to simulate: to recreate

Figure 3-7 This painting ofthe Palace at Versailles, byPierre Patel, is so realistic thatit resembles a photograph.Why might the painter havesimulated an aerial view ofthe palace and itssurroundings?

Louis \\\: The ExtravagantSun King

Louis XIV, known as the "Sun

King," ruled France for seventy-two years. In an age of absolutemonarchs, Louis set new

standards. He saw himself as the centreof French life and culture. He was theSun King because that was the name hegave himself: he believed that he wasthe source of all light in the nation. Hisphrase, Etat c'est moi ("I am thenation"), reveals exactly how Louis sawhimself in relation to his country.

To ensure his position as thegreatest monarch in Europe, Louisbuilt a vast palace in the village ofVersailles, southwest of Paris, andforced important nobles to live there

with him. He became the centre oftheir lives. Everything they didrequired Louis's approval. If they werein Louis's favour, they were invited toall the ceremonies of the royal day,such as the royal getting up, the royalbreakfast, the royal lunch, the royalsupper, the royal going to bed, and allspecial occasions in between. Nobleseven took daily ballet lessons in orderto learn how to move and gesturegracefully in the presence of the king.They had little else to do, since theywere not part of the government. Louisdepended solely on his own judgmentand on a few important ministers inruling the country. His word was law.

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62 CHAPTER 3

Today, ballet, a highly formalkind of dance, has admirers inevery country. Some ballets, suchas The Nutcracker, are so popularthat they are performed year afteryear. Ballet dancers must spendmany years training, beginning inchildhood. Even then, only a fewpeople gain the strength and graceto dance professionally.

The rules of ballet were firstestablished by the dancing masterto the court of Louis XIV. Louisinsisted that the nobles learn balletso that they could be graceful at alltimes. Slip-ups could mean losingone's apartment at the Palace ofVersailles or being asked to leavethe royal court—the end to alldreams of power and influence.

Do you think that there is stilla place for an art form such asballet in modern life? Give reasonsfor your answer.

Figure 3-9 Top: First Position. Middle: Second Position, Bottom: Fourth Position.These basic positions were established in the seventeenth century and are the samepositions used by dancers today. Louis XIV is shown in his dance costume (left).During the ballet other dancers, representing planets, would move around Louis. Fiekept the title "Sun King" throughout his life.

Figure 3-8 An official portrait of Louis XIVis shown on page 50, the opening page ofthis chapter. In that portrait, Louis is shownas a serious, no-nonsense ruler. Thepainting's point of view forces the viewerto look up at him, giving the short Louisextra height. Louis is also showing off hisleg, to prove that he is still strong andgraceful in middle age. Compare thatportrait to the one shown here, a later waxmodel. How do you know that Figure 3-8was not an official portrait?

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 63

Calvinist: Protestants whofollowed the strictphilosophy of JohnCalvin

deficit: the money thegovernment is short eachyear after it pays its bills

THE BRINK OFDISASTERLouis XIV became involved in anumber of wars so that he couldpromote his own interests and expandFrench territory. His campaigns werelargely unsuccessful. A series of warswith the Dutch in the late 1660s didsecure some territory in thesoutheastern part of France, but alsodepleted his treasury.

Louis also involved himself in thepolitics of the Holy Roman Empireby claiming that the French monarchhad special rights within the RomanCatholic Church. At home, hispersecution of Calvinist Protestants

was so intense that it caused a hugedecline in population in some parts ofthe country. These Huguenots, as

they were called in France, wereoften business people andentrepreneurs. These conflicts, alongwith Louis's other extravagances—

especially the building of the Palaceat Versailles—almost ruined theeconomy. During Louis XIV's reign,the deficit was twice the amount ofgovernment revenues.

Louis XV came to the thronewhen his great-grandfather, Louis XIV,died in 1715. He was only five yearsold. During the reign of Louis XV, theextravagances of the court and thefailure of government to reformeconomic and social life continued topush France toward disaster.

DID YOU KNOW?One of Louis XVt's hobbieswas the making and fixingof locks.

The Reigim of Louis XVIWhat I should like most is to he loved.

-LOUIS XVI

Louis XVI came to the throne in

1774. He was not prepared tobe king and, thoughpersonable, he did not have

the qualities a French ruler wouldneed to cope with the troubles ahead.Louis was not interested in governing,and left many decisions to others.The royal court was truly a worldunto itself.

Although France was in crisisduring his reign, Louis did little toimprove conditions for the middleand lower classes and had limitedcontact with them. While he mayhave had good intentions, he seemedto have no understanding of theproblems at hand. In fairness, theproblems were complicated andprobably beyond fixing by one person.

