ÌÈÍÈÑÒÅÐÑÒÂÎ ÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÍÈßÐÎÑÑÈÉÑÊÎÉ ÔÅÄÅÐÀÖÈÈ

ÂÎËÃÎÃÐÀÄÑÊÈÉ ÃÎÑÓÄÀÐÑÒÂÅÍÍÛÉ ÓÍÈÂÅÐÑÈÒÅÒ

Í.Þ. ÊÎÏÒÅÂÀ

ÍÅËÈ×ÍÛÅ ÔÎÐÌÛÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÎÃÎ ÃËÀÃÎËÀ

Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèåäëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ôèçèêî-òåõíè÷åñêèõ ñïåöèàëüíîñòåé

Âîëãîãðàä 2002

© Í.Þ. Êîïòåâà, 2002© Èçäàòåëüñòâî Âîëãîãðàäñêîãî

ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà, 2002

ÁÁÊ 81.432.1-2ÿ73Ê65

Ðåöåíçåíòû:êàíä. ôèëîë. íàóê, äîö. Ë.Â. Ñòîëáîâàÿ (ÂÀÃÑ);

êàíä. ôèëîë. íàóê, äîö. Å.À. Ïåëèõ (ÂîëÃÓ);ä-ð ôèç.-ìàò. íàóê, ïðîô. À.È. Èâàíîâ (ÂîëÃÓ)

Ïå÷àòàåòñÿ ïî ðåøåíèþðåäàêöèîííî-èçäàòåëüñêîãî ñîâåòà

Âîëãîãðàäñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà

Êîïòåâà Í.Þ.Íåëè÷íûå ôîðìû àíãëèéñêîãî ãëàãîëà: Ó÷åáíî-

ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèå äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ôèçè÷åñêîãî ôàêóëüòåòà.— Âîëãîãðàä: Èçä-âî ÂîëÃÓ, 2002. — 96 ñ.

ISBN 5-85534-594-7Íàñòîÿùåå ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèå ñïîñîáñòâóåò

óñâîåíèþ ñòóäåíòàìè òàêèõ âàæíûõ ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ ÿâëåíèéàíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, êàê íåëè÷íûå ôîðìû àíãëèéñêèõ ãëàãîëîâè èõ êîíñòðóêöèè, ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûå â íàó÷íî-òåõíè÷åñêîéëèòåðàòóðå è ïðåäñòàâëÿþùèå òðóäíîñòè ïðè èõ ïåðåâîäå íàðóññêèé ÿçûê, è ìîæåò ñëóæèòü ëåêñèêî-ãðàììàòè÷åñêîé áàçîéäëÿ ðàáîòû ñî ñïåöèàëüíûìè òåêñòàìè. Ïîñîáèå âêëþ÷àåò òåî-ðåòè÷åñêóþ è ïðàêòè÷åñêóþ ÷àñòè.

Ïðåäíàçíà÷åíî ñòóäåíòàì ôèçèêî-òåõíè÷åñêèõ ñïåöèàëü-íîñòåé.

ISBN 5-85534-594-7

Ê65

ÑÎÄÅÐÆÀÍÈÅ

ÎÒ ÑÎCÒÀÂÈÒÅËß .................................................................... 4

×ÀÑÒÜ ÏÅÐÂÀß ........................................................................... 6Èíôèíèòèâ (The Infinitive) ........................................................... 6Ìîäàëüíûå ãëàãîëû è èõ ýêâèâàëåíòû........................................ 9

×ÀÑÒÜ ÂÒÎÐÀß ......................................................................... 16Ïðè÷àñòèå (The Participle) ......................................................... 16

×ÀÑÒÜ ÒÐÅÒÜß ......................................................................... 21Ãåðóíäèé (The Gerund) .............................................................. 21

CLASSROOM WORK ................................................................ 27The Infinitive ............................................................................... 27The Participle .............................................................................. 35The Gerund ................................................................................. 40

SELF-TRAINING WORK ......................................................... 45The Infinitive ............................................................................... 45The Participle .............................................................................. 63The Gerund ................................................................................. 77

ÊËÞ×È Ê ÓÏÐÀÆÍÅÍÈßÌ ................................................. 87Èíôèíèòèâ ................................................................................. 87Ïðè÷àñòèå ................................................................................... 90Ãåðóíäèé ..................................................................................... 92

ÑÏÈÑÎÊ ÈÑÏÎËÜÇÎÂÀÍÍÎÉ ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÛ ................. 94

— 4 —

ÎÒ ÑÎCÒÀÂÈÒÅËß

Íàñòîÿùåå ïîñîáèå ïðåäíàçíà÷åíî äëÿ ðàáîòû ñî ñòóäåíòàìèôèçè÷åñêîãî ôàêóëüòåòà âòîðîãî ãîäà îáó÷åíèÿ.

Ó÷åáíûé ìàòåðèàë â íåì ïðåäñòàâëåí â ñïåöèàëüíîé ëåêñè-êå, íàèáîëåå óïîòðåáèòåëüíîé â ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîé ëèòåðàòóðå ïîôèçèêå, è îðãàíèçîâàí â âèäå ñèñòåìû ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ óïðàæíå-íèé, ÷òî ïîçâîëÿåò èñïîëüçîâàòü åãî â êà÷åñòâå ïðàêòè÷åñêîãîïðèëîæåíèÿ ê ó÷åáíèêàì àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, ïî êîòîðûì çàíè-ìàþòñÿ ñòóäåíòû-ôèçèêè.

Óïðàæíåíèÿ ñîñòàâëåíû íà îñíîâå ìàòåðèàëîâ, îïóáëèêîâàí-íûõ â èíîñòðàííûõ æóðíàëàõ, è ðàçëè÷íîé ó÷åáíîé ëèòåðàòóðû.

Öåëü ýòèõ óïðàæíåíèé — ñîçäàòü ïðåäïîñûëêè äëÿ òî÷íîãî,ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîãî ïåðåâîäà ñïåöèàëüíîé íàó÷íîé ëèòåðàòóðû.

Ïîñîáèå ïðåäíàçíà÷åíî äëÿ ðàáîòû íàä òåìîé «Íåëè÷íûåôîðìû àíãëèéñêîãî ãëàãîëà» (èíôèíèòèâ, ïðè÷àñòèå, ãåðóíäèé)è ðàññ÷èòàíî êàê íà àóäèòîðíóþ, òàê è âíåàóäèòîðíóþ ñàìîñòî-ÿòåëüíóþ ðàáîòó ñòóäåíòîâ. Ïîñîáèå ñíàáæåíî êëþ÷àìè ê íàèáî-ëåå òðóäíûì ÷àñòÿì óïðàæíåíèé.

Êàæäûé ðàçäåë ïðàêòè÷åñêîé ÷àñòè ïîñîáèÿ ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñîáîé ñèñòåìó óïðàæíåíèé, ïîçâîëÿþùèõ èçó÷èòü ôóíêöèîíè-ðîâàíèå íåëè÷íûõ ôîðì â ïðåäëîæåíèè è ðàñêðûòü èõ îñîáåííî-ñòè. Õàðàêòåð óïðàæíåíèé â ïîñëåäíèõ äâóõ ðàçäåëàõ â îñíîâíîìèäåíòè÷åí. Ñòóäåíòàì äàþòñÿ çàäàíèÿ îïðåäåëèòü ñèíòàêñè÷åñ-êèå ôóíêöèè ðàññìàòðèâàåìîé íåëè÷íîé ôîðìû ãëàãîëà, ïðî-àíàëèçèðîâàòü äâîéñòâåííûé õàðàêòåð íåëè÷íûõ ôîðì ãëàãîëà,íàïðèìåð, ãëàãîëüíûå è ñóáñòàíòèâíûå ñâîéñòâà èíôèíèòèâà,ãëàãîëüíûå, àäúåêòèâíûå è àäâåðáèàëüíûå ñâîéñòâà ïðè÷àñòèÿ,ïðîàíàëèçèðîâàòü ñîñòàâ ïðåäèêàòèâíûõ êîíñòðóêöèé ñ íåëè÷-íûìè ôîðìàìè è ò. ä.

Áîëüøîå ìåñòî â ðàáîòå îòâîäèòñÿ óïðàæíåíèÿì òèïà: «Usethe proper Infinitive form instead of the clause», «Change the sentenceto use Complex Subject», «Substitute the Infinitive Suggested» è ò. ï.(ñì. «Classroom Work»).

 ïðàêòè÷åñêîé ÷àñòè ïîñîáèÿ äàíû òàêæå óïðàæíåíèÿ, íà-ïðàâëåííûå íà âûðàáîòêó ó ñòóäåíòîâ íàâûêîâ óïîòðåáëåíèÿíåëè÷íûõ ôîðì ãëàãîëà. Ýòè óïðàæíåíèÿ ñîäåðæàò ýëåìåíòû òâîð-÷åñêîé ðàáîòû. Ýòî óïðàæíåíèÿ òèïà «Restate the following sentencesusing the Absolute Participle Construction instead of a subordinate

clause», «Express agreement with the following statements», «Contradictthe following statements», «Develop the situation» è äð. (ñì. «Self-Training Work»).

Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, íàëè÷èå ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ çàäàíèé ïðåäïî-ëàãàåò òâîð÷åñêèé ïîäõîä ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ ê âûáîðó çàäàíèé â çà-âèñèìîñòè îò ïîäãîòîâëåííîñòè ñòóäåíòîâ.

Ðàçðàáàòûâàÿ ñèñòåìó óïðàæíåíèé, ñîñòàâèòåëü ñòðåìèëñÿêàê ìîæíî ïîëíåå îõâàòèòü ìàòåðèàë è äàòü ïðàâèëüíîå ñî÷åòà-íèå àíàëèòè÷åñêèõ è òðåíèðîâî÷íûõ óïðàæíåíèé, èñõîäÿ èç ñïå-öèôèêè òåìû. Ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòü âûïîëíåíèÿ óïðàæíåíèé îï-ðåäåëÿåòñÿ ïðåïîäàâàòåëåì â çàâèñèìîñòè îò êîíêðåòíûõ óñëî-âèé ðàáîòû.

— 6 —

×ÀÑÒÜ ÏÅÐÂÀß

ÈÍÔÈÍÈÒÈÂ (THE INFINITIVE)

Ôîðìû èíôèíèòèâà â ïðåäëîæåíèè

 àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå èìåþòñÿ ñëåäóþùèå ôîðìû èíôèíèòèâà:

Active Passive

Indefinite to translate to be translated

Continuous to be translating

Perfect to have translated to have been translated

Perfect-

Continuousto have been translating

Èíôèíèòèâ ÿâëÿåòñÿ îñíîâíîé ãëàãîëüíîé ôîðìîé, îò êî-òîðîé îáðàçóþòñÿ âñå ëè÷íûå ôîðìû ãëàãîëà âî âñåõ ãðóïïàõâðåìåí â äåéñòâèòåëüíîì è ñòðàäàòåëüíîì çàëîãàõ.

Infinitive Indefinite óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ äåéñòâèÿ,îäíîâðåìåííîãî ñ äåéñòâèåì, âûðàæåííûì ãëàãîëîì-ñêàçóåìûìâ ëè÷íîé ôîðìå.

Infinitive Continuous âûðàæàåò äåéñòâèå â ïðîöåññå åãî ðàç-âèòèÿ îäíîâðåìåííî ñ äåéñòâèåì, âûðàæåííûì ãëàãîëîì-ñêàçó-åìûì â ëè÷íîé ôîðìå.

Infinitive Perfect âûðàæàåò äåéñòâèå, êîòîðîå ïðåäøåñòâóåòäåéñòâèþ, âûðàæåííîìó ãëàãîëîì-ñêàçóåìûì.

Infinitive Perfect-Continuous âûðàæàåò äåéñòâèå, ïðîäîëæàâ-øååñÿ â òå÷åíèå îïðåäåëåííîãî ïåðèîäà âðåìåíè è ïðåäøåñòâî-âàâøåå äåéñòâèþ, âûðàæåííîìó ãëàãîëîì-ñêàçóåìûì.

Ôîðìà èíôèíèòèâà ñòðàäàòåëüíîãî çàëîãà óêàçûâàåò íà òî,÷òî äåéñòâèå, âûðàæåííîå èíôèíèòèâîì, íàïðàâëåíî íà ëèöîèëè ïðåäìåò, ñâÿçàííûé ñ èíôèíèòèâîì.

Any rust which is present in the cylinder of the engine must beremoved.Ðæàâ÷èíà âíóòðè öèëèíäðà ìîòîðà äîëæíà áûòü óäàëåíà.

— 7 —

Observe the Forms of the Infinitive:

1. He must read articles in English every day.(Infinitive Indefinife Active)

2. He must be reading an English article now.(Infinitive Continuous Active)

3. I am sorry to have written this article.(Infinitive Perfect Active)

4. I am sorry to have been writing this article for so long.(Infinitive Perfect Continuous Active)

5. English articles must be translated every day.(Infinitive Indefinite Passive)

6. I was lucky to have been asked easy questions at theexamination.

(Infinitive Pcrfect Passive)Ñïîñîá ïåðåâîäà èíôèíèòèâà íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê çàâèñèò îò

åãî ôóíêöèè â ïðåäëîæåíèè.

Ôóíêöèè èíôèíèòèâà â ïðåäëîæåíèè

 ïðåäëîæåíèè èíôèíèòèâ ìîæåò âûïîëíÿòü ñëåäóþùèåôóíêöèè:à) Ïîäëåæàùåãî.

To master this speciality is very important.Îâëàäåòü (îâëàäåíèå) ýòîé ñïåöèàëüíîñòüþ î÷åíü âàæíî.

á) Èìåííîé ÷àñòè ñîñòàâíîãî ñêàçóåìîãî.

The aim of our research work is to find the necessary data.Öåëü íàøåé èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîé ðàáîòû (çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì,÷òîáû) îïðåäåëèòü âñå íåîáõîäèìûå äàííûå.

â) ×àñòè ñîñòàâíîãî ãëàãîëüíîãî ñêàçóåìîãî.

Many other processes have to be taken into account for a completeexplanation of the phenomena.Äëÿ ïîëíîãî ïîíèìàíèÿ ýòîãî ÿâëåíèÿ ñëåäóåò ó÷èòûâàòüìíîãèå äðóãèå ïðîöåññû.

ã) Äîïîëíåíèÿ.

He likes to speak with us on this subject.Åìó íðàâèòñÿ ãîâîðèòü ñ íàìè íà ýòó òåìó.

ä) Îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà öåëè (ìîæåò ñòîÿòü â íà÷àëå èëè â êîíöåïðåäëîæåíèÿ).

— 8 —

Late in the 19th century metallurgists began to use the microscopeto examine metals.Ê êîíöó 19 âåêà ìåòàëëóðãè íà÷àëè èñïîëüçîâàòü ìèêðî-ñêîï äëÿ èçó÷åíèÿ ìåòàëëîâ.To examine metals metallurgists began to use the microscope.Äëÿ èçó÷åíèÿ ìåòàëëîâ ìåòàëëóðãè íà÷àëè èñïîëüçîâàòü ìèê-ðîñêîï.

å) Îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà ñëåäñòâèÿ (ñòîèò ïîñëå íàðå÷èé too,sufficiently, enough).Ïåðåâîäèòñÿ íåîïðåäåëåííîé ôîðìîé ãëàãîëà ñ ñîþçîì «äëÿ

òîãî ÷òîáû» è ÷àñòî èìååò ìîäàëüíûé îòòåíîê.The investigations of phase changes in metals and alloys by meansof cooling curve is too well-known to require discussion here.Èññëåäîâàíèå ôàçîâûõ èçìåíåíèé ìåòàëëîâ è ñïëàâîâ ïðèïîìîùè êðèâûõ îõëàæäåíèÿ äîñòàòî÷íî õîðîøî èçâåñòíî,äëÿ òîãî ÷òîáû òðåáîâàòü ðàññìîòðåíèÿ çäåñü.The motors made enough noise to wake the dead.Ìîòîðû ïîäíÿëè òàêîé øóì, ÷òî ìîãëè ðàçáóäèòü ìåðòâûõ.

æ) Îïðåäåëåíèÿ (ñòîèò ïîñëå îïðåäåëÿåìîãî ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî).Îáû÷íî ïåðåâîäèòñÿ íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê îïðåäåëèòåëüíûì ïðè-äàòî÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì ñî çíà÷åíèåì äîëæåíñòâîâàíèÿ, âîç-ìîæíîñòè èëè áóäóùåãî âðåìåíè.The first point to notice is that this reaction proceeds at veryhigh temperatures.Ïåðâûé âîïðîñ, íà êîòîðûé ñëåäóåò îáðàòèòü âíèìàíèå,ýòî òî, ÷òî ýòà ðåàêöèÿ ïðîòåêàåò ïðè î÷åíü âûñîêèõ òåì-ïåðàòóðàõ.A plant to produce X-ray apparatus is under construction in Russia. íàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ â Ðîññèè ñòðîèòñÿ çàâîä, êîòîðûé áóäåòâûïóñêàòü ðåíòãåíîâñêóþ àïïàðàòóðó.

Èíîãäà èíôèíèòèâ â ôóíêöèè îïðåäåëåíèÿ ïåðåâîäèòñÿïðèëàãàòåëüíûì.

In the years to come the metal will be widely used in industry. áëèæàéøèå ãîäû ýòîò ìåòàëë íàéäåò øèðîêîå ïðèìåíåíèåâ ïðîìûøëåííîñòè.Èíôèíèòèâ â ôóíêöèè îïðåäåëåíèÿ ïîñëå ñëîâ the first, the

second, the last, the only è äð. ïåðåâîäèòñÿ ãëàãîëîì â ëè÷íîé ôîðìå,â òîì âðåìåíè, â êîòîðîì ñòîèò ñêàçóåìîå ãëàâíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ.

— 9 —

Turbine was the first to be invented and the last to be perfected.Òóðáèíà áûëà ïåðâîé èçîáðåòåíà è ïîñëåäíåé óñîâåðøåí-ñòâîâàíà.

Ïðèìå÷àíèå. Èíôèíèòèâ â ôóíêöèè îïðåäåëåíèÿ ê ïîäëå-æàùåìó ñ ïðåäøåñòâóþùèìè there is èëè there are îáû÷íî ïåðå-âîäèòñÿ, íà÷èíàÿ ñî ñëîâ «ñëåäóåò», «ìîæåò áûòü»; èíôèíèòèâàíãëèéñêîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ïåðåâîäèòñÿ èíôèíèòèâîì â äåéñòâè-òåëüíîì çàëîãå, à ïîäëåæàùåå àíãëèéñêîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ äîïîë-íåíèåì.

There is no benefit to be obtained by using this method.Ïðèìåíåíèå ýòîãî ìåòîäà íå ìîæåò äàòü ñóùåñòâåííûõ ïðå-èìóùåñòâ.Certainly there are many problems to be solved.Êîíå÷íî, ñëåäóåò ðåøèòü ìíîãî ïðîáëåì.

ÌÎÄÀËÜÍÛÅ ÃËÀÃÎËÛ È ÈÕ ÝÊÂÈÂÀËÅÍÒÛ

Модальныеглаголы и ихэквиваленты

Значение PRESENT PAST FUTURE

1. CAN

Возмож-ность со-вершениядействия

cancould

to be able (to)amis able (to)are

were able (to)was

shall be able (to)will

2. MAY may might

to be allowed (to)amis allowed (to)are

was allowed (to)were

shall be allowed (to)will

3. MUSTДолженст-вование must

to have (to)have (to)has (to)

had (to)shall have (to)will

to be (to)am (to) is (to)aге (to)

was (to)were (to)

Should shouldOught (to) ought (to)

To be obliged (to)amis obliged (to)are

was obliged (to)were

shall be obliged (to)will

— 10 —

Ìîäàëüíûå ãëàãîëû âûðàæàþò íå äåéñòâèå, à îòíîøåíèåãîâîðÿùåãî ê äåéñòâèþ, âûðàæåííîìó èíôèíèòèâîì; èìåþò íåâñå âðåìåííûå ôîðìû, îòñóòñòâóþùèå âðåìåííûå ôîðìû âîñ-ïîëíÿþòñÿ ýêâèâàëåíòàìè ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ; ìîãóò óïîòðåá-ëÿòüñÿ â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ ëþáîé ôîðìîé èíôèíèòèâà. Íàèáîëüøèåòðóäíîñòè ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ïåðåâîä ñî÷åòàíèé ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ ñInfinitive Passive è Perfect Infinitive.

Ïàññèâíûé èíôèíèòèâ ïîñëå ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ

Ñî÷åòàíèå ìîäàëüíîãî ãëàãîëà ñ Infinitive Passive óêàçûâà-åò, ÷òî ïîäëåæàùåå ÿâëÿåòñÿ îáúåêòîì, íà êîòîðûé íàïðàâëåíîäåéñòâèå, âûðàæåííîå èíôèíèòèâîì. Ïîýòîìó ïîäëåæàùåå àíã-ëèéñêîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ÷àñòî ïåðåâîäèòñÿ íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê ïðÿ-ìûì èëè ïðåäëîæíûì äîïîëíåíèåì.

The total number of ions in the chamber may then grow veryquickly and each primary ionization may be followed by severalthousand secondary ionizations.Îáùåå ÷èñëî èîíîâ â êàìåðå ìîæåò çàòåì î÷åíü áûñòðîóâåëè÷èâàòüñÿ, è çà êàæäîé ïåðâè÷íîé èîíèçàöèåé ìîæåòñëåäîâàòü íåñêîëüêî òûñÿ÷ âòîðè÷íûõ èîíèçàöèé.

Ïåðôåêòíûé èíôèíèòèâ ïîñëå ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ

Ìîäàëüíûå ãëàãîëû must, may è might â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ PerfectInfinitive âûðàæàþò âîçìîæíîñòü èëè âåðîÿòíîñòü äåéñòâèÿ, îò-íîñÿùåãîñÿ ê ïðîøëîìó, è îáû÷íî ïåðåâîäÿòñÿ ñëîâàìè äîëæíîáûòü, âîçìîæíî.

We now see that this point must have been the center of mass ofthe body.Ìû òåïåðü âèäèì, ÷òî ýòà òî÷êà, äîëæíî áûòü, ÿâëÿëàñüöåíòðîì ìàññû òåëà.Íå may have got the article he needed.Îí, âîçìîæíî, äîñòàë ñòàòüþ, êîòîðàÿ áûëà åìó íóæíà.

Ãëàãîëû can è could â îòðèöàòåëüíîé ôîðìå â ñî÷åòàíèè ñPerfect Infinitive âûðàæàþò ñîìíåíèå â âîçìîæíîñòè ñîâåðøåíèÿäåéñòâèÿ â ïðîøëîì è îáû÷íî ïåðåâîäÿòñÿ ïðè ïîìîùè ñëîâà íåìîæåò áûòü.

Íå cannot have made such a serious mistake.Íå ìîæåò áûòü, ÷òîáû îí äîïóñòèë òàêóþ ñåðüåçíóþ îøèáêó.

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Ìîäàëüíûå ãëàãîëû ought (tî), should, could è might â ñî÷å-òàíèè ñ Perfect Infinitive óêàçûâàþò íà òî, ÷òî äåéñòâèå, êîòîðîåìîãëî èëè äîëæíî áûëî áû ñîâåðøèòüñÿ, íå ñîâåðøèëîñü.

You should have changed the current strength at all points of thecircuit.Âàì ñëåäîâàëî áû èçìåíèòü ñèëó òîêà âî âñåõ òî÷êàõ öåïè.

