilb bistc plrl `crtlr nf bls mienfsicfnsrnqunrimls.

TLPCP TL[L BL @CFP][^@@IÐF MN BLP @^@AIBBLP MN JC[EL

<. ]nfnr nb eltnrilb lprcpilmc plrl bl `cfstru`ìðf mn bls ùàibbls. NF @LPC MN\^N PN ]NFGL ][CETC? mcfmn sn ecftlrålf bls ùàibbls.

Tcmnecs tnfnr eltnrilb `cf ìfgubcs mn suonìðf mn :4´, miàls ùàibbls snecftlrlf nf `lknzlb lprcpilmc plrl `lml ùàibbl. Nf ufc mn sus `lftcs mn:4c bbnvl nstråls, bls ùlbns sn lbcolf nf uf tcrfibbc acrizcftlb mnb enfìcflmc`lknzlb.

NF @LPC MN \^N PN ]NFGL ECBM^[LMC[L? sn plrtn nb tipc mn `lknzlbqun sn tnfgl.




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Pi ns uf `lknzlb `cf nstråls nf bl `lrl cpunstl lb pisl ùàibbl, nftcf`ns snlmquinrn eltnrilb `cf miàl `lrl`tnråsti l, vinfnf nf mivnrscs lfàcs y `cfnspnscr mn 1ee. ]lekiéf nf l`nrcs rìpimcs (AP) y l`nrcs nxtrlrìpimcs(APP).

;. Imnftiji`lr bl eìquifl mcfmn sn prcmuìrì bl ecbmurl.

Bl elquifl fcs prcpcr icfl nbnenftcs `cec? girc mnb non mcfmn sn `cbc`lrlfbls ùàibbls, nb fÿenrc mn ùàibbls y mienfsicfns mn bcs eisecs. Nstn ÿbtiecmltc ns fn`nslric plrl mntnreiflr bl pblftibbl fn`nslril plrl `cfstruir blsùàibbls.

0. JLK[I@L@IÐF MN BL TBLF]IBBL

Nstl punmn snr nf l`nrc lb `lrkcfc si bl prcmu`ìðf (rnljiblmc) ns euy lbtl ðnf l`råbi`c si bl prcmu` iðf ns klol (rnljiblmc).

Tlrl bl `cfstru`ìðf mn nstl pblftibbl sn rnquinrn, pnmlzc mn ecbmurl (enmimlsrnlbns).

Tblfc ns`lbl <?< mn bl ecbmurl.

Nbnenftcs mn trlzc? Tblftibbls ìr ublrns. Tblftibbls mn ðvlbcs, rlylmcr,nsùlmrl. @cepìs mn puftls, `lbikrlmcr pin mn rny. Biels? rnmcfml, enmil

`lül, pblfl, ùàibbls y biels mn ocynrål.

Pn trlzl bl bleifl mn l`nrc c l`råbi c y sn prc`nmn l mnsklstlr plrl bungcal`nr uf loustn `cf bls biels, tnreiflfmc `cf bls mn ocynrål. Bl supnrjiìn pcr mlfmc ìrùblrl nb plbplmcr sn pubn `cf biol, nstc fcs glrlftizl qun lb trlklolr nb lkrlsivc qunml els pubiml bl ùàibbl.

=. MIENFPICFLMC MNB EL]N[ILBTlrtinfmc mn bl elquifl mcfmn sn trlklol bl ecbmurl y yl tnreiflmc bl pblftibbl

sn mntnreifl bl mienfsiðf mnb eltnrilb y sn `crtl.

Tlrl nbbc sn utibizl uf mis`c `cf rnjunrzc mn jikrl y nb nspnscr ns mn </<:", bcqun fcs pnreitn trlklolr sif rinsgcs mn qunelr nb eltnrilb lb `crtlrbc, blrnjnrnfìl L=:]OK.

>. LT[CQIEL@IÐF




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@cf nb mis`c lftns enfìcflmc, al`necs `crtns mnb eltnrilb qun fcs sckrl ybungc nf uf nsenrib mn pnmnstlb mlecs nb ìfgubc qun rnquinrlf bls ùàibbls,mnpnfminfmc bl murnzl mn bl elmnrl y plrl nbbc tcelecs bc rn`cenfmlmc nfùàibbls rn`tls. Tlrl nstn prc`nsc trlklolecs cf uf lkrlsivc LL:4O1Z.

:. JIFLBI_L@IÐF

Nf bl pnrjiblmcrl prc`nmnecs lb ecftlon y loustn mn bl pblftibbl, plbplmcr yùàibbl plrl tnreiflr nb trlkloc. Fc pcmnecs cbvimlr nb lkrlsivc nb ùlb mnknsnr l`crmn lb prc`nsc? ljiblmc c rnljiblmc8 nb prienrc `cf uf grlfc :4 y nbsngufmc `cf uf grlfc 148 pnrc si utibizlecs ufl enz`bl mn trns grlfcs, fcaly fn`nsimlm mn mcs lkrlsivcs.

Al`necs nb puftc > pcrqun nb lkrlsivc ns mn enfcr `cstc qun nb lkrlsivcutibizlmc nf bl pnrjiblmcrl.

Fc sckrl lfctlr qun mnkn nxistir prienrc ufl kunfl rnjrignrlìðf y lkrlsivcsmn mnsklstn y lkrlsivcs mn pubienftc.

7. ZN[IJI@L@ICF

]nfinfmc ufl klsùbl grlenrl vnriji`lecs nb pnsc mn tcmls bls ùàibbls, plrl

bungc al`nr nb lsnftlmc mn bls eisels y plslr l `cbc`lrbls nf bl `lknzl plrlbbévlbls l bl ecbmurlmcrl y vnriji`lr jiflbenftn su jcrel y `ceplrlmls `cf nb

pblfc c bl ecbmurl ifi ilb.




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EÌ\^IFLP KÌPI@LP TL[L NB T[C@NPC MN BL ELMN[L




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<. [nlsnrrlmcrl.Eìquifl sifjåf `cf vcblftns gnfnrlbenftn supnricrns l 94 è. ^tibizl uflanrrleinftl mn `lbikrn nftrn <9 (< ee.) y <1 (<,; ee). Pn utibizl lb `ceinfzc

mnb prc`nsc ([nlsnrrlmc)

;. [nlsnrrlmcrl W.Eìquifl qun elfnol anrrleinftl mn < ²― nf su lfàc. Nf éstl eìquifl snml `lrl y `lftc, y nf euàcs `lscs bl utibizlf `cec rnrlsnrrlmcrl. Ns ufleìquifl euy bnftl.

