Contents

List o f Contributors V

Preface. Foreword 2nd edition XXXII l

A Word ofThanks X X X V

List of Abbreviations XXXVI l

1 Lubricants and their Market I

Theo Mang

1.1 Preface I 1.2 Lubricant Sales 2

1.3 The Lubricants Industry 3 1.4 Lubricant Systems 5

2 Lubricants in the Tribological System 7

Theo Mang

Lubricants as Part of Tribological Research 7

The Tribological System 8

Friction 8 Types of Friction 9

Sliding Friction 9

Rolling Friction 10 Static Friction 10 Kinetic Friction 10 Stick-Slip 10 Friction and Lubrication Conditions 12 Solid Friction (Dry Friction) 12 Boundary Friction 12 Fluid Friction 13 Mixed Friction 13 Solid Lubricant Friction 13

Lubricants and Lubrication. 2nd Ed. Edited by Th. Mang and W. Dresel Copyright 0 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 978-3-527-31497-3

Vlll Contents I Stribeck Diagram 14 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 14 ElasteHydrodynamic Lubrication (EHD Regime) 15 Thermo-elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication (TEHD) 15 Wear 17 Wear Mechanisms 17 Abrasion 17 Adhesion 17 Tribochemical Reactions 17 Surface Fatigue 17 Erosion 18 Fretting 18 Cavitation 18 Types of Wear 18 The Wear Process 18 Tribomutation 19 Nanotribology 20 Tribosystems of Tomorrow 22

Rheology o f Lubricants 23 Theo Mang

Viscosity 23 Influence of Temperature on Viscosity (V-T Behavior) 25 Viscosity Index 26 Viscosity-Pressure Dependency 27 The Effect of Shear Rate on Viscosity 28 Special Rheological Effects 30 Greases 31 Viscosity Grades 31 IS0 Viscosity Grades 32 Other Viscosity Grades 32 Engine Oils 32 Automotive Gear Oils 32 Industrial Gear Oils 32 Viscosity Grades for Base Oils 33 Comparison of Viscosity Grades 33

Base Oils 34 Theo Mang and Ceorg Lingg

4.1 Base Oils-A Historical Review and Outlook 34 4.2 Chemical Characterization of Mineral Base Oils 35 4.2.1 Rough Chemical Characterization 35 4.2.1.1 Viscosity-Gravity Constant (VGC) 35 4.2.1.2 Aniline Point 35

Carbon Distribution 36 Hydrocarbon Composition 36 Polycyclic Aromatics in Base Oils 36 Aromatics in White Mineral Oils 37 Refining 38 Distillation 39 De-asphalting 39 Traditional Refining Processes 40 Acid Refining 41 Solvent Extraction 41 Solvent Dewaxing 43 Finishing 44 Lube Crudes 44 Base Oil Manufacturing by Hydrogenation and Hydrocracking 45 Manufacturing Naphthenic Base Oils by Hydrogenation 46 Production of White Oils 48 Lube Hydrocracking 49 Catalytic Dewaxing 50 Wax Isomerization 52 Hybrid Lube Oil Processing 52 All-Hydrogen Route 53 Gas-to-Liquids Conversion Technology 55 Boiling and Evaporation Behavior of Base Oils 55 Base Oil Categories and Evaluation of Various Petroleum Base Oils 59

Synthetic Base Oils 63 Wilfried Dresel

Synthetic Hydrocarbons 64 Polyalphaolefins 65 Polyinternalolefins 67 Polybutenes 68 Alkylated Aromatics 69

Other Hydrocarbons 70 Halogenated Hydrocarbons 71 Synthetic Esters 71 Esters of carboxylic acids 71 Dicarboxylic Acid Esters 72 Polyol Esters 73 Other Carboxylic Esters 74 Complex Esters 75 Fluorinated Carboxylic Acid Esters 76 Phosphate Esters 76 Polyalkylene Glycols 77 Other Polyethers 79

X Contents I Perfluorinated Polyethers 79 Polyphenyl Ethers 80 Polysiloxanes (Silicone Oils) 81 Other Synthetic Base Oils 83 Comparison of Synthetic Base Oils 87 Mixtures of Synthetic Lubricants 87

Additives 88 Jiirgen Braun

6.1 Antioxidants 89 6.1.1 Mechanism of Oxidation and Antioxidants 89 6.1.2 Compounds 91 6.1.2.1 Phenolic Antioxidants 91 6.1.2.2 Aromatic Amines 91 6.1.2.3 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Phosphorus 92

Organosulfur Compounds 92

Organophosphorus Compounds 93 Other Compounds 93 Synergistic Mixtures 93 Testing of the Oxidation Stability 93 Viscosity Modifiers 94 Physical Description of Viscosity Index 94 VI Improvement Mechanisms 94 Structure and Chemistry of Viscosity Modifiers 96 Pourpoint Depressants (PPD) 97 Detergents and Dispersants 99 Mechanism of DD Additives 100 Metal-containing Compounds (Detergents) 100 Phenates 100 Salicylates 100 Thiophosphonates 101 Sulfonates 102 Ashless Dispersants (AD) 103 Antifoam Agents 105 Silicon Defoamers 105 Silicone-free Defoamers 106 Demulsifiers and Emulsifiers 106 Demulsifiers 106 Emulsifiers 106 Dyes 107 Antiwear (AW) and Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives 107 Function of AW/E P Additives 107 Compounds 108 Phosphorus Compounds 108

Compounds Containing Sulfur and Phosphorus 109 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Nitrogen 1 10 Sulfur Compounds 1 11 PEP Additives 112 Chlorine Compounds 1 12 Solid Lubricating Compounds 113 Friction Modifiers (FM) 113 Corrosion Inhibitors 114 Mechanism of Corrosion Inhibitors 114 Antirust Additives (Ferrous Metals) 11 5 Sulfonates 115 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives 11 5 Amine Neutralized Alkylphosphoric Acid Partial Esters 11 6 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors I16 Metal Passivators (Non-ferrous Metals) 117