1. It isn’t, however, difficult to see that there must have been a timewhen no such solid crust existed at all and when our Earth wasa glowing globe of melted rocks.

Èíôèíèòèâíûå êîíñòðóêöèè

Îáîðîò «Èìåíèòåëüíûé ïàäåæ ñ èíôèíèòèâîì»(The Subjective Infinitive Construction)

Ýòî ñëîæíîå ïîäëåæàùåå, ñîñòîÿùåå èç ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî âîáùåì ïàäåæå èëè èç ëè÷íîãî ìåñòîèìåíèÿ â èìåíèòåëüíîì ïà-äåæå ñ èíôèíèòèâîì.

Óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ ñ ãëàãîëàìè to seem, to appear, to prove, to happen(â àêòèâíîì çàëîãå), to say, to know, to expect, to believe, to suppose, toassume, to claim è äð. (â ñòðàäàòåëüíîì çàëîãå) è ñ ñî÷åòàíèÿìèñëîâ to be likely, to be unlikely, to be certain, to be sure.

Ïåðåâîäèòñÿ ñëîæíîïîä÷èíåííûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì; ñêàçóåìîåàíãëèéñêîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ñòàíîâèòñÿ ñêàçóåìûì ãëàâíoãî ïðåä-ëîæåíèÿ â íåîïðåäåëåííî-ëè÷íîé ôîðìå, ïîäëåæàùåå — ïîäëå-æàùèì ïðèäàòî÷íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, èíôèíèòèâ — ñêàçóåìûì.Ìîæíî òàêæå ïåðåâîäèòü ïðîñòûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì, â êîòîðîì íåî-ïðåäåëåííî-ëè÷íûé îáîðîò óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ êàê ââîäíîå ïðåäëî-æåíèå.

Magnetism is believed to be set up by the motion of electrons.Ïðåäïîëàãàåòñÿ, ÷òî ìàãíåòèçì âîçíèêàåò â ðåçóëüòàòå äâè-æåíèÿ ýëåêòðîíîâ.A recent determination of the orbits of the five outer planets isreported to have involved over twelve million arithmeticoperations.Ñîîáùàåòñÿ, ÷òî ïðîèçâåäåííûå íåäàâíî îïðåäåëåíèÿ îðáèòïÿòè âíåøíèõ ïëàíåò ïîòðåáîâàëè ñâûøå äâàäöàòè ìèëëèoíîâàðèôìåòè÷åñêèõ oïeðàöèé.

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India appears to have been acquanted with iron and steel from anearly ago.Èíäèÿ, ïî-âèäèìîìó, çíàëà î æåëåçå è ñòàëè åùå ñ äàâíèõâðåìåí.The temperature is likely to be the same.Âîçìîæíî, ÷òî òåìïåðàòóðà áóäåò òàêàÿ æå.This is unlikely to be achieved.Ìàëîâåðîÿòíî, ÷òî ýòî áóäåò äîñòèãíóòî.

Èìåíèòåëüíûé ïàäåæ ñ èíôèíèòèâîì ñ ìîäàëüíûì ãëàãîëîì

Ïðè ïåðåâîäå ìîäàëüíûé ãëàãîë îòíîñèòñÿ ê ãëàãîëó (â äåé-ñòâèòåëüíîì èëè ñòðàäàòåëüíîì çàëîãå), ñòîÿùåìó ïåðåä èíôè-íèòèâîì.

At first blush the procedure outlined above may appear to berather crude.Íà ïepâûé âçãëÿä ìîæåò ïîêàçàòüñÿ, ÷òî èçëîæåííàÿ âûøåìåòîäèêà ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðèáëèæåííîé.Our knowledge of electricity and magnetism may be said to havestarted in ancient times with a few random observations on thebehaviour of electrfied particles and of natural magnetsÌîæíî ñêàçàòü, ÷òî íà÷àëî íàøåìó îçíàêîìëåíèþ ñ ýëåêòðè-÷åñòâîì è ìàãíåòèçìîì áûëî ïîëîæåíî åùå â äðåâíèå âðåìå-íà, â ðåçóëüòàòå íåñêîëüêèõ ñëó÷àéíûõ íàáëþäåíèé çà ïîâå-äåíèåì íàýëåêòðèçîâàííûõ ÷àñòèö è åñòåñòâåííûõ ìàãíèòîâ.

Èìåíèòåëüíûé ïàäåæ ñ èíôèíèòèâîì, ñ ãëàãîëàìèâ îòðèöàòåëüíîé ôîðìå

Ïðè ãëàãîëàõ â äåéñòâèòåëüíîì çàëîãå îòðèöàíèå îáû÷íîîòíîñèòñÿ ê èíôèíèòèâó.

This phenomenon does not appear to have been studied.Ïî-âèäèìîìó, ýòî ÿâëåíèå íå áûëî èçó÷åíî.Ïðè ãëàãîëàõ â ñòðàäàòåëüíîì çàëîãå îòðèöàíèå îáû÷íî îò-

íîñèòñÿ ê ýòîìó ãëàãîëó.This reaction, however, is not expected to continue indefinitely.Îäíàêî íå ïðåäïîëàãàåòñÿ, ÷òî ýòà ðåàêöèÿ áóäåò ïðîäîë-æàòüñÿ áåñêîíå÷íî.

Îáîðîò «Èìåíèòåëüíûé ïàäåæ ñ èíôèíèòèâîì» â îïðåäåëè-òåëüíîì ïðèäàòî÷íîì ïðåäëîæåíèè èëè ïðè÷àñòíîì îáîðîòå ïåðå-âîäèòñÿ îïðåäåëèòåëüíûì ïðèäàòî÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì.

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In this chapter we present a small selection of problems whichare believed to constitute a representative sample. ýòîé ãëàâå ìû äàåì íåáîëüøîå êîëè÷åñòâî çàäà÷, êîòî-ðûå, êàê ìû ïîëàãàåì, ÿâëÿþòñÿ õàðàêòåðíûì ïðèìåðîì.The experiment believed to have proved successful, will be discussedat the conference.Îïûò, êîòîðûé, êàê ïîëàãàþò, îêàçàëñÿ óñïåøíûì, áóäåòîáñóæäåí íà êîíôåðåíöèè.

Ïðèìå÷àíèå. Åñëè èíôèíèòèâ ñòîèò ïîñëå Participle I îòãëàãîëà appear èëè ïîñëå ñëîâ likely, certain, òî îí òàêæåïåðåâîäèòñÿ îïðåäåëèòåëüíûì ïðèäàòî÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì.

The findings, appearing to belong to the same period are ofconsiderable interest.Ðåçóëüòàòû, êîòîðûå, ïî-âèäèìîìó, îòíîñÿòñÿ ê òîìó æåïåðèîäó âðåìåíè, ïðåäñòàâëÿþò çíà÷èòåëüíûé èíòåðåñ.The apparatus likely to give the results required is being repaired.Ïðèáîð, êîòîðûé, âåðîÿòíî, äàñò òðåáóåìûå ðåçóëüòàòû, âíàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ íàõîäèòñÿ â ðåìîíòå.

Îáîðîò «Îáúåêòíûé ïàäåæ ñ èíôèíèòèâîì»(The Objective Infinitive Construction)

Ýòî ñëîæíîå äîïîëíåíèå, ïðåäñòàâëÿþùåå ñî÷åòàíèå ñóùå-ñòâèòåëüíîãî â îáùåì ïàäåæå èëè ëè÷íîãî ìåñòîèìåíèÿ â îáúåêò-íîì ïàäåæå ñ èíôèíèòèâîì. Óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ ïîñëå ãëàãîëîâ to think,to know, to believe, to consider, to assume, to expect, to suppose, to cause, toallow, to permit, to feel, to see, to notice, to observe, to want è äð.

Ïåðåâîäèòñÿ äîïîëíèòåëüíûì ïðèäàòî÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì,íà÷èíàþùèìñÿ ñ ñîþçîâ «÷òî» èëè «÷òîáû», ïðè÷åì ñóùåñòâè-òåëüíîå (èëè ìåñòîèìåíèå) ñòàíîâèòñÿ ïîäëåæàùèì ïðèäàòî÷-íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, à èíôèíèòèâ — ñêàçóåìûì.

On close examination of a piece of granite we find it to becomposed of several kinds ofnuneids.Ïðè òùàòåëüíîì èññëåäîâàíèè êóñêà ãðàíèòà ìû îáíàðóæè-âàåì, ÷òî îí ñîñòîèò èç íåñêîëüêèõ âèäîâ ìèíåðàëîâ.We want this meter to be tested under very severe conditions.Ìû õîòèì, ÷òîáû ýòîò èçìåðèòåëüíûé ïðèáîð áûë èñïûòàíâ î÷åíü òÿæåëûõ óñëîâèÿõ.

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Ïðèìå÷àíèå 1. Ïîñëå ãëàãîëîâ, âûðàæàþùèõ ÷óâñòâà,âîñïðèÿòèå, ïîñëåäóþùèé èíôèíèòèâ óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ áåç÷àñòèöû to.

Passengers watching the heavens from a west-bound rocket willobserve the sun halt and then start to move at great speed fromwest to east.Ïàññàæèðû, íàáëþäàþùèå íåáî ñ ðàêåòû, äâèæóùåéñÿ íàçàïàä, çàìåòÿò, ÷òî ñîëíöå îñòàíîâèòñÿ, à çàòåì íà÷íåò ïå-ðåìåùàòüñÿ ñ áîëüøîé ñêîðîñòüþ ñ çàïàäà íà âîñòîê.

Ïðèìå÷àíèå 2. Êîãäà ñêàçóåìîå âûðàæåíî ãëàãîëàìè to make,to get, to cause (â çíà÷åíèè «çàñòàâëÿòü»), to allow, to permit, to enableè åñëè ïðè ýòîì èíôèíèòèâ ñòîèò â àêòèâíîì çàëîãå, òî ïðè ïåðåâîäåñëåäóåò ñîõðàíÿòü ïîðÿäîê ñëîâ àíãëèéñêîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ.

This causes the current to flow in the circuit.Ýòî çàñòàâëÿåò òîê ïðîòåêàòü ïî öåïè.

Åñëè èíôèíèòèâ ñòîèò â ñòðàäàòåëüíîì çàëîãå, åãî ñëåäóåòïåðåâîäèòü ñðàçó ïîñëå ãëàãîëà, ïðè÷åì èíôèíèòèâ â ñòðàäà-òåëüíîì çàëîãå ïåðåâîäèòñÿ èíôèíèòèâîì â äåéñòâèòåëüíîì çà-ëîãå, è, ñëåäîâàòåëüíî, ñòîÿùåå ïåðåä íèì ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå ñòà-íîâèòñÿ äîïîëíåíèåì ê èíôèíèòèâó.

The use of this technique permits more accurate calculations tobe performed.Èñïîëüçîâàíèå ýòîãî ìåòîäà äàåò âîçìîæíîñòü âûïîëíèòüáîëåå òî÷íûå ðàñ÷åòû.

Ïðèìå÷àíèå 3. Îáúåêòíûé ïàäåæ ñ èíôèíèòèâîì óïîòðåá-ëÿåòñÿ íå òîëüêî ïîñëå ãëàãîëîâ â ëè÷íîé ôîðìå, íî è ïîñëåíåëè÷íûõ ôîðì ãëàãîëà.

We expect to see the pure mathematicians become interested innew logical problems that automatic computers have made urgent.Ìû îæèäàåì, ÷òî ñïåöèàëèñòû â îáëàñòè ÷èñòîé ìàòåìàòè-êè íà÷íóò èíòåðåñîâàòüñÿ íîâûìè ëîãè÷åñêèìè ïðîáëåìà-ìè, ðåøåíèå êîòîðûõ ñòàëî íàñòîÿòåëüíî íåîáõîäèìûì âðåçóëüòàòå ïîÿâëåíèÿ âû÷èñëèòåëüíûõ ìàøèí.

Ïðèìå÷àíèå 4. Îáúåêòíûé ïàäåæ ñ ïðè÷àñòèåì íàñòîÿùåãîâðåìåíè óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ ïîñëå ãëàãîëîâ to see, to feel, to hear, towatch è äð. è óêàçûâàåò íà ñîâïàäåíèå âûðàæåííîãî èì äåéñòâèÿñ äåéñòâèåì, âûðàæåííûì ëè÷íîé ôîðìîé ãëàãîëà.

Automation enthusiasts see completely automatic factories turningout products of different kind.Ýíòóçèàñòû àâòîìàòèêè óæå âèäÿò â ñâîåì âîîáðàæåíèè,êàê àâòîìàòèçèðîâàííûå çàâîäû ïîëíîñòüþ âûïóñêàþò ðàç-ëè÷íóþ ïðîäóêöèþ.

Èíôèíèòèâíûé îáîðîò ñ ïðåäëîãîì «for»(The For-to-Infinitive Construction)

 àíãëèéñêîì ïðåäëîæåíèè î÷åíü ÷àñòî èíôèíèòèâ ñòîèò çàñóùåñòâèòåëüíûì èëè ìåñòîèìåíèåì ñ ïðåäëîãîì for, îáðàçóÿ ñíèì îäíó ñèíòàêñè÷åñêóþ ãðóïïó, êîòîðàÿ â ïðåäëîæåíèè ìîæåòâûïîëíÿòü ëþáóþ ôóíêöèþ (ïîäëåæàùåãî, èìåííîé ÷àñòè ñêàçó-åìîãî, äîïîëíåíèÿ, îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà, îïðåäåëåíèÿ). Ýòîò îáîðîòïåðåâîäèòñÿ íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê èíôèíèòèâîì èëè ïðèäàòî÷íûìïðåäëîæåíèåì, â êîòîðîì ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå èëè ìåñòîèìåíèå ñòà-íîâèòñÿ ïîäëåæàùèì, à èíôèíèòèâ — ãëàãîëîì-ñêàçóåìûì.

Âèä ïðèäàòî÷íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ïðè ïåðåâîäå çàâèñèò îòôóíêöèè ýòîé ãðóïïû â àíãëèéñêîì ïðåäëîæåíèè.

Íå explained the scheme for the såñînd time for us to understand(îáñòîÿòåëüñòâî öåëè) it better.Îí îáúÿñíèë ñõåìó âòîðîé ðàç, ÷òîáû ìû ëó÷øå åå ïîíÿëè.

It required some months mîãå for the group to complete thåexperimental work în thå use of à nåw fuel in aviation.Ïîòðåáîâàëîñü åùå íåñêîëüêî ìåñÿöåâ, ÷òîáû ãðóïïà ìîãëàçàêîí÷èòü îïûòíûå ðàáîòû ïî èñïîëüçîâàíèþ íîâîãî âèäàòîïëèâà â àâèàöèè.

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×ÀÑÒÜ ÂÒÎÐÀß

ÏÐÈ×ÀÑÒÈÅ (THE PARTICIPLE)

Ôîðìû ïðè÷àñòèÿ

Active Passive

Participle I sending being sent

Perfect Participle I having sent having been sent

Participle II sent

Ôóíêöèè ïðè÷àñòèÿ â ïðåäëîæåíèè

 ïðåäëîæåíèè ïðè÷àñòèå ìîæåò âûïîëíÿòü ñëåäóþùèåôóíêöèè:à) Îïðåäåëåíèÿ (Participle I Active è Passive â Participle II).

Insulating materials are used for covering electric wires.Èçîëèðóþùèå ìàòåðèàëû èñïîëüçóþòñÿ äëÿ ïîêðûòèÿ ýëåê-òðîïðîâîäîâ.

(Participle I Active)The properties of the metal being milled are unknown.Ñâîéñòâà äîáûâàåìîãî ìåòàëëà íåèçâåñòíû.

(Participle I Passive)The pipe-line being built in this region passes under a big. lake.Òðóáîïðîâîä, ñòðîÿùèéñÿ â ýòîì ðàéîíå, ïðîõîäèò ïîä áîëü-øèì îçåðîì.

(Participle II)á) Îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà (Participle I Active è Passive, Participle 11

è Perfect Participle).

(While) Considering the matter he encountered many difficulties.Ðàññìàòðèâàÿ ýòîò âîïðîñ, îí ñòîëêíóëñÿ ñî ìíîãèìè òðóä-íîñòÿìè.Electron microscope is by no means a recent invention, havingoriginated about 1931.Ýëåêòðîííûé ìèêðîñêîï íè â êîåì ñëó÷àå íåëüçÿ ñ÷èòàòüíîâûì èçîáðåòåíèåì, òàê êàê îí áûë ðàçðàáîòàí ïðèìåðíîâ 1931 ã.Having considered the matter, we arrived at a definite decision.Ðàññìîòðåâ (= ïîñëå òîãî êàê ìû ðàññìîòðåëè) ýòîò âîï-ðîñ, ìû ïðèøëè ê îïðåäåëåííîìó ðåøåíèþ.

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Having been read by the scientists, the magazines were returnedto the library.Ïîñëå òîãî êàê æóðíàëû áûëè ïðî÷èòàíû ó÷åíûìè, èõ âåð-íóëè â áèáëèîòåêó.

Ïðè÷àñòèå II (Participle II)

Participle II â ïðåäëîæåíèè ìîæåò âûïîëíÿòü ðàçëè÷íûå ôóí-êöèè è â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ýòîãî ïî-ðàçíîìó ïåðåâîäèòñÿ.  ôóíê-öèè ëåâîãî îïðåäåëåíèÿ Participle II îáû÷íî ïåðåâîäèòñÿ ïðè÷àñ-òèåì ñòðàäàòåëüíîãî çàëîãà íàñòîÿùåãî èëè ïðîøåäøåãî âðåìåíè.

Atoms are composed of a positively charged central core ornucleus and electrons.Àòîìû ñîñòîÿò èç ïîëîæèòåëüíî çàðÿæåííîé ñåðäöåâèíû èëèÿäðà è ýëåêòðîíîâ.An electronic computer forms an impressively complex devicewhen viewed as a whole.Ýëåêòðîííàÿ ñ÷åòíàÿ ìàøèíà ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé èñêëþ÷è-òåëüíî ñëîæíîå óñòðîéñòâî, åñëè åãî ðàññìàòðèâàòü â öåëîì(êîãäà îíî ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ â öåëîì).

Participle II ìîæåò îáðàçîâûâàòü íåçàâèñèìûé ïðè÷àñòíûéîáîðîò, àíàëîãè÷íûé íåçàâèñèìîìó ïðè÷àñòíîìó îáîðîòó ñParticiple I. Ýòîò îáîðîò òàêæå ïåðåâîäèòñÿ îáñòîÿòåëüñòâåííûìïðèäàòî÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì.

The pressure removed, the air springs back to its original volume.Êîãäà âûêëþ÷àåòñÿ äàâëåíèå, âîçäóõ ïðèíèìàåò ñâîé ïåð-âîíà÷àëüíûé îáúåì.

Ôîðìà Participle II ñîâïàäàåò ñ ôîðìîé Past Indefinite ïðà-âèëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ. Ðàçëè÷èòü ýòè îäèíàêîâûå ôîðìû ìîæíî òîëü-êî ïóòåì ïðàâèëüíîãî îïðåäåëåíèÿ èõ ôóíêöèè â ïðåäëîæåíèè.

The instrument designed by Ihis engineer arrived just in time.Ïðèáîð, ñêîíñòðóèðîâàííûé ýòèì èíæåíåðîì, ïðèáûë êàêðàç âîâðåìÿ.

 ôóíêöèè ïðàâîãî îïðåäåëåíèÿ Participle II ñ ïîñëåäóþùèìèñëîâàìè îáðàçóåò ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò è ïåðåâîäèòñÿ òàêæå ïðè÷àñòè-åì ñòðàäàòåëüíîãî çàëîãà íàñòîÿùåãî èëè ïðîøåäøåãî âðåìåíè, àèíîãäà îïðåäåëèòåëüíûì ïðèäàòî÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì.

The units used to measure time, space and mass are calledfundamental units.

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Åäèíèöû, èñïîëüçóåìûå äëÿ èçìåðåíèÿ âðåìåíè, ïðîñòðàí-ñòâà è ìàññû, íàçûâàþòñÿ îñíîâíûìè åäèíèöàìè.

 ôóíêöèè ïðàâîãî îïðåäåëåíèÿ Participle II ÷àñòî èìååòïðè ñåáå ïðåäëîã.  ýòîì ñëó÷àå Participle II ñ îòíîñÿùèìèñÿ êíåìó ñëîâàìè ïåðåâîäèòñÿ îïðåäåëèòåëüíûì ïðèäàòî÷íûì ïðåä-ëîæåíèåì íåîïðåäåëåííî-ëè÷íîãî õàðàêòåðà, à ïðåäëîã, åñëè îíïåðåâîäèòñÿ íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê, ñòàâèòñÿ ïåðåä îòíîñèòåëüíûììåñòîèìåíèåì, ââîäÿùèì ýòî îïðåäåëèòåëüíîå ïðèäàòî÷íîå ïðåä-ëîæåíèå.

At first sight the diesel spoken of looks like gasoline engine.Äèçåëü, î êîòîðîì èäåò ðå÷ü, íà ïåðâûé âçãëÿä ïîõîæ íàáåíçèíîâûé äâèãàòåëü.Participle II â ôóíêöèè îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà ñòîèò â íà÷àëå èëè

â êîíöå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ è îáû÷íî óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ ñ ñîþçàìè îáñòî-ÿòåëüñòâåííîãî ïðèäàòî÷íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ when, if, unless è äð.Òàêîé ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò, òèïè÷íûé äëÿ íàó÷íî-òåõíè÷åñêîéëèòåðàòóðû, ïåðåâîäèòñÿ íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê ïîëíûì ïðèäàòî÷íûìïðåäëîæåíèåì. Ïðè ýòîì, åñëè îáîðîò ñòîèò â íà÷àëå ïðåäëîæå-íèÿ, òî ïîäëåæàùåå àíãëèéñêîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ñòàíîâèòñÿ ïðèïåðåâîäå ïîäëåæàùèì ïðèäàòî÷íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ. Åñëè æå îáî-ðîò ñòîèò â êîíöå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, îí ïåðåâîäèòñÿ ëèáî íåîïðåäå-ëåííî-ëè÷íûì ïðèäàòî÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì, ëèáî ïðèäàòî÷íûìïðåäëîæåíèåì ñ ïîäëåæàùèì, âûðàæåííûì ìåñòîèìåíèåì.

If arranged according to their atomic weights the elements exhibitan evident periodicity of properties.Åñëè ýëåìåíòû ðàñïîëîæèòü ñîãëàñíî èõ àòîìíûì âåùåñòâàì,îíè ïðîÿâëÿþò ÿâíóþ ïåðèîäè÷íîñòü ñâîéñòâ.

Íåçàâèñèìûé ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò(The Absolute Participle Construction)

Íåçàâèñèìûé ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ñî÷å-òàíèå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî èëè ìåñòîèìåíèÿ â ôóíêöèè ïîäëåæà-ùåãî ñ ïðè÷àñòèåì, âûïîëíÿþùèì ïðåäèêàòèâíóþ ôóíêöèþ.Íåçàâèñèìûé ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò âñåãäà îòäåëÿåòñÿ îò ãëàâíîé÷àñòè ïðåäëîæåíèÿ çàïÿòîé. Ïåðåâîäèòñÿ îáñòîÿòåëüñòâåííûìïðèäàòî÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì ñ ñîþçàìè «ïîñëå òîãî êàê», «êîã-äà», «òàê êàê», «ïîñêîëüêó», «åñëè» è äð. èëè æå ñàìîñòîÿòåëü-íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì ñ ñîþçàìè «ïðè÷åì», «à», «è».