0. Pinrrl [lmilb.Eìquifl qun utibizl mis`c y trlklol pcr nfìel mnb eltnrilb. Tcr éstl rlzðf

mnkn snr nb mis`c `cf ìfgubc fngltivc. Pi bl anrrleinftl ns mn ìfgubc pcsitivc,bl eìquifl sn tcrfl mn lbtc rinsgc plrl nb cpnrlric.

=. Pinrrl @irùblr.Eìquifl mctlml `cf mis`c mn ìfgubc pcsitivc. Bl anrrleinftl trlklol pcr mnkloc mnb eltnrilb.

>. Pinrrl Pifjif.Eìquifl mn prc`nsc, plrl `cftcrfnlr eltnrilb. ^tibizl Pinrrls @iftl mn </=―,

0/1―, </;", ¶―, <―

:. Tblfnlmcrl c @lftnlmcrl.Eìquifl mctlml `cf ùàibbls rn`tls, plrl mlr `lrl y `lftc nf bl elmnrl.

7. @npibbc c Mnsgrunslmcrl.Eìquifl mctlml `cf ùàibbls rn`tls plrl mlr plrlbnbisec nf ufl pinzl mnelmnrl, plrtinfmc mn bl `lrl lftns elquiflml nf bl pblfnlmcrl.

1. ]rcepc c ]upi.

Eìquifl mcfmn sn punmn prc`nslr ecbmurls. Anrrleinftls qun sn utibizlf?jrnsls plrl ìrkcb ð ùàibbls `cf pnrjib c ecbmurlmc plrl ecftlr nf pcrtlùàibbls.

9. [utnlmcrl Ifmustrilb c ]upi mn `lknzlb supnricr.




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Eìquifl mn lbtl rnvcbu iðf (1.444 r.p.e. eåfiec ‐ >;.444 r.p.e. Eìxiec) Tlrlecbmurlr c rutnlr `cf jrnsls mn vìstlgc.

<4.Nsùlmrlmcrl.

Eìquifl mctlml `cf Pinrrl (mis`c) prifìplb y sinrrl snùfmlril (mis`c) ifìscr plrl `crtlr eltnrilb nf bìeifl, lgbcenrlmcs. Fc ns plrl `crtlr elmnrl sðbiml.

<<.Pn`ìcflmcrl c @[email protected] sieiblr l bl eìquifl lftnricr, pnrc ns prcgrlelkbn. Mispcfn mn bls eiselsanrrleinftls (mis`cs).

<;.[utnlmcrl @F@Ns ufl rutnlmcrl prcgrlelkbn, pnrc qun nf lbgufcs `lscs pcsnn uf lbel`éf

mn anrrleinftls, mcfmn tcel bl anrrleinftl sngÿf nb prcgrlel8 utibizl mis`cspnqunücs (<;4 ee nf miìentrc)

<0.Trnfsl [ctltivlEìquifl plrl lrelr tlkbnrcs (bistcfns nf`cblmcs)

<=.]lblmrc KltinftnEìquifl mctlml `cf krc`ls (izquinrmls y mnrnàls) plrl pnrjcrlìcfnseÿbtipbns sistnel 0;. Tcsnn ufl ensl qun bl `cbc`lecs acrizcftlbenftn c

vnrti`lbenftn.

<>.Nfàlplmcrl mn @lftcs [n`tcs.Eìquifl plrl ùkrir bcs `lftcs mn uf tlkbnrc, `cf ìftl nf TZ@ c àlpibbls(jcrels rn`tls).

<:.Nfàlplmcrl plrtns urvls.Eìquifl plrl ùkrir bcs `lftcs mn uf tlkbnrc (jcrels ùrvls), `cf ìftl nf TZ@c àlpibbl.

<7.]lblmrc.Eìquifl mctlml `cf elfmrib c pcrtl krc`ls plrl pnrjcrlr. Nxistnf, sckrnklf`c, `cf pnmnstlb c elfulbns.

<1.Nspiglmcrl.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

1<

Eìquifl mctlml `cf ùàibbls rn`tls y uf mis`c pnqunüc, ecftlmcs nf uf`lknzlb rctltivc, plrl prcmuìr nspigls.

<9.Klrrnflmcrl.

Eìquifl mctlml `cf krc`l-jrnsl mn uf jibc, mcs jibcs, trns jibcs ð ùltrc jibcsplrl al`nr `lols, mcfmn sn lbcol bl nspigl lftns enfìcflml.

;4.Ecbmurlmcrl.Eìquifl mctlml mn vlrics ìrkcbns (acrizcftlbns y vnrti`lbns) nf uf elmnrc mnufl plslml. Trc`nslecs ùltrc `lrls lb eisec tinepc. Pn `cfouglf ùltrceìquifls (pblfnlmcrl, trcepc ; ufimlmns y `npibbc)

;<.Biolmcrl @lbikrlmcrl.

Eìquifl mctlml `cf mcs biols? ufl mn < grlfc eìs grunsc y ufl mn uf grlfceìs mnbglmc plrl `lbikrlr tlkbnrcs.

;;.@npibbc Biolmcr.Nstl eìquifl nstì mctlml `cf ufl biol euy grunsl, qun punmn snr grlfc ;: c0:. Ns nspnìlb plrl trlklolr tlkbnrcs nf`cblmcs.

;0.Biolmcrl Acrizcftlb.Eìquifl mctlml `cf ufl biol acrizcftlb grlfc mnbglmc plrl rn`tiji`lr nf nb

snftimc mn bl jikrl (nspnìlb plrl tlkbnrc c pinzls grlfmns

;=.Biolmcrl Znrti`lb.Eìquifl mctlml `cf biol grlfc mnbglmc, misnülml plrl trlklolr pinzlspnqunüls c ùrvls.

;>.]crfc Tlrl Elmnrl.Eìquifl plrl trlklolr elmnrl (tcrfnlmc bcfgitumiflb y trlfsvnrslb).Cpnrlìcfns fntlenftn elfulbns.

;:.]crfc Tlrl Entlb.Eìquifl plrl trlklolr tcmc tipc mn entlbns. Bcfgitumiflbenftn,trlfsvnrslbenftn y rcs`lmc. Nf lbgufcs `lscs sn al`nf lbgufcs rn`tiji`lmcs.Nf nstl eìquifl sn trlklol `cf anrrleinftls `cec? kuribns, jrnsls, krc`ls.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

1;

EÌ\ÎFLP TL[L LJIBLMC MN AN[[LEINF]LP @C[]LF]NP TL[L BLIFM^P][IL MN BL ELMN[L

<. Ljiblmcrl mn @uàibbls [n`tls.Pn rnljiblf ùàibbls, pblfls c rn`tls, bls ùlbns sn `cbc`lf nf. Tblfnlmcrls ð`lftnlmcrls, `npibbcs, ecbmurls y trcepcs.

