digilib.uns.ac.id...i CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ON LANGUAGE AND POWER IN ELT CLASSROOM (An...

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CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ON

LANGUAGE AND POWER IN ELT CLASSROOM

(An Ethnography Study at STKIP PGRI Bangkalan Madura)

A THESIS

By

ANDRI DONAL

(S891302001)

Submitted to the Graduate School Sebelas Maret University as a Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for Master of English Education

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

GRADUATE PROGRAM

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY

SURAKARTA

2014

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LEGITIMATION OF THE EXAMINERS

CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ON

LANGUAGE AND POWER IN ELT CLASSROOM

(An Ethnography Study at STKIP PGRI Bangkalan Madura)

by:

Andri Donal

S891302001

This thesis has been examined by the Board of Thesis Examiners of English Education Department of Graduate School of Sebelas Maret University

On August, 2014

Board of ExaminersSignatures

Chairman Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd(........................................)19520307 198903 1005

Secretary Dra. Dewi Rochsantiningsih, M.Ed, Ph.D(........................................)19600918 198702 2001

Examiners 1. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd(........................................)19610124 198702 1001

2. Dr. Sumardi, M.Hum(........................................)19740608 199903 1002

Legalized by

The Dean of Teachers Training and Education Faculty

Prof. Dr. M. Furqon Hidayatullah, M.Pd.NIP. 196007271987021001

The Head of English Department of Graduate Program

Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd.NIP. 195203071980031005


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ABSTRACT

Andri Donal. S891302001. 2014. Critical Discourse Analysis on Language and Power in ELT Classroom (An Ethnograpy Study at STKIP Bangkalan, Madura). First Consultant: Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd. Second Consultant: Dr. Sumardi, M.Hum. A thesis. Surakarta: English Education Department. Graduate Program of Teacher training and education Faculty, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta.

The objectives of the research are: (1) To describe the power in language represented in the speech acts, (2) To explore the effects of power in language done by teachers toward students’ learning attitude. The research was carried out at STKIP Bangkalan Madura. It was conducted from January to August 2014. The subject of the research is the English teachers’ of STKIP Bangkalan, Madura. It is an ethnograpy study research. The ethnography study data are collected through document analysis, observation, interview, and questionnaire. The data are analyzed using qualitative data analysis technique proposed by James Spradley which covers domain analysis, taxonomy analysis, componential analysis, and theme analysis and this data also analyzed by using critical discourse analysis approach proposed byNorman Fairclough which covers description, interpretation and explanation.

The research findings show that; (1) In the classroom, a teacher representspower in language into some speech acts forms, including: directive, assertive and expressive speech acts forms. The directive speech acts have students do something;the assertive speech act are the teacher’s argument to make students agree or believe with teacher’s idea. The last is the expressive speech acts, they are the teacher’s psychological states about the students such as pleasure and displeasure expressions, (2) The application of teacher’s power in speech acts forms can influence students’ learning attitude, as follows: a). The teacher’s status influences the students’ perspective in responding teacher’s command; b). Students are enjoyful in doing teacher’s request; c). Teacher assumed that teacher’s prohibition acts are the forms of training for students to be more discipline; d). Students consider that the teacher’s permission acts have less negative effect to them; e). The teacher’s advice influences their learning attitude towards positive side because it can increase their motivation and add their knowledge, information and experience; f). Students tend to be afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions; g). The teacher’s intervention is a must when there are different arguments among students; h). The students will be happy if the teacher appreciates their arguments; i). The teacher’s pleasure expression will trigger students to be more active in the classroom. It also can increase students’ motivation because the students assume it is as the form of teacher’s appreciation to them; j). The displeasure expression has the high restriction of illocutionary power because it can decrease students’ learning motivation.

Therefore, in teaching learning process, a teacher should create the humanistic teaching where a teacher should consider the negative effects from implementing the powers in language in ELT classroom.

Keywords: power and language, speech acts, critical discourse analysis, learning attitude, ethnography study


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MOTTO

“And if you should count the favors of Allah , you could not enumerate them.

Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.”