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1. Íåçàâèñèìûé ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò âðåìåíè ÷àùå ñòîèò â íà-÷àëå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ.Radioactivity discovered, we made great progress in atomicphysics.

2. Íåçàâèñèìûé ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò óñëîâèÿ ÷àùå ñòîèò â íà-÷àëå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ.Other things being equal, iron will oxidize more rapidly thanmercury or silver.Ïðè ïðî÷èõ ðàâíûõ óñëîâèÿõ æåëåçî áóäåò îêèñëÿòüñÿ áûñ-òðåå, ÷åì ðòóòü èëè ñåðåáðî.

3. Íåçàâèñèìûé ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò ïðè÷èíû îáû÷íî ñòîèòëèáî â íà÷àëå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, ëèáî â êîíöå.There being no feasible way to store electricity in large quantitiesduring the period of low demand, there will usually be surplus ofgenerating equipment at certain hours of the day.Òàê êàê íåò îñóùåñòâèìîãî ñïîñîáà õðàíåíèÿ ýëåêòðè÷å-ñòâà â áîëüøèõ êîëè÷åñòâàõ â ïåðèîä ìàëîãî åãî ïîòðåáëå-íèÿ, òî â îïðåäåëåííûå ÷àñû äíÿ áóäåò èìåòüñÿ èçáûòîêóñòàíîâëåííîé ìîùíîñòè.Power is the basis of civilization, all, industry and transportbeing dependant upon power in some form.Ýíåðãèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ îñíîâîé öèâèëèçàöèè, ò. ê. âñÿ ïðîìûø-ëåííîñòü è òðàíñïîðò çàâèñÿò îò ýíåðãèè â òîì èëè èíîì âèäå.

4. Íåçàâèñèìûé ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò ñîïóòñòâóþùèõ îáñòîÿ-òåëüñòâ îáû÷íî ñòîèò â êîíöå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ.Special cameras may be used to photograph the ocean bed, thephotographs showing any rocks and living organisms at depthsof more than three kilometers.Äëÿ ôîòîãðàôèðîâàíèÿ äíà îêåàíà ìîãóò áûòü èñïîëüçîâàíûñïåöèàëüíûå êàìåðû, ïðè÷åì íà ôîòîãðàôèÿõ âèäíû âñå ñêàëü-íûå è æèâûå îðãàíèçìû íà ãëóáèíàõ áîëåå òðåõ êèëîìåòðîâ.

Ïðèìå÷àíèå. Èíîãäà ïåðåä íåçàâèñèìûì ïðè÷àñòíûìîáîðîòîì ïðè÷èíû è ñîïóòñòâóþùèõ îáñòîÿòåëüñòâ ñòîèò ïðåäëîãwith, êîòîðûé íå ïåðåâîäèòñÿ.

Òhe mixture of fuel and air prior to ignition is of heterogeneousnature, with atomization, vaporization and mixing occufingsimultaneously.

Ñìåñü òîïëèâà è âîçäóõà ïåðåä âîñïëàìåíåíèåì èìååò ãåòå-ðîãåííûé õàðàêòåð, ïðè÷åì ðàñïûëåíèå, èñïàðåíèå è ñìåøå-íèå ïðîèñõîäÿò îäèîâðåìåííî.

The Absolute Participial Construction

N1 + Part I + N2 + V = when (as, if) + N1 + V (Part I) + N2 + V

Silver being very expensive, we seldom use it as a conductor =As silver is very expensive, we seldom use it as a conductor.

N1 + V + N2 + Part I = N1 + V + (and) + N2 + V (Part)

In Rutherford’s experiment a small sample of radium is placed atthe bottom of a small hole, the hole being made in a block of lead. îïûòå Ðåçåðôîðäà íåáîëüøîé îáðàçåö ðàäèÿ ïîìåùàåòñÿíà äíî íåáîëüøîãî îòâåðñòèÿ, ïðè÷åì îòâåðñòèå äåëàåòñÿ âêóñêå ñâèíöà.The temperature of the melted ice rising, the movement of itsmolecules is speeded.Êîãäà òåìïåðàòóðà òàþùåãî ëüäà ïîâûøàåòñÿ, äâèæåíèååãî ìîëåêóë óñêîðÿåòñÿ/The two propellers turn in opposite direction, one being în thehollow shaft and the other is placed slightly ahead of the other.Äâà âèíòà âðàùàþòñÿ â ïðîòèâîïîëîæíûõ íàïðàâëåíèÿõ,ïðè÷åì îäèí èç íèõ íàõîäèòñÿ íà ïîëîì âàëó, à äðóãîé — íàíåáîëüøîì ðàññòîÿíèè ïåðåä äðóãèì. ýòîé êîíñòðóêöèè ìîãóò óïîòðåáëÿòüñÿ òàêæå ñëîæíûå

ôîðìû ïðè÷àñòèÿ.The compressibility of the kerosinå being known, thecompressibility of the gas could be calculated.Òàê êàê ñæèìàåìîñòü êåðîñèíà áûëà èçâåñòíà, ìîæíî áûëîâû÷èñëèòü ñæèìàåìîñòü ãàçà.The new method having been studied in detail, the committeedecided to introduce it to nearly all the plants.Ïîñëå òîãî êàê íîâûé ìåòîä áûë èçó÷åí ïîäðîáíî, êîìèòåòðåøèë ââåñòè åãî ïî÷òè íà âñåõ çàâîäàõ.

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×ÀÑÒÜ ÒÐÅÒÜß

ÃÅÐÓÍÄÈÉ (THE GERUND)

Ôîðìû è ôóíêöèè ãåðóíäèÿ â ïðåäëîæåíèè

Ãåðóíäèé ÿâëÿåòñÿ íåëè÷íîé ôîðìîé ãëàãîëà, îáëàäàþùåé ñâîé-ñòâàìè êàê ãëàãîëà, òàê è ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî. Îí îáðàçóåòñÿ òàê æåêàê è Participle I ïóòåì ïðèáàâëåíèÿ ñóôôèêñà ing ê îñíîâå ãëàãîëà.

Ãåðóíäèé èìååò ñëåäóþùèå ôîðìû:

Indefinite Perfect

Active writing having written

Passive being written having been written

Ãåðóíäèé îáëàäàåò ñëåäóþùèìè ñâîéñòâàìè ãëàãîëà:à) Èìååò çàëîãîâûå è âèäîâûå ôîðìû:

- Indefinite Gerund îáû÷íî óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿäåéñòâèÿ, îäíîâðåìåííîãî ñ äåéñòâèåì ñêàçóåìîãî â ïðåä-ëîæåíèè;- Perfect Gerund óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ äåéñòâèÿ,êîòîðîå ïðåäøåñòâóåò äåéñòâèþ, âûðàæåííîìó ñêàçóåìûìâ ïðåäëîæåíèè.

á) Ìîæåò ïðèíèìàòü ïðÿìîå äîïîëíåíèå.â) Ìîæåò îïðåäåëÿòüñÿ íàðå÷èåì.

Ãåðóíäèé îáëàäàåò ñëåäóþùèìè ñâîéñòâàìè ñóùåñòâèòåëü íîãî:à) Ïåðåä ãåðóíäèåì ìîæåò ñòîÿòü ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå â îáùåì

èëè ïðèòÿæàòåëüíîì ïàäåæå èëè ïðèòÿæàòåëüíîå ìåñòîèìå-íèå.

á) Ãåðóíäèþ ìîæåò ïðåäøåñòâîâàòü ïðåäëîã;â) Ãåðóíäèé â ïðåäëîæåíèè âûïîëíÿåò òå æå ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèå

ôóíêöèè, ÷òî è ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå, è ìîæåò áûòü:1) ïîäëåæàùèì:

Making these calculations may be

a very difficult and time-

consuming procedure.

Выполнение этих расчетовможет оказаться оченьтрудной и длительнойпроцедурой.

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2) èìåííîé ÷àñòüþ ñîñòàâíîãî ñêàçóåìîãî:

My favourite occupation isreading.

Мое любимое зан,тие –чтение.

3) äîïîëíåíèåì (ïðÿìûì è ïðåäëîæíûì):

They started correlating theproperties of these two metals.

Они начали сравниватьсвойства этих двух металлов.

They spoke of building a newheat-treating furnace.

Они говорили о постройкеновой термической печи (= отом чтобы построить новуютермическую печь).

4) îïðåäåëåíèåì (îáû÷íî óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ ñ ïðåäëîãàìè of èëèfor):

The new method of treating steelwas approved.

Новый метод обработки сталибыл одобрен.

There are two common methodsfor measuring angular velocity.

Существует два обычныхметода измерения угловойскорости.

 ôóíêöèè ëåâîãî îïðåäåëåíèÿ ãåðóíäèé îòëè÷àåòñÿ îò ïðè÷àñ-òèÿ òîëüêî â ñìûñëîâîì îòíîøåíèè, è ðàçíèöà ìåæäó íèìè, à ñëå-äîâàòåëüíî, è ïðàâèëüíûé ïåðåâîä, îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ êîíòåêñòîì:

His working place is always inorder.

Его рабочее место (то естьместо для работы, а неработающее место) всегда впорядке (working – герундий).

The working engine is in the nextroom.

Работающий двигательнаходится в соседнемпомещении (working –причастие)

5) îáñòîÿòåëüñòâîì (÷àùå âñåãî — âðåìåíè, ïðè÷èíû è îáðàçàäåéñòâèÿ). Ïåðåä ãåðóíäèåì â ýòîé ôóíêöèè âñåãäà ñòîèò îäèíèç ñëåäóþùèõ ïðåäëîãîâ: after, before, in, on, upon, without, for, byè äð., ÷òî è îòëè÷àåò ãåðóíäèé îò ïðè÷àñòèÿ â ýòèõ ôóíêöèÿõ:

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After providing the factorieswith machinery, we began toproduce large quantities ofconsumer goods.

Снабдив (после того как мыснабдили) заводынеобходимым оборудованием,мы начали выпускатьпредметы широкогопотребления.

Before heating these parts youshould carefully clean them.

Прежде чем нагревать этидетали, вы должны тщательнопрочистить их.

Òàê êàê â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå íåò ôîðìû, ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåé àí-ãëèéñêîìó ãåðóíäèþ, òî ïðè ïåðåâîäå íà àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê åìóíàäî íàéòè ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèå ýêâèâàëåíòû.

Ãåðóíäèé ìîæåò ïåðåâîäèòüñÿ:1) ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûì:

Adding heat to a substance doesnot always cause a rise of itstemperature (adding –подлежащее)

Добавление тепла веществуне всегда вызываетповышение его темературы.

2) íåîïðåäåëåííîé ôîðìîé ãëàãîëà:

I like translating technicalbooks from English intoRussian (translating - пр,моедополнение)

Я люблю переводитьтехнические книги санглийского ,зыка нарусский.

3) äååïðè÷àñòèåì:

Heat may be produced byburning coal, gas or other fuel(burning – обсто,тельство).

Тепло можно получить,сжига3 уголь, газ или любоедругое топливо.

4) ãëàãîëîì â ëè÷íîé ôîðìå â ðîëè ñêàçóåìîãî â ñîñòàâå ïðè-äàòî÷íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ (òàê ïåðåâîäÿòñÿ îáû÷íî ñëîæíûåôîðìû ãåðóíäèÿ):

They were proud of havingobtained such outstandingresults.

Они были горды тем, чтодобились таких выдающихс,результатов.

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 ôóíêöèè ëåâîãî îïðåäåëåíèÿ ãåðóíäèé ïåðåâîäèòñÿ ñóùå-ñòâèòåëüíûì èëè, ðåæå, ïðèëàãàòåëüíûì:

Sliding friction and rollingfriction are both examples offriction force

Трение скольжени3 и трениекачени3 оба ,вл,ютс,примерами силы трени,.

Forms of the Gerund

Employing the new device proved useful — Gerund IndefiniteActive.He mentioned having seen the device — Gerund Perfect Active.He likes being shown new device — Gerund Indefinite Passive.I don’t remember having been shown the device — GerundPerfect Passive.The Gerund is used after the following verbs:

to begin начинать He has begun learningFrench.

to start It has started raining.to continue продолжать She continued training.to go on He went on reading.

to keep on He kept on learningEnglish.

to stop прекращать He stopped smoking.

to finish заканчивать She finished reading thebook.

to like нравитьс, I don't like waiting forbuses.

to prefer предпочитать I prefer walking.

to enjoy получатьудовольствие I enjoy walking.

to remember помнитьDo you remember takingyour entranceexaminations?

to mind возражать Do you mind my openingthe window?

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Ñëîæíûé ãåðóíäèàëüíûé îáîðîò(The Gerundial Complex)

×àñòî ïåðåä ãåðóíäèåì ñòîèò ïðèòÿæàòåëüíîå ìåñòîèìåíèåèëè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå â ïðèòÿæàòåëüíîì èëè îáùåì ïàäåæå. Ýòèýëåìåíòû âìåñòå ñ äîïîëíåíèåì èëè îáñòîÿòåëüñòâîì, ñòîÿùèìèïîñëå ãåðóíäèÿ, îáðàçóþò ñëîæíûé ãåðóíäèàëüíûé îáîðîò, êî-òîðûé ìîæåò âûïîëíÿòü â ïðåäëîæåíèè ñëåäóþùèå ôóíêöèè:ïîäëåæàùåãî, èìåííîãî ñêàçóåìîãî, äîïîëíåíèÿ, îïðåäåëåíèÿ èîáñòîÿòåëüñòâà. Òàêîé îáîðîò îáû÷íî ïåðåâîäèòñÿ ïðèäàòî÷íûìïðåäëîæåíèåì. Ïðèòÿæàòåëüíîå ìåñòîèìåíèå èëè ñóùåñòâèòåëü-íîå ãåðóíäèàëüíîãî îáîðîòà îáû÷íî ïåðåâîäèòñÿ ëè÷íûì ìåñòî-èìåíèåì èëè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûì â èìåíèòåëüíîì ïàäåæå è âû-ïîëíÿåò ôóíêöèþ ïîäëåæàùåãî ðóñ-ñêîãî ïðèäàòî÷íîãî ïðåäëî-æåíèÿ, à ãåðóíäèé ïåðåâîäèòñÿ ãëàãîëîì â ëè÷íîé ôîðìå. Âèäïðèäàòî÷íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ ôóíêöèåé îáîðîòà âïðåäëîæåíèè.

I remember my having spoken to some of them about thepossibility of getting this journal.ß ïîìíþ, ÷òî ÿ ãîâîðèë êîå ñ êåì èç íèõ î âîçìîæíîñòèïîëó÷åíèÿ ýòîãî æóðíàëà.His having made these experiments successfully caused a greatsensation.Òî, ÷òî îí óñïåøíî âûïîëíèë ýòè îïûòû, áûëî äëÿ âñåõáîëüøîé ñåíñàöèåé.The engineer was told of some oil having been sprayed into thecylinder.Èíæåíåðó ñêàçàëè, ÷òî â öèëèíäð áûëî ââåäåíî ìàñëî.

Gerundial Constructions

N + V1 + Prep + N/Pron. poss + Ger —• N + V1 + Prep ++ the fact + that + N/Pron. poss. + V(ger.)

We know about this physicist having made an important discovery -We know about the fact that this physicist has made an important

discovery.

N(‘) + Ger + V ... -” The fact + that + N + V(ger)

This scientist’s having made an important discovery was knownto everybody.

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The fact that this scientist has made an important discovery wasknown to everybody.

Îòãëàãîëüíîå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå(The verbal noun)

 àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå îòãëàãîëüíîå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå ïî ôîð-ìå ñîâïàäàåò ñ Participle I è ïðîñòîé ôîðìîé ãåðóíäèÿ. Îòãëà-ãîëüíîå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå îáëàäàåò òîëüêî ïðèçíàêàìè ñóùåñòâè-òåëüíîãî. Îíî ìîæåò èìåòü àðòèêëü, îêîí÷àíèå ìíîæåñòâåííîãî÷èñëà, ëåâîå îïðåäåëåíèå, îáû÷íî âûðàæåííîå ïðèëàãàòåëüíûì,è ïðàâîå îïðåäåëåíèå. Íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê îòãëàãîëüíîå ñóùåñòâè-òåëüíîå âñåãäà ïåðåâîäèòñÿ ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûì.

The splitting of an atom or molecule into two oppositely chargedparts is a well-known fact.Ðàñùåïëåíèå àòîìà èëè ìîëåêóëû íà äâå ïðîòèâîïîëîæíîçàðÿæåííûå ÷àñòèöû ÿâëÿåòñÿ õîðîøî èçâåñòíûì ôàêòîì.

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Classroom Work

THE INFINITIVE

Forms of the Infinitive

Exercise 1. Change the form of the Infinitive according to thetime expression.

1. You must touch sphere A with the rubber ro. (at this moment)2. The charge must exert a force. (the moment the rod touches the

sphere)3. The rod must be charged negatively. (before the experiment

took place)4. They are lucky to reproduce such a force. (in their last

experiment)5. He is sorry not to follow your example. (a little earlier)6. I am sorry not to be given any good suggestion. (at the conference

yesterday)

Exercise 2. Change the Infinitive form from Active into Passive.

1. You are to compare the two forces after the experiment takesplace. Then: The two forces are…...

2. We must induce the charge without touching the body. Then:The charge must…...

3. Am I to remove the rod from the vicinity after B is movedaway? Then: Is the rod…...

4. The action must leave both the spheres with their respectivecharges. Then: Both the spheres…...

5. It is clear that one is to compare the motion of electrons withthe motion of electrons. Then: It is clear that the motion ofelectrons…...

6. Am I to bring the charged rod close to the metal sphere?Then: Is the charged rod…...

7. We must calculate the force exerted by either charge upon theother. Then: The force exerted by either charge upon theother…...

Exercise 3. Use thå Infinitive either Active îr Passive instead ofthå Clause.

1. The ball which is to be lowered into the ðàil is chargednegatively.

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2. The conductor which needs to acquire à charge is shapeddifferently.

3. The metallic sphere will acquire à charge that will spreaduniformly over its surface.

4. The conductor is induced by à charge which must be distributedaccording to surface curvature.

5. Faraday was the first who explained the distribution of charge.6. I’ll be the last who will understand why the electroscope leaf

ãåmains fixed.

Exercise 4. Use the proper Infinitive form instead of the clause.

Pattern: I am sorry I don’t I am sorry not tobelieve you.… — believe you.I am sorry I didn’t I am sorry not tobelieve you.… — have believed you.I am glad I am asked I am glad to beto help you. — asked to help you.

1. He is sorry he didn’t expect such achievements.2. He is sorry he is compared to a man like that.3. We are happy we are meeting him here.4. I am lucky I am studying at the University.5. She is lucky she is given much attention.6. They were unlucky they weren’t given much attention.7. I am glad I didn’t choose the wrong number.

Exercise 5. Use thå Proper Infinitive instead of thå Clause.1. I àm sorry I didn’t solve the problems.2. I àm sorry I didn’t choose the proper answer.3. I am sorry I wasn’t answered properly.4. Íå is glad he has acquired à good knowledge of physics.5. Íå is glad he is supported by you.6. Íå is glad he has been suggested another research task.7. Íå is lucky he is taking part in this ãåsearch.

Exercise 6. Translate from Russian into English.

1. ß ðàä, ÷òî ïðèîáðåë äîñòàòî÷íûå çíàíèÿ.2. Îí ñ÷àñòëèâ òåì, ÷òî åãî ñðàâíèâàþò ñ òàêèì áîëüøèì

ó÷åíûì.3. Âû ðàäû, ÷òî âàì ïðåäëîæèëè ýòî èññëåäîâàíèå?4. Òàì âû âèäèòå ïðîâîäíèê, êîòîðûé íàäî çàðÿäèòü îòðè-

öàòåëüíûì çàðÿäîì.

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5. Ìû ãîâîðèì o çàðÿäå, êîòîðûé ðàñïðåäåëèòñÿ ñîîòâåò-ñòâåííî êðèâèçíå ïîâåðõíîñòè.

6. Îí ïåðâûì âûáðàë ïðàâèëüíîå ðåøåíèå.7. Îí ïîñëåäíèì äîêàçàë ýòî.8. ß çíàë, ÷òî îí ïîñëåäíèì çàêîí÷èò ýêñïåðèìåíò.

Functions of the Infinitive

Exercise 1. Change the sentence according to the pattern.

Pattern: It is necessary to bring the rod close to the sphere...To bring the rod close to the sphere is necessary.

1. It is necessary to remove the rod from the vicinity.2. It is unnecessary for you to make any suggestions.3. It is impossible to induce a charge without touching the body.4. It is possible to charge this body by induction.5. It is difficult for me to choose the right number.6. It isn’t easy for us to solve the equation.

Exercise 2. Substitute for the Infinitive in the brackets.

Pattern: I’ll be given an article to read (to translate).I’ll be given an article to translate.

1. You are to weigh the two substances to be used for theexperiment. (to be brought into contact, to electrify, to begiven a sufficient charge)

2. The charges to study are of opposite sign. (to distribute overthe entire surface, to pull apart, to be acquired, to seize)

Exercise 3. Change the attributive clause into the Infinitive.

Pattem: The idea which is to be put into practice was suggestedby this young scientist.The idea to put into practice was suggested by this youngscientist.We’ll solve the problem in the class which is to takeplace on Monday.We’ll solve the problem in the class to take place onMonday.He was the first who solved the problem...He was the first to solve the problem.

1. The theory which is to be explained here seems more likely.2. The particles which must be defiected move quite speedily

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3. The ball which is to be removed has been charged negatively.4. The conductor will acquire the charge which is to spread over

the entire surface.5. You’ll be given a linear equation that is to be considered.6. It became apparent that the rays which were to go straight

ahead had a great penetrating power.7. We shall be informed of the methods that will be used.

Exercise 4. Put direct questions instead of the indirect ones.

1. Ask me when both the spheres are found to be charged.2. Ask me if both the spheres are allowed to stand with their

respective charges.3. Ask me if the spheres are supposed to have been separated

under these conditions.4. Ask me if I am supposed to calculate the force exerted by

either charge upon the other.5. Ask me why the electroscope is believed to be well insulated.6. Ask me why like charges are said to repel each other.7. Ask me if the charged rubber rod is supposed to be touching

sphere A.

Exercise 5. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Õîðîøî èçîëèðîâàòü ýëåêòðîñêîï — çíà÷èò äàâàòü òî÷íûåèçìåðåíèÿ.

2. Oòäåëèòü øàðèêè — çíà÷èò îñòàâèòü èì, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî,íàâåäåííûå çàðÿäû.

3. Çàðÿäèòü òåëî ïóòåì èíäóêöèè — çíà÷èò ïåðåäàòü çàðÿä,íå êàñàÿñü åãî.

4. Èçîëèðîâàòü ìåòàëëè÷åñêèå øàðèêè ñòåêëÿííîé îïîðîéñîâåðøåííî íåîáõîäèìî.

5. Âû÷èñëèòü ñèëó, ñ êîòîðîé ëþáîé èç çàðÿäîâ äåéñòâóåòíà äðóãîé, âïîëíå âîçìîæíî.

6. Òåîðèÿ, êîòîðóþ áóäóò îáñóæäàòü â ñëåäóþùèé ðàç, ìà-ëîâåðîÿòíà.

7. Äàâàéòå ðàññìîòðèì óðàâíåíèÿ, êîòîðûå ïðåäñòîèò ñðàâ-íèòü.