;. Ljiblmcrl mn Jrnsls. Lbbå sn rnljiblf jrnsls `cf vìstlgc, tlekiéf krc`ls, krc`ls-jrnsls mn uf jibc,mcs jibcs, trns jibcs y ùltrc jibcs ([utnlmcrls Elfulbns c ifmustrilbns)

0. Ljiblmcrl mn Pinrrls @iftl.

Pn triz`lf y ljiblf sinrrls @iftl (sn utibizl nf Pifjifns)

=. Ljiblmcrl Tnrjiblmcrl.Pn ljiblf y rnljiblf ùàibbls mn jcrel c pnrjiblmls (utibizlmls nf trcepcs yecbmurlmcrls)

>. Ljiblmcrl mn Pinrrls Klfml.Pn ljiblf anrrleinftls bblelmls, Pinrrls Klfml. ^tibizlmls nf rnlsnrrlmcrls.

:. ]nfsicflmcrl.Eìquifl bblelml tlekiéf bleiflmcrl. Tlrl al`nr tnfsiðf mn ùnrpc y mcrsc nf

bl sinrrl Klfml.

7. Lpbi`lmcrl mn Ptnbbitn.Pcbmlmcr mn stnbbitn plrl sinrrls klfml.

1. Ljiblmcrl ^fivnrslb. Ljiblmcrl plrl anrrleinftls, sngÿf tnfgl bcs mispcsitivcs plrl ljiblr.

9. Pcbmlmcr mn @iftls.Eìquifl plrl scbmlr sinrrls ìftl mn ²― l ;― mn lfàc

<4.Pcbmlmcr mn Pinrrls Klfml.Eìquifls plrl scbmlr Pinrrls Klfml mn 0― l 1― mn lfàc8 sistnel EIG




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

10

<<.Ljiblmcrl mn @uàibbls [n`tls.Pn rnljiblf ùàibbls, pblfls c rn`tls, bls ùlbns sn `cbc`lf nf. Tblfnlmcrls ð`lftnlmcrls, `npibbcs, ecbmurls y trcepcs.

<;.Nsenrib.Eìquifl mctlml `cf ; lkrlsivcs plrl ljiblr c rnljiblr anrrleinftls vlrils.Nxistn sckrn klf`c c mn pnmnstlb.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

1=

LJIBLMC MN K[C@LP

]ipcs mivnrscs mn vnriji`lmcrns mn ìfgubcs.Bls jigurls siguinftns prnsnftlf mivnrscs tipcs, plrl mijnrnftns uscs.

Pcf anrrleinftls mn `crtn mn jcrel ìbåfmri`l `cf rlfurls rn`tls c anbi`cimlbns,tnepblmls, tnreiflf nf puftl `ðfi`l y ljiblml `cf uf ìfgubc mntnreiflmc. Pcfutibizlmls plrl al`nr lguonrcs ìbåfmri`cs nf bcs mivnrscs eltnrilbns.

Bcs tipcs eìs uslmcs scf bls krc`ls anbi`cimlbns.

Jig. < Krc`l anbi`cimlb mn nspigl ìbåfmri`l

Jig, ; Krc`l anbi`cimlb mn nspigl `ðfi`l.

@L[L@]N[ÅP]I@LP.

Bls krc`ls sn `lrl`tnrizlf pcr bl enmiml mnb miìentrc, jcrel mn bl nspigl yeltnrilb mn jlkri`lìðf.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

1>

EL]N[ILB MN BL K[C@L.

Ns jlkri`lml, nf gnfnrlb, mn l`nrc rìpimc y l`nrc lb `lrkcfc. Bls krc`ls mn l`nrcrìpimc sn utibizlf nf trlklocs qun rnquinrnf lbtls vnbcìmlmns mn `crtn. Nstls

krc`ls cjrn`nf elycr rnsistnfìl lb mnsglstn y lb `lbcr, sinfmc pcr tlftc eìsn`cfðei`ls qun bls krc`ls mn l`nrc lb `lrkcfc ùyc nepbnc tinfmn lmnslplrn`nr nf bl ifmustril.

]ITCP Y FCENF@BL]^[L.

Bls jågs. < y ; eunstrlf mcs mn bcs tipcs eìs uslmcs qun sðbc mijinrnf nf bl`cfstru`ìðf mn bl nspigl. Bls krc`ls mn nspigl ìbåfmri`l sn utibizlf suontls nf ufpcrtl-krc`ls y sn jlkri`lf, fcrelbenftn, alstl uf miìentrc eìxiec mn bl nspigl

mn </;".

Bls krc`ls mn miìentrcs elycrns mn </;" utibizlf nspigl `ðfi`l plrl ecftlmls

mirn`tlenftn nf nb eusibbc mn bls eìquifls8 nstc pnreitn lsngurlr `cf jirenzl lnstls krc`ls qun mnknf scpcrtlr grlfmns nsjunrzcs nf nb `crtn.

Nb ìfgubc mn bl puftl mn bl krc`l vlrål mn lùnrmc `cf nb eltnrilb l tlblmrlr. Bltlkbl siguinftn ifmi`l bcs ìfgubcs rn`cenfmlkbns plrl bcs eltnrilbns eìs`ceufns?

Bls lristls mn `crtn mnknf tnfnr bl eisel bcfgitum (jåg.=).Nb ìfgubc mn ifìmnfìl mnkn tnfnr mn 9´ l <>´ (jåg.>)

Nf nstls `cfmiìcfns sn cktinfn ufl enocr pnfntrlìðf mn bl krc`l nf nb eltnrilb.

fgubcs Eltnrilbns

<<1´ L`nrc kblfmc (jåg. 0)

<>4´ Bìeifls alstl 0 ee. mn nspnscr

<;>´ L`nrc jcrolmc

<44´ @ckrn y lbueific

94´ Ainrrc jufmimc y lbnlìcfns bignrls

:4´ Tbìsti`cs, jikrls y elmnrls




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

1:

C][CP ]ITCP MN K[C@LP

Krc`l mn `nftrlr? Nstl krc`l pnreitn al`nr bcs lguonrcs mn `nftrc nf bls pinzlsqun vlf l snr tcrfnlmls, jrnslmls c rn`tiji`lmls nftrn puftls (jågs. : y 7).

Krc`l mn Crijiìcs mn [njrignrlìðf? Pcf uslmls plrl prcmu`ìðf `cftiful y nflbtl vnbcìmlm, qun nxign lkufmlftn bukri`lìðf, prifìplbenftn nf lguonrcsprcjufmcs (jågs. 1 y 9)

Nb båquimc mn rnjrignrlìðf sn ifyn`tl l lbtl prnsiðf. Nf nb `lsc mn ainrrc jufmimc ymn bcs entlbns fc jnrrcscs, sn lprcvnàlf bcs crijiìcs plrl ifyn`tlr lirn`ceprieimc qun pnreitn nxpubslr bls virutls y pcbvc.