For example, laws were differentin different parts of the country. Somelaws were based on ancient Romanlaws, a legacy of the time when

France had been part of the RomanEmpire. Other laws were based onlocal customs. For example, the lawsin the Paris region were called the"Custom of Paris." There were alsolanguage barriers. Many people inFrance did not speak French; theyspoke Breton or German, or some

other local language or dialect. And,as had been the case during the reignof Louis XIV, merchants were saddledwith many taxes and duties atcountless border stops inside thecountry. Shipping of goods from Paristo the Mediterranean Sea involved

paying thirty separate taxes. Finally,there was the terrible poverty ofmany people in the country.

Louis did not have the support ofthe middle class. Yet business peopleand professionals, such as lawyers andphysicians, were the most frustratedby the system and would havewelcomed change. Well-educated andinformed, they could not understandwhy improvements were not takingplace.

64 CHAPTER 3

This man was not precisely what he was depicted bythose who took a pleasure in slandering him. He wasneither the brutish blockhead ... nor was he thehonest, kind, and sensible creature whom his friends

praised to the skies. Nature had endowed him with ordinaryfaculties, which would have done him well in an obscure station;but he was depraved by his princely education and ruined by hismediocrity in difficult times ... Louis XVI had, besides, anexcellent memory and an active turn of mind; was never idle, andread a great deal ... was well-versed in history, and was the best

geographer in the kingdom .... If he had been born two centuriesbefore, and his wife had been a rational woman, he would have

made no more noise in the world than so many other princes ...without doing much good or much harm.

CXTMO® C®What is it? A character

sketch of Louis XVI

Who wrote it? ManonJeanne Roland de la

plat/ere

When? After Louis's reign

had ended

Why? To explain certain

events

t;he following portrait ofLouis XVI's character reveals

something unique aboutcharacter portraits: Theyusually express as much aboutthe person who has createdthe portrait as they do aboutthe person being portrayed,

Madame Roland was aleading revolutionary figureduring the reign of Louis XVI.Her house would eventuallybecome the centre of themore moderate voice ofreform, the Girondists. Thefollowing account describes

Louis as a very ordinary person who justhappened to be bom during the wrong period ofhistory. Notice how Mme Roland tries to strike abalance in depicting Louis as "good" or "bad." Whatmight this reveal about her own character?

U L I Id VV I I CI My VJV_JIX. I—C_/\_/ IN M L CM IJ pV-M LI CU I L

again after you have finished readingthe feature. Has she been portrayed asyou imagined her? Explain.

revolutionary: desiring a completechange in government or socialsystem

brutish blockhead: stupid person withno manners or education

faculties: abilities

mediocrity: in the middle, neither goodnor bad

WHAT DO YOU THINK?1. After reading Madame Roland's character portrait

of Louis XVI, what aspects of his character are youpersuaded to accept? Why?

2. What does Madame Roland's account suggestabout popular opinion regarding Louis XVI duringhis reign?

3. Do you accept her evaluation that Louis mighthave made less of an impact in a different era?(You may want to revisit this question after youhave finished this chapter.)

4. In point form, list your impressions of MadameRoland.

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 65

DID YOU KNOW?The Affair of the DiamondNecklace is a mystery thatremains unsolved to thisday. The scandal involved amysterious countess and acardinal disliked by MarieAntoinette. The countesstold the cardinal that shecould help him regain thequeen's favour. Sheproduced letters from thequeen that suggested herdislike had turned to favourand even engineered ameeting between thecardinal and a woman whopretended to be MarieAntoinette.

The cardinal was dupedInto buying a diamondnecklace for the queen onan installment plan. Whenhe could not pay, he wasbrought to trial and thescandal was made public.Historians have suggestedthat the whole affair mighthave been engineered byMarie Antoinette to ruin thecardinal. But her actual rolein the scandal has neverbeen verified.

LOUIS XVI ANDMARIEANTOINETTEIn 1770, Louis XYI married MarieAntoinette, a member of the Austrianroyal family. Because Austria hadoften been an enemy of France, shewas unpopular from the start. MarieAntoinette was very interested in theglittering life at court, but sheoffended many aristocrats with herattitudes toward traditional Frenchmanners and courtesies. She had an

idealized view of peasant life, andeven built a little farm at Versailles soshe could play at farming.