8. Òîê, êîòîðûé íàäî èçìåðèòü, òå÷åò ïî ïðîâîäíèêó À.9. Íàì áû íå õîòåëîñü îáñóæäàòü ðåçóëüòàòû, êîòîðûå åùå

äîëæíû áûòü ïîëó÷åíû.10. Îí ïåðâûì âûáðàë ïðàâèëüíûé îòâåò.11. ß ïîñëåäíèì ðåøèë óðàâíåíèå ïåðâîé ñòåïåíè.

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The Infinitive Constructions

The Subjective Infinitive Construction

Exercise 1. Change the sentence to use Complex Subject.

Pattern: It seems that the walls are nearly straight.The walls seem to be nearly straight.

1. It appeared that the etectroscope leaf remained fixed.2. It seems that free electrons have left positives in the inside

unneutralized.3. It happened so that the non-conductor acquired a static charge.4. It proves that the charge is distributed according to surtace

curvature.5. It appears that the positives left in the inside have been

neutralized.

Exercise 2. Change the sentence according to the expressionsuggested. Use this expression in Present Indefinite.

1. The ball is charged from another source. (be said)2. The demonctration of the distribution of charge involves a

hollow metal container. (be likety)3. Two metal spheres A and B are touching each other. (seem)4. Both spheres are left with their respective charges. (be supposed)5. The scientist has demonstrated charging by induction quite

recently. (be unlikely)6. The ball is moved around inside the pail. (be sure)

Exercise 3. Change the sentence as given in the pattem.

Pattem: The negatives seem to neutralize a few positives whenthe ball touches the pail.It’s wrong.The negatives don’t seem to neutralize a fewpositives when the ball touches the pail.

1. The charge proved to have spread uniformly over any kind ofsurface.

2. The charge appears to be concentrating more where the wallsare nearly straight.

3. The negative charge happened to be distributed on the entiresurface after the ball was removed.

4. The number of induced positives proves to be unequal to thenumber of negatives on the wall.

— 32 —

5. Charge density appears to be greatest in regions of greatestcurvature.

Exercise 4. Change the sentense as given in the pattem.

Pattern: Faraday happened to have demonstrated tne distributionor charge.How about Roentgen? Did he happen to havedemonstrated the distribution of charge?

1. The inner surface of the pail proves to be free of charge in theend. How about the ball itself?

2. Faraday’s experiment appears to have involved a hollow metalcontainer like a tin pail. How about an electroscope?

3. No charge seem to be shown by the electroscope leaf in thisfigure. How about Fig.3?

4. The ball lowered to this position proved to be charged negatively.How about the outer surface of the pail?

5. Static charges acquired by a non-conductor appear to remainwhere they are first located. How about static charges acquiredby a conductor?

Exercise 5. Put questions to the words or word combinationssuggested.

1. The conductor is likely to acquire a charge after the body isremoved.

2. The charge is sure to concentrate at points heavily.3. The negatives are unlikely to have left the ball before it touched

the pail.

Exercise 6. Change the sentences to use Complex Subject.

1. It is certain that redistribution of the negative charges will takeplace over the entire surface.

2. It is likely that an equal number of positives will be induced.3. It is unlikely that the electroscope leaf has remained fixed.4. It is certain that the charge will spread quickly and unformly.5. It is 1ikely that the inner surface of the pail will be completely

free of charge demonstrated in part only.

Exercise 7. Translaite from Russian into English.

1. Ñêîðîñòü ýëåêòðîíà, äîëæíî áûòü, èçìåíèëàñü â ìîìåíòóäàðà.

2. Ïî÷åìó, êàê ïðåäïîëàãàþò, ñêîðîñòü ýëåêòðîíà ìåíÿåòñÿâ ìîìåíò óäàðà?

— 33 —

3. Ïî-âèäèìîìó, âñå âûäåëåííûå ýëåêòðîíû äîñòèãíóò àíîäà.4. Îêàçàëîñü, ÷òî ýëåêòðîíû ñòàëêèâàëèñü ñ àòîìàìè â ñâî-

åì ïîëåòå ê àíîäó.5. Âû õîòèòå, ÷òîáû ÿ ïîêàçàë âàì õàðàêòåðèñòèêè äèîäà?6. Âû ñ÷èòàåòå, ÷òî íà ñêîðîñòü ýëåêòðîíà îêàçûâàåòñÿ íå-

çíà÷èòåëüíîå âîçäåéñòâèå?7. Êàæåòñÿ, ýòè òðè çàðÿäà ñïîñîáñòâóþò ýëåêòðè÷åñêîìó òîêó.8. Ýëåêòðîíû, êîòîðûå äîëæíû äâèãàòüñÿ ê àíîäó,ìîãóò âäðóã

âûëåòàòü èç ýëåêòðè÷åñêîãî ïîëÿ.9. Îí ïåðâûì çàìåòèë, êàê ïðîèçîøëî íàñûùåíèå.

The Objective Infinitive Construction

Exercise 1. Change the sentences as given in the pattern.

Pattern: I saw him change the sign to the opposite.I saw that he changed the sign to the opposite.We watched the experiment take place.We watched how the experiment took place.

1. You can often see them measure the magnetic field forces.2. He sometimes hears us speak about the exchange forces.3. Have you ever watched me weigh the two substances?4. Did you notice him seize that heavy object?5. We couldn’t observe the two substances acquire a net negative

charge.6. I saw her change considerably.

Exercise 2. Change the sentences using Complex Object.

Pattern: — I saw that he seized something off the table.— I saw him seize something off the table.

1. They watched how the light particles struck the heavy ones.2. We couldn’t see how the particles acquired the opposite sign.3. Will you be able to notice how they will acquire a sufficient

charge?4. I’ve never observed how he rubs the substance with fur.5. We saw how she demomstrated the affinity of substances for

additional electrons.6. He watched how we brought the two substances into contact.

Exercise 3. Answer the questions using the expressions suggested.

1. What do you want me to do? (to asquire a sufficient knowledge ofphysics, to change considerably, to give a relatively exact answer)

— 34 —

2. What do you expect me to do? (to make a new suggestion, todefine the affinity of the substance for additional electrons,to electrify the substance rubbing it with fur)

3. What am I supposed to do? (to weigh the substances before theexperiment takes place, to be relatively free next week)

4. What am I suggested to do? (to support the new theory, tochoose the proper way, to find the magnitude of each chargein coulombs)

5. What is the only way to study these forces? (to observe thebehavior of the nuclei, to bombard hydrogen with fastneutrons,to form a picture of the structure of the nucleus)

6. What’s he likely to do this year? (to study the theory ofelectrification, to prove the existence of another particle, tomake me work hard)

Exercise 4. Change into Complex Object.

1. I’d like that he choose some additional experiment.2. We expect that the particile will acquire the same amount of

charge.3. We consider that the substance has seized the required number

of electrons.4. We know that they make a relatively large number of

experiments.5. We want that you compare the two equations.6. They saw how we changed the sign.7. They heard how I spoke on the cause for the earth’s magnetism.8. We watched how they weighed the substances.9. I see that the substance behaves differently.

Exercise 5. Translate into English using Complex Object.

1. ß âèæó, ÷òî âåùåñòâî âåäåò ñåáÿ òàêèì æå îáðàçîì.2. ß ñëûøàë, ÷òî îí ðàññìîòðåë ïðîáëåìó äîñòàòî÷íî õîðîøî.3. Êòî çàñòàâèë èõ ñðàâíèâàòü ýòè òåîðèè?4. Íè÷òî íå çàñòàâèò âåùåñòâî èçìåíèòü ñâîþ ïðèðîäó.5. Ìû õîòèì, ÷òîá âû ïîääåðæàëè íîâóþ òåîðèþ.6. Îíè ïîëàãàþò, ÷òî ìíå óæå ïðåäëîæèëè íîâîå èññëåäîâàíèå.7. Ìû çíàåì, ÷òî îíè âûáðàëè ïðàâèëüíîå ðåøåíèå.8. Îí õî÷åò, ÷òîáû ìû îáñóäèëè ïðè÷èíó çåìíîãî ìàãíå-

òèçìà.

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Exercise 6. Translaite from Russian into English.

1. Âû õîòèòå, ÷òîáû ÿ äàë îòíîñèòåëüíî òî÷íûé îòâåò?2. Âû õîòèòå, ÷òîáû îíè ïðèîáðåëè äîñòàòî÷íî õîðîøèå çíà-

íèÿ?3. Îí õî÷åò, ÷òîáû ÿ â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè óñîâåðøåí-

ñòâîâàë òåîðèþ.4. ß õî÷ó, ÷òîáû âû ñðàâíèëè ýòè ÿâëåíèÿ.5. Ìíå áû íå õîòåëîñü, ÷òîáû îíè âûáðàëè íåïðàâèëüíûé

ñïîñîá èññëåäîâàíèÿ.6. Âû ïîëàãàåòå, ÷òî ÿ óæå çàâåðøèë ñâîþ çàäà÷ó?7. Îí ïîëàãàåò, ÷òî ìû ïðèîáðåòåì äîñòàòî÷íî õîðîøèå çíàíèÿ.8. ß ñ÷èòàþ, ÷òî âû îòíîñèòåëüíî ñâîáîäíû â ýòîì ãîäó.9. Âû âèäåëè, êàê îí âçâåøèâàë ýòî âåùåñòâî?10. Âû ñëûøàëè, êàê ÿ ãîâîðèë î ñïîñîáíîñòè àòîìîâ ïðè-

îáðåòàòü äîïîëíèòåëüíûå ýëåêòðîíû?11. Ìû íå ìîãëè âèäåòü, êàê àòîìû çàõâàòûâàëè áëèæàé-

øèå ýëåêòðîíû.12. ×òî çàñòàâëÿåò âàñ ñðàâíèâàòü ýòè äâà ÿâëåíèÿ?13. Êòî çàñòàâèë åãî èçó÷àòü ðàñïðåäåëåíèå çàðÿäà?14. Íèêòî íå ñìîæåò çàñòàâèòü èõ ðàññìàòðèâàòü ýòîò âîïðîñ.

THE PARTICIPLE

Functions of the Present and Past Participles

Exercise 1. Change the Participles into the corresponding clause.

1. Reducing the field the space charge makes it insufficient tomaintain the discharge.

2. Having sufficient energy, the particle can start a discharge.3. Flowing towards the anode, the electrons may collide with the

atoms or molecules of the gas.4. Having escaped from the field, the electrons may collect on

the walls of the container.5. Having taken place, ionization causes the current to increase.6. Having been excited, the atom emits a quantum of radiatiion.

Exercise 2. Use the corresponding clause instead of the Participlesuggested.

1. Maintaining a high anode voltage, we can watch the electronsflow towards the anode. (if)

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2. Acquiring sufficient energy for ionization, the electrons givean enhanced flow of charge. (when)

3. Surrounding the anode, the space charge reduces the fieldnear it. (while)

4. Having penetrated the window of mica, the fast particles causedionization. (after)

5. Having reduced the voltage well below the breakdown point,we couldn’t maintain a strong field in the diode. (when)

6. Having enhanced the space charge, we reduced the field nearthe anode (when)

Exercise 3. Change the Participle structure into the correspondingclause.

1. When liberated from the cathode, the electrons move towardsthe anode.

2. When given additional energy, the atom is excited to a higherlevel.

3. Once excited to a higher level, the atom subsequently emit aquantum of radiation.

4. Once produced, the charges are certain to contribute to thecurrent.

5. If filled with gas, the diode can be used for detecting particles.6. If maintained sufficiently high, the field isn’t reduced by the

space charge.

Exercise 4. Change the sentences to use a proper ParticipleStructure. Watch the subjects.

1. When the particles penetrated through the window, they causedionization.

2. When the voltage is increased, the anode collects nearly allthe electrons.

3. When the atom has emitted a quantum of radiation, it mayreturn to its normal state.

4. When the electron has sufficient energy, ionization of theatom is likely to result.

5. If ionization takes place, there is an increase in the current..6. If the electrons escape from the field they never reach the

anode.7. If the voltage is well below the breakdown point, the field is

weak except near to the anode.8. If the space charge has been formed up, it reduces the field

near the anode.

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Exercise 5. Change Complex Object into a clause. Watch Participlesand Infinitives.

1. We saw him amplify the voltage.2. We watched him filling the tube with gas.3. They heard us operate the gas-filled photo-cells.4. They heard us speaking of the space charge.5. We saw them take out the characteristics of the vacuum photo-cell.6. We saw them drawing the characteristics of the vacuum photo-cell.

Exercise 6. Use the attributive clause instead of the Present orPast Participle.

1. The space charge produced reduces the field near the anode.2. The discharge initiated spread at once along the entire length

of the diode.3. The pulse of the current maintained is the same for all particles.4. The flow of charge enhanced is certain to contribute to the

total current.5. The space charge surrounding the anode is likely to reduce the

field near it.6. The particle initiating the discharge moves fast.

Exercise 7. Use the corresponding Infinitive or ParticipleConstruction.

1. It is believed that the speed of the electron is barely affected atthe time of impact.

2. When the electron has sufficient energy, ionization of theatom may be caused.

3. We expect that the three charges will contribute to the totalcurrent.

4. We watched how they were operating the diode.5. At the time of Mendeleev there were elements which were

still to be discovered.6. If the diode is filled with gas, it can be used for detecting

particles.7. If the high field is maintained the discharge can never cease.

Exercise 8. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Óâåëè÷èâàÿ íàïðÿæåíèå, ìû óñèëèâàåì ïîòîê çàðÿäà.2. Îáëàäàÿ äîñòàòî÷íîé ýíåðãèåé, ÷àñòèöà íåïðåìåííî âû-

çîâåò ðàçðÿä.

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3. Ïîëó÷èâ íåîáõîäèìóþ ýíåðãèþ, ýëåêòðîíû èîíèçèðóþòàòîìû è òàêèì îáðàçîì ñïîñîáñòâóþò ïîòîêó çàðÿäà.

4. Ñòîëêíóâøèñü ñ àòîìîì, ìåäëåííûé ýëåêòðîí âñå æå ñî-õðàíÿåò îáùåå êîëè÷åñòâî äâèæåíèÿ.

5. Îêàçàâ íåáîëüøîå âîçäåéñòâèå íà ñêîðîñòü ýëåêòðîíà,òÿæåëûé àòîì èçìåíèë íàïðàâëåíèå åãî äâèæåíèÿ.

6. Åñëè äèîä çàïîëíèòü ãàçîì, åãî ìîæíî èñïîëüçîâàòü êàêñ÷åò÷èê.

7. Êîãäà ïîëå óìåíüøàåòñÿ, îíî íå â ñîñòîÿíèè ïîääåðæè-âàòü ðàçðÿä.

8. Óêàçàííîå óðàâíåíèå ïðåäñòàâëÿåò íåêîòîðûé èíòåðåñ.9. Äàííàÿ ÷àñòèöà, êàê ãîâîðÿò, âûçûâàåò ðàçðÿä.10. Ïîëó÷åííûå ýëåêòðîíû áûñòðî óíîñÿòñÿ ïîëåì.11. Ýëåêòðîíû, âûçûâàþùèå èîíèçàöèþ, òàêæå äâèæóòñÿ ê

àíîäó.12. Ìû âèäåëè, êàê îíà óïðàâëÿëà ïðèáîðîì.13. Îíè íàáëþäàëè, êàê ìû íàïîëíÿåì ëàìïó ãàçîì.14. Ðàç óæ ïðåäëîæåíû ýòè õàðàêòåðèñòèêè, èõ íàäî èñ-

ïîëüçîâàòü.15. Ìû ñëûøàëè, êàê îíè îáñóæäàëè ïðèíöèï äåéñòâèÿ ïåí-

òîäà.

The Absolute Participle Costruction

Exercise 1. Change the Absolute Participle Construction into aclause or an independent sentence.

1. The potential difference being low, only some of the electronscan reach the anode. (if)

2. The voltage (being) increased, more of the electrons are collectedby the anode. (when)

3. All the liberated electrons having reached the anode, saturationoccurs. (when)

4. The atom (being) excited to a higher level, a quantum ofradiation is emitted. (if)

5. Ionization of the atom result in the production of a positive ionand an electron, the latter moving towards the anode. (and)

6. Due to tlie ionization of the current, there are three charges,instead of one, all of them contributing to the cuirent. (and)

7. The speed of the electron is thought to be barely affected, itsdirection of motion being altered considerably. (but)

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Exercise 2. Change the clause into the Absolute ParticipleConstruction.

1. If most of the electrons escape from the field, snturationcannot occur.

2. When the voltage is increased, more of the electrons reach theanode.

3. If the atom is excited to a higher level, a quantum of radiationis emitted.

4. When the ionization of the atom has been caused two morecharges result.

5. When iouization has taken place there is an increase in thecurrent.

6. If the electrons travel at low speed one will observe elasticcollisions with atoms.

Exercise 3. Join the two sentences using the Absolute ParticipleConstruction.

1. A slow electron has an elastic collision with an atom. The totalmoinentum is conserved.

2. The speed of the electron was barely affected. The direction ofmotion altered considerably.

3. The ionization of the atom occurred. The more charges resulted.4. The atom was excited to a higher level. A quantum of radiation

was subsequently released.5. Ionization resulted in two more charges. All the three charges

contributed to the cunrent.

Exercise 4. Translate into Russian. Make grammar transformation.

1. It is through a study of these states that we obtain concreteknowledge of the electronic structure of the elements.

2. When you heat a gas you make its molecules move faster.3. Fig. 4 illustrates a typical photoelectric tube. In it, P is the

photoelectric surface and A indicates a wire used as an anode tocollect the photoelectrons emitted by P when light falls on it.

4. Heavy hydrogen explodes with great strength as its nuclei fusetogether to form helium nuclei.

5. The visible spectrum when any solid is heated to incandescenceappears to terminate at the red on one side and the violet onthe other.

— 40 —

Exercise 5. Join the two sentences using the proper Participleform.

1. The atom has been excited to a higher level. The atom emits aquantum of radiation.

2. The electron has sufficient energy. The electron may causeionization.

3. The two charges, instead of one, move towards the anode. Thetwo charges, instead of one, contribute to the current.

4. The potential difference is maintained high. The potentialdifference can make all electrons move towards the anode.

5. Ionization of the atom is due to an electron of high energy.Ionization of the atom results in the production of a positiveion and another electron.

Exercise 6. Use the corresponding Participle Construction insteadof the clause.

1. Since the atom is much heavier than the electron, the speedof the latter is barely affected.

2. When the atom is excited to a higher level, it can emit aquantum of radiation.

3. When a fast particle penetrates through the window of mica,ionization occurs.

4. If the field is reduced much, it can no longer maitain thedischarge.

5. If the field is reduced much, the discharge ceases.6. Once the discharge is initiated, it spreads along the whole

length of the diode.7. Once the atom is excited to a higher level, a quantum of

radiation results.

THE GERUND

Forms and functions of the Gerund

Exercise 1. Change as in the Pattern.

Pattern: There is no reason for my experimenting. What do youthink?— I think I have no reason for experimenting. There’sno reason for his experimenting.What does he think?— He thinks he has no reason for experimenting.

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1. There’s no reason for your simplifying the picture. What doyou think?

2. There’s no reason for our comparing the equations. What doyou think?

3. There’s no re ason for their approaching the problem in sucha way. What do they think?

4. There’s no reason for her joining us. What does she think?5. There’s no reason for his disturbing us. What does he think?

Exercise 2. Substitute for the Gerund.

Pattern: What is the use of experimenting? (to make observations)— What’s the use of making observations?

1. to describe the model in detail.2. to approach the problem.3. to require the impossible.4. to receive such signals.5. to attach the tuning fork to the base of this dish.

Exercise 3. Answer the Questions Suggested According to the Pattern.

Pattern: Can you translate the text without reading it first?— No, I can’t help reading it first.Can you understand the problem without considering itfirst?— No, I can’t help considering it first.

1. Can you form a picture of the nucleus without simplifying it first?2. Can you remember the words without practising them first?3. Can you choose the proper equation without comparing them

first?4. Can you operate the device without amplifying the current?5. Can you operate the device without maintaining a high potential?

Exercise 4. Use Gerund with the Preposition «by».

Pattern: How can you demonstrate the transmission of sound?— I place a bell in an evacuated jar. Thus I candemonstrate the transmission of sound by placing a bellin an evacuated jar.

1. How can you hear a sound from the jar? — I admit the air.Thus...

— 42 —

2. How can you observe the Doppler effect? — I listen to thewistle of the train. Thus...

3. How can you choose the proper equation? — I compare them.Thus...

4. How can you make the box sound? — I attach a long rod to it.Thus...

Exercise 5. Change the sentences acording to the given pattern.Watch the difference in the meaning.

a) Pattern: Do you take interest in the experiment?Do you take interest in experimenting?

1. Do you take interest in observations? (to observe phenomena)2. Do you take pleasure in consideration? (ro consider problems)3. Do you take interest in dicussion? (to discuss things)4. Do you take pleasure in your studies? (to study physics)5. Do you take any interest in the problem? (to solve problems)

b) Pattern: — I am not interested in experimenting.— I am not interested in the experiment.

1. I’m not interested in the comparison. (to make a comparison)2. I’m not interested in the simplification. (to simplify the problem)3. I’m not interested in the description. (to describe this model

of the atom)4. I’m not interested in the explanation. (to explain things)5. I’m not interested in his example. (to follow his example)

Exercise 6. Change the given clause according to the pattern.

Pattern: — I like the way you experiment. I like your wayexperimenting.— I like the manner he speaks. I like his manner I likeof speaking.

1. I tike the way you introduce the new material.2. I like the manner he follows you.3. I like the way they compare things.4. I like the manner you attach the tuning fork.5. I dislike the way he describes the model.6. I dislike the manner she practices grammar.

— 43 —

Exercise 7. Substitute for Complex Gerund as given in the pattern.

Pattern: There is no reason for my experimenting on the matter(he... to cause the disturbance).There’s no reason for his causing the disturbance.

1. (I... to take part in the research).2. (You... to be disturbed).3. (They... to act like this).4. (I... to complete the rest of the task).5. (You... to be admitted).6. (He... to arrive so late).

Exercise 8. Put Questions to the Words or Expression Indicated.

1. The vibrating bell will go on striking the air molecules.2. He takes special interest in operating the pentode.3. He dislikes my manner of practicing the vocabulary.4. They aren’t interested in acquiring better knowledge.5. Now I am to stop admitting the air.6. Arriving at the observer’s ear, the disturbance strikes the eardrum.7. A good vacuum being, obtained, no sound can be heard.

Exercise 9. Substitute the Expressions Suggested.

1. Stop experimenting! (to make experiments, to make mistakes)2. Will you start experimenting? (to describe Bohr’s model of the

atom, to accelerate the particles, to amplify the current, tofill the tube with gas, to weight the substance)

3. Would you kindly go on experimenting? (to answer myquestions, to consider the example, to make discoveries, toinduce the charge, to operate the device, to generate thecurrent)

4. Would you mind experimenting? (to set up an electric fieldhere)

5. Shall I stop experimenting? (to transmit the sound, to disturbthe surface, to bombard glass walls)

Exercise 10. Translate from Rusaian into English.

1. Ìíå ïðîäîëæàòü ïðèåì ñèãíàëîâ?2. Ìíå ïðåêðàòèòü ïåðåäà÷ó ñèãíàëîâ?3. Áóäüòå äîáðû, ïðèêðåïèòå êàìåðòîí ê îñíîâàíèþ ñîñóäà.4. Ïîæàëóéñòà, ïðîäîëæàéòå âïóñêàòü âîçäóõ â ñîñóä.