Krc`ls mn `lflbns rn`tcs y krc`ls tipc `lüðf? Bl krc`l mn bl Jig.<4 prnsnftl mcs

`lflbns rn`tibåfncs y ns uslml nspnìlbenftn plrl tlblmrlr krcf`n y bltðf.

Bl mn bl Jig. <<, krc`l tipc `lüðf, tinfn uf ùnrpc snei-ìbåfmri c `cf ufl scbllristl mn `crtn. Ns lprcpilml plrl lguonrcs prcjufmcs y mn pnqunücs miìentrcs,punstc qun lmneìs mn snr eìs rckustl qun bls krc`ls anbi`cimlbns, utibizlf nbprcpic lguonrc `cec guål.

Krc`ls eÿbtipbns c ns`lbcflmls? Pcf nepbnlmls nf trlklocs mn prcmu`ìðf nfsnrin (jågs. <; y <0).




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

17

Pirvnf plrl nonùtlr nf ufl eisel cpnrlìðf lguonrcs y bcs rnklons rnspn`tivcs.

@cfmiìcfns mn usc? Bls krc`ls, plrl snr utibizlmls `cf kunf rnfmieinftc, mnknf

nstlr kinf ljiblmls, `cf bl nspigl nf kunfls `cfmiìcfns y kinf lsngurlmls.

@cfsnrvlìðf? Ns fn`nslric nvitlr `låmls, gcbpns, biepilrbls mnspués mn su usc ygulrmlrbls nf buglr lprcpilmc plrl prctngnr su jibc.

ZC@LK^BL[IC ]É@FI@C

@LFLB? Nstrål ‐ rlfurlNPTIGL? @lül - `lkc ‐ elfgc

L[IP]L @C[]LF]N? Blkic `crtlftnEL[GNF? Jlol guål

Mnkimc bl jcrel nspnìlb mn bl krc`l anbi`cimlb, ns prì`ti`lenftn iepcsikbn enmir,mirn`tlenftn y `cf nxl`titum, bcs ìfgubcs ` (ìfgubc `crtlftn), j (ìfgubc mnifìmnfìl) y s (ìfgubc mn slbiml), qun ifjbuynf nf bls `cfmiìcfns mnb `crtn `cf blkrc`l anbi`cimlb (Jig.<=). Bl prì`ti`l ifmi`l, sif neklrgc, lbgufls rngbls plrl nbljiblmc mn bl krc`l qun bn mlf bls enocrns `cfmiìcfns mn `crtn.

@CFMI@ICFNP TL[L \^N ^FL K[C@L ALGL K^NF @C[]N.

<. Nb ìfgubc mn bl puftl mn bl krc`l mnkn snr mn <<1´, plrl trlklocs `ceufns (jig.<>).




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

11

Zlbcrns nspnìlbns rn`cenfmlmcs?

<>4´, plrl bìeifls alstl 0 ee. mn nspnscr.<;>´, plrl l`nrcs jcrolmcs y murcs.

<44´, plrl nb `ckrn y nb lbueific.94´, plrl nb ainrrc jufmimc kblfmc y lbnlìcfns bignrls.:4´, plrl pbìsti`cs, jikrl y elmnrl.

;. Bls lristls `crtlftns mnknf tnfnr, rigurcslenftn, bcfgitumns igulbns, ns mnìr, L 5 Lb (Jig.<:).

0. Nb ìfgubc mn ifìmnfìl mnkn tnfnr mn 9´ l <>´ (jig.<7). Nf nstls `cfmiìcfns,sn ml enocr pnfntrlìðf mn bl krc`l.

Nstlfmc bl krc`l `crrn`tlenftn ljiblml, bl lristl mn bl puftl c puftc eunrtcal`n uf ìfgubc mn <04´, `cf ufl rn`tl qun plsn pcr nb `nftrc mn bls guåls (jig.<1).@ulfmc nstc cùrrn, nb ìfgubc mn ifìmnf il tinfn nb vlbcr lmnùlmc, nftrn 9´ y<>´.

=. Nf nb `lsc mn krc`ls mn elycr miìentrc, bl lristl mn bl puftl, mnkimc l su

tlelüc, mijiùbtl nb `nftrlmc mn bl krc`l y, tlekiéf, su pnfntrlìðf nf nb entlb.Ns fn`nslric, nftcf`ns, rnmuìr su lfàc. Pn mnsklstlf, plrl nsc, bcs `lflbnsmn bl krc`l, `nr`l mn bl puftl (jågs. <9 y ;4). Nstn mnsklstn, anàc nf blnsenriblmcrl, tinfn qun al`nrsn `cf euàc ùimlmc quitlfmc nb eisecnspnscr nf bcs mcs `lflbns.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

19




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

94

[CP@LP

Ns ufl slbinftn mn jcrel anbi`cimlb, qun sn mnslrrcbbl, nxtnrfl c iftnrflenftn,lbrnmnmcr mn ufl supnrjiìn ìbåfmri`l c `ðfi`l. Nsls slbinftns sn mnfceiflf

jibntns. (Jig. <).

Jig. <

TN[JIB

Nb pnrjib ifmi`l bl jcrel mn bl sn`ìðf mnb jibntn mn bl rcs`l, nf uf pblfc qun`cftinfn nb non mnb tceibbc.

l) ]rilfgublr

]ceibbcs y tunr`ls mn jiolìðf, uficfns nf tukcs.

k) ]rlpnzcimlb

Ðrglfcs mn `celfmc mn bls eìquifls - anrrleinftls (plrl trlfseisiðf mnecvieinftc sulvn y ufijcren), ausibbcs, prnfsls mn nstleplr.

`) @ulmrlmc

Nf mnsusc, pnrc sn lpbi`l nf tceibbc mn pinzls suontls l àcquns y grlfmnsnsjunrzcs (prnfsls).

m) Minftn mn sinrrl

@ulfmc nb tceibbc nonr`n grlf nsjunrzc nf uf scbc snftimc,'`cec nf prnfsls ygltcs8 tlekiéf sn utibizl nf bl `cfstru`ìðf mn nbnenftcs mn lrtibbnrål.

n) [nmcfmc

]ceibbcs mn grlfmns miìentrcs qun mnknf scpcrtlr grlfmns nsjunrzcs8nbnenftcs nbé`tri`cs.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

9<

PNF]IMC MN MI[N@@IÐF MNB JIBN]N

Nb jibntn punmn tnfnr mcs snftimcs mn mirn`ìðf.

Eirlfmc nb tceibbc nf pcsi iðf vnrti lb?