Lubricants in the Environment 119 Rolf Luther

Definition of 'Environmentally Friendly Lubricants' 11 9 Current Situation 120 Statistical Data 120 Economic Consequences and Substitution Potential 121 Agriculture, Economy, and Politics 123 Political Initiatives 124 Tests to Evaluate Biotic Potential 125 Biodegradation I 25 Ecotoxicity 126 Emission Thresholds 127 Water Pollution 127 The German Water Hazardous Classes 127 German Regulations for Using Water-endangering Lubricants (VAwS) 128 Environmental Legislation 1: Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACh) 130 Registration 132 Evaluation 132 Authorization 133 Registration Obligations 135 Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling (GHS) 136 Environmental Legislation 2: Dangerous Preparations Directive (1999/45/EC) 139 Environmental Legislation 3: Regular use 140 Environmental Liability Law 141 The Chemicals Law, Hazardous Substances Law 141

XI1 Contents I Transport Regulations 142 Disposal (Waste and Recycling Laws) 142 Disposal Options for 'Not water pollutant' Vegetable Oils 143 Environmental Legislation 4: Emissions 144 Air Pollution 144 Water Pollution 144 German Law for Soil Protection 145 German Water Law 146 Waste Water Charges 147 Clean Air: German Emissions Law 147 Drinking Water Directive 147 Standardization of Environmentally Compatible Hydraulic Fluids 148 The German Regulation VDMA 24568 148 IS0 Regulation 15380 148 Environmental Seal 153 Global Eco-labeling Network 153 European Eco-label 153 The German 'Blue Angel' 157 Nordic countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland) -'White Swan' 158 Requirements Concerning Renewable Resources 160 Requirements Concerning Re-refined Oil 160 Requirements Concerning Environmentally Harmful Components 160 Requirements for Hydraulic Fluids, Mould Oil, Metalworking Fluids 160 The Canadian 'Environmental Choice' (Maple Leaf) 160 Other Eco-labels 162 Austria 162 France 162 Japan 163 USA 163 The Netherlands 163 Base Fluids 164 Biodegradable Base Oils for Lubricants 164 Synthetic Esters 165 Polyglycols 166 Polyalphaolefins I66 Relevant Properties of Ester Oils 166 Evaporation Loss 166 Viscosity-Temperature Behavior 166 Boundary Lubrication 167 Additives 167 Extreme Pressure/Antiwear Additives 167 Corrosion Protection 168 Antioxidants 168

Products (Examples) 168 Hydraulic Fluids 169 Metal Working Oil 169 Oil-refreshing System 170 Safety Aspects of Handling Lubricants (Working Materials) 171 Toxicological Terminology and Hazard Indicators 171 Acute Toxicity 171 Subchronic and Chronic Toxicity 172 Poison Categories 172 Corrosive, Caustic 172 Explosion and Flammability 172 Carcinogenic 173 Teratogens, Mutagens 173 MAK (Maximum Workplace Concentration) Values 173 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAK, PAH, PCA) 174 Nitrosamines in Cutting Fluids 174 Law on Flammable Fluids 175 Skin Problems Caused by Lubricants 176 Structure and Function of the Skin 176 Skin Damage 177 Oil Acne (Particle Acne) 177 Oil Eczema 178 Testing Skin Compatibility 179 Skin Function Tests 180 Skin Care and Skin Protection 182

Disposal of Used Lubricating Oils 183 Theo Mang

Possible Uses of Waste Oil 184 Legislative Influences on Waste Oil Collection and Reconditioning I Re-refining 185 Sulfuric Acid Refining (Meinken) 185 Propane Extraction Process (IFP, Snamprogetti) 186 Mohawk Technology (CEP-Mohawk) 187 KT1 Process 187 PROP Process 187 Safety Kleen Process 188 DEA Technology 189 Other Re-refining Technologies 190

Lubricants for Internal combustion Engines 191 Manfred Harperscheid andjurgen Omeis

Four-stroke Engine Oils 191 General Overview 191

XIV Contents I 9.1.1.1 9.1.1.2 9.1.1.3 9.1.1.4 9.1.1.5 9.1.1.6 9.1.1.7 9.1.2 9.1.2.1 9.1.2.2 9.1.2.3 9.1.2.4 9.1.3 9.1.3.1 9.1.3.2 9.1.3.3 9.1.3.4 9.1.3.5 9.1.3.6 9.1.3.7 9.1.3.8 9.1.3.9 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.2.1 9.2.2.2 9.2.2.3 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.3 9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3

10

10.1 10.2 10.3

Fundamental Principles 192 Viscosity Grades 193 Performance Specifications 195 Formulation of Engine Oils 196 Additives 196 Performance Additives 196 Viscosity Improvers 197 Characterization and Testing 197 Physical and Chemical Testing 198 Engine Testing 198 Passenger Car Engine Oils 200 Engine Oil for Commercial Vehicles 201 Classification by Specification 202 MIL Specifications 202 API and ILSAC Classification 203 CCMC Specifications 205 ACEA Specifications 206 Manufacturers' Approval of Service Engine Oils 209 Future Trends 214 Fuel Efficiency 214 Long Drain Intervals 216 Low Emission 21 7 Two-stroke Oils 218 Application and Characteristics of Two-stroke Oils 218 Classification of Two-stroke Oils 220 API Service Groups 220 JASO Classification 220 IS0 Classification 221 Oils for Two-stroke Outboard Engines 222 Environmentally Friendly Two-stroke Oils 223 Tractor Oils 224 Gas Engine Oils 225 Use of Gas Engines-Gas as a Fuel 226 Lubricants for Gas Engines 226 Marine Diesel Engine Oils 227 Low-speed Crosshead Engines 227 Medium-speed Engines 228 Lubricants 229

Gear Lubrication Oils 230 Thorsten Bartels

Introduction 230 Requirements of Gear Lubrication Oils 231 Tribology of Gears 233

10.3.1 Friction CO 10.3.1.1 Toothed Wh 10.3.1.2 Load an 10.3.1.3 Static an 10.3.1.4 Lubricatio 10.3.1.5 Lubrication 10.3.2 Specific Ge 10.3.2.1 Wear 240