Marie Antoinette did little to winthe hearts of her subjects. She wasextravagant and loved fine things,spending large sums on jewels, forexample. Her alleged involvement inthe Affair of the Diamond Necklace—jewels worth more than the annualincome of the country of France—created a crisis for the government.People were deeply offended by theidea that she would spend a fortuneon herself when many French peoplelived in poverty, often unable to feed

scandal: something thatdraws public attentionand criticism

Figure 3-11 The queen'sportrait was painted by oneof the most famous artists ofthe day, Madame Vigee-Lebrun. Marie Antoinette isshown here dressed in finesilks, and wearing anexpensive wig. Study her facecarefully, trying not to noticeher finery. What do you readin her face?

66 CHAPTER 3

VIEWPOINTS IN CONFLICT

Two Views of Marie AntoinetteHistory often presents different viewsabout the same person. Sometimesthese views are so different that it isdifficult to know what that person wasreally like. Consider these portraits ofMarie Antoinette,

This portrait of the queen, courtesyBaron de Bronstadt, is more critical.

This flattering portrait of the queen comes to us from Madame de Stael.

The Queen is far from lacking spirit but hereducation ... has been neglected. Except novels,she has never opened a book, and has not evensought the ideas that society can give; as soon asconversation takes a serious turn, a look of boredom comes

over her face ... she amuses herself with the day's gossip,and, above all, with the scandal of the court ...."

The Queen of France, Marie Antoinette is one ofthe most amiable and gracious persons who hadbeen seen on the throne. Nothing prevented her

from keeping the love of the French, because shehad done nothing to lose it. The personal characters of the

Queen and King were entirelyworthy of attachment; but thearbitrary nature of the Frenchgovernment ... accorded so badlywith the spirit of the times thateven the virtues of princesdisappeared...."

WHAT DO YOU THIN K?1. It is difficult to know what Marie Antoinette was

really like from these descriptions. Why do youthink are they so different?

2. If you could obtain three more pieces ofinformation about the writers and why they wrotewhat they did, what information would yourequest? The information should help you evaluatethe reliability of the portrait.

3. a) To help future generations understand you,create a Character Profile Survey Form of tenquestions, the answers to which will yield a goodsense of who you are. Leave space at the bottomof the form to write a Character Summary,

b) Ask two or three classmates or friends (called"respondents") to complete the form. Discussthe Character Summary with yourrespondents. Would you change anythingabout your questions now?

their children. Others knew ofFrance's tremendous debts, and

resented the high taxes, which werebeing used just to keep the country'seconomy afloat.

A strong-willed person, MarieAntoinette had definite opinions ongovernment, but no learning or

experience on which to base herjudgements. She helped to selectgovernment ministers withoutknowing the responsibilities of their

portfolios, and regardless of theircapabilities. She also worked todismiss people she despised, even ifthey were doing a good job for thecountry. For example, Marie urged

the firing of the controller general offinances, A. R. Turgot, because

Turgot wanted the court toeconomize and had proposed thatnobles be taxed. Neither Marie norLouis liked the idea of curtailing theirspending.

portfolio: the area ofresponsibility of agovernment official, forexample, defence, thebudget

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE

ACTIVITIE S

1. Create an organizer to display the leadershipcapabilities of the rulers of France (refer to pages62-67). List three headings at the top: Louis XIV,Marie Antoinette, and Louis XVI. List the followingheadings on the left-hand side of your organizer:

military might

economic strategy

national pride

respect for the people of France

knowledge of the country's problems

control of the country

force of character

Mark each ruler Excellent, Good, or Poor for eachquality. Based on your assessments, give each ruleran overall rating. Then, in a paragraph, summarize

their suitability as leaders.

2. Imagine that you have been hired as Louis XVI'spersonal advisor on the state of the country. Outlinethe chief problems that must be overcome (see page64). Your letter must outline some possible solutions,and must persuade Louis of the benefits of reform.

3. Read the descriptions of Louis XVI (page 64) andMarie Antoinette (pages 66-67). Write a notefrom Marie to Louis, or vice-versa, about the

things that are most important to that person.

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DID YOU KNOW?Mary Wollstonecraft'sVindication of the Rights ofWomen was published inEngland In late 1792. Atreatise on the social andpolitical rights of women, itmet with fiery protest.

catalyst: something thathelps other things tochange

salon: a meeting ofintellectuals to discussexciting ideas

reason: the ability to thinkcritically and draw logicalconclusions

bigotry: prejudice

Mew Ideas

The French Revolution took

place at a time when manynew ideas about society werebeing published and

discussed. Many of these ideas camefrom thinkers known as the"philosophes." These ideas were thecatalyst for revolution.

The philosophes were women andmen who met to discuss society andpolitics, and solutions to socialproblems. Many French philosophesrejected the idea of absolutemonarchy and favoured democracy,which had been won by revolution inboth Britain and, after 1776, in theUnited States. They also believed inthe ability of science and scientificreasoning to explain the world.