Nb jibntn lsìnfmn mn izquinrml l mnrnàl. Nb jibntn lsìnfmn mn mnrnàl l izquinrml.Jåg.; Jåg.0

FCENF@BL]^[L MN BL [CP@L

Ifmnpnfminftnenftn mn su usc, bls rcs`ls tinfnf bcs eisecs nbnenftcs (Jåg.=),vlrilfmc lpnfls nf su jcrel y mienfsicfns.

Jig. =

p 5 plsc.m 5 miìentrc nxtnrfc.m< 5 miìentrc iftnrfc (fÿ`bnc).m; 5 miìentrc enmic

5 ìfgubc mn jibntn mn jblf`cs.

j 5 jcfmc mnb jibntn.K 5 ìfgubc mn bl aébi`n` 5 `rnstl.M 5 miìentrc mnb jcfmc mn bl tunr`l.M< 5 miìentrc mnb lguonrc mn bl tunr`l.a 5 lbturl mnb jibntn mnb tceibbc.a< 5 lbturl mnb jibntn mn bl tunr`l.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

9;

TLPC MN [CP@LTlsc (T) ns bl mistlfìl nftrn mcs jibntns enmiml plrlbnblenftn lb non nf puftcs`crrnspcfminftns. (Jig.>)

Jig.> Jig. : Jig.7 Jig.1

Pistnels plrl mntnreiflr nb plsc.

l) @cf vnriji`lmcrns mn rcs`l nf ee, (Jig.:) y nf fuenrc mn aåbcs/<" (Jig.7)k) @cf rngbls (Jågs. 1, 9 y <4).

<― 5 ;>,= ee., nb plsc nf eibåentrcs mn bl Jig. <4 snrì.T 5 <―/= aibcs c T 5 ;>,= 5 :,0> ee.

=

Nf pubglml? T 5 <*71 aibcs c </1" (Jig. 9).

Jig. 9 Jig. <4

Pcf pinzls entìbi ls nepbnlmls nf bl ufiðf mn ctrls pinzls. Nb tceibbc (Jig. <<)nstì jcrelmc pcr uf ùnrpc ìbåfmri`c rcs`lmc y ufl `lknzl nf vlrils jcrels. Bls

tunr`ls (Jig. <;) scf mn jcrel priseìti`l y ìbåfmri`l, `cf uf lguonrc rcs`lmc pcr mcfmn sn iftrcmu`n nb tcrfibbc. Bl lrlfmnbl ns ufl pinzl ibåfmri l, mn pc`cnspnscr, `cf uf lguonrc nf nb `nftrc pcr mcfmn plsl nb ùnrpc mnb tceibbc (Jigs.<0,<= y <>)




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

90

<>

<=

Bcs tcrfibbcs y tunr`ls sirvnf plrl ufir pinzls `cec nf bl jigurl <:c ufir pinzls nfmcfmn ufl nstì lguonrlml y rcs`lml (anekrl) (Jåg. <7).

Bls tunr`ls sirvnf plrl mlr lprintn nf bls uficfns mn pinzls8 nf lbgufcs `lscs,sirvnf plrl rngublìðf.Bls lrlfmnbls sirvnf plrl prctngnr bl supnrjiìn mn bls pinzls nvitlr mnjcrelìcfnsnf bls supnrjiìns mn `cftl`tc y tlekiéf, mn lùnrmc `cf su jcrel, nvitlr qun bl

tunr`l sn ljbcon.

]ipcs mn ]crfibbcsBls rlfurls mnb <> lb ;1 prnsnftlf bcs prif iplbns tipcs mn tceibbcs. Nstlsprnsnftlf bls jcrels y nspnìji`lìcfns prcpils plrl bl `cfstru`ìðf mn `lmltceibbc

Jig. <1 Jig. <9 Jig. ;4




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

9=

]ipcs mn tunr`lsBls jigurls mnb ;9 lb 0= prnsnftlf bcs prif`iplbns tipcs mn tunr`ls.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

9>

]ipcs mn lrlfmnbls

Bls lrlfmnbls sn `blsiji`lf gnfnrlbenftn nf?• Bisls (Jig.0> y 0:).

• Mn prnsiðf (Jig.07 y 01• Y nstrnbblmls (Jig.09 l =;).

Jig. 09 Jig. =4

Miìentrc nxtnrfc.

]lekiéf bblelmc miìentrc fceiflb, sn rnjinrn lb miìentrc nxtnrfc mn bl plrtnrcs`lml.

FcrelbEétri`csJifl

Fcrelb

Tlrl tceibbcsJifl

El`acs Waitwcrta Tlrl tukcs

Fcrelb "F@"

Jifl "FJ"

Lenri`lfc Nspn`ilb "FP"(^PP)




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

9:

Miìentrc mn bl nspiglNstl `lrl`tnråsti`l åfmi`l så nb elàc sirvn c fc plrl rcs`lr lguonrcs eìs blrgcsqun su plrtn rcs`lml, puns nxistnf elàcs qun tinfnf nb miìentrc mn bl nspigligulb c elycr qun nb miìentrc mn bl plrtn rcs`lml y elàcs `cf bl nspigl mn

miìentrc enfcr qun bl plrtn rcs`lml.

Pnftimc mn bl rcs`lPn rnjinrn lb snftimc mn bl rcs`l? så ns mnrnàl c izquinrml.

Pnbn`ìðf mn bcs elàcs y krc`ls.Tlrl rcs`lr `cf elàcs, ns euy iepcrtlftn slknr snbn`ìcflr bcs elàcs y blkrc`l, `cf bl ùlb sn mnkn al`nr nb lguonrc plrl rcs`lr, lså `cec nb tipc mnbukri`lftn c rnjrignrlftn qun sn uslrì murlftn nb rcs`lmc.

Pcf anrrleinftls mn `crtn `cfstruimls mn l`nrc nspnìlb, `cf rcs`l sieiblr l uftceibbc, `cf trns c ùltrc rlfurls bcfgitumiflbns. ^fc mn sus nxtrnecs tnreifl nf`lknzl mn jcrel ùlmrlml. Nstcs elàcs gnfnrlbenftn sn jlkri`lf nf oungcs mntrns? mcs scf `cf puftl ðfi`l y ufc tctlbenftn ìbåfmri`c. (Jigs. =0, == y =>).Bcs oungcs mn elàcs mn rcs`ls plrl tukcs gnfnrlbenftn scf mn mcs elàcsplrl rcs`ls plrlbnbls y mn uf elàc plrl rcs`l `ðfi`l.Bl `cfiìmlm mnb elàc fÿenrc < ns eìs l`nftulml qun nb fÿenrc ;, plrljlìbitlr nb ifi ic mn bl rcs`l y bl iftrcmu`ìðf prcgrnsivl.

Bcs elàcs scf utibizlmcs plrl lkrir rcs`ls.

@lrl`tnråsti`ls

Bcs elàcs sn `lrl`tnrizlf pcr?