10.3.2.3 Micro-Pi

10.3.2.5 Tooth Fra

10.4.1 Driveline 10.4.2 Drivelin 10.4.3 Lubrican 10.4.3.1 Fluid Re 10.4.3.2 Fluid Re 10.4.3.3 Fluid Re 10.4.3.4 B-cm 10.4.3.5 T-CVT Tra 10.4.3.6 H-C\~T HydE( 10.5 Multifunctiq 10.6 Gear Lubricd 10.6.1 Viscosity-Teq/ 10.6.2 Fluid Shear f / 10.6.3 Corrosion a9 10.6.4 Oxidation St4 10.6.5 Flash Point 4 10.6.6 Demulsibiliq 10.6.7 Air Release 10.6.8 Paint Comp 10.6.9 Seal Compat 10.6.10 Foaming 2 10.6.1 1 Miscibility d 10.6.12 Environmen 10.6.13 Open gear d! 10.7 Cost-to-bene

11 Hydraulic Oil Wolfgang Bod

11.1 Introductior 11.2 HydraulicP 1 1.3 Hydraulic S

Friction Conditions of Gear Types 234 Toothed Wheels 234 Load and Speed Conditions during Tooth Engagement 234 Static and Dynamic Load Distribution within Tooth Engagement Lubrication Film Generation within Tooth Contact 236 Lubrication Conditions 238 Specific Gear and Transmission Failure 240 Wear 240 Scuffing and Scoring 241 Micro-Pitting 242 Pitting 244 Tooth Fracture 245 Gear Lubrication Oils for Motor Vehicles 245 Driveline Lubricants for Commercial Vehicles 246 Driveline Lubricants for Passenger Cars 250 Lubricants for Automatic Transmissions and CVTs 254 Fluid Requirements for Hydrodynamic Transmissions 256 Fluid Requirements for Wet Clutches and Brakes 257 Fluid Requirements for CVT Applications 259 B-CVT Push Belt and Link Chain Drives 259 T-CVT Traction Drives 261 H-CVT Hydrostatic Dynamic Powershift Drives 262 Multifunctional Fluids in Vehicle Gears 262 Gear Lubricants for Industrial Gears 264 Viscosity-Temperature Characteristics 266 Fluid Shear Stability 267 Corrosion and Rust Protection 267 Oxidation Stability 268 Flash Point and Pour Point 268 Demulsibility and Water Separation 268 Air Release 268 Paint Compatibility 269 Seal Compatibility 269 Foaming 269 Miscibility with Mineral Oils 269 Environmental and Skin Compatibility 269 Open gear drives 270 Cost-to-benefit Ratio of Gear Lubrication Oils 270

Hydraulic Oils 274 Wolfgang Bock

Introduction 274 Hydraulic Principle-Pascal's Law 275 Hydraulic Systems, Circuits, Components 276

XVI Contents I Elements of a Hydraulic System 276 Pumps and Motors 276 Hydraulic Cylinders 277 Valves 279 Circuit Components 279 Seals, Gaskets and Elastomers 279 Hydraulic Fluids 281 Composition of Hydraulic Fluids (Base fluids, additives) 281 Base Oil, Base Fluid 281 Hydraulic Fluid Additives 281 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Characteristics of a Hydraulic Fluid 282 Selection Criteria for Hydraulic Fluids 283 Classification of Hydraulic Fluids- Standardization of Hydraulic Fluids 286 Classification of Hydraulic Fluids 286 Mineral Oil-Based Hydraulic Fluids 286 H Hydraulic Oils 287 HL Hydraulic Oils 288 HLP Hydraulic Oils 288 HVLP Hydraulic Oils 288 HLPD Hydraulic Oils 294 Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids 294 HFA Fluids 295 HFB Fluids 295 HFC Fluids 295 HFD Fluids 296 Biodegradable Hydraulic Fluids 296 HETG: Triglyceride, Vegetable-Oil Types 296 HEES: Synthetic Ester Types 298 HEPG: Polyglycol Types 299 HEPR: Polyalphaolefin and Related Hydrocarbon Products 299 Food-Grade Hydraulic Fluids 299 NSF HZ Lubricants 300 NSF HI Lubricants 303 Automatic Transmission Fluids (ATF) 303 Fluids in Tractors and Agricultural Machinery 303 Hydraulic Fluids for Aircraft 303 International Requirements on Hydraulic Oils 304 Physical Properties of Hydraulic Oils and Their Effect on Performance 306 Viscosity, V-T Behavior 307 Viscosity-Pressure Behavior 307 Density 308 Compressibility 3 10

11.4.13.5 Gas Solubility, 11.4.13.6 Air Release 4 11.4.13.7 Foaming 314 11.4.13.8 Demulsificatia 11.4.13.9 Pour-point El 11.4.13.10 Copper Corrol 11.4.13.11 Water Conted 11.4.13.12 Aging Stabilitj 11.4.13.13 Aging Stabiliq 11.4.13.14 Neutralizatia 11.4.13.15 SteellFerrousr 11.4.13.16 Wear P r o t m 11.4.13.17 Shear Stabilitj 11.4.13.18 MechanicalTg

(DIN 51 389-4 11.4.13.19 Wear Protectic 11.5 Hydraulic Sys 11.5.1 Contaminanq 11.5.2 Oil cleanline; 11.5.3 Filtration 31 11.5.4 RequiremenQ 11.6 Machine Tool 11.6.1 TheRoleofM 11.6.2 Machine Tool 11.6.3 Machine T d 11.6.3.1 Hydraulic Un 11.6.3.2 Slideways 3 11.6.3.3 Spindles (Ma 11.6.3.4 Gearboxes an 11.6.4 Machine Tool 11.6.5 Hydraulic Fh 11.6.5.1 Applications 11.6.5.2 Chemistry . 11.6.5.3 Extreme Pres 11.6.5.4 DetergentIDi 11.6.5.5 Air Release 11.6.5.6 Staticcoeffic 1 1.6.5.7 Oxidation SO 11.6.5.8 Shear Stabili 11.6.5.9 Filtration of; 11.6.5.10 Electrostatic 11.6.5.11 Micro Scratd 11.6.5.12 Updated Sta~ 11.6.5.13 Conclusion 11.7 Summary

ditives) 281

I

)fa Hydraulic

WI of Hydraulic

11.4.13.5 Gas Solubility, Cavitation 312 11.4.13.6 Air Release 314 11.4.13.7 Foaming 314 11.4.13.8 Demulsification 315 11.4.13.9 Pour-point 315 11.4.13.10 Copper Corrosion Behavior (Copper-Strip Test) 31 6 11.4.13.1 1 Water Content (Karl Fischer method) 31 6 11.4.13.12 Aging Stability (Baader method) 31 6 11.4.13.13 Aging Stability (TOST test) 31 7 11.4.13.14 Neutralization Number 31 7 11.4.13.15 Steel/Ferrous Corrosion Protection Properties 31 7 11.4.13.16 Wear Protection (SHELL four-ball apparatus; VKA, DIN 51 350) 31 7 11.4.13.17 Shear Stability of Polymer-containing Lubricants 3 18 11.4.13.18 Mechanical Testing of Hydraulic Fluids in Rotary Vane Pumps