Women were especially importantto the spread of new ideas. They heldsalons where ideas about society,religion, and government could befreely exchanged. Madame dePompadour, the unofficial wife ofLouis XV, held many salons duringher lifetime and protected free

thinkers from the royal officials. Ideasabout the rights of women werecirculating throughout Europe. Theworks of English writers, such asMary Astell and Mary Wollstonecraft,had an influence in France.

THEENLICHTENMENTAlthough France had been a Catholiccountry for centuries, many of thephilosophes were against any religionthat they viewed as old-fashioned orsuperstitious. Their ideas were, asthey said themselves, enlightened,and they belonged to a period we nowcall "the Enlightenment."

What did "enlightened" mean?Above all, it meant that science andhuman intelligence were of thehighest importance. If a belief couldnot stand up to reason—if it could notbe demonstrated by experiment-then it had to be discarded.

68 CHAPTER 3

Events in Britain influenced thephilosophes. They knew aboutEnglish physicist Isaac Newton(1642-1727), who had formulated thelaw of gravity. They knew thewritings of English philosopher JohnLocke (1632-1704), who had created anew branch of philosophy known as"empiricism." (For more on Locke's

ideas about politics, see page 48.)Empiricism meant that knowledgewas possible only through experienceof the world. In other words, youcould not know anything unless youexperienced it through your senses.Religious beliefs, of course, could nothe proved in this way. They requiredand demanded faith, as did long¬standing ideas about the monarchy.Who could prove that the monarchhad a God-given right to power?

It is easy to see how thephilosophes came into conflict withthe Church and refused to accept itsteachings. The Church, on the otherhand, gave its support to the country'srulers. To many philosophes inFrance, the church and the monarchywere holding up progress; they eitherhad to change or go.

Figure 3-12 Even in pictures, it is possible tosee the humour and intelligence in Voltaire'sface and eyes, and to imagine the biting wit heused to attack his critics and enemies, such asRousseau.

Rousseau, Voltaire,and MontesquieuRousseau, Voltaire, andMontesquieu werephilosophes withinternational reputations.Each had new ideas aboutsociety and followers in otherparts of Europe and inAmerica.

Voltaire, the most famousphilosophe, was against theChurch and for freedom ofthought. Many of his ideaswere accepted by rulers ofother nations, such as

Frederick of Prussia, whobelieved himself to be anenlightened monarch. In fact,Voltaire believed thatabsolute monarchy was, forthe most part, good for society.However, he hated injustice, oftendefending people because they werevictims of superstition and bigotry.

Montesquieu, on the other hand,believed that the ruler had to workwith elected parliaments. His ideaswere not so well received byEuropean monarchs, who had littleinterest in sharing powers with thepeople.

Jean Jacques Rousseau believedthat society needed a socialcontract—an agreement—in which

everyone agreed to abide by certainrules. For example, each citizen

would have to agree to what themajority wanted. He believed in whathe described as "natural" law, inother words, that people have anaturally good will that is destroyedby government and modern society(see feature on page 71). Many of

Figure 3-13 This portrait ofRousseau shows him as atrue lover of nature.Rousseau became a verypopular writer, particularlywith educated women, manyof whom sent him gifts.

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 69

Figure 3-14 This portrait ofa young woman reading anovel was painted in 1776.Perhaps she was one of themany women interested inthe ideas of Rousseau andthe other philosophes.

Figure 3-15 A salon hosted by Madame Geoffrin. imagine this group of peoplegathered in your living room to discuss all the newest ideas. In what ways wouldyour gathering look different? What do these differences communicate about yoursociety?

censored: something oneis forbidden to see, hear,or read

Rousseau's ideas have survived intothe twentieth century. People whobelieve that we should live inharmony with nature are followers ofRousseau.

For the most part; philosophesand their supporters were fashionableand economically privileged. Theyhad time to sit in cafes, reading

newspapers and discussing ideasabout politics, science, and religion.Even though books and newspaperswere censored by the Church andgovernment, writers pushed thelimits of the law. Many were arrestedor exiled. Voltaire, for example, fledthe country several times to escapeprison.

Figure 3-16 Philosophesand other educated peopleof the Enlightenment took akeen interest in the naturalworld. In eighteenth-centuryscience, many concepts takenfor granted today wereunknown. People of all agesfound science immenselyintriguing—from thehypnotism of Franz Mesmerto the discovery of oxygen.This painting by JosephWright shows peoplewatching an experiment tosee if a lark can survive in avacuum. How is scientificexperimentation differenttoday? Hint: Examine wherethe experiment is takingplace and who is obsen/ing.

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70 CHAPTER 3