(An Nahl: 18)


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DEDICATION

With deep profound love, this research is devoted to:

My beloved parents; BapakYuskar and Mama Andriani,

Without your love, prayers, and support I would not be the person I am today.

My beloved wife Andriana, SST and My beloved son Alkhalifi Andriando,

Thanks for your prayers, support, patient and sacrifice and being great motivators

and inspirators in accomplishing this thesis.

My beloved big family: My sister Afrida Santi and her husband, my brothers:

Doni Asmon, Ade Romi Irawan and Anton Hilman and their wife, and my

nephew and niece.

Thanks for your prayers and supports.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Alhamdulillahirabbil’alamin. Praise to ALLAH SWT who has given His

blessing to the writer so that he can accomplish this thesis. In addition, his thesis can

never be accomplished without the help of others during the process of writing.

Therefore, he would like to express his deepest gratitude and appreciation to:

1. The Dean of Teachers Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret

University.

2. The Head of the English Education Department of Graduate Program.

3. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M. Pd., the first consultant, for all his guidance, advice,

and encouragement during completion of this thesis.

4. Dr. Sumardi, M. Hum., the second consultant, for his guidance, advice, and

encouragement during the writing process of this thesis.

5. The Head of English Department of STKIP PGRI Bangkalan, Madura who has

allowed him to carry out the research in his institution.

6. All English teachers of STKIP PGRI Bangkalan Madura, especially who have

become informants of this thesis.

7. Students of STKIP PGRI Bangkalan, Madura.

8. All friends, especially Doni Alfaruqy, Chairuddin, Arif Choirul Bashir, Farouk

Sumarli and everyone who helped the writer in accomplishing the thesis.

The writer hopes and accepts gratefully every comment and suggestion.

Hopefully, this thesis will be useful for the readers.

Surakarta, August 2014

Andri Donal


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE..............................................................................................APPROVAL PAGE……………………………………………………....

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LEGITIMATION.......................................................................................PRONOUNCEMENT................................................................................ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………........

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MOTTO.......................................................................................................DEDICATION............................................................................................ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………...……..

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LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………… xiLIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………... xiiLIST OF APPENDICES………………………………………….………. xiii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION………………………………………A. Background of the Study………………...……............…….B. Problem Statements…………………....................................C. Objectives of the Study …………………........………….…D. Significance of the Study…………………..............…………...

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW………………………….…A. Theoretical Review...............................................................

1. Critical Discourse Analysis..............................................a. The Nature of Critical Discourse Analysis…….......…b. The Approaches of Critical Discourse Analysis...…...

2. The Nature of Language ………….....…..……….....a. Definition of Language...............................................b. The Functions of Language...............…….......………

3. The Nature of Power.......................................................... a. Definition of Power………………………......……….b. Analyzing of Power through CDA...............................

4. The Nature of Speech Acts................................................a. Definition of Speech Acts………………......……….b. The Classifications of Speech Acts...............................

5. The Nature of English Language Teaching.............................a. Theories of English Language Teaching……......……….b. The Power manifestation in ELT Classroom...................

6. The Nature of Attitude............................................................a. Definitions of Attitude........................ ……......……….b. Students’ Attitude.......................................................

B. Review of Related Research..………………….........………..

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CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD.................…………………A. Research setting .........…….................…………………….

1. Time......................... ………………….…..............…..2. Place............................ …………………...........……...

B. Research Method…………………………..........………...C. Source of the Data........................ ………............………..D. Techniques of Collecting Data………….……..........……..E. Trustworthiness...................................................................F. Techniques of Analysing Data…………….........…………

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CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION………A. Research Findings........................ ……………................…..

1. Power Forms in Language Represented in The Speech Acts in STKIP Bangkalan Madura.....................................

2. The Implication of Power in Language Manifestation by Teachers Toward Students’ Learning Attitude………….

B. Discussion........……………………...............……………….

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CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION.A. Conclusion…………………………………............................B. Implication ................................................................................C. Suggestion…………...………….......................................……

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BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………... 134APPENDICES……………………………………………………………. 139


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1

Table 4.1

Time Setting of the study................…………………………………….