— 44 —

5. Âàì èíòåðåñíî ïðîâîäèòü íàáëþäåíèÿ?6. Âû èíòåðèñóåòåñü ïðèåìîì ñèãíàëîâ?7. Âàì äîñòaâëÿåò óäîâîëüñòâèå èçó÷àòü ýëåêòðîíèêó?8. Îíà íå ïðîÿâëÿåò íèêàêîãî èíòåðåñà ê ðàáîòå ñ ïðèáîðîì.9. Êàêîé ñìûñë (ïîëüçà) ïðèêðåïëÿòü òàêîé äèñê ê êàìåðòîíó?10. Êàêàÿ íåîáõîäèìîñòü ïîääåðæèâàòü ðàçðÿä?11. Íåò ñìûñëà ïåðåäàâàòü ñèãíàëû ñåé÷àñ. Ìàëîâåðîÿòíî,

÷òî èõ ïðèìóò.12. Ìû íå ìîæåì íå ïîíÿòü, êàê òðóäíî ïîëó÷èòü ïîëíóþ

êàðòèíó ñòðîåíèÿ ÿäðà.13. Ìîæíî âûçâàòü ðàçðÿä, ïîäàâàÿ áîëåå âûñîêîå íàïðÿæåíèå.14. Íåëüçÿ ïîëó÷èòü ýëåêòðîííîé ýìèññèè, íå ïîäîãðåâàÿ

êàòîäà.

— 45 —

Self-Training Work

THE INFINITIVE

Functions of the Infinitive

I. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention tothe functions of the Infinitive.1. To check these results is quite necessary.2. The problem was to check these results at once.3. The best way to check these results is to repeat the experiment.4. He was to check these results carefully.5. These results are to be checked once more.6. They decided to check these results.7. We must work hard (in order to, so as) to check these results.8. They are too tired to check these results now.

The Infinitive in the function of an attribute

I. Use the given infinitives in the function of an attribute. Follow themodel.Sp.: More detailed information — to obtain.St.: More detailed information to be obtained.1. An object — to record.2. A scene — to photograph.3. An experiment — to reconstruct.4. a scheme — to make use of.5. A phenomenon — to investigate.6. A photographic plate — to develop.7. A topic — to touch on at the conference.8. A specimen — to examine.

II. Restate the following sentences using a subordinate clause insteadof the infinitive constructions, use the suggested verbs. Follow themodel.Sp.: There are some points to be remembered when using this

equation. (should)St.: There are some points which should be remembered when

using this equation.

— 46 —

1. The properties of the substances to be studied are interesting.(will)

2. All the considerations to be given here are consistent with therelativity theory. (will)

3. There is no significance to be attached to an imaginary number.(can)

4. The results to be obtained by this procedure will be impotent. (will)5. These are the substances to be distinguished. (should)6. We work with the systems to be operated at carefully temperatures.

(must)7. The materials to be required for our investigation are difficult

to get. (will)

III. Restate the following sentences using the infinitive constructioninstead of the subordinate clause.Sp.: They spoke about the data which can be obtained from the planned observation and experiment.St.: They spoke about the data to be obtained from the planned observation and experiment.

1. This is the scheme which will be made use of.2. This is the consequence which should be examined closer.3. The methods which can be applied for our purpose are

numerous.4. The problems which will be discussed at the conference are of

great importance.5. We can obtain a more detailed information about the phenomena

which will be studied.6. There are some properties which can be accounted for by the

methods of classical physics.7. The articles which will be devoted to the properties of such

substances may attract great interest.

IV. Restate the following sentences according to the model. Mind thedifference in the meaning of the sentences.Sp.: They have to discuss many topics at the conference.St.: They have many topics to discuss at the conference.

1. He had to do much work yesterday.2. He has to solve a lot of problems.3. He had to say something.4. I had to translate this article.

— 47 —

5. We shall have to overcome some difficulties.6. Our students have to take four examinations in winter.7. We have to consider a lot of questions at the meeting.

V. Express agreement with the following statements and restate them.Use «Quite so» as an opening phrase. Follow the model.Sp.: It was Becquerel who discovered the phenomenon of

radioactivity.St.: Quite so. Becquerel was the first to discover the phenomenon

of radioactivity.

1. It was Bohr who used a structural model of the atom in hisresearch.

2. It was Maxwell who created the electromagnetic theory.3. It was Hertz who verified the theory of electromagnetic waves.4. I t was Hertz who detected the electric waves in space.5. It was Faraday who introduced the field concept to physics.6. It was Cavendish who did his investigations in this field.7. It was the scientist who made an attempt to study the

phenomenon in detail.

The Infinitive in the functionof an adverbial modifier

I. Restate the following sentences according to the model.Sp.: He considered that it was important to provide answers to their questions.St.: He considered it important to provide answers to their questions.

1. He thought that it was necessary to simplify the procedure.2. He thought that it was useful to touch on a variety of more

general topics.3. He found that it was impossible to consider all these problems

in one article.4. He didn’t consider that it was easy to compare these substances.5. We think that it is difficult to prolong the lifetime of these

devices.6. He found that it was impossible to adapt his plans to suit new

circumstances.7. They thought that it was necessary to take particular care over

doing that task.

— 48 —

II. Give both short and full negative answers to the following questions.Follow the model.Sp.: Was any opportunity created to speak to him?St.: No, it wasn’t. No opportunity was created to speak to him.

1. Was any new scheme developed to classify these particles?2. Will any article be suggested to read at home?3. Has a plan been devised to suit new circumstances?4. Have any materials been chosen to make the experiment?5. Is any investigation required to solve the problem?6. Were any attempts made to improve the device?7. Were any reasons given to explain his behaviour?

III. Express agreement with the following statements combining eachof these pairs of sentences. Use «I also think that» as an openingphrase. Follow the model.Sp.: This device is primitive. It cannot be used in our experiment.St.: I also think that this device is too primitive to be used in our

experiment.

1. The ideas are old. They will not be discussed now.2. The question is serious. It cannot be answered at once.3. The method is complicated. It should not be used by the

students.4. The book is difficult. It cannot be adapted for our students.5. The explanation is too theoretical. It should not be given to

students.6. This description is too elementary. It should not be used for

our purpose.7. The device is too old. It cannot be repaired.

IV. Contradict the following statements. Use «Just the reverse» as anopening phrase. Restate the sentences. Follow the model.Sp.: To study English is not important.St.: Just the reverse. It’s important to study English.

1. To work with mercury is not dangerous.2. To detect second sound in such materials is not difficult.3. To investigate the properties of this substance is not important.4. To draw decisive conclusions on the problem is not possible.5. To read through the history of physics is not interesting.6. To discuss methods for studying such phenomena is not

necessary.

— 49 —

7. To explain the difference between these processes is notreasonable.

8. To obtain this kind of information is not easy.

V. Translate the following sentences into English paying attention tothe functions of the infinitive.

1. Ðåøèòü ýòó ïðîáëåìó ñîâåðøåííî íåîáõîäèìî.2. Èõ æåëàíèå — ýòî ðåøàòü ýòó ïðîáëåìó íåìåäëåííî.3. Ëó÷øèé ñïîñîá ðåøèòü ýòó ïðîáëåìó — ýòî ìíîãî ðàáîòàòü.4. Îí äîëæåí áûë ðåøèòü ýòó ïðîáëåìó íåìåäëåííî.5. Ýòà ïðîáëåìà äîëæíà áûòü ðåøåíà â áëèæàéøåì áóäóùåì.6. Îíè õîòåëè ðåøèòü ýòó ïðîáëåìó.7. Îíè äîëæíû ìíîãî ðàáîòàòü, ÷òîáû ðåøèòü ýòó ïðîáëåìó.8. Îíè ñëèøêîì óñòàëè, ÷òîáû ðåøàòü ýòó ïðîáëåìó ñåé÷àñ.

Modal verbs followed by different forms of the Infinitive

I. Simplify the following sentences according to the model.Sp: In order to specify the value we have to use this equation.St.: To specify the value we have to use this equation.

1. In order to avoid this problem the experimenter used aningenious scheme.

2. In order to compare the experimental results with theoreticalpredictions we had to work hard.

3. In order to find out the meaning of this term you should lookit up in the dictionary.

4. In order to appreciate the results of his work you should knowthe subject better.

5. In order to verify the theory we should obtain experimental data.6. In order to make the comparison easier we should work out

the details.7. In order to «see» a nucleus we must have long wavelength.

II. Say what students should do to master English. Follow the model.

Sp.: to work hard.St.: To master English students should work hard.

1. to hear it spoken.2. to listen to records and tapes.3. to learn whole phrases and sentences.4. to study grammar rules.5. to learn to use grammar rules.

— 50 —

6. to practise reading English newspapers and magazines.7. to learn systematically.

III. Say what your English teacher made you do. Follow the model.Sp.: to translate this difficult article once more.St.: My English teacher made me translate this article once more.

1. to speak much louder.2. to become industrious.3. to attend the lessons regularly.4. to come to the lessons in time.5. to take part in the conference.6. to give consequent answers to her questions.7. to realize the importance of this subject.8. to follow his instructions in every particular.

IV. Restate the following sentences using a subordinate clause insteadof the infinitive constructions, use the suggested verbs. Follow themodel.Sp.: There are some points to be remembered when using this equation. (should)St.: There are some points which should be remembered when using this equation.

1. The properties of the substances to be studied are interesting. (will)2. All the considerations to be given here are consistent with the

relativity theory. (will)3. There is no significance to be attached to an imaginary number.

(can)4. The results to be obtained by this procedure will be impotent. (will)5. These are the substances to be distinguished. (should)6. We work with the systems to be operated at carefully temperatures.

(must)7. The materials to be required for our investigation are difficult

to get. (will)

V. Define active and passive forms of the Infinitive used with modalverbs. Translate the sentences into Russian (see the key on page 87).1. We should prove the following proposition. Since there is no friction

the object should come back with neither higher nor lowervelocity — it should be able to keep going around and around.

— 51 —

2. We may also point out that Eq (17.22) shows that the forcefrom induced currents — that is, any eddy-current force — isinversely proportional to the resistance.

3. These quantities may also be found by an optical experiment.4. So we have the very useful general fact that whenever you

have to take the gradient of a vector that varies as a wave inthree dimensions (they are an important part of physics), youcan always take the derivations quickly and almost withoutthinking by remembering that the operation is equivalent tomultiplication by — ik.

5. There may be times, however, when in working on someproblem you have only some equations and you may not seeright away what physical arguments to use.

6. It is an indirect effect which can be explained only by quantummechanics.

7. Since it is a scalar, it should be the same for any orientation ofthe spin.

Modal verbs followed by Perfect Infinitive

I. Restate the following sentences using «must» with perfect infinitives.Follow the model.Sp.: They have to find a way to avoid such paradoxes.St.: They must have found a way to avoid such paradoxes.

1. They have to diminish the pressure.2. They have to perform the calculations in time.3. They have to study classical liquid structure.4. Liquid crystals should be used in technology.5. They have to limit the heat produced to the proper amount.6. He must exert every effort to perform the task.7. The producers are to supply the demands of consumers.

II. Restate the following sentences using «may» with perfect infinitives.Follow the model.Sp.: It is probable that the demand for this equipment has subsided.St.: The demand for this equipment may have subsided.

1. They have probably referred to the matter again.2. It is likely that they have obtained the necessary data.3. It may be that he has described the results of the experiment.

— 52 —

4. It is possible that the car has consumed a lot of fuel.5. It may be that they have provided the suitable materials for

the experiment.6. It is likely that they have determined the life time of these

devices.7. It is probable that they have compared their results with

theoretical predictions.

III. Agree with the following negative statements. Develop the situationssaying that the persons mentioned ought to have done the actions.Follow the model.Sp.: They didn’t consider the problem from that aspect. St.: No, they didn’t. They ought to have considered the problem from that aspect.1. She didn’t accept their offer.2. They didn’t examine the problem in detail.3. They didn’t refer to the matter again.4. He didn’t take the occasion of encouraging her.5. He didn’t provide them with the information they needed.6. He didn’t mention the names of those who had helped him.7. He didn’t exert every effort to perform the task.

IV. Give short negative answers to the following questions. Developthe situations saying you realize now that you should have donethe action. Follow the model.Sp.: Have you observed the process carefully?St.: No, I haven’t. But I realize now that I should have observed the process carefully.

1. Have you specified these values?2. Have you examined the problem in detail?3. Have you used both systems simultaneously?4. Have you found a more convenient way to do it?5. Have you formed the images in the traditional way?6. Have you made an attempt to solve the problem?7. Have you studied the general operating principles of this device?

V. Contradict the following statements. Use «It can’t be so» as anopening phrase. Develop the situations saying that the personsmentioned can’t have done the actions.Sp.: They have produced a similar effect.St.: It can’t be so. They can’t have produced a similar effect.

— 53 —

1. They have applied the new device.2. He has changed his viewpoint.3. He has delivered a report in English.4. They have found topics of mutual interest.5. They have simplified the procedure of the experiment.6. They found another method of introducing ions into the

system.7. He has demonstrated the truth of this hypothesis.

VI. Translate into Russian.1. They must have determined the structure of these molecules.2. They should have determined the structure of these molecules,

but they haven’t done that.3. They needn’t have determined the structure of these molecules,

but they have done that.4. Can they have determined the structure of these molecules?5. They cannot have determined the structure of these molecules.6. They may have determined the structure of these molecules,

but I am not sure of that.7. They could have determined the structure of these molecules,

but they didn’t even try to do that.

VII. Translate from Russian into English.1. Äîëæíî áûòü, îíè óïðîñòèëè ìåòîäèêó ýòîãî ýêñïåðèìåíòà.2. Èì ñëåäîâàëî óïðîñòèòü ìåòîäèêó ýòîãî ýêñïåðèìåíòà,

íî îíè ýòîãî íå ñäåëàëè.3. Èì íå áûëî íåîáõîäèìîñòè óïðîùàòü ìåòîäèêó ýòîãî ýê-

ñïåðèìåíòà, íî îíè ýòî ñäåëàëè.4. Íåóæåëè (ðàçâå) îíè óïðîñòèëè ìåòîäèêó ýòîãî ýêñïåðè-

ìåíòà?5. Íå ìîæåò áûòü, ÷òîáû îíè óïðîñòèëè ìåòîäèêó ýòîãî

ýêñïåðèìåíòà.6. Îíè, âîçìîæíî, óïðîñòèëè ìåòîäèêó ýòîãî ýêñïåðèìåí-

òà, íî ÿ â ýòîì íå óâåðåí.7. Îíè ìîãëè áû óïðîñòèòü ìåòîäèêó ýòîãî ýêñïåðèìåíòà,

íî îíè äàæå íå ïîïûòàëèñü ýòîãî ñäåëàòü.

VIII. Translate into Russian paying attention to modal verbs withdifferent forms of the Infinitive (see the key on page 87).1. We must have the condition that the field should not be too

great, otherwise it could disturb the internal motions of the

— 54 —

system and the energy would not be a measure of the magneticmoment that was there before the field was turned on.

2. What we ought to do is to use some more complicated kind ofaverage.

3. Instead of just taking one atom subjected to the average influence,we should take each one in its actual situation, compute itsenergy, and find the average energy.

4. So without any magnetic measurements at all we could havediscovered that something was going on inside of iron ornickel by measuring this thermodynamic property.

5. The microwave fields will be able to get inside such an insulatingmaterial, whereas they would be kept out by the eddy currentsin a conductor like iron.

6. We will not be able to discuss the mechanisms of elasticity.7. On the one hand, the rocket must be able to hold its own

weight on the launching pad and endure the stresses duringacceleration; on the other hand, it is important to keep theweight of the structure of a minimum, so that the payload andfuel capacity may be made as large as possible.

The Nominative with the Infinitive Construction

I. Translate the following sentences into Russian. Be careful whiletranslating different types of the infinitive.1. They are known to obtain the information from this magazine.2. They are known to have obtained the information from this

magazine.3. The information is known to be obtained from this magazine.4. The information is known to have been obtained from this

magazine.5. They are said to use the substance in the experiment.6. They are said to have used this substance in the experiment.7. This substance is said to be used in the experiment.8. This substance is said to have been used in the experiment.

II. Translate the following sentences into Russian. Be careful whiletranslating the verb «to prove». Follow the model.Sp.: The new theory proved to be valid.St.: Îêàçàëîñü, ÷òî íîâàÿ òåîðèÿ âåðíà.Sp.: The new theory was proved to be valid.St.: Áûëî äîêàçàíî, ÷òî íîâàÿ òåîðèÿ âåðíà.

— 55 —

1. Nature proved to distinguish left from right.2. Nature was proved to distinguish left from right.3. Laws of nature proved to make a distinction between past and

future.4. Laws of nature have been proved to make a distinction between

past and future.5. The effects encountered in this process proved to be negligible.6. The effects encountered in this process were proved to be

negligible.7. The measurements obtained proved to be precise.8. The measurements obtained were proved to be precise.9. These particles proved to be readily created and destroyed.10. These particles were proved to be readily created and destroyed.

III. Restate the following sentences using the infinitive construction.Follow the model.Sp.: It is likely that he will perform the experiment next week.St.: He is likely to perform the experiment next week.

1. It is likely that this experiment will be performed next week.2. It is likely that this fact will find further confirmation.3. It is likely that the new publication will give rise to interesting

response.4. It is unlikely that all her efforts will end in failure.5. It is unlikely that they will develop a direct approach to the

problem.6. It is unlikely that the procedure of the experiment will be

simplified.7. It is unlikely that this branch of physics will develop very

rapidly.

IV. Restate the following sentences using the infinitive construction.Follow the model.Sp.: It seems that he is not aware of all the difficulties of the

problem.St.: He does not seem to be aware of all the difficulties of the

problem.

1. It seems that this kind of interaction does not occur.2. It seems that the number of phonons do not remain constant.3. It seems that these results are not characteristic of the

phenomenon.

— 56 —

4. It seems that the resulting value is not significantly different. Itseems that he is not able to tell the difference between thesephenomena.

5. It seems that these elements are not very rare on the earth.6. It seems that the new publications do not give rise to interesting

response.

V. Express doubt in response to the following statements. Use «Thatsounds doubtful to me» as an opening phrase. Follow the model.Sp.: They are said to have devised suitable experiments for this

purpose.St.: That sounds doubtful to me. They seem to be still devising

suitable experiments for this purpose.Sp.: Suitable experiments are said to have been devised for this

purpose.St.: That sounds doubtful to me. Suitable experiments seem to be

still being devised for this purpose.

1. He is said to have analyzed the results of these experiments.2. They are said to have made a review of the main properties of

this effect.3. They are said to have made the quantitative estimates.4. He is said to have written an account of his work.5. The phenomenon is said to have been examined in detail.6. The technique of such experiments is said to have been

simplified.7. A new procedure of such experiments is said to have been

developed.8. The experimental results are said to have been compared with

theoretical predictions.

VI. Restate the following sentences using the suggested words. Followthe model.Sp.: The planets are moving in one direction around the sun. (to

know)St.: The planets are known to be moving in one direction around

the sun.

1. The scientists are taking data day and night. (to report)2. Data are being taken day and night. (to report)3. They are measuring the value with high degree of accuracy. (to

inform)

— 57 —

4. The value is being measured with high degree of accuracy. (toinform)

5. They are producing these particles in a special accelerator. (to say)6. These particles are being produced in a special accelerator. (to say)7. He is using another method of investigation. (to seem)8. Another method of investigation is being used by him. (to

seem)

VII. Contradict the following statements. Follow the model.Sp.: The hypothesis is said to be being confirmed.St.: No, the hypothesis is known to have been confirmed.

1. Such reactions seem to be being studied in detail.2. They are said to be determining the values experimentally.3. He is supposed to be analyzing the spin polarization of scattered

particles.4. These measurements are reported to be being compared with

those for a neutron-proton collision.5. They were reported to be performing a time reversal operation

on the decay diagram.6. The scientists are said to be completing data-collection at the

accelerator.7. The life-time of these devices is said to be being determined.

The Objective with the Infinitive Construction

I. Translate into Russian. Pay attention to the Complex Object usedwith different types of infinitive.1. We expect them to perfect the plan in December.2. We known them to have perfected the plan in December.3. We expect the plan to be perfected in December.4. We know the plan to have been perfected in December.5. We expect him to publish the results of his work.6. We know him to have published the results of his work.7. We expect the results of his work to be published.8. We know the results of his work to have been published.

II. Restate the following sentences using a clause instead of theComplex Object. Follow the model.Sp.: We expect him to visualize this effect directly.St.: We expect that he will visualize this effect directly.

— 58 —

1. We expect him to propose a new plan.2. We expect the telephone service to be in order.3. We expect them to transmit the message by radio.4. We expect the message to be transmitted by radio.5. They expect him to give a convincing proof of the theory.6. We expect him to offer a novel system for theoretical

calculations.7. One would not expect a perfect crystal to have any electrical

resistance.

III. Restate the sentences using the Complex Object instead of theComplex Subject. Use the suggested words. Follow the model.Sp.: The reaction is indicated to be an electromagnetic one. (the

experimenters)St.: The experimenters indicate the reaction to be an

electromagnetic one.

1. The process is believed to be controlled carefully. (we)2. He is thought to apply the new device. (they)3. He is known to attend the lectures systematically. (everybody)4. He is considered to have a perfect knowledge of the subject.

(everybody)5. He is known to deliver a course of lectures on superconductivity.

(the students)6. All these molecules are thought to have very similar properties.

(they)7. Scattering processes are considered to be extremely rare under

these conditions. (scientists)

IV. Agree with the following statements using the Complex Object.Also use the suggested words. Follow the model.Sp.: This effect is measured directly. (to know)St.: Yes, we know this effect to be measured directly.

1. They insist on his studying the problem. (to know)2. This fact will find further confirmation. (to expect)3. This fact has found further confirmation. (to know)4. He has measured this effect directly. (to know)5. He possesses several foreign languages. (to believe)6. He has taken part in the scientific conference. (to know)7. New results and interpretations of both old and new observations

have appeared. (to know)

— 59 —

V. Contradict the following statements. Use the Complex Object.Also use the suggested words. Follow the model.Sp.: He wants to perform this experiment. (you)St.: No, he wants you to perform this experiment.

1. He wants to interfere with their discussion. (I)2. She wants to make a report at the meeting. (I)3. They want to participate in the meeting. (we)4. He wants to study a wide spectrum of problems. (they)5. He wants to prove the validity of this theory experimentally. (we)6. He wants to write a paper summarizing the studies of this

effect. (she)7. They want to devise another plan to carry out this experiment. (we)

«For-phrases»

I. Complete the following sentences using «for»-phrases. Make useof the suggested elements. Follow the model.Sp.: It was not easy. (she, to compare these substances)St.: It was not easy for her to compare these substances.

1. It was important. (he, to provide broad answers to theirquestions)

2. It was difficult. (she, to treat the subject thoroughly)3. It was useful. (they, to touch on a variety of more general

topics)4. It was impossible. (the author, to consider all these questions)5. It was necessary. (they, to participate in the meeting)6. It was not easy. (he, to prove the validity of his conclusions)7. It was necessary. (they, to obtain the substance in extremely

pure form)

II. Restate the following sentences. Follow the model.Sp.: For the effect to be understood we have to consider it in

detail.St.: To understand the effect we have to consider it in detail.

1. For these observations to be accounted for we use a newmodel.

2. For the defect to be found they had to examine the instrumentcarefully.

— 60 —

3. For this value to be specified one must use a new set ofequations.

4. For the effect to be studied directly we shall apply a noveltechnique.

5. For the structure of these molecules to be determined he usedan ingenious scheme.

6. For a body to be supported we have to exert a force.7. For the formation of these electron pairs to be better understood

we should study the-phenomenon carefully

III. Make up questions using «for»-phrases. Follow the model.Sp.: To check these figures we should apply...St.: What should we apply for these figures io be checked?