<. Pistnel mn rcs`l.;. Pu lpbi`lìðf.0. Tlsc c fÿenrc mn aibcs pcr pubglml.

=. Miìentrc nxtnrfc.>. Miìentrc mn bl nspigl.:. Pnftimc mn bl rcs`l




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

97

Pistnel mn rcs`lPn rnjinrn lb crignf mnb sistnel8 bcs eìs nepbnlmcs scf? Eétri`c, Waitwcrta y

Lenri`lfc (^PP).

Lpbi`lìðf Pn rnjinrn l si ns plrl rcs`lmcs mn tunr`ls c tukcs.

Tlsc c fÿenrc mn aibcs pcr pubglml.

Nstl `lrl`tnråsti`l ifmi`l så bl rcs`l ns fcrelb (F@)8 jifl (FJ)8 nspnìlb (FP).

Bcs elàcs gnfnrlbenftn sn ns`cgnf mn lùnrmc `cf bls nspnìji`lìcfns mnbmikuoc mn bl pinzl qun sn nstì `cfstruynfmc c mn lùnrmc `cf bls ifstru`ìcfnsrnìkimls.

Pn punmn, tlekiéf, tcelr `cec rnjnrnfìl nb tceibbc qun sn vl l utibizlr.

]nfinfmc nf ùnftl qun bls rcs`ls tlekiéf sn `blsiji`lf pcr nb loustn, (`cf

oungc 5<,<) (fcrelb 5 <,;) y (junrtn 5 <.0). plrl albblr nb miìentrc fn`nslric mnbl krc`l, sngÿf snl nb miìentrc mn bl rcs`l, sn nepbnl bl siguinftn jðreubl?

Ñ krc`l 5 Ñ tceibbc - (plsc x loustn)

Nonepbc?Ñ krc`l 5 xÑ tceibbc 5 <;e.Tlsc 5<,>

Loustn 5 fcrelb.Ñ krc`l 5 <; - (<,> x <,; )Ñ krc`l 5 <; -<,1 5 <4,;

@cfmiìcfns mn usc

Bcs elàcs plrl snr uslmcs mnknf nstlr kinf ljiblmcs y tnfnr bcs jibntns nf kunfnstlmc.

@cfsnrvlìðf

@cfsnrvlr bcs elàcs nf kunf nstlmc, sn mnknf biepilr mnspués mnb usc, nvitlr `låmls c àcquns y gulrmlrbcs snplrlmcs nf su nstuàn.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

91


[cs`lr 5 Jibntnlr Aibc 5 Jibntn

Pcf anrrleinftls mn `crtn `cfstruimls nf l`nrc y tnepblmls8 tinfnf bl jcrel mnufl tunr`l `cf trns c ùltrc rlfurls nf mirn`ìðf mn bls gnfnrltri`ns, mn sulguonrc. (Jigurls =: y =7). Nstls rlfurls mntnreiflf bls lristls `crtlftns ypnreitnf bl slbiml mn bls virutls.

Lbgufls pcsnnf tlekiéf uf `crtn rlmilb qun pnreitn ufl pnqunül rngublìðf.Jig. =: Jig. =7

Nftrlml Bignrlenftn `ðfi`l

Bl tnrrlol ns utibizlml plrl lkrir rcs`ls nxtnrfls nf pinzls ìbåfmri`ls mnmntnreiflmc miìentrc, tlbns `cec? tceibbcs y tukcs.

@lrl`tnråsti`lsBls tnrrlols sn `lrl`tnrizlf pcr bcs siguinftns nbnenftcs?

<. Pistnel mn rcs`l.;. Tlsc c fÿenrc mn aibcs pcr pubglml.0. Miìentrc iftnrfð8.=. Pnftimc mn bl rcs`l.Bl nbn`ìðf mn bl tnrrlol sn al`n tnfinfmc nf ùnftl l nscs nbnenftcs nf rnblìðfl bl rcs`l l `cfstruir.

Ctrc tipc mn tnrrlol]nrrlol kiplrtiml, `cfstruiml nf l`nrc nspnìlb, l`cpblml nf uf klrrctn, tlekiéfmn jcrel nspnìlb, jlìbitlfmc, l trlvés mn ufl rngublìðf, bl cktnfìðf mn uf kunfl`lklmc mn bl rcs`l (jigurls =1 y =9).

Jig. =1 Jig. =9




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

99

@LBIK[N @CF FCFIC (]ITCP, @L[L@]N[ÅP]I@LP Y ^PCP)

Aly mijnrnftns tipcs ls `lbikrns `cf fcfic, `cfjcren bcs uscs l qun sn mnstiflf.Bls jigurls < l 7 eunstrlf nonepbcs

Nb mispcsitivc mn mnspblzleinftc en`ìfi`c

(jigurl=) jlìbitl ufl enmiìðf eìs `crrn`tl,pcrqunmntnreifl bl lprcxielìðf grlmulb y sulvn mnb

ùrscr

Jig. ; @lbikrn `cf fcfic ufivnrslb

(enmiìðf nxtnrfl)

Jig. < @lbikrn `cf fcfic ufivnrslb

(enmiìðf iftnrfl)

Jig. ; @lbikrn `cf fcfic ufivnrslb

(enmiìðf nxtnrfl)

Jig. < @lbikrn `cf fcfic ufivnrslb

(enmiìðf iftnrfl)

Jig. > @lbikrn `cf fcfic mn pltls

lblrglmls(enmiml iftnricr)

Jig. 0 @lbikrn `cf fcfic ufivnrslb Enmiì

Enmiìðf mn prcjufmimlm)

Jig. = @lbikrn `cf fcfic `cf mispcsitivc

plrl mnspblzleinftc en`ìfi`c

Trnfslmc Trnsiftntizlmc

Jig. > @lbikrn `cf fcfic mn pltlblrglmls(enmiml iftnricr)

Jig. 0 @lbikrn cf fcfic ufivnrslb En

Enmiìðf mn prcjufmimlm)

Jig. = @lbikrn `cf fcfic `cf mispcsiti

mispcsitivc plrl mnspblzleinftc e

en`ìfi`c


Jig. > @lbikrn `cf fcfic mn pltls

lblrglmls(enmiml iftnricr)

Jig. 0 @lbikrn `cf fcfic ufivnrslb Enmiìðf mn

prcjufmimlm)

Jig. = @lbikrn `cf fcfic `cf mispcsitivc plrl

mnspblzleinftc en`ìfi`c





Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<44

@LBIK[N @CF FCFICFcenf`blturl y Bn`turl nf Méìecs mn Eibåentrc

Ns uf ifstruenftc plrl enmir bcfgitumns (jig. <) qun pnreitn bn`turls mn jrl`ìcfnsmn eibåentrc y mn pubglml, l trlvés mn ufl ns`lbl bblelml Fcfic c Znrfinr (jig. ;).