(DIN 51 389-2) 318 11.4.13.19 Wear Protection (FZG Gear Rig Test; DIN 51 354-1 and -2) 318 11.5 Hydraulic System Filters 319 11.5.1 Contaminants in Hydraulic Fluids 3 19 11.5.2 Oil Cleanliness Grades 320 11.5.3 Filtration 321 11.5.4 Requirements of Hydraulic Fluids 322 11.6 Machine Tool Lubrication 322 11.6.1 The Role of Machine Tools 322 11.6.2 Machine Tool Lubrication 322 11.6.3 Machine Tool Components - Lubricants 323 11.6.3.1 Hydraulic Unit 323 11.6.3.2 Slideways 326 11.6.3.3 Spindles (Main and Working Spindles) 327 11.6.3.4 Gearboxes and Bearings 327 11.6.4 Machine Tool Lubrication Problems 328 11.6.5 Hydraulic Fluids - New Trends, New Developments 328 11.6.5.1 Applications 328 11.6.5.2 Chemistry 328 11.6.5.3 Extreme Pressure and Anti-wear Properties 330 11.6.5.4 DetergentIDispersant Properties 330 11.6.5.5 Air Release 331 11.6.5.6 Static Coefficient of Friction 332 11.6.5.7 Oxidation Stability 332 11.6.5.8 Shear Stability 332 11.6.5.9 Filtration of Zn and Ash-free Hydraulic Fluids 333 11.6.5.10 Electrostatic Charges 333 11.6.5.11 Micro Scratching 334 11.6.5.12 UpdatedStandards 335 11.6.5.13 Conclusion 335 11.7 Summary 336

XVlll Contents I 12 Compressor Oils 338

Air Compressor Oils 338 Wolfgang Bock and Ceorg Lingg

Displacement Compressors 340 Reciprocating Piston Compressors 340 Lubrication of Reciprocating Piston Compressors 340 Rotary Piston Compressors (Single Shaft, Rotary Vane Compressors) 341 Lubrication of Rotary Piston Compressors 341 Screw Compressors 342 Lubrication of Screw Compressors 342 Roots Compressors 343 Lubrication of Roots Compressors 343 Dynamic Compressors 343 Turbo Compressors 343 Lubrication of Turbo Compressors 344 Preparation of Compressed Air 344 Lubrication of Gas Compressors 344 Oxygen Compressors 344 Acid Gas Compressors 344 Inert Gas Compressors 344 Hydrocarbon Compressors 345 Vacuum Pump Lubrication 345 Characteristics of Compressor Oils 345 Standards and Specifications of Compressor Oils 345

Refrigeration Oils 353 Wolfgang Bock

Introduction 353 Minimum Requirements of Refrigeration Oils 354 DIN 51 503-1: Refrigeration oils, Minimum requirements (1997) 354 Classifications of Refrigeration Oils 355 Mineral Oils (MO) - Dewaxed Naphthenic Refrigeration Oils 355 Mineral Oils (MO) - Paraffinic Refrigeration Oils 355 Semi-synthetic Refrigeration Oils-Mixtures of alkylbenzenes and mineral oils (MO/AB) 356 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils- Alkylbenzenes (AB) 357 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils- Polyalphaolefins (PAO) 357 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils- Polyol esters (POE) 357 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils-Polyglycols (PAG) for R 134a 359 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils-Polyglycols for NH3 359 Other Synthetic Fluids 360 Refrigeration Oils for COz 360 Copper Plating 360

Types of Compressor 362 Viscosity Selection 362 General Overview 362 Mixture Concentration in Relationship to Temperature and Pressure (RENISO Triton SE 55-R 134a) 365 Mixture Viscosity in Relationship to Temperature, Pressure and Refrigerant Concentration (RENISO Triton SE 55-R 134a) 365 Mixture Density in Relationship to Temperature and Refrigerant Concentration (RENISO Triton SE 55-R 134a; Fig. 12.9) 365 Miscibility Gap, Solubility Threshold (RENISO Triton Series with R 134a, Fig. 12.10) 365 Summary 366

Turbine Oils 367 Wolfgang Bock

Introduction 367 Demands on Turbine Oils - Characteristics 367 Formulation of Turbine Oils 368 Turbine Lubricants - Specifications 369 Turbine Oil Circuits 374 Flushing Turbine Oil Circuits 379 Monitoring and Maintenance of Turbine Oils 380 Life of (Steam) Turbine Oils 380 Gas Turbine Oils- Application and Requirements 381 Fire-resistant, Water-free Fluids for Power Station Applications 382 Lubricants for Water Turbines and Hydroelectric Plants 383

Metalworking Fluids 384 Theo Mang, Carmen Freiler and Dietrich Horner

Action Mechanism and Cutting Fluid Selection 385 Lubrication 386 Cooling 387 Significance of Cutting Fluid with Various Cutting Materials 389 High-speed Steels 389 Cemented Carbide Metals 390

14.1.3.3 Coated Carbide Metals 390 14.1.3.4 Ceramic Materials 390 14.1.3.5 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) 390 14.1.3.6 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) 391 14.1.3.7 Coatings 391 14.1.4 Cutting Fluid Selection for Various Cutting Methods and Cutting