1. To test the theory they have to investigate.2. To maintain the magnetic field one applies.3. To investigate the density of this substance one measures.4. To connect the new idea with this problem they must understand.5. To consider the problem from this aspect we examine.6. To find out the meaning of this term one should use.7. To make the comparison easier we should leave out.

IV. Restate ihe sentences. Use «for»-phrases. Follow the mode!Sp.: I have brought the book so that you may read it.St.: I have brought the book for you to read.

1. He suggested an article so that they should discuss it.2. We have assembled a new device so that they may use it in

their experiment.3. I have simplified the sentence so that you may translate it.4. I can provide some new information so that you may use it in

your future work.5. He began to speak louder so that everybody might hear him well.6. He suggested an interesting problem so that you might consider it.7. He has described the new scheme in detail so that you may

make use of it.

V. Answer the following questions. Use the suggested elements. Followthe model.Sp.: What should one do for the system to operate? (to controle

the temperature carefully)

— 61 —

St.: For ihe system to operate one should control the temperaturecarefully.

1. What do we have to do for the hypothesis to be confirmed?(to perform a series of experiments)

2. What must she do for the article to be published? (to put it inorder)

3. What do they have to do for the procedure to be simplified?(to leave out unnecessary details)

4. What do we have to do for the experiment to consume lesstime? (to simplify its technique)

5. What did they decide to do for the problem to be solved? (todivide it into two steps)

6. What did experimenters do for this problem to be avoided? (touse an ingenious scheme)

7. What will they do for the scheme to be made use of? (torefine it)

VI. Translate into Russian paying attention to different functions ofthe Inifinitive and its constructions. (see the key on page 88)1. The betatron is used to accelerate electrons to energies of tens

of millions of volts, or even to hundreds of millions of volts.2. In order to write Newton’s laws in vector form, we have to

define the acceleration. Molecular forces have never beensatisfactorily explained on a basis of classical physics; it takesquantum mechanics to understand them fully.

3. Although the resonant cavity we have been describing seemsto be quite different from the ordinary resonant circuit consistingof an inductance and a capacitor, the two resonant systemsare, of course, closely related.

4. Most of present-day research in molecular biology is an attemptto figure out the shapes of complex organic molecules.

5. Quadrapole lenses are used to form and control beams ofparticles in much the same way That optical lenses are usedfor light beams.

6. To get the electric field completely for all distances, we needto solve for the electrostatic potential.

7. Unlike the electrical effect in matter, which always causes dielectricsto be attracted, these are two signs to the magnetic effect.

— 62 —

VII. Translate into Russian paying attention to the InfinitiveConstructions. (see the key on page 89)

1. If the forces have no tendency to increase or decrease thedisplacement, the body is considered to be in equilibrium.

2. The number of protons was assumed to be sufficient to accountfor the atomic weight.

3. We know the velocity of a particle to be continuously changingif this particle has non-uniform motion.

4. The acceleration of an automobile is said to be positive whenforce is supplied by the motor to speed up the car.

5. One of the most important things for the pilot to know is howhigh he is flying.

6. The time required for the pulse to travel to and from the targetis very short.

7. For a system of forces to be in equilibrium, each force mustbe the equilibrant for the system.

8. It is essential for the operators to be screened behind leadbaffles and tanks of water which absorb the neutrons produced.

VIII. Define the functions of the Infinitive and translate the sentencesinto Russian paying attention to the Infinitive Constructions. (seethe key on page 89)

1. Suppose a given number of electrons to make their way betweenthe ions of a copper wire.

2. The chief reason for the use of such bearings in machinery isto reduce wear and to simplify lubrication problems.

3. The most common alternating current for lighting and powerpurposes is assumed to go through 50 cycles in l second.

4. Heat absorbed by a liquid causes the liquid to evaporate.5. To find the power of an alternating current it is necessary to

multiply the effective current by the effective voltage, providedthe current and voltage are in phase.

6. We want you to take into consideration that voltage, resistanceand capacity are the three important properties to influencethe flow of current in an electric circuit.

7. To cut down the flow of water in a given pipe you need onlyto shut off a valve in that pipe.

— 63 —

8. In transmitting antennas it is best to have the natural wavelength slightly above the desirable wave length and use a seriescondenser to bring the wave length down to the desired value.

THE PARTICIPLE

Forms and functions of the Present and Past Participles

Translate into Russian:

Participle l Participle II

applying applied

denoting denoted

charging charnged

opening opened

building built

writing written

publishing published

making made

placing placed

using used

Participle I

I. Translate the following:having read the book, reading the book, making the experiment,having made the experiment, determining the quantity, havingdetermined the quantity, measuring the current.

II. Restate the following sentences using Participle I instead of thesubordinate clauses. Follow the model.Sp.: The unifying force that binds all the fields of physics together

is theory.St.: The unifying force binding all the fields of physics together

is theory.

— 64 —

1. They deal with problems which involve physical energy.2. They consider a physical reaction which involves a large number

of particles.3. He evolved a method of determination which eliminated the

previous causes of errors.4. The neutron is a particle which has the mass of the hydrogen

nucleus and a zero charge.5. The fundamental constants are the quantitative links in the

web of theory that binds physics together.6. These experiments can yield information which concerns the

overall correctness of the basic theories of physics.7. Quantum electrodynamics is the quantum theory that describes

the interactions of elementary particles with electromagneticfields.

III. Restate the following sentences using the Present Participle insteadof the subordinate clause. Follow ihe model.Sp.: As he realized the difficulties involved in that problem hegave up the idea of solving it.St.: Realizing the difficulties involved in that problem he gave upthe idea of solving it.

1. As he has a fair knowledge of English he reads scientificarticles without a dictionary.

2. As the physicist took a great interest in this substance hernvestigated its properties in detail.

3. As he knows the subject perfectly well he is always ready tohelp his friends with it.

4. As they were aware of the peculiarities of this substance theytreated it carefully.

5. As I thought he was busy I didn’t disturb him.6. As these liquids have very simple properties they may be

considered together.7. As these values lack precision they can’t be used in our

oscillations.

IV. Restate the following sentences using the Present Participle insteadof the subordinate clause. Follow the model.Sp.: As they don’t know enough about those particles they can’t

identify them.

— 65 —

St.: Not knowing enough about these particles they can’t identifythem.

1. As she didn’t carry out such experiments very often she hadlittle experience in doing that.

2. As he didn’t succeed in solving the problem he gave up theattempt of doing that.

3. As he didn’t read scientific magazines regularly he knew nothingabout this discovery.

4. As he didn’t understand the rule he asked the teacher toexplain it once more.

5. As he had no dictionary at hand he couldn’t translate thearticle.

6. As he didn’t know these terms he wouldn’t understand thesentence.

7. As he didn’t speak English at the lessons he had poor speechhabits.

V. Restate the following sentences using ParticipleI instead of thesubordinate clause. Follow the model.Sp.: When the theory was put into mathematical form it seemed

more beautiful.St.: Being put into mathematical form the theory seemed more

beautiful.

1. When these data were collected they were of great use to us.2. As these theories were abandoned they were soon forgotten.3. When the theory was put forward it was accepted by scientists

at once.4. As these values were obtained by different investigators they

lacked uniformity.5. As the program of experimentation was conceived thoroughly

it was a success.6. As he was given an appropriate sample for analysis he could

determine the properties of the substance easily.7. When equations of motion were used in high-energy physics

they have not had any significant success.

VI. Combine the two sentences into one using the Present Participle.Follow the model.Sp.: The equations of motion are necesssary for low-energy

physics. They should be used in high-energy physics as well.

— 66 —

St.: Being necessary for low-energy physics the equations ofmotion should be used in high-energy physics as well.

1. Their concept was only philosophical. It differs from today’s one.2. This equipment is reliable. It is often used by the experimenters.3. That value was significantly in error. It had to be re-determined

by new methods.4. The mechanism of ionization by collision is simple in concept.

It is easy to understand.5. Explanation of these phenomena is a difficult ðrîblem. It has

received a great deal of attention.6. This formalism was so successful for classical physics that it

might lead to a useful theory of particles.7. The final method was a combination of the ideas and apparatus

of several early experiments yielded good results.8. Quantum electrodynamics is capable of making highló accurate

numerical prediction. It is one of the most important moderntheories of physics.

VII. Restate the following sentences using Perfect Participle instead ofthe subordinate clause. Follow the model.Sp.: After the hypothesis had found support it was extended and

clarified.St.: Having found support the hypothesis was extended and

clarified.

1. After physicists had conducted the search they solved theproblem.

2. After he had received an excellent education he adopted thecareer of a scientist.

3. After they had compared all these materials they were able tochoose the best one for their purpose.

4. After he had attended a course of lectures on the subject he gota better understanding of it.

5. After they had considered that hypothetical experiment theycould tell the difference between these two processes.

6. After we had analyzed the concept of energy more thoroughlywe saw that...

7. After the scientists had used more powerful experimental toolsand theoretical approaches they found new atomic states.

— 67 —

VIII. Express agreement with the following statements. While doingthat use Participles instead of the subordinate clauses. Use «Quiteso» as an opening phrase. Follow the model.Sp.: As these quantities had been measured with great accuracy they were of great significance.St.: Quite so. Having been measured with great accuracy these quantities were of great significance.

1. After the description had been simplified it became moreconvenient to use.

2. As the value had been calculated correctly it could be used bymany scientists.

3. After the results had been generalized they were reported inthis scientific magazine.

4. After the results obtained had been published they gave rise tointeresting response.

5. As the experimental techniques had been refined they could beused for this kind of investigation.

6. As the new method had been used it made possible to studythe strong interactions between particles in detail.

7. After the results had been analyzed they were reported to beprecise.

8. After these values had been determined experimentally theywere reported to be in agreement with theoretical predictions.

IX. Express the opposite. Use «You are not right saying that» as anopening phrase. Make the sentences positive and restate them.Follow the model.

Sp.: When we extend such theories to higher energies we are not obliged to include all other particles and interactions.St.: You are not right saying that. When extending such theories to higher energies it is necessary to include all other particles and interactions.

1. When we deal with such problems we are not obliged to usestrictly accurate values.

2. When we explain physical effects \we are not obliged to takeinto account all the experimental results.

3. When we conduct such experiments we are obliged to choosethe materials carefully.

— 68 —

4. When we work with this substance we should not be aware ofits peculiarities.

5. When we simplify the procedure of experiments we don’t haveto leave out unnecessary details.

6. When we specify these values we should not use these sets ofequations.

7. When we design new kinds of experiments we don’t have tobear in mind the advantages of the previous ones.

8. When we confirm theoretical predictions we are not obliged touse the experimental results.

X. Define the functions of Participle I and translate the sentencesintro Russian. (see the key on page 90)

1. When there are no forces pulling or pushing a body the bodymust always be in equilibrium.

2. When rubbing a glass rod with a piece of silk, you develop alarge difference of potential.

3. Tow bodies being placed in contact with each other, thetemperature of the hot body falls, while that of the cold onerises.

4. Classs A insulation is the most common in industrialequipment, class B and class C being used rather seldom.

5. When inspecting relays great precaution should be taken notto touch the relay itself but only to watch its operation.

6. The critical point is that point on the course which underexisting conditions is equally distant from the point of departureand desired destination.

7. Having defined two units of power, the horsepower and thekilowatt, we may use these to define two new units of work,the horsepower-hour and the kilowatt-hour.

Participle II

I. Give the Russian for.the formed charges, the induced charges, the measured current,the increased resistance, the above mentioned results, the abovemeasured data, the predicted results, the determined quantities,the observed phenomenon.

— 69 —

II. Give the principal forms of the following verbs.to find, to know, to rise, to flow, to measure, to obtain, to call,to increase, to charge, to collide, to remain, to vary, lo be, todefine, to move, to consider, to display, to regard, to associate,to .convert, to cancel, to give, to investigate, to place.

III. Translate into English.îáñóæäåííûé âîïðîñ, îáñóæäàÿ âîïðîñ, îáñóäèâ âîïðîñ,âûïîëíèâ ðàáîòó, âûïîëíåííàÿ ðàáîòà, èçìåðåííûå âåëè-÷èíû, ïîëó÷èâ íîâûå äàííûå, îïðåäåëÿÿ âåëè÷èíó, îïðå-äåëèâ âåëè÷èíó, ñëóøàÿ ëåêöèþ, ïðîñëóøàâ ëåêöèþ, ðàñ-ïðåäåëÿÿ, ðàñïðåäåëèâ, ðàñïðåäåëåííûé ìàòåðèàë, ðàññìàò-ðèâàÿ, ðàññìîòðåâ, ðàññìîòðåííûé âîïðîñ, îáîçíà÷àÿ, îáî-çíà÷èâ, îáîçíà÷åííûé, âûøåóïîìÿíóòûå äàííûå, íàáëþ-äàåìîå ÿâëåíèå

IV. Restate the following sentences using Participles instead of thesubordinate clauses. Follow the model.Sp.: As this value was calculated accurately it was in good agreement

with the measured values.St.: Calculated accurately these values were in good agreement

with measured values.

1. If this equation is translated into words it states the following.2. If this component is added to the equation it creates a new-

problem.3. If the apparatus is assembled in another way it will become

universal.4. When the snapshot concept is applied to nuclei it is purely

theoretical.5. As this remarkable discovery was mentioned at the conference

it was widely discussed after the conference.6. When the experimental data were corrected in this way they

were plotted on the diagram.7. When the idea is translated into the language of equations it

becomes more understandable.8. When the experiment is carried out with pure substances it

will give better results.

— 70 —

V. Translate into Russian paying attention to Participle II. (see thekey on page 91)1. When subjected to alternating magnetization, the loop is

traversed once for every cycle of the current, and so theenergy wasted per second is proportional to the frequency.

2. The gas mixture produced by the carburettor is of no valueunless it is ignited, and gas ignited quickly produces moreforce if first compressed.

3. Relays, if improperly designed or cared for, may give farmore trouble than any other part of the electrical and radiocircuits.

4. This process is carried out until the small cylinder is broughtup to its proper pressure as determined by a gauge.

5. The booster is usually a coil which has a vibrating contactorand produces high voltage when connected to a battery.

6. The voltage induced in a winding located in a magnetic fieldwas investigated experimentally by Faraday.

7. Current is composed of several component currents, eachcomponent produced by one of the individual voltage sources.

VI. Express both agreement and regret in connection with the following.While doing that combine the two sentences into one usingParticiples. «Sorry to say but that is so» is your opening phrase.Follow the model.Sp.: They hadn’t collected enough data. They couldn’t interpret

the new phenomenon.St.: Sorry to say but that is so. Not having collected enough data

they couldn’t interpret the new phenomenon.

1. They hadn’t obtained the substance in pure enough form.They couldn’t carry out the experiment.

2. We hadn’t reached a quantitative justification for that model.We couldn’t speak about the model at the conference.

3. They hadn’t developed the procedure of the experimentproperly.They failed to obtain the necessary data.

4. He hadn’t obtained the desired results. He had to carry outthese experiments once more.

5. She hadn’t examined the problem in detail. She couldn’t givean explicit account for it.

— 71 —

6. They hadn’t tested the instrument. They didn’t use it in their work.7. He hadn’t read that article. He didn’t participate in the

discussion.

VII. Translate the following sentences into English using diffferentforms of the Participle.1. Ôèçèêè, îïðåäåëÿþùèå ýòó âåëè÷èíó, ìíîãî ðàáîòàþò.2. Îïðåäåëÿÿ ýòó âåëè÷èíó, îíè ñäåëàëè íåñêîëüêî îøèáîê.3. Âåëè÷èíû, îïðåäåëÿåìûå òàêèì îáðàçîì, îáû÷íî áûâàþò

òî÷íûìè.4. Âåëè÷èíà, îïðåäåëåííàÿ ýòèì ó÷åíûì, èñïîëüçóåòñÿ âñå-

ìè ôèçèêàìè.5. Âåëè÷èíà, êîòîðàÿ áûëà îïðåäåëåíà, óïîìèíàëàñü â åãî

ñòàòüå äâàæäû.6. Âåëè÷èíà, êîòîðàÿ ñåé÷àñ îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ, áóäåò èñïîëüçî-

âàíà â áóäóùèõ èññëåäîâàíèÿõ.7. Êîãäà ýòà âåëè÷èíà áûëà îïðåäåëåíà, îíà áûëà èñïîëüçî-

âàíà â äàëüíåéøèõ ðàñ÷åòàõ.8. Îïðåäåëèâ ýòó âåëè÷èíó, ó÷åíûå ñìîãëè âû÷èñëèòü íåêî-

òîðûå äðóãèå âåëè÷èíû.9. Ïîñëå òîãî êàê ýòà âåëè÷èíà áûëà îïðåäåëåíà, îíà ìîãëà

áûòü èñïîëüçîâàíà â íàøèõ èññëåäîâàíèÿõ.

Passive Forms of the Participle

I. Restate the sentences using Participles in the Passive form insteadof the subordinate clauses. Follow the model.Sp.: The results which are being generalized can be applied in

our case.St.: The results being generalized can be applied in our case.

1. The principle which is being employed is similar to that usedbefore.

2. We are familiar with the method of calculating which is beingdescribed here.

3. The experiments which are being designed can yield necessaryinformation.

4. The new approach to the energy problem which is beingreferred to him proved to be correct.

5. The theoretical calculations which are being made to analysecollision phenomena are of greatly increased power.

— 72 —

6. The new experimental techniques which are being developedwill be applied for this purpose.

7. Let’s focus our attention on the complexity of the processwhich is being considered.

II. Restate the following sentences, use Partici ples instead of thesubordinate clauses. Follow the model.Sp.: The fine-structure constant is an examð1å of a fundamental

constant which is expressed in ñombination of other constants.St.: The fine-structure constant is an exàmð1å of a fundamental

constant expressed in a combination of other constants.

1. Several phenomena which are understood poorly are involvedin that system.

2. The pertinent theory usually provides only an approximationwhich is based on a simplified conceptual model of the system.

3. The experimental data which were corrected in this mannerare plotted in figure I.

4. The sequence of events which is described above was predictedby these two scientists.

5. The book is based on facts that were drawn from thoroughlyreliable sources.

6. The theory was one of the most remarkable scientific theorieswhich had ever been advanced.

7. More precise measurements which were made in the 1950’sshowed that...

III. Restate the following sentences using subordinate clauses insteadof the Participles. Follow the model.Sp.: The new theory advanced is very accurate in its details.St.: The new theory which is advanced is very accurate in its

details.

1. The relevant details given should be taken into consideration.2. The problem examined involved some difficulties.3. Quantitative tests made verified the theory.4. The information given is pertinent and interesting.5. The component added creates a number of new problems.6. The theoretical errors shown arise primarily from an estimate

of uncalculaled terms.7. The excessive heat formed is caused by the extreme rapidity of

the reaction.

— 73 —

IV. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention todifferent forms of the Participle.1. The engineers assembling this device work day and night.2. While assembling this device they found some broken parts.3. The devices assembled in this manner are usually reliable.4. The device assembled by these engineers works well.5. The device assembled was used in our laboratory.6. The device being assembled will be used in the near future.7. Being assembled the device was used in the experiment.8. Having assembled the device the scientists began using it in

their experiment.

The Absolute Participle Construction

I. Restate the sentences. Use the Absolute Participle Constructioninstead of the subordinate clauses. Follow the model.

Sp.: As the information was pertinent and essential, we hadconsidered it at once.

St.: The information being pertinent and essential, we had toconsider it at once.

1. As the surface is homogeneous, such an agreement can beobtained.

2. As these quantities are interrelated, we usually study themtogether.

3. As the instruments were very sensitive, we obtained goodresults.

4. As the results were of high accuracy, this value could becalculated more precisely.

5. As the equipment was of simple construction, the studentscould use it in their work.

6. As the repeated reading was the same, we could be sure of thedata obtained.

7. As these particles were of very high energy, we didn’t knowwhat to expect of them.

II. Restate the sentences. Use subordinate clauses instead of the AbsoluteParticiple Constructions. Follow the model.

Sp.: The equipment showing good characteristics, we could use itfor several purposes.

St.: As the equipment showed good characteristics, we could useit for several purposes.

— 74 —

1. The results lacking precision, we had to employ anothermethod.

2. The phenomenon demanding explanation, they began to studyit thoroughly.

3. The instrument operating with high accuracy, we got satisfactoryresults.

4. The chamber leaking, we couldn’t get vacuum.5. The results confirming the theory, they considered the theory

valid.6. The substance exhibiting peculiar properties, we studied it

with great interest.7. The theory representing a radically different point of view,

scientists didn’t accept it at once.

III. Restate the sentences using the Absolute Participle Constructionsinstead of the second part of the sentences. Follow the model.

Sp.: He criticized the theory and his reasons were based on athorough analysis of the facts.

St.: He criticized the theory, his reasons being based on a thoroughanalysis of the facts.

1. Atoms are in a constant state of random movement and theirspeed is tremendous.

2. They performed the experiment and the results were in goodagreement with the theoretic predictions.

3. A review of the main properties of the effect is given and theinstrumental difficulties are presented.

4. They have invented a new device and its main advantages aresimplicity and low cost.

5. He has created a new apparatus and its main disadvantages arelow frequency and short lifetime.

6. Several theories account for the observation and one of themexhibits exceptional ingenuity.

7. He performed hundreds of experiments and his results providedan explicit explanation of the phenomenon.

IV. Develop the situations using the Absolute Participle Constructions.Make use of the suggested elements.Follow the model.

Sp.: Two approaches were suggested. One of them — to be discussedin detail.

— 75 —

St.: Two approaches were suggested, one of them being discussedin detail.

1. The scientist used two methods. Both of them — to be equallyeffective.

2. He was given two articles on the subject. The former — to bemore interesting.

3. They have given two possible solutions to that dilemma. Thelatter — to be quite an elegant one.

4. Two instruments were devised for the purpose. One of them —to be much more sensitive.

5. Two applications of the model were suggested. The latter — tobe of paramount importance.

6. Two types of experiment are described. The procedure of thelatter — to be more complicated.

7. Two hypotheses were proposed. The truth of the former — tobe difficult to demonstrate.

V. Express agreement with the following statements. Use the AbsoluteParticiple Construction instead of the subordinate clause. Use«Certainly» as an opening word. Follow the model.

Sp.: As the old theory was discarded, they had to develop a new one.St. : Certainly. With the old theory discarded, they had to develop

a new one.

1. As science is so much advanced, we can account for suchphenomena quite easily.

2. As the electron was discovered, some old theories wereabandoned.

3. As the results were plotted in a diagram, it became moreconvenient to use them.

4. As the new instrument was provided, they tried to measurethis value again.

5. As the substance is described briefly, we don’t know muchabout its properties.

6. As the temperature of the solid is raised, the thermal agitationof its molecules rises.

7. As the rule was illustrated by a number of good examples, thestudents understood it well.

— 76 —

VI. Restate the sentences. Use subordinate clauses instead of the AbsoluteParticiple Constructions. Follow the model.

Sp.: With the technique having been improved, new methods ofwork became possible.

St.: As the technique had been improved, new methods of workbecame possible.

1. With the new model having been used, we could account forthese observations.

2. With the experiments having been performed, they started anew investigation.

3. With this phenomenon having been described in detail, wegot a better understanding of it.

4. With the substance having been obtained in extremely pureform, we received good results.

5. With the method of solving the problem having been found,the necessary values could be specified.

6. With the concept of scanning microscope having been revived,such microscopes became commercially available.

7. With highly accurate numerical predictions having been made,the experimental results were in good agreement with thetheory.