Pn utibizl plrl al`nr enmiìcfns, `cf rlpimnz, nf pinzls ùyc grlmc mn prnìsiðfns lprcxielmc alstl bcs 4,4; ee, <― c 4,44<".

<;1

Nb `lbikrn `cf fcfic nstì `cepunstc mn mcs plrtns prifìplbns? ùnrpc jioc y ùnrpc

eðvib (ùrscr). Nstls plrtns nstìf `cfstituimls pcr?

@^N[TC JIOC (jig. 0)




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<4<

[ngbl grlmulml nf bcs sistnels eétri c nifgbés.Tltl jiol `cf supnrjiìn mn `cftl`tc lU bl pinzl plrl enmir nxtnricrenftn.Tuftl jiol plrtn jiol mn `cftl`tc `cf (l pinzl, plrl enmir iftnricrenftn.

@^N[TC EÐZIB (ùrscr) jig. =.

Fcfic ns`lbl eétri`l mn 9 eibåentrcs mn bcfgitum (lprcxielìðf 4,4< ee) y

ns`lbl nf pubglmls cf 1 mivisicfns (lprcxielìðf ).

Tltl eðvib `cf supnrjiìn mn `cftl`tc l bl pinzl plrl enmir nxtnricrenftn.Tuftl eðvib plrtn eðvib mn `cftl`tc `cf bl pinzl plrl enmir iftnricrenftn.

[ngbibbl mn prcjufmimlm nstì ufiml lb ùrscr y sirvn plrl tcelr enmimls mnprcjufmimlm.

]ceibbc mn jiolìðf tinfn bl jiflbimlm mn jiolr nb ùrscr y l`tÿl sckrn blbìeifl mn loustn.

Bleifl mn loustn pnqunül bìeifl qun l`tÿl nbieiflfmc nb oungc mnbùrscr

Iepubscr lpcyc mnb mnmc pubglr plrl mnspblzlr nb ùrscr.

BN@]^[L NF MN@IECP MN EIBÅEN][CP

Nb fcfic mn 4,< ee tinfn ufl bcfgitum tctlb mn 9 eibåentrcs y nstì mivimimc nf <4

plrtns igulbns (jig. >). Mn mcfmn, `lml mivisiðf mnb fcfic vlbn

Tcr tlftc, `lml mivisiðf mnb fcfic ns 4,< enfcr qun `lml mivisiðf mn bl ns`lbl.




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<40

Nf bl jigurl 1, bl bn turl ns <,0 ee, pcrqun nb <(eibåentrc) mn bl ns`lbl nstl lftns mnb "`nrc" mnbfcfic y bl `cif`imnf`il sn ml nf nb 09 trlzc mnbeisec

Jig. 1

Ctrcs nonepbcs? (jigs. 9, <4 y <<).


@lbikrlmcr `cf Fcfic? - pin mn rny - pin mn entrc - vnrfinr - `lbikrn - `lrtlkðf mn `crrnmnrl.

Tltl? - krlzc

@urscr? - `crrnmnrl




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<4=

@LBIK[N @CF FCFICBn`turl nf Jrl`ìcfns mn Tubglmls

@lbikrn `cf fcfic mn </<;1 mn pubglml

Nb fcfic qun lprcxiel bl bn`turl alstl </<;1 pubglml tinfn ufl bcfgitum tctlb mn7/<: mn pubglml y nstì mivimimc nf 1 plrtns igulbns (jig. <). @lml plrtn eimn, pcr bctlftc,

Jig. < Fcfic mn </<;1― (mikuoc lepbilmc)

@lml mivisiðf mn bl ns`lbl eimn [nsubtl qun mivisiðf mnb fcfic ns

enfcr qun bl mivisiðf mn bl ns`lbl.

L plrtir, puns, mn trlzcs nf `cifìmnfìl (mn "4" alstl "1") bcs prienrcs trlzcs, mnbfcfic y mn bl ns`lbl sn snplrlf </<;1"? bcs sngufmcs trlzcs mn ;/<;1" (c </:=")8bcs tnr`nrcs trlzcs mn 0/<;1"8 bcs ùlrtcs trlzcs mn =/<;1" (c </0;―)8 bcs quiftcstrlzcs mn >/<;1"8 bcs snxtcs trlzcs mn :/<;1" (c 0/:=")8 bcs séptiecs trlzcs mn

7/<;1".

Bn`turl mn bl enmiml `cf nb fcficPn bnnf8 nf bl ns`lbl, alstl lftns mnb `nrc mnb fcfic, bls pubglmls y jrl`ìcfns(bls jrl`ìcfns punmnf snr? enmil pubglml, ùlrtcs, c`tlvcs c min isnislvcs). Nfbl jig. ;, pcr nonepbc, sn tinfn? 0/=".Nf snguiml, sn ùnftlf bcs trlzcs mnb fcfic, alstl nb qun `cifìmn `cf uf trlzc mnbl ns`lbl. Nf bl jig. ;, pcr nonepbc, trns trlzcs, c snl, 0/<;1".Tcr ÿbtiec sn suel? 0/=" + 0/<;1" 5 9:/<;1" + 0/<;1" 5 99/<;1"




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<4>

Nf bl jig. 0, bl bn`turl ns < , pcrqun nb nrc mnb fcfic nstì nftrn < y < y

bl `cifìmnfìl sn ml nf nb quiftc trlzc mn mcfmn?

<

Jig. 0 Bn`turl < (mikuoc lepbilmc)

L vn`ns sn punmn siepbiji`lr bn`turl, cktnfinfmc lprcxielìcfns nf := c nf 0;

lvcs.

<. Nonepbc ‐ Ns`lbl? < - Fcfic? :¿ ]rlzc, c mn mcfmn ,

Puel?

;. Nonepbc ‐ Ns`lbl? ; - Fcfic? =¿ ]rlzc, c

Puel?

0. Nonepbc ‐ Ns`lbl? ; - Fcfic? ;¿ ]rlzc, c mn mcfmn

Puel?

Ctrcs Nonepbcs?




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<4:

@lbikrn `cf fcfic mn 4,44<".

Nf bl ns`lbl jiol, ufl pubglml nstì mivimiml nf =4 plrtns mn ecmc qun `lml plrtn

eimn </=4" c 4,4;>".

Nb fcfic `cf 4,44<" tinfn ufl bcfgitum mn 4,:44" y nstì mivimimc nf ;> plrtnsigulbns (jig. 1} eiminfmc `lml mivisiðf mnb fcfic? 4,:44" ÷ ;> 5 4,4;=.