Conditions 391

XX Contents I Friction and Wear Assessment Method for the Use of Cutting Fluids 393 Tool Life and Number of Parts Produced by the Tool as Practical Assessment Parameters 394 Measuring Cutting Forces in Screening Tests 394 Feed Rates at Constant Feed Force 395 Measuring Tool Life by Fast-screening Methods 395 Cutting Geometry and Chip Flow 396 Other Fast Testing Methods 397 Temperature Measurement 397 Radioactive Tools 397 Surface Finish 397 Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 397 Nomenclature and Breakdown 398 Composition 400 Emulsifiers 400 Viscosity of Emulsions 406 Phase Reversal, Determination of the Type of Emulsion 407 Degree of Dispersion 408 Stability 409 Corrosion Inhibitors and other Additives 41 1 Cutting Fluids Containing Emulsifiers 413 Coolants Containing Polyglycols 415 Salt Solutions 415 Corrosion Protection and Corrosion Test Methods 41 6 Concentration of Water-mixed Cutting Fluids 417 Determination of Concentration by DIN 51 368 (IP 137) 417 Concentration Measurement Using Hand-held Refractometers Concentration Measurement Through Individual Components Determination of Concentration by Titration of Anionic Components 418 Determination of Concentration Through Alkali Reserve 41 9 Concentration after Centrifuging 41 9 Stability of Coolants 419 Determination of Physical Emulsion Stability 41 9 Electrolyte Stability 420 Thermal Stability 421 Stability to Metal Chips 422 Foaming Properties 422 Definition and Origin of Foam 423 Foam Prevention 424 Methods of Determining Foam Behavior 424 Metalworking Fluid Microbiology 425 Hygienic and Toxicological Aspects of Microorganisms 427 Methods of Determining Microbial Count 427

Determinatia Microorganis Reducing or 1 Preservation 4

Aldehydes 4

Formaldehyd Phenol De* Compounds 1 Isothiazoles Fungicides Hypochlorita Hydrogen PQ Quaternary A Neat Cutting Classification Specificationi Compositioa Base Oils a d Significancei Oil Mist and Evaporation I Low-Misting The Creation Sedimentatia Toxicity of Oi Oil Mist Mea Oil Mist In& Oil Mist Con Machining m Turning 44 Drilling 4 Milling 4 4 Gear Cutting Deep Hole D Deep Hole D Tasks to be F Threading ax Broaching Machining a Grinding 1 High-speed ( Grinding W Requiremen Special Worl CBN High-s]

ulsion 407

14.3.7.3 Determination of the Resistance of Water-miscible Coolants Towards Microorganisms 428

14.3.7.4 Reducing or Avoiding Microbial Growth in Coolants 428 14.3.8 Preservation of Coolants with Biocides 430 14.3.8.1 Aldehydes 434 14.3.8.2 Formaldehyde Release Compounds 434 14.3.8.3 Phenol Derivatives 434 14.3.8.4 Compounds Derived from Carbon Disulfide 435

Isothiazoles 435

Fungicides 435

Hypochlorites 435 Hydrogen Peroxide, H202 435

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds 436 Neat Cutting Fluids 436 Classification of Neat Metalworking Oils According to Specifications 436 Composition of Neat Metalworking Fluids 437

Base Oils and Additives 437 Significance of Viscosity on the Selection of Neat Products 438

Oil Mist and Oil Evaporation Behavior 439

Evaporation Behavior 439 Low-Misting Oils 440

The Creation of Oil Mist 440 Sedimentation and Separation of Oil Mists 441 Toxicity of Oil Mist 441 Oil Mist Measurement 443 Oil Mist Index 444

Oil Mist Concentration in Practice 444

Machining with Geometrically Defined Cutting Edges 447

Turning 447

Drilling 447

Milling 448

Gear Cutting 449 Deep Hole Drilling 450 Deep Hole Drilling Methods 450 Tasks to be Fulfilled by the Cutting Fluid 451

Threading and Tapping 452

Broaching 453

Machining with Geometric Non-defined Cutting Edges 454

Grinding 454

High-speed Grinding 455

Grinding Wheel Abrasive Materials and Bondings 456 Requirements for Grinding Fluids 456

Special Workpiece Material Considerations 457 CBN High-speed Grinding 457

XXll Contents I Honing 458

Honing Oils 460

Lapping 461

Lapping Powder and Carrier Media 461

Specific Material Requirements for Machining Operations 462

Ferrous Metals 462

Steel 462

Tool Steels 462

High-speed Steels (HSS) 463

Stainless Steels 463

Cast Iron 463

Aluminum 464

Influence of the Type of Aluminum Alloy 464

The Behavior of Aluminum During Machining 465

Tool Materials 467

Magnesium and its Alloys 468

Cobalt 469

The Health and Safety Aspects of Carbides 469

Use of Cutting Oils in Carbide Machining Processes 470

Titanium 470

Nickel and nickel alloys 471

Metalworking Fluid Circulation System 472

Metalworking Fluid Supply 472 Grinding 474

Individually-filled Machines and Central Systems 475 Tramp Oil in Coolants 476

Separation of Solid Particles 477

Swarf Concentration and Filter Fineness 477

Full, Partial or Main Flow Solids Separation 478

Filtration Processes 479

Solids Separation Equipment 482

Plastics and Sealing Materials in Machine Tools-Compatibility with Cutting Fluids 487

Monitoring and Maintenance of Neat and Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 488

Storage of Cutting Fluids 488

Mixing Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 489

Monitoring Cutting Fluids 489

Cutting Fluid Maintenance 491

Corrective Maintenance for Neat and Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 493

Splitting and Disposal 495

Disposal of Cutting Fluids 495

Evaluation Criteria for Cutting Fluid Water Phases 496

Electrolyte Separation 497

Emulsion Separation by Flotation 499

14.8.7.5 Splitting of En 14.8.7.6 Separating Wa 14.8.7.7 Ultrafiltration 14.8.7.8 Evaluation of 1 14.9 Coolant Costs, 14.9.1 Coolant Applh 14.9.1.1 Investment C(