VII. Express both agreement and regret in connection with the followingstatements. Use the Absolute Participle Construction instead ofthe subordinate clause. Use «Unfortunately that is so» as anopening phrase. Follow the model.

Sp.: They couldn’t reach the desired values because satisfactorylenses were unavailable.

St.: Unfortunately that is so. Satisfactory lenses being unavailable,they couldn’t reach the desired values.

1. They didn’t reach the expected results because the experimentaldifficulties were great.

2. They failed to obtain good results because their specimen wasbad.

3. They couldn’t hold the necessary vncinim because theirspecimen was bad.

4. They couldn’t use those snapshots because the image qualitywas very poor.

— 77 —

5. The resolution of the microscope isn’t very high because theintensity of the sources is low.

6. They didn’t learn much about the composition of the substancebecause the analysis was difficult and inefficient.

7. It isn’t simple to build such a microscope because the electronsource introduces limitations on the resolution.

VIII. Point out the Absolute Participle Construction and translate thesentences into Russian. (see the key on page 92)1. There being no other traffic, the driver can maintain constant

speed of, say, 60 km/hr (kilometers per hour).2. Part of the energy being changed into heat, not all chemical

energy of the cell battery is transformed in electric energy.3. The water leaves the wheel with a large relative velocity but a

small absolute velocity, practically all original energy havingbeen given to the wheel.

4. The cyclotron may be regarded as a modification of the linearaccelerator, the particles being transferred from one to theother at the proper instants by an ion of a magnetic field.

5. The positive pole having been brought near the negative pole,the latter attracts it.

6. Two bodies having potentials of 100 volts and 50 volts, apotential difference exists between them of 50 volts.

7. The current distribution over the cross-section of a conductorbeing non-uniform, the resistance increases.

8. The travelled distance having been given in meters and thetime in seconds, speed was measured in m.p.s., that is inmeters per second.

THE GERUND

Forms of the Gerund

I. Observe the Gerund after the verbs: start, stop, finish, go on, keep(on), insist on, consider, enjoy, avoid etc.

Pattern: insist on...… discuss the problemYou can insist on discussing the problem.start...… watch the experimentYou can start watching the experiment.

1. stop... … watch the experiment.

— 78 —

2. consider... … determine the initial conditions of the experiment.3. go on... … test the device.4. insist on... … heat the substance.5. enjoy... … examine the result of the observation.6. keep on...… use a diode in your experiment.7. avoid... … initiate a discharge.8. finish... … count the particles.

II. Say what your chief insists on being done. Use the Gerund. Followthe model.

Sp.: to use up-to-date equipment in our laboratorySt.: My chief insists on up-to-date equipment being used in our

laboratory.

1. to do research work in the 1aboratory.2. to check all these figures once more.3. to complete the major part of this work next week.4. to advance a good explanation for these facts.5. to test the new equipment carefully.6. to give substantial information on the new invention.7. to invent a more sensitive apparatus for this purpose.

III. Say what you learnt of. Use the Gerund. Follow the model.

Sp. They obtained numerical solutions for these mathematicalmodels.

St.: I learnt of their having obtained numerical solutions forthese mathematical models.

1. He studied the peculiarities of the new method.2. He obtained direct evidence for the validity of this hypothesis.3. He proved the validity of his conclusions by experiment.4. They contributed extensively to that theory.5. He published a number of interesting articles.6. He investigated main features of the new phase more thoroughly.7. They observed this interesting phenomenon in their laboratory.

IV. Say what you learnt of. Use the Gerund. Follow the model.

Sp.: The values have been defined with high precision.St.: I learnt of the values having been defined with high precision.

1. The new theory has been refined.2. The definitions have been simplified.

— 79 —

3. The calcuiatioins have been performed.4. Suitable materials have been found.5. A better technique has been employed.6. Main features of the new phenomenon have been investigated.7. The results have been compared with theoretical predictions.

V. Restate the sentences using the Gerund. Follow the model.

Sp.: It is not difficult to observe these phenomena in nature.St.: Observing these phenomena in nature is not difficult.

1. It is necessary to study the problem thoroughly.2. It is necesary to confirm these predictions.3. It is necessary lo distinguish between these two processes.4. It is easy to demonstrate the truth of this hypothesis.5. It is sometimes impossible to obtain direct evidence for a

theory.6. It is important to consider the average density of this substance.7. It is possible to observe the phenomenon in the laboratory.

VI. Combine each of these pairs of sentences using the Gerund. Followthe model.Sp. : They have participated in that conference. And that is of

great importance.St.: Having participated in that conference is of great importance.

1. They have found a solution to the problem. And that is of greatvalue.

2. He has contributed extensively to that theory. And that isknown.

3. He had great difficulties with that problem. And that is known.4. They have simplified the procedure of the experiment. And

that is of great use.5. He has suggested an ingenious solution to that problem. And

that is important.6. She has used an ingenious scheme for her experiment. And

that is valuable.7. He proposed a unique procedure of carrying out this experiment.

And that is of great interest.

VII. Complete the following sentences using the Gerund. Make use ofthe suggested elements. Follow the model.Sp.: What is your idea of... (lo solve the problem)

— 80 —

St.: What is your idea of solving the problem?

1. He avoids... (to work with these materials)2. We intend... (to study the new phenomenon thoroughly)3. He thinks of... (lo develop the theory)4. He insists on ... (to transmit the information by radio)5. He is interested in... (to discuss such problems)6. There were several reasons for... (to do that)7. She has no experience in... (to carry out such experiments)8. We take every opportunity of... (to go to this scientist’s lectures)9. His task consists in... (to provide the necessary materials for

the experiment)

VIII. Express agreement with the following negative statements usingthe Gerund. Follow the model.Sp.: He will not make his description brief unless he eliminates

all the unnecessary details.St.: No, he will not make his description brief without eliminating

all the unnecessary details.

1. She will not be able to do this exercise unless she learns the rule.2. The student’s will not know the subject well unless they study

it hard.3. He will not solve this problem unless he considers it properly.4. Òhey will not be able to solve the problem unless they suggest

a better approach to it.5. Íå will not understand the nature of this phenomenon unless

he reads the article thoroughly.6. He will not be able to perform the experiment unless he gets

all the necessary materials.7. They will not be able to specify the value unless they use this

equation.

Functions of the Gerund

I. Say what your chief insists on doing. Use the Gerund. Follow themodel.

Sp.: to test the accuracy of this instrument.St.: Mó chief insists on testing the accuracy of this instrument.

1. to treat the subject thoroughly.2. to adopt the new methods.3. to apply the new schematic model in this case

— 81 —

4. to put the new device into operation.5. to analyse the new data immediately.6. to attach more importance to these facts.7. to make a list of those present at the meeting.

II. Say that your chief objects to doing the following. Use the Gerund.Follow the model.

Sp.: to include her work in the list of the best ones.St.: My chief objects to including her work in the list of the best

ones.

1. to perform such extensive calculations.2. to use both systems simultaneously.3. to adopt the new methods.4. to take part in their discussion.5. to make use of the new scheme.6. to carry out the experiment once more.7. to interpret the obtained results in that way.8. to transmit the information by radio.

III. Say that your friend is responsible for doing the following. Followthe model.

Sp.: to construct a new device for this experiment.St.: My friend is responsible for constructing a new device for

this experiment.

1. to publish these papers in time.2. to provide information on the subject.3. to test the theory experimentally.4. to account for the peculiarities of the new system.5. to collect malcrials on the problem.6. to consider the problem from this aspect.7. to study the ne\v observations thoroughly.

IV. Say how a student can increase his knowledge of physics. Use theGerund. Also make use of the suggested elements. Follow the model.

Sp.: to take an interest in the subject.St.: A student can increase his knowledge of physics by taking an

interest in the subject.

1. to attend lectures on physics regularly.2. to study the subject hard and systematically.

— 82 —

3. to read literature on physics in foreign languages.4. to study the ways in which the facts of science are obtained.5. to learn to arrange and use the data obtained.6. to exchange ideas with other students.7. to use various textbooks and reference-books.8. to study different viewpoints on the same phenomena.

V. Develop the situation instead of the Gerund in the active form.Use the Gerund in the Passive fîrm. Mind the difference in meaning.Also make use of the suggested elements. Follow the model

Sp.: I don’t like objecting. And she...St.: And she doesn’t like being objected.

1. I like agreeing with him. And they...2. I don’t like ordering other people. And she...3. I am fond of reading to him. And he...4. I hate disturbing other people. And she...5. I like providing them with necessary books. And they...6. I don’t like interfering with their conversation. And they...7. I like giving explicit explanations on the problem. And he...8. I remember having examined this student. And this student...

VI. Agree with the following negative statements. Then paraphrase thestatements using the verb «to fail». Follow the model.

Sp.: He did not succeed in proving the theorem.St.: No, he didn’t. He failed to prove the theorem.

1. They did not succeed in achieving the expected results.2. He did not succeed in imposing his ideas on us.3. We did not succceed in getting at least a distant idea of the

matter.4. He did not succeed in advancing a good explanation for these

facts.5. They did not succeed in providing direct tests of their

assumptions.6. He did not succeed in giving an explicit account of his doings.7. They did not succeed in finding empirical confirmation for

the theory.8. They did not succeed in appreciating the significance of the

new discovery.

— 83 —

VII. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention tothe functions of the Gerund.1. Their having made the experiment interested us.2. He mentioned having made such an experiment.3. He mentioned their having made such experiments.4. I know of .her having made the experiment.5. I know of the experiment being made.6. I know of the experiment having been made.7. After having made the experiment she began describing it in

detail.

VIII. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attentionto the functions of the Gerund.1. Making such experiments was not an easy task at that time.2. Her main task now is making this experiment.3. She began making this experiment yesterday.4. He likes making such experiments.5. I know of her making this experiment.6. The idea of making this experiment belongs to my chief.7. They need a unique instrument for making this experiment.8. In making this experiment she used some new devices.9. On making this experiment she proceeded to describe the

obtained data.10. By making a lot of experiments he gains experimental skill.11. They cannot obtain the necessary data without making these

experiments.

IX. Translate the following sentences into Russian:1. His being a good engineer is known to us.2. The term «semiconductor» has been chosen because of its

occupying an intermediate place between metals and insulators.3. The reliable operation of an amplifier depends on its being

designed for this operation.4. We know of the input signal being perfectly reproduced at

output of the amplifier.5. Our being invited to this conference is very important for us.6. They know of his having published the results of his last

investigation.7. We know of amplifier having several active elements.

— 84 —

X. Define the forms and functions of the Gerund. Translate thesentences into Russian. (see the key on page 92)1. The main point of a transformer is changing voltage although

the power of both sides of the transformers is equal.2. We know of the velocity of electromagnetic waves changing

when the wave front crosses a boundary between two media.3. After introducing new technology in that branch of industry

some changes must be made as soon as possible.4. The ratio is determined by dividing the value of the velocity

or pressure at the point nearer the transmitting end by thevalue of the velocity at the point most remote.

5. The fact of a new device having provided the means of silencingthe airplane noise was a new step in the development ofaviation technique.

6. In passing from the nozzle through one set of blades thevelocity of the steam is lowered.

7. We were informed of a new record of a non-stop flight havingbeen established.

8. That failure was due to the designer’s having been somewhatcareless, although we must confess the conditions wereunfavourable.

XI. State whether the «-ing» forms are the gerund or the verbal noun.Give your reasons.1. The engineer found a new method of testing metal fatigue.2. The rising of water in the pump was noticed by everybody

present.3. The rapid falling of pressure has its drawbacks.4. One of the most striking characteristics of modern science has

been the increasing trend towards closer cooperation betweenscientists and scientific institutions all over the world.

5. The purpose of these readings is to consolidate and extend theknowledge and use of the scientific English which the studentshave acquired for these years.

6. The common automobile speedometer is a tachometer whosereadings are proportional to the instantaneous angular velocityof the drive shaft to which it is connected.

7. This splitting of the hydrogen molecule is attended by theabsorption of a large amount of energy.

8. The effect of this shaping of the duct is to build up thepressure of the air whilst decreasing its velocity.

— 85 —

9. The breaking of the circuit causes the magnetic field to disappear.10. We know that the conversion of heat into chemical energy is

reversed when the burning of coal converts chemical energyinto heat.

11. Inductance is provided by the silver coating and capacitanceby the inner and outer surfaces of the silver while using theporcelain as dielectric.

XII. Translate into Russian paying attention to different forms of theverbals. (see the key on page 93)1. Various methods of cooling transformers are adopted in practice

depending upon the size and the local conditions.2. The acceleration of electrons to the highest energies — to

many billions of electron volts — is accomplished by meansof a different kind of machine called a synchrotron.

3. The law of gravitation explains many phenomena not previouslyunderstood..

4. The distance dependence is a complicated function, stillimperfectly known.

5. In the betatron acceleration is provided by the electric fieldassociated by the changing magnetic flux.

6. The same idea can be used for making a sensitive instrumentfor electrical measurements.

7. In exactly the same manner we can deduce what happenswhen equal objects having any two velocities hit each other.

8. The same ideas can be applied on a large scale to make largemotors for providing mechanical power.

XIII.Translate into Russian paying attention to different functions ofthe verbals. (see the key on page 94)1. Until now, we have been studying Maxwell’s equations in bits

and pieces, it is time to add one final piece, and put them alltogether.

2. When Maxwell first made this calculation with his equations,he said that bundles of eleclric and magnetic fields would bepropagated at this speed.

3. The electric field defends inversely on the square of the distanceand is directed away from the retarded position of the charge.

4. We think it is important, however, to make the connectionbetween what you have learned earlier and what you are

— 86 —

learning now or at least to indicate how such a connectioncan be made.

5. When the atoms of matter are not moving around very much,they get stuck together and arrange themselves in aconfiguration with as low an energy as possible.

6. Larger motors, dc or ac, are often made by replacing thepermanent magnet by an electromagnet, energized from theelectrical power source.

7. Two wires were placed parallel to each other and a current waspassed through one of them in the hope of finding a current inthe other.

XIV. Define forms and functions of the verbals. Translate the sentencesinto Russian. (see the key on page 94)1. It is easy to see why the charged particles should be heavier

than the neutral ones.2. Fortunately, these particles are not all different in their

interactions with one another.3. This quantity must always be positive for any value of I and I.4. It is now known that there are two different kinds of neutrinos,

one related to electrons and the other related to muons.5. It is this electric field which drives the electrons around the

wire and so is responsible for the emf in a stationary circuitwhen there is a changing magnetic f!ux.

6. That is just an algebraic transformation.7. In theoretical physics we discover that all our laws can be

written in mathematical form; and that this has a certainsimplicity and beauty about it

8. It is because the Maxwell equations are invariant under thosetransformations that they can be written in a beautiful form.

— 87 —

Êëþ÷è ê óïðàæíåíèÿì

ÈÍÔÈÍÈÒÈÂ

Èíôèíèòèâ ïîñëå ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ

Óïðàæíåíèå V. (ñòð. 50)

1. Ìû äîëæíû äîêàçàòü ñëåäóþùåå ïðåäïîëîæåíèå. Òàê êàêíåò òðåíèÿ, òî òåëî äîëæíî âåðíóòüñÿ íè ñ ìåíüøåé, íè ñáîëüøåé ñêîðîñòüþ — îíî äîëæíî èìåòü òàêóþ ñêîðîñòü,÷òîáû áûòü â ñîñòîÿíèè äåëàòü êðóãè ïî ýòîìó çàìêíóòîìóïóòè.

2. Ìîæíî òàêæå îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ôîðìóëà (17.22) ïîêàçûâàåò,÷òî ñèëà èíäóöèðîâàííûõ òîêîâ, òî åñòü âñÿêàÿ ñèëà îòâèõðåâûõ òîêîâ, îáðàòíî ïðîïîðöèîíàëüíà ñîïðîòèâëåíèþ.

3. Ýòè âåëè÷èíû ìîãóò áûòü òàêæå íàéäåíû ïîñðåäñòâîì îï-òè÷åñêîãî ýêñïåðèìåíòà.

4. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ìû èìååì î÷åíü ïîëåçíûé îáùèé çàêîí, ÷òîâ ëþáîì ñëó÷àå, êîãäà âàì íóæíî âçÿòü ãðàäèåíò îò âåêòîðà,êîòîðûé èçìåíÿåòñÿ êàê âîëíà â òðåõìåðíîì ïðîñòðàíñòâå (àîí â ôèçèêå èãðàþò âàæíóþ ðîëü), ýòó îïåðàöèþ âû ìîæåòåïðîäåëàòü áûñòðî è áåç âñÿêèõ ðàçäóìèé, åñëè âñïîìíèòå,÷òî îïåðàòîð ýêâèâàëåíòåí óìíîæåíèþ íà ih.

5. Îäíàêî ìîãóò âñòðåòèòüñÿ ñëó÷àè, êîãäà ïðè ðàáîòå íàä êà-êîé-òî ïðîáëåìîé âàì èçâåñòíû ëèøü óðàâíåíèÿ, è âû íåìîæåòå ñðàçó (íåïîñðåäñòâåííî) óâèäåòü, êàêèå æå ôèçè-÷åñêèå àðãóìåíòû èñïîëüçîâàòü.

6. Ýòî êîñâåííûé ýôôåêò, êîòîðûé ìîæíî îáúÿñíèòü òîëüêîñ ïîìîùüþ êâàíòîâîé ìåõàíèêè.

7. Ïîñêîëüêó ýòî ñêàëÿð, òî îí äîëæåí îñòàâàòüñÿ îäíèì èòåì æå äëÿ ëþáîé îðèåíòàöèè ñïèíû.

Óïðàæíåíèå VIII. (ñòð. 53)

1. Ìû äîëæíû óñëîâèòüñÿ, ÷òî ïîëå íå äîëæíî áûòü ñëèøêîìáîëüøèì, èáî îíî ìîæåò íàðóøèòü âíóòðåííèå äâèæåíèÿñèñòåìû è ýíåðãèÿ íå áûëà áû ìåðîé ìàãíèòíîãî ìîìåíòà,êîòîðûé áûë äî âêëþ÷åíèÿ ìàãíèòíîãî ïîëÿ.

2. ×òî áû íàì ñëåäîâàëî ñäåëàòü, òàê ýòî èñïîëüçîâàòü êàêîé-òî áîëåå ñëîæíûé ñïîñîá óñðåäíåíèÿ.

— 88 —

3. Âìåñòî òîãî, ÷òîáû áðàòü îäèí àòîì, ïîäâåðæåííûé ñðåä-íåìó âëèÿíèþ, íàì ñëåäîâàëî áû âçÿòü êàæäûé àòîì â åãîðåàëüíîé îáñòàíîâêå, ïîäñ÷èòàòü åãî ýíåðãèþ, à çàòåì íàé-òè ñðåäíþþ ýíåðãèþ.

4. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ñîâåðøåííî áåç ìàãíèòíûõ èçìåðåíèé, èç-ìåðÿÿ ýòî òåðìîäèíàìè÷åñêîå ñâîéñòâî, ìû áû ñìîãëè óñòà-íîâèòü, ÷òî âíóòðè æåëåçà èëè íèêåëÿ ÷òî-òî ïðîèñõîäèò.

5. Ìèêðîâîëíîâûå ïîëÿ ñìîãóò ïðîíèêíóòü âíóòðü òàêèõ íå-ïðîâîäÿùèõ ìàòåðèàëîâ, òîãäà êàê â ïðîâîäíèêàõ òèïà æå-ëåçà èì ïðåïÿòñòâóþò âèõðåâûå òîêè.

6. Ìû íå ñìîæåì îáñóäèòü ìåõàíèçì óïðóãîñòè.7. Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ðàêåòà äîëæíà âûäåðæèâàòü ñâîé âåñ íà

ñòàðòîâîé ïëîùàäêå è âûíåñòè íàïðÿæåíèÿ âî âðåìÿ óñêî-ðåíèÿ, à ñ äðóãîé — (î÷åíü) âàæíî ñâåñòè âåñ âñåé êîíñò-ðóêöèè äî ìèíèìóìà, ÷òîáû ïîëåçíàÿ íàãðóçêà è ìîùíîñòüäâèãàòåëåé ìîãëè áû áûòü êàê ìîæíî áîëüøå.

Ôîðìû è ôóíêöèè èíôèíèòèâà

Óïðàæíåíèå VI. (ñòð. 61)

1. Áåòàòðîí èñïîëüçóåòñÿ äëÿ ðàçãîíà ýëåêòðîíîâ äî ýíåðãèè âäåñÿòêè èëè äàæå ñîòíè ìèëëèîíîâ ýëåêòðîí-âîëüò.

2. ×òîáû çàïèñàòü çàêîíû Íüþòîíà â âåêòîðíîé ôîðìå, ìûäîëæíû îïðåäåëèòü âåêòîð óñêîðåíèÿ.

3. Êëàññè÷åñêîé ôèçèêå òàê è íå óäàëîñü óäîâëåòâîðèòåëüíîîáúÿñíèòü ìîëåêóëÿðíûå ñèëû. ×òîáû èõ ïîëíîñòüþ ïîíÿòü,ïîíàäîáèëàñü êâàíòîâàÿ ìåõàíèêà.

4. Õîòÿ ðåçîíàíñíàÿ ïîëîñòü, êîòîðóþ ìû îïèñûâàåì, î÷åíüíå ïîõîæà íà îáû÷íûé, ñîñòîÿùèé èç êàòóøêè è êîíäåíñà-òîðà ðåçîíàíñíûé êîíòóð, îäíàêî îáå ðåçîíàíñíûå ñèñòåìûòåñíî ìåæäó ñîáîé ñâÿçàíû.

5. Áîëüøèíñòâî ñåãîäíÿøíèõ èññëåäîâàíèé â ìîëåêóëÿðíîéáèîëîãèè — ýòî ïîïûòêè îïðåäåëèòü ñòðóêòóðó ñëîæíûõîðãàíè÷åñêèõ ìîëåêóë.

6. Êâàäðóïîëüíûå ëèíçû èñïîëüçóþòñÿ äëÿ ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ ïó÷-êà ÷àñòèö è êîíòðîëÿ íàä íèì òî÷íî òàê æå, êàê îïòè÷åñ-êèå ëèíçû èñïîëüçóþòñÿ äëÿ ñâåòîâîãî ïó÷êà.

7. ×òîáû ïîëó÷èòü ýëåêòðè÷åñêîå ïîëå äëÿ âñåõ âîçìîæíûõðàññòîÿíèé, íóæíî íàéòè ýëåêòðîñòàòè÷åñêèé ïîòåíöèàë.

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Óïðàæíåíèå VII. (ñòð. 62)

1. Åñëè ñèëû íå ñòðåìÿòñÿ óâåëè÷èâàòü èëè óìåíüøàòü ïåðåìå-ùåíèå òåëà, òî ñ÷èòàþò, ÷òî òåëî íàõîäèòñÿ â ðàâíîâåñèè.

2. Ñ÷èòàëè, ÷òî ÷èñëî ïðîòîíîâ îïðåäåëÿåò àòîìíûé âåñ.3. Ìû çíàåì, ÷òî ñêîðîñòü ÷àñòèöû ïîñòîÿííî èçìåíÿåòñÿ,

åñëè ýòà ÷àñòèöà èìååò íåðàâíîìåðíîå äâèæåíèå.4. Ìû ãîâîðèì, ÷òî óñêîðåíèå àâòîìîáèëÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïîëîæè-

òåëüíûì, êîãäà ìîùíîñòü äâèãàòåëÿ èñïîëüçóåòñÿ äëÿ óñ-êîðåíèÿ àâòîìîáèëÿ.