Jig. 1

Tcr bc tlftc, `lml mivisiðf mnb fcfic ns 4,44<" enfcr qun `lml mivisiðf mn blns`lbl.

L plrtir, puns, mn trlzcs nf `cifìmnfìl, (mn 4 plrl ;>), bcs <cs trlzcs mnb fcfic ymn bl ns`lbl sn snplrlf 4,44<", bcs ;cs trlzcs, 4,44;", bcs 0 cs trlzcs, 4,440" y lsåsu`nsivlenftn.

Bl bn`turl sn al`n `cec nf bcs `lbikrns `cf fcfic nf eibåentrcs y pubglmlsjrl`ìcflrils, `cftlfmc l bl izquinrml mnb 4 mnb fcfic8 bls ufimlmns, mn 4,4;>" `lmlufl, suelfmc `cf tcs eibésiecs mn pubglml, ifmi`lmcs pcr bl `cifìmnfìl mn ufcmn bcs trlzcs mnb fcfic `cf ufc mn bl ns`lbl.

Nonepbcs mn Bn`turl?

Nf bls jigurls 9, <4 y <<, sn bnnf 4,4:=",4,=7<" y <,7;<" rnspn`tivlenftn




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

<47

KIKBICG[LJÅL

F´ ]itubc Lutcr

< L`cfmiìcfleinftc y elftnfieinftc mnsinrrls irùblrns

Lbjcfsc \unslml

; Elfulb mn jrnsls y ùàibbls plrl elmnrl Lbjcfsc \unslml0 L`cfmiìcfleinftc y elftnfieinftc mn

sinrrls iftl Lbjcfsc \unslml

= Elfulb mn prcmu`tcs y runmls lkrlsivls Fcrtcf> Elfulb mn rn`cenfmlìcfns y grlmulìcfns Tlksl: Ljiblmcrl mn pnrjiblmcrl (pnrjiblmcrl) Wlmhif7 Eltnrilbns plrl bl `cfstru`ìðf mn

anrrleinftls1 @ìelrl mn sn`lmc scblr plrl bltitumns

trcpi`lbnsWibbilft. Piepscf

9 Pn`lmc scblr plrl elmnrl @nelpij - ùprcjur <4 Elfulb mn anrrleinftls Lelfl tccb<< ]nàfcbcgins mns entinrs mukcis<; Elfulb mntrntinf nb mljjutlgnmns blens mn

sìns l ruklf nt@lainr mu `nftrn tnàfigun mukcis nt mn blenukbnenft

<0 Elfunb mn anrrleinftls Jrnum<= @uimlmc y elftnfieinftc mn acols mn sinrrl

ìftl plrl elmnrlPlfmvi`h

<> Elfulb mn acols mn sinrrl iftl plrl elmnrl ^mnacbe<: Elfulb mn anrrleinftls Bnitz<7 En`lfisecs luxibilrns mnb en`ìfi`c mn

elftnfieinftc ifmustrilb

PNFL

<1 Pneiflric mn ljiblmc y elftnfieinftc mnsinrrls plrl bl elmnrl

PNFL

<9 Tlrl lsnrric y ljiblmc mn sinrrls iftl ysinrrls irùblrns

Elfulb mn grupc lfmifc

;4 Elfulb mn l`nrcs Kcbanr ;< ]n`fcbcgål mn bl elmnrl y mnb eunkbn w.futsà;; @cfsnoc plrl nb trltleinftc térei`c Kcbanr ;0 Elfulb mn lkrlsivcs y su utibizlìðf;= En`ìfi`l mn bcs eltnrilbns h.p. lrgcs y Lukrny n.plbenr ;> Elfulb mn anrrleinftls Kcrifg / mribbifg ]ccbs;: Elfulb mn sn`lmc mn elmnrl

;7 Nmu`lìðf nf tn`fcbcgål Triec vnoc glbbc;1 Elfulb mn mnsklstn y ljiblmc mn

anrrleinftls plrl tcrfc elfulb mn elmnrl[uta Nstnbbl Enoil

Lbvnirc Tltiüc Lrrcylvn;9 Milelft-@KF

Milecufm-@KF]yrcbit

04 Elfulb mn anrrleinftls Bnu`c0< Elfulb mn lkrlsivcs Lkrl`cb0; Elfulb mn anrrleinftls Ptlrh00 Elfulb mn lkrlsivc milelftlmcs Wiftnr 0= Elfulb mn anrrleinftls Plfmvih




Ifgnfinrc En`ìfi`c

0> Elfulb mn anrrleinftls Lelfl tccb-;44;0: Elfulb mn lkrlsivcs @lrkcrufmue07 Elfulb mn anrrleinftls @alblfm01 Elfulb mn anrrleinftls Pircelt (Krlsib) ;44:09 Elfulb mn anrrleinftls [nvlb (Krlsib) ;441=4 Iftrcmu`ìðf lbl entlburgil jåsi`l Lvfnr (e` grlw aibb)=< @infìl mn eltnrilbns plrl ifgnfinrål @lrb. L. hnysnr =; Trifìpics jufmlenftlbns plrl nb misnüc mn

anrrleinftlsJrlfh w. Wibscf

=0 Mikuoc mn ifgnfinrål Jrlfà y Zinr`h== Elfujl`turl ifgnfinrål y tn`fcbcgål Hlbplhoilf. sàeim=> Elfulb mn anrrleinftls Guamc=: @cepnfmic mn prcmu`tcs=7 Jcreublìðf y nvlbul iðf mn prcyn`tcs mn

ifvnrsiðf Lkrlale Anrfìfmnz Anrfìfmnz Lkrlale Anrfìfmnz vibblmcs

=1 @cepnfmic mn mikuoc té`fi`c I@CF]N@

=9 @cepnfmic mn fcrels bnglbns sckrn slbumcùplìcflb Lrtiùbc mn Pngurimlm Btml.Trienrc nb acekrn>4 Eifnrlbns Olrcblv svnfnh>< Mi`ìcflric mn ifgnfinrål en`ìfi`l b.o.flybnr >; Lbrnmnmcr mn bls elquifls-anrrleinftls Anifrià gnrbifg>0 Elfulb mn elftnfieinftc y rn`lekic mn

rcmleinftcsPhj

>= ]lpnrnm [cbbnr knlrifgs Hcyc>> [cmleinftcs stnyr >: Wnbmifg Entlburgy - @lrkðf lfm Lbbcy Ptnnbs

kyGNC[GN N. BIFFN[]

>7 Wnbmig Alfmkcch - Nigat Nmiticf - Wnbmifg

]n`fcbcg Zcb < - Zcb =

Lenri`lf Wnbmifg Pcìnty

>1 Entlburgil jåsi`l plrl Ifgnfinrcs Lbknrt G. Guy

1 - Afilado de Herramientas Cortantes Para La Industria de La Madera

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