Costs) 503 14.9.1.2 Energy Costs 14.9.1.3 Coolant and C 14.9.1.4 Coolant Mod 14.9.1.5 Other Auxiliiu 14.9.1.6 Coolant S e w 14.9.2 Coolant Appli 14.9.2.1 Specific Coola 14.9.2.2 Optimization 14.10 New Trends u 14.10.1 Oil Instead of 14.10.1.1 Fluid Familitr 14.10.1.2 Washing Line 14.10.1.3 De-oilingofc 14.10.1.4 Future Perspc 14.10.2 Minimum QI 14.10.2.1 Consideratiox 14.10.2.2 Minimum QI 14.10.2.3 Coolants for 1 14.10.2.4 Oil Mist Testr 14.10.2.5 Product Opti

Drilling 521

15 Forming Lubri

Sheet Metal 1 Theo Mang Fn Processes 5 Basic Terms : Lattice Strud Yield Strengt Strain 524 Flow Curve Efficiency of Strain Rate Anisotropy, 1 Deep drawin

14.8.7.5 Splitting of Emulsions with Adsorbents 499 14.8.7.6 Separating Water-miscible Cutting Fluids by Thermal Methods 500 14.8.7.7 Ultrafiltration 500 14.8.7.8 Evaluation of Disposal Methods 502 14.9 Coolant Costs 503 14.9.1 Coolant Application Costs 503 14.9.1.1 Investment Costs (Depreciation, Financing Costs, Maintenance

Costs) 503 14.9.1.2 Energy Costs 504 14.9.1.3 Coolant and Coolant Additives 504 14.9.1.4 Coolant Monitoring 504 14.9.1.5 Other Auxiliaries 504 14.9.1.6 Coolant Separation and Disposal 504 14.9.2 Coolant Application Costs with Constant System 504 14.9.2.1 Specific Coolant Costs 504 14.9.2.2 Optimization of Coolant use by Computer 508 14.10 New Trends in Coolant Technology 510 14.10.1 Oil Instead of Emulsion 510 14.10.1.1 Fluid Families and Multifunctional Fluids for Machine Tools 511 14.10.1.2 Washing Lines 512 14.10.1.3 De-oiling of Chips and Machined Components 512 14.10.1.4 Future Perspectives - Unifluid 513 14.10.2 Minimum Quantity Lubrication 513 14.10.2.1 Considerations When Dispensing with Coolants 514 14.10.2.2 Minimum Quantity Lubrication Systems 515 14.10.2.3 Coolants for Minimum Quantity Lubrication 516 14.10.2.4 Oil Mist Tests with Minimum Quantity Lubrication 518 14.10.2.5 Product Optimization of a Minimum Quantity Coolant Medium for

Drilling 520

15 Forming Lubricants

Sheet Metal Working Lubricants 522 Theo Mang, Franz Kubicki, Achim Losch and Wolfgang Buss

Processes 523 Basic Terms in Forming Processes 523 Lattice Structure of Metals 523 Yield Strength 524 Strain 524 Flow Curve 524 Efficiency of Deformation, Resistance to Forming, Surface Pressure 526 Strain Rate 526 Anisotropy, Texture, R value 526 Deep drawing 527

XXlV Contents I 15.1.3.1 Friction and Lubrication in the Different Areas of a Deep Drawing

Operation 527 15.1.3.2 Significance of Lubrication Dependent upon Sheet Metal Thickness,

Drawn-part Size and the Efficiency of Deformation 53 1

15.1.3.3 Assessment of the Suitability of Lubricants for Deep Drawing 533 15.1.4 Stretch Drawing and a Combination of Stretch and Deep Drawing 534 15.1.5 Shear Cutting 535 15.1.5.1 Stamping 536 15.1.5.2 Fineblanking 539 15.1.6 Material and Surface Microstructure 541 15.1.6.1 Material 541 15.1.6.2 Surface Microstructure 542 15.1.7 Tools Used in Sheet Metal Forming Operations 543 15.1.8 Lubricants for Sheet Metal Forming 545 15.1.8.1 Before Forming 545 15.1.8.2 Lubricant Behavior During Forming 548 15.1.8.3 After Forming 548 15.1.8.4 Trends in Sheet Metal Forming Lubricants 549 15.1.9 Corrosion Protection 550 15.1.9.1 Corrosion Mechanisms 550 15.1.9.2 Temporary Corrosion Protection 551 15.1.9.3 Corrosion Tests 553 15.1.10 Removal of Forming Lubricants- Industrial Cleaners 553 15.1.10.1 Intermediate Cleaning in Mechanical Manufacture 554 15.1.10.2 Cleaning Before Heat Treatment and Surface Coating 554 15.1.10.3 Cleaning During Maintenance 555 15.1.10.4 Cleaning Methods and Agents 555 15.1.10.5 Systematization of Cleaners 556 15.1.11 Testing Tribological Characteristics 563 15.1.12 Sheet Metal Forming in Automobile Manufacturing 565 15.1.12.1 Prelubes 565 15.1.12.2 Skin Passing 567 15.1.12.3 Coil Oiling 567 15.1.12.4 Transport and Storage of Sheet Metal 567 15.1.12.5 Washing of Steel Strips and Blanks 567 15.1.12.6 Additional Lubrication 568 15.1.12.7 Pressing 568 15.1.12.8 Transport and Storage of Pressed Parts 570 15.1.12.9 Welding and Bonding 570 15.1.12.10 Cleaning and Phosphating 570 15.1.12.1 1 Cataphoretic Painting 571 15.1.12.12 Savings Potential using Prelubes 571 15.1.12.13 Dry-filmLubricants 571

Lubricants f d Theo Mong a d

Wire Cracks 1 ~ ~ d r o d ~ n d Wire Frictioq Lubricant Fd Dry Drawingd Applying LuU Drawing Copj Lubricants i Lubricant Coi Solubility of { Water Q d t f Laboratory 3 Lubricant Tei Influence of i Circulation S Drawing of S Requiremed Lubricant CS Lime as a Lul Borax as Lubi Phosphate am Oxalate Coati Lubricants fo Drawing Alu Drawing Mac Lubricants fc Wire from 0 Stainless Ste Nickel 5PI Tungsten 5 Profile Draw Lubricating " Pretreatmen Tube Drawin Tube-drawin Tools and To Lubricants a Hydroformi