5. Îäèí èç ñàìûõ âàæíûõ ôàêòîðîâ, êîòîðûé äîëæåí çíàòüïèëîò â ïîëåòå, — ýòî âûñîòà ïîëåòà â äàííûé ìîìåíò.

6. Âðåìåíè, íåîáõîäèìîãî äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû ðàäèîèìïóëüñ ïðî-øåë ê öåëè è îáðàòíî, î÷åíü ìàëî.

7. ×òîáû ñèñòåìà ñèë íàõîäèëàñü â ðàâíîâåñèè, êàæäàÿ ñèëàäîëæíà áûòü óðàâíîâåøèâàþùåé â äàííîé ñèñòåìå.

8. Âàæíî, ÷òîáû îïåðàòîðû áûëè çàùèùåíû ñâèíöîâûìè ýê-ðàíàìè è áàêàìè ñ âîäîé, êîòîðûå ïîãëîùàþò ïîëó÷àåìûåíåéòðîíû.

9. Òàê êàê ñèëû óðàâíîâåøèâàþòñÿ, ñóäíî äâèãàòüñÿ íå áóäåò.10. Ñóùåñòâóåò åñòåñòâåííàÿ òåíäåíöèÿ äëÿ âñåõ êàðáþðàòîðîâ

äàâàòü âñå áîëåå íàñûùåííóþ ñìåñü, ïî ìåðå òîãî êàê ñêî-ðîñòü âèæåíèÿ è âûñîòà óâåëè÷èâàþòñÿ.

11. Åñëè êàæåòñÿ, ÷òî êëàïàí â öèëèíäðå äâèæåòñÿ ñëèøêîìñâîáîäíî, åãî ñëåäóåò íåìåäëåííî çàìåíèòü.

Èíôèíèòèâíûå êîíñòðóêöèè

Óïðàæíåíèå VIII. (ñòð. 62)

1. Ïðåäïîëîæèì, ÷òî äàííîå êîëè÷åñòâî ýëåêòðîíîâ ïðîõîäèòìåæäó èîíàìè ìåäíîé ïðîâîëîêè.

2. Ãëàâíàÿ ïðè÷èíà èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ òàêèõ ïîäøèïíèêîâ â ìà-øèíàõ çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òî îíè äàþò âîçìîæíîñòü óìåíü-øèòü èçíîñ è óïðîñòèòü ïðîáëåìû ñìàçêè.

3. Ïðåäïîëàãàåòñÿ, ÷òî îáûêíîâåííûé ïåðåìåííûé òîê äëÿ îñ-âåùåíèÿ è èíäóñòðèàëüíûõ öåëåé èìååò 50 ïåðèîäîâ â 1ñåêóíäó.

4. Òåïëî, ïîãëîùàåìîå æèäêîñòüþ, çàñòàâëÿåò æèäêîñòü èñ-ïàðÿòüñÿ.

— 90 —

5. ×òîáû íàéòè ìîùíîñòü ïåðåìåííîãî òîêà, íåîáõîäèìî ïî-ìíîæèòü äåéñòâóþùèé òîê íà äåéñòâóþùåå íàïðÿæåíèå ïðèóñëîâèè, ÷òî òîê è íàïðÿæåíèå íàõîäÿòñÿ â ôàçå.

6. Ìû õîòèì, ÷òîáû âû ïðèíÿëè âî âíèìàíèå, ÷òî íàïðÿæå-íèå, ñîïðîòèâëåíèå è åìêîñòü — òðè âàæíûõ ñâîéñòâà, êî-òîðûå âëèÿþò íà òîê â ýëåêòðè÷åñêîé öåïè.

7. ×òîáû îñòàíîâèòü äâèæåíèå âîäû â äîéíîé òðóáå, íóæíîòîëüêî çàêðûòü êëàïàí â ýòîé òðóáå.

8.  ïåðåäàþùèõ àíòåííàõ ëó÷øå âñåãî èìåòü äëèíó íàòóðàëü-íîãî êîëåáàíèÿ (âîëíû) íåìíîãî áîëüøå æåëàåìîé äëèíûâîëíû è èñïîëüçîâàòü ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíûé êîíäåíñàòîð, ÷òî-áû äîâåñòè äëèíó âîëíû äî æåëàåìîé âåëè÷èíû.

ÏÐÈ×ÀÑÒÈÅ

Ôóíêöèè Ïðè÷àñòèÿ I

Óïðàæíåíèå X. (ñòð. 68)

1. Êîãäà íåò ñèë, òÿíóùèõ èëè òîëêàþùèõ òåëî, ýòî òåëî äîë-æíî âñåãäà íàõîäèòüñÿ â ðàâíîâåñèè.

2. Íàòèðàÿ ñòåêëÿííóþ ïàëî÷êó êóñî÷êîì øåëêà, ìû ïîëó÷à-åì áîëüøóþ ðàçíîñòü ïîòåíöèàëîâ.

3. Êîãäà äâà òåëà ïðèõîäÿò â ñîïðèêîñíîâåíèå äðóã ñ äðóãîì,òåìïåðàòóðà ãîðÿ÷åãî òåëà ïàäàåò, à òåìïåðàòóðà õîëîäíîãî —ïîâûøàåòñÿ.

4. Èçîëÿöèÿ êëàññà À íàèáîëåå øèðîêî ïðèìåíÿåòñÿ â ïðî-ìûøëåííîì îáîðóäîâàíèè; èçîëÿöèÿ êëàññîâ Â è Ñ èñïîëü-çóåòñÿ äîâîëüíî ðåäêî.

5. Îñìàòðèâàÿ ðåëå, íóæíî áûòü î÷åíü îñòîðîæíûì è íå êà-ñàòüñÿ ñàìîãî ðåëå, à òîëüêî íàáëþäàòü çà åãî ðàáîòîé.

6. Êðèòè÷åñêàÿ òî÷êà åñòü òî÷êà íà êóðñå, êîòîðàÿ ïðè äàí-íûõ óñëîâèÿõ îäèíàêîâî óäàëåíà îò òî÷êè îòïðàâëåíèÿ è îòìåñòà íàçíà÷åíèÿ.

7. Îïðåäåëèâ äâå åäèíèöû ìîùíîñòè — ëîøàäèíóþ ñèëó èêèëîâàòò, — ìû ìîæåì èñïîëüçîâàòü èõ äëÿ îïðåäåëåíèÿäâóõ íîâûõ åäèíèö ðàáîòû — ëîøàäèíàÿ ñèëà â ÷àñ èêèëîâàòò-÷àñ.

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Ïðè÷àñòèå II

Óïðàæíåíèå V. (ñòð. 70)

1. Êîãäà ðàìêà ïîäâåðãàåòñÿ ïåðåìåííîìó íàìàãíè÷èâàíèþ,îíà ïåðåñåêàåòñÿ (ìàãíèòíûìè ñèëîâûìè ëèíèÿìè) îäèíðàç çà êàæäûé ïåðèîä òîêà è, òàêèì îáðàçîì, ýíåðãèÿ, çàò-ðà÷åííàÿ â îäíó ñåêóíäó, ïðîïîðöèîíàëüíà ÷àñòîòå.

2. Ãàçîâàÿ ñìåñü, ñîçäàííàÿ êàðáþðàòîðîì, íå èìååò íèêàêîãîçíà÷åíèÿ (íå ñîâåðøàåò íèêàêîé ðàáîòû), ïîêà îíà íå âîñ-ïëàìåíåíà, à ñìåñü, áûñòðî âîñïëàìåíåííàÿ, ñîçäàåò áîëü-øóþ ñèëó, åñëè åå ïðåäâàðèòåëüíî ñæàòü.

3. Ðåëå, åñëè îíî íåïðàâèëüíî ñêîíñòðóèðîâàíî èëè ñ íèì íå-ïðàâèëüíî îáðàùàëèñü, ìîæåò ïðè÷èíèòü áîëüøå õëîïîò,÷åì ëþáàÿ äðóãàÿ ÷àñòü ýëåêòðè÷åñêîé öåïè èëè ðàäèîöåïè.

4. Ýòîò ïðîöåññ ïðîäîëæàåòñÿ äî òåõ ïîð, ïîêà ìàëåíüêèéöèëèíäð íå ïîäâåðãíåòñÿ íóæíîìó äàâëåíèþ, îïðåäåëÿåìî-ìó èçìåðèòåëüíûì ïðèáîðîì.

5. Áóñòåð — ýòî êàòóøêà, êîòîðàÿ èìååò âèáðèðóþùèé êîíòàê-òîð è ñîçäàåò âûñîêîå íàïðÿæåíèå, êîãäà ïîäêëþ÷àåòñÿ êàêêóìóëÿòîðó.

6. Íàïðÿæåíèå, âîçáóæäàåìîå â êàòóøêå, ðàñïîëîæåííîé â ìàã-íèòíîì ïîëå, áûëî ýêñïåðèìåíòàëüíî èññëåäîâàíî Ôàðàäååì.

7. Åñëè ñåòü èìååò íåñêîëüêî èñòî÷íèêîâ íàïðÿæåíèÿ, êàæ-äûé îòâåòâëåííûé òîê ñîñòîèò èç íåñêîëüêèõ ñîñòàâëÿþ-ùèõ òîêîâ, ïðè÷åì êàæäûé êîìïîíåíò ñîçäàåòñÿ îäíèì èçèñòî÷íèêîâ åäèíè÷íîãî íàïðÿæåíèÿ.

Ïåðôåêòíîå Ïðè÷àñòèå

Óïðàæíåíèå VIII. (ñòð. 77)

1. Åñëè (ïî øocce) íåò íèêàêîãî äâèæåíèÿ òðàíñïîðòà, âî-äèòåëü ìîæåò ïîääåðæèâàòü ïîñòîÿííóþ ñêîðîñòü, ñêàæåì,60 êì/÷.

2. Òàê êàê ÷àñòü ýíåðãèè ïðåîáðàçóåòñÿ â òåïëî, íå êàæäàÿõèìè÷åñêàÿ ýíåðãèÿ àêêóìóëÿòîðíîãî ýëåìåíòà ïðåîáðàçó-åòñÿ â ýëåêòðè÷åñêóþ ýíåðãèþ.

3. Âîäà ñòåêàåò ñ êîëåñà ñ áîëüøîé îòíîñèòåëüíîé cêîðîñòüþ,íî ñ ìàëîé àáñîëþòíîé ñêîðîñòüþ; ïðàêòè÷åñêè âñÿ ïåðâî-íà÷àëüíàÿ ñêîðîñòü áûëà ïåðåäàíà êîëåñó.

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4. Öèêëîòðîí ìîæíî ðàññìàòðèâàòü êàê óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàííûéëèíåéíûé óñêîðèòåëü, ïðè÷åì ÷àñòèöû â íåì ïîä äåéñòâè-åì ìàãíèòíîãî ïîëÿ â îïðåäåëåííûå ìîìåíòû ïåðåäàþòñÿîò îäíîé ê äðóãîé.

5. Êîãäà þæíûé ïîëþñ ìàãíèòà ïîäíåñåí ê ñåâåðíîìó ïîëþ-ñó äðóãîãî ìàãíèòà, ïîñëåäíèé ïðèòÿãèâàåò åãî.

6. Êîãäà äâà òåëà èìåþò ïîòåíöèàëû â 100 âîëüò è 50 âîëüò,ðàçíîñòü ïîòåíöèàëîâ ìåæäó íèìè ðàâíà 50 âîëüòàì.

7. Êîãäà ðàñïðåäåëåíèå òîêà ïî ïîïåðå÷íîìó ñå÷åíèþ ïðîâîä-íèêà íåîäíîðîäíî, åãî ñîïðîòèâëåíèå óâåëè÷èâàåòñÿ.

8. Òàê êàê ïðîéäåííîå ðàññòîÿíèå áûëî äàíî â ìåòðàõ, à âðå-ìÿ â ñåêóíäàõ, ñêîðîñòü èçìåðÿëàñü â ìåòðàõ â ñåêóíäó.

ÃÅÐÓÍÄÈÉ

Ôîðìû è ôóíêöèè ãåðóíäèÿ

Óïðàæíåíèå X. (ñòð. 84)

1. Ãëàâíîå íàçíà÷åíèå òðàíñôîðìàòîðà — èçìåíÿòü íàïðÿæå-íèå, õîòÿ ìîùíîñòü íà îáåèõ ñòîðîíàõ òðàíñôîðìàòîðîâ îäè-íàêîâà.

2. Ìû çíàåì, ÷òî ÷àñòîòà ýëåêòðîìàãíèòíûõ âîëí ìåíÿåòñÿ, êîã-äà ôðîíò âîëíû ïåðåñåêàåò ãðàíèöó ìåæäó äâóìÿ ñðåäàìè.

3. Ïîñëå ââåäåíèÿ íîâîé òåõíîëîãèè â ýòîé îòðàñëè ïðîìûø-ëåííîñòè íåîáõîäèìî êàê ìîæíî ñêîðåå âíåñòè â ïðîèçâîä-ñòâî íåêîòîðûå èçìåíåíèÿ.

4. Îòíîøåíèå îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ äåëåíèåì âåëè÷èíû ñêîðîñòè èëèäàâëåíèÿ â òî÷êå, ðàñïîëîæåííîé áëèæå ê ïåðåäàþùåìóêîíöó, íà âåëè÷èíó ñêîðîñòè â áîëåå îòäàëåííîé òî÷êå.

5. Òî, ÷òî íîâûé ïðèáîð îáåñïå÷èë âîçìîæíîñòü óñòðàíèòüøóì â ñàìîëåòå, ÿâèëîñü íîâûì øàãîì â ðàçâèòèè àâèàöè-îííîé òåõíèêè.

6. Ïðè ïðîõîæäåíèè ïàðà îò ôîðñóíêè ÷åðåç îäèí ðÿä ëîïàñ-òåé ñêîðîñòü åãî ïîòîêà ñíèæàåòñÿ.

7. Íàì ñîîáùèëè î òîì, ÷òî áûë óñòàíîâëåí íîâûé ðåêîðäáåñïîñàäî÷íîãî ïåðåëåòà.

8. Ýòà íåóäà÷à ïðîèçîøëà èç-çà òîãî, ÷òî êîíñòðóêòîð äîïóñ-òèë íåêîòîðóþ íåáðåæíîñòü, õîòÿ ìû äîëæíû ïðèçíàòüñÿ,÷òî óñëîâèÿ áûëè íåáëàãîïðèÿòíûå.

— 93 —

Ôîðìû è ôóíêöèè íåëè÷íûõ ãëàãîëîâ

Óïðàæíåíèå XII. (ñòð. 85)

1. Îáû÷íî ïðèìåíÿþòñÿ ðàçëè÷íûå ñïîñîáû îõëàæäåíèÿ òðàíñ-ôîðìàòîðîâ â çàâèñèìîñòè îò èõ ðàçìåðîâ è ìåñòíûõ óñëîâèé.

2. Óñêîðåíèå ýëåêòðîíîâ äî ñàìûõ áîëüøèõ ýíåðãèé — ìíîãèõìèëëèàðäîâ ýëåêòðîí-âîëüò — ñîâåðøàåòñÿ ïîñðåäñòâîì ìà-øèíû, íàçûâàåìîé ñèíõðîòðîíîì.

3. Çàêîí òÿãîòåíèÿ îáúÿñíÿåò ìíîãèå ÿâëåíèÿ, ïðåæäå âñåãî,íåïîíÿòíûå.

4. Çàâèñèìîñòü îò ðàññòîÿíèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ íåïðîñòîé ôóíêöèåé,åùå ñîâñåì íåèçó÷åííîé.

5.  áåòàòðîíå óñêîðåíèå îáåñïå÷èâàåòñÿ ýëåêòðè÷åñêèì ïîëåì,ñâÿçàííûì ñ ïåðåìåííûì ìàãíèòíûì ïîòîêîì.

6. Òó æå èäåþ ìîæíî èñïîëüçîâàòü äëÿ êîíñòðóèðîâàíèÿ ÷óâ-ñòâèòåëüíîãî ïðèáîðà äëÿ ýëåêòðè÷åñêèõ èçìåðåíèé.

7. Òî÷íî òàêèì æå îáðàçîì ìîæíî ïðåäïîëàãàòü, ÷òî ïðîèñõî-äèò, êîãäà ñòàëêèâàþòñÿ äâà îäèíàêîâûõ îáúåêòà, êàæäûéèç êîòîðûõ äâèæåòñÿ ñ ïðîèçâîëüíîé ñêîðîñòüþ.

8. Òå æå èäåè ìîæíî ïðèìåíèòü â êðóïíîìàñøòàáíîì ïðîèç-âîäñòâå äëÿ èçãîòîâëåíèÿ áîëüøèõ äâèãàòåëåé äëÿ ïîëó÷å-íèÿ ìåõàíè÷åñêîé ýíåðãèè.

Óïðàæíåíèå XIII. (ñòð. 85)

1. Äî ñèõ ïîð ìû èçó÷àëè óðàâíåíèÿ Ìàêñâåëëà íåáîëüøèìè÷àñòÿìè; òåïåðü ïîðà óæå ïðèáàâèòü ïîñëåäíþþ ÷àñòü è ñî-åäèíèòü èõ âñå âîåäèíî.

2. Êîãäà Ìàêñâåëë âïåðâûå ïðîäåëàë ýòè âû÷èñëåíèÿ, èñïîëü-çóÿ óðàâíåíèÿ, îí ñêàçàë, ÷òî ñîâîêóïíîñòü ýëåêòðè÷åñêî-ãî è ìàãíèòíîãî ïîëåé áóäåò ðàñïðîñòðàíÿòüñÿ ñ ýòîé ñêî-ðîñòüþ.

3. Ýëåêòðè÷åñêîå ïîëå îáðàòíî ïðîïîðöèîíàëüíî êâàäðàòó ðàñ-ñòîÿíèÿ è íàïðàâëåíî îò «çàïàçäûâàþùåãî» ïîëîæåíèÿ çà-ðÿäà.

4. Îäíàêî ìû âñå æå ñ÷èòàåì, ÷òî î÷åíü âàæíî ñâÿçàòü òî, ÷òîâû ïîëó÷èëè ðàíüøå, ñ òåì, ÷òî âû èçó÷àåòå ñåé÷àñ, èëè,ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå, ïðîäåìîíñòðèðîâàòü, êàê òàêàÿ ñâÿçü ìî-æåò áûòü óñòàíîâëåíà.

5. Êîãäà àòîìû â âåùåñòâå äâèæóòñÿ íå ñëèøêîì àêòèâíî,îíè ñöåïëÿþòñÿ è ðàñïîëàãàþòñÿ â êîíôèãóðàöèè ñ íàè-ìåíüøåé âîçìîæíîé ýíåðãèåé.

6.  ìîòîðàõ áîëüøèõ ðàçìåðîâ ïîñòîÿííîãî èëè ïåðåìåííîãîòîêà ïîñòîÿííûå ìàãíèòû ÷àñòî çàìåíÿþò ýëåêòðîìàãíèòà-ìè, êîòîðûå ïèòàþòñÿ îò èñòî÷íèêà ýëåêòðè÷åñêîé ýíåðãèè.

7. Äâà ïðîâîäà ðàñïîëîæèëè ïàðàëëåëüíî äðóã äðóãó è ïî îä-íîìó èç íèõ ïðîïóñêàëè òîê, íàäåÿñü îáíàðóæèòü òîê âäðóãîì.

Óïðàæíåíèå XIV. (ñòð. 86)

1. Íåòðóäíî ïîíÿòü, ïî÷åìó çàðÿæåííûå ÷àñòèöû äîëæíû áûòüòÿæåëåå íåéòðàëüíûõ.

2. Ê ñ÷àñòüþ, ýòè ÷àñòèöû íå îòëè÷àþòñÿ ïî ñèëüíîìó âçàè-ìîäåéñòâèþ äðóã îò äðóãà.

3. Ýòà âåëè÷èíà äîëæíà áûòü ïîëîæèòåëüíà ïðè ëþáûõ çíà÷å-íèÿõ 1 è l.

4. Ñåé÷àñ èçâåñòíî, ÷òî ñóùåñòâóåò äâà ñîðòà íåéòðèíîâ: îäíè,ñâÿçàííûå ñ ýëåêòðîíàìè, à äðóãèå — ñ ìåçîíàìè.

5. Èìåííî ýòî ýëåêòðè÷åñêîå ïîëå è ãîíèò ýëåêòðîíû ïî ïðî-âîëîêå, è, òàêèì îáðàçîì, îíî-òî è ñîçäàåò ý.ä.ñ. â íåïîä-âèæíîé öåïè, êîãäà ìàãíèòíûé ïîòîê èçìåíÿåòñÿ.

6. Ýòî ïðîñòî àëãåáðàè÷åñêîå ïðåîáðàçîâàíèå.7.  òåîðåòè÷åñêîé ôèçèêå ìû îáíàðóæèâàåì, ÷òî âñå ôèçè-

÷åñêèå çàêîíû ìîæíî çàïèñàòü â âèäå ìàòåìàòè÷åñêèõ ôîð-ìóë, èìåííî ýòî ïðèäàåò çàêîíàì ïðîñòîòó è êðàñîòó.

8. Èìåííî ïîòîìó, ÷òî óðàâíåíèÿ Ìàêñâåëëà èíâàðèàíòíû îò-íîñèòåëüíî ýòèõ ïðåîáðàçîâàíèé, èõ ìîæíî çàïèñàòü â ñòîëüêðàñèâîì âèäå.

ÑÏÈÑÎÊ ÈÑÏÎËÜÇÎÂÀÍÍÎÉ ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÛ

1. American Journal of Physics and Technical Sciences. St. Louis,USA, 1998.

2. Physics of Plasmas, American Institute of Physics. N.Y., 1994.3. Nature (International weekly journal of science). R & D Systems.

Inc., Huntsville, Al. Canada, 1999. May.4. Òóðóê È.Ô. Ïîñîáèå ïî ïåðåâîäó òåõíè÷åñêèõ òåêñòîâ. Ì.,

1973.5. Ñèêîðñêàÿ Í.Ï. Àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê äëÿ ôèçèêîâ: Ó÷åáíèê.

Ìèíñê: Èçä-âî ÁÃÓ, 1981.6. Õîìóòîâà Å.Â. è äð. Èíòåíñèâíûé êóðñ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçû-

êà äëÿ ôèçèêîâ. Ì.: Èçä-âî ÌÃÓ, 1985..

Êîïòåâà Íåëëè Þðüåâíà

ÍÅËÈ×ÍÛÅ ÔÎÐÌÛÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÎÃÎ ÃËÀÃÎËÀ

Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèåäëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ôèçèêî-òåõíè÷åñêèõ ñïåöèàëüíîñòåé

Ãëàâíûé ðåäàêòîð À.Â. ØåñòàêîâàÐåäàêòîð È.È. Íåçíàåâà

Òåõíè÷åñêèé ðåäàêòîð À.Å. ÑòåïàíîâÕóäîæíèê Í.Í. Çàõàðîâà

Ïîäïèñàíî â ïå÷àòü 20.02 2002 ã. Ôîðìàò 60x84/16.Áóìàãà òèïîãðàôñêàÿ ¹ 1. Ãàðíèòóðà Òàéìñ. Óñë. ïå÷. ë. 5,6.

Ó÷.-èçä. ë. 6,0. Òèðàæ 50 ýêç. Çàêàç . «Ñ» 59.

Èçäàòåëüñòâî Âîëãîãðàäñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà.400062, Âîëãîãðàä, óë. 2-ÿ Ïðîäîëüíàÿ, 30.