Lubricants for Wire, Tube, and Profile Drawing 573 Theo Mang and Wofgang Buss

Friction and Lubrication, Tools, and Machines 573 Forming Classification 573 Friction and Lubrication, Machines and Tools when Wire Drawing 574 Drawing Force and Tension 575 Drawing Tool and Wear 577 Wire Cracks 579 Hydrodynamic Drawing 579 Wire Friction on Cone 579 Lubricant Feed in Wet Drawing 582 Dry Drawing 582 Applying Lubricant as Pastes or High-viscosity Products 583 Drawing Copper Wire 583 Lubricants 584 Lubricant Concentration 585 Solubility of Copper Reaction Products 586 Water Quality and Electrolyte Stability 586 Laboratory Testing Methods 587 Lubricant Temperature 588 Influence of the Lubricant on Wire Enameling 588 Circulation Systems, Cleaning and Disposal of Drawing Emulsions 588 Drawing of Steel Wire 589 Requirements 589 Lubricant Carrier Layers 590 Lime as a Lubricant Carrier 590 Borax as Lubricant Carrier 590 Phosphate as Lubricant Carrier 590 Oxalate Coatings and Silicates 591 Lubricants for Steel Wire Drawing 591 Drawing Aluminum Wire 593 Drawing Machines and Lubrication 593 Lubricants for Aluminum Wire Drawing 593 Wire from Other Materials 594 Stainless Steel 594 Nickel 594 Tungsten 595 Profile Drawing 595 Lubricating Tasks in Profile Drawing 596 Pretreatment and the Use of Lubricant when Profile Drawing Steel 596 Tube Drawing 596 Tube-drawing Methods 597 Tools and Tool Coatings 597 Lubricants and Surface Pretreatment for Tube Drawing 599 Hydroforming 601

XXVl Contents I Process Principle 602 Process Configuration 603 Tribological Aspects of Hydroforming 603 Lubricants for Hydroforming 605

Lubricants for Rolling 606 Theo Mang and Wolfgang Buss

General 606 Rolling Speed 607 Rationalization 607 Surface and Material Quality 607 Hygienic Commercial Requirements 607 Friction and Lubrication when Rolling 608 - Rolling Steel Sheet 61 1 Hot Rolling 61 1 Sheet Cold Rolling 613 Finest Sheet Cold Rolling 61 7 Cold Rolling of High Alloy Steel Sheet 618 Rolling Aluminum Sheet 620 Aluminum Hot Rolling 620 Aluminum Cold Rolling 621 Rolling Other Materials 622

15.4 Solid Metal Forming Lubricants (Solid Forming, Forging and Extrusion) 623 Theo Mang and Wofgang Buss

Processes 623 Upsetting 623 Extrusion 624 Impression Die Forging 624 Open Die Forging 624 Forming Temperatures 624 Cold 624 Warm 625 Hot 625 Friction and Lubrication with Cold Extrusion and Cold Forging 625 Friction and Lubricant Testing Methods 626 Selection Criteria for Lubricants and Lubrication Technology 628 Lubricating Oils for Cold Extrusion of Steel (Extrusion Oils) 629 Phosphate Coatings and Soap Lubricants for Cold Extrusion of Steel 631 Solid Lubricants for Cold Extrusion of Steel 634 Warm Extrusion and Forging 636 Temperature Range up to 350 "C 638 Temperature Range 350 to 500 "C 638

16.2.1.2 Soap Cations 16.2.1.3 Lithiurnsoaps

Temperature Range 500 to GOO "C 638 Temperature Range > GOO "C 638 Lubrication when Hot Forging 639 Demands on Hot Forging Lubricants 640 Lubricant Testing Methods 641 Hot Forging of Steel 641 Lubricants 641 Aluminum Forging 643 Isothermal and Hot Die Forging 644 Application and Selection of Lubricant 645

Lubricating Creases 648 W i p i e d Dresel and Roy Peter Heckler

Introduction 648 Definition 648 History 648 Advantages over Lubricating Oils 649 Disadvantages 649 Classification 650 Thickeners 651 Simple Soaps 651 Soap Anions 651 Soap Cations 651 Lithium Soaps 652 Calcium Soaps 653 Sodium Soaps 654 Other Soaps 655 Cation Mixed Soaps M1X/M2X 655 Anion Mixed Soaps MX1/MX2 656 Complex Soaps 656 Lithium Complex Soaps 656 Calcium Complex Soaps 658 Calcium Sulfonate Complex Soaps 659 Aluminum Complex Soaps 659 Other Complex Soaps 660 Other Ionic Organic Thickeners 660 Non-ionic Organic Thickeners 660 Diureas and Tetraureas 661 Other Non-ionic Organic Thickeners 662 Inorganic Thickeners 662 Clays 662 Highly Dispersed Silicic Acid 662 Miscellaneous Thickeners 663 Temporarily Thickened Fluids 663

XXVlll Contents I Base Oils 664 Mineral Oils 665 Synthetic Base Oils 665 Synthetic Hydrocarbons 665 Other Synthetic Base Oils 666 Immiscible Base Oil Mixtures 666 Grease Structure 666 Additives 667 Structure Modifiers 668 Antirust Additives (Corrosion Inhibitors) 668 Extreme Pressure and Anti-Wear Additives 668 Solid Lubricants 669 Friction Modifiers 669 Nanomaterials 670 Manufacture of Greases 670 Metal Soap-Based Greases 670 Batch Production with Preformed Metal Soaps 670 Batch Production with Metal Soaps Prepared In-situ 671 Continuous Production 672 Oligourea Greases 673 Gel Greases 673 Grease Rheology 674 Grease Performance 674 Test Methods 677 Analytical Methods 678 Applications of Greases 679 Rolling Bearings 679 Re-lubrication Intervals 680 Cars, Trucks, Construction Vehicles 683 Steel Mills 685 Mining 686 Railroad, Railway 687 Gears 687 Food-Grade Applications 688 Textile Machines 688 Application Techniques 688 Special and Lifetime Applications 689 Applications with Polymeric Materials 689 Grease Market 690 Ecology and the Environment 691 Grease Tribology 693

Solid Lubrication 694 Christian Busch

Classification of Solid Lubricants 694 Class 1: Structural Lubricants 695 Class 2: Mechanical Lubricants 696 Self-Lubricating Substances 696 Substances with Lubricating Properties that Need a Supporting Medium 698 Substances with Indirect Lubricating Properties Based on their Hardness (Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), and Diamond-like Carbon (DLC) layers) 699

Class 3: Soaps 699 Class 4: Chemically Active Lubricants 699 Characteristics 700 The Crystal Structures of Lamellar Solid Lubricants 700 Graphite 700 Molybdenum Disulfide 700 Heat Stability 701 Melting Point 701 Thermal Conductivity 701 Adsorbed Films 702 Mechanical Properties 702 Chemical Stability 702 Purity 702 Particle Size 703 Products Containing Solid Lubricants 703 Powders 703 Solid Lubricants in Canying Media 704 Dispersions and Suspensions 704 Greases and Grease Pastes 704 Pastes 706 Dry-Film Lubricants 706 Industrial Uses of Products Containing Solid Lubricants 710 Screw Lubrication 71 1 Roller-Bearing Lubrication 712 Slide Bearing, Slide Guideway, and Slide Surface Lubrication 713 Chain Lubrication 713 Plastic and Elastomer Lubrication 713

Laboratory Methods for Testing Lubricants 715 Siedried N o / / and Roman Miiller

Introduction 71 5 Density 715 Viscosity 716

X X X Contents I 18.3.1 Capillary Viscometers 71 6 18.3.2 Rotary Viscometers 716 18.4 Refractive Index 71 7 18.5 Structural Analyses 71 7 18.6 Flash Point 717 18.7 Surface Phenomena 718 18.7.1 Air Release 718 18.7.2 Water Separation and Demulsibility 718 18.7.3 Foaming Characteristics 719 18.8 Cloud Point, Pour Point 71 9 18.9 Aniline Point 71 9 18.10 Water Content 719 18.11 Ash Content 720 18.12 Acidity, Alkalinity 720 18.13 Aging Tests 721 18.14 Hydrolytic Stability 721 18.15 Corrosion Tests 722 18.16 Oil Compatibility of Seals and Insulating Materials 723 18.17 Evaporation Loss 723 18.18 Analysis and Testing of Lubricating Greases 724 18.18.1 Consistency 724 18.18.2 Dropping Point 724 18.18.3 Oil Separation 724 18.18.4 Shear Stability of Greases 724 18.18.4.1 Prolonged Grease Working 724 18.18.4.2 Roll Stability of Lubricating Greases 725 18.18.5 High-temperature Performance 725 18.18.6 Wheel Bearing Leakage 725 18.18.6.1 Leakage Tendency of Automotive Wheel Bearing Greases 725 18.18.6.2 Wheel-bearing Leakage Under Accelerated Conditions 725 18.18.7 Wheel-bearing Life 726 18.18.8 Water Resistance 726 18.18.8.1 Water Washout Characteristics 726 18.18.8.2 Water Spray-off Resistance 726 18.18.9 Oxidation Stability of Lubricating Greases by the Oxygen Pressure-vessel

Method 726 18.18.10 Corrosion-preventive Characteristics 727 18.18.10.1 Rust Test 727 18.18.10.2 EMCOR Test 727 18.18.10.3 Copper Corrosion 727 18.19 List of Equivalent Standardized Methods for Testing Lubricants 728

Mechanical-Dynamic Test Methods for Lubricants 736 Thorsten Bartels

Tribological System Categories within Lubricant Tests 736 Simple Mechanical-Dynamic Lubricant Test Machines 737 Four-ball Apparatus 737 Reichert's Friction-wear Balance, Brugger Apparatus 740 Falex Test Machines 741 Falex Block-on-ring Test Machine 741 The Falex Pin and Vee Block Test Machine 742 Falex High-performance Multispecimen Test Machine 743 Falex Tapping Torque Test Machine 743 Timken Test Machine 744 High-frequency Reciprocating Test Machines 745 High-frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR) 745 High-frequency, Linear-oscillation Test Machine (SRV) 746 Mini Traction Machine (MTM) 747 Low-velocity Friction Apparatus (LVFA), Tribometer 748 Diesel Injector Apparatus 748 Performance Tests for Gear Oil Applications 749 FZG Gear-test Rig 750 FZG EP Tests - Scuffing 750 FZG High-EP Tests - Scuffing Load Capacity 753 FZG Pitting Tests 753 FZG Micro-Pitting Tests 754 FZG Wear Tests 755 FZG Gear-efficiency Tests 756 FZG Synthetic Oil Ageing Tests 757 Performance Tests for Roller Bearing Applications 758 FAG Roller Bearing Test Apparatus FE8 758 FAG Roller Bearing Test Apparatus FE9 760 Performance Tests for Synchronizer Applications 762 Area of Application 762 Function of the Synchronizer 762 Standardized Test Rigs and Test Methods 763 p-Comb Synchronizer Testing Machine 764 FZG SSP 180 Synchronizer Testing Machine 766 Performance Tests for Automatic Transmissions 768 Area of Application 768 Function of Friction Disks and Fluid 768 Standardized Test Rigs and Test Methods 770 SAE 2 Machine 770 DKA Machine 770 ZF GK Test Bench 2 772 Performance Tests for Continuously Variable Transmissions 774

XXXll Contents I Field of Application 774 Function of Chain, Push-Belt and Fluid 774 Standardized Test Rigs and Test Methods 775 ZF Universal Variator Test Bench 775 Van Doorne Test Bench 777 Performance Tests for Hydraulic Fluid Applications 777 Field of Application 777 Function of Vane Pumps 778 Standardized Vane Pump Test Machines and Test Methods 778 Function of Axial Piston Pumps 779 Standardized Axial Piston Pump Test Machines and Test Methods Nonstandardized Specialized Testing, Efficiency Tests 782 Hybrid Pump Testing 782 Other Standardized and Non-Standardized Test Methods and Test Machines for Lubricants 783 Interpretation and Precision of Lubricant Tests 784

References 786

Subject Index 837

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Mannheim, December 2

Lubricants and Lubrication. Copyright Q 2007 WILEY- ISBN: 978-3-527-31497.3