Research Findings....................................................................................

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Technique of analyzing the data adapted from Bradley …………………… 61

Figure 3.2 Research Procedure ………………..................................…………………………………… 62


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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1

Appendix 2

Appendix 3

Appendix 4

Appendix 5

Appendix 6

Appendix 7

Transcript of interview with teacher................................ 140

Transcript of interview with student............................... 146

Field Note....................................................................... 149

Kontrak Perkuliahan....................................................... 156

Silabus Mata Kuliah...................................................... 158

Surat Keterangan Penelitian.......................................... 160

Photograph Documentation........................................... 161


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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Humans use language to communicate with others. Generally, the use of

spoken language in communication is more often performed than written

language. It is similar to what happenes in the classroom when interactions

between teachers and students occur. This type of learning activity in the

classroom that involves the interaction of teachers and students is one form of

language uses for social roles. In the context of classroom learning, language has

role as interactional function. Brown and Yule (1996: 14) describe the function of

language becomes transactional function and interactional functions.

Transactional function is a function to reveal the contents, while the interactional

function is a function of language in social relations and personal attitudes.

Related to the use of language in certain professions and institutions,

Maher and Rokos (in Santoso, 2002: 4) presents three main characteristics of the

use of language. First, there is an imbalance in power relations or mutual power

between the participants involved, ie between speaker and listener. The imbalance

allows participants utilizing language that has the power to dominate the speaking.

Second, there is a fixed set of language patterns. Third, there is the exchange of

conversations that tend to reinforce a professional identity that is determined by

the context.

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Learning interaction is one form of oral discourse interactional function.

Learning discourse is characterized by its existing mutual interaction between

teachers and students. Interactional discourse is characterized by a reciprocal

response from the speaker and listener (Yowono, 2005: 94). This opinion is in line

with Hawthorn (in Mills, 1997: 5) who states that discourse is a linguistic

communication between the transaction of speakers and addressees, an

interpersonal activity whose form is determined by its social purpose.

In the context of classroom activities, the relationship of teachers and

students affects the learning effectiveness. Teacher-student relationship is

reflected in the use of language in the learning interaction. Essentially, the way of

teachers’ interaction to students reflects the teacher’s view to their students’

position. Teachers can look at the student based on the concept of a superior-

subordinate relation, the concept as a students’ motivator and facilitator or the

concept of as a students’ partner. It is the realization of a system of thought and

belief of a teacher. In other words, the use of language by teacher can influence

the students’ view both to teacher and to the subject.

In the classroom, a teacher has role not only as the knowledge source, but

also as the controller of teaching learning process. Teacher controls all the

activities in the classroom in order to reach the goal of learning. Teacher also

evaluates the teaching learning process to know how far students’ understanding

to the lesson. Teacher can be as an assesor to state right or not the students’

arguments. In other words, teacher can influence and control the students’ action


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in the classroom. From the explanation above, it can be inferred that teacher has

more power and authority than that of students in the classroom.

Right now, most schools in Indonesia apply the communicative approach

in teaching English. Students are expected have the ablility to develop their

communicative competence in real situation. According to Shastri (2010: 4)

communicative competence refers to the knowledge of how to use the language

and the capacity to produce infinite number of sentences. In addition,

communicative competence also refers to the capacity of using language

according to the purpose. The purpose can be in the forms of making request,

complaint, order, apology etc. This leads to the knowledge of the functions of the

language. It means that students are expected not only master the English

grammar, but also communicate by using English correctly in a particular context.

Because of that, the students should be given more time to be active in the

classroom than that of teacher. The teacher should be able as a facilitator and

motivator for students. However, in application, most of the classrooms in

Indonesia are still teacher-centered orientation. Teacher still dominates the

teaching learning process. It means that the application of communicative

approach in Indonesia still does not run well.

This is the example of the application of power in language by a teacher in

the classroom.

(Utterance context in the class when a teacher gives chance to the students

to answer the question)

(1) Teacher : Sandi, try to answer the question no. 9!

(2) Sandi : {Students look afraid} (context)

(3) Teacher : Don’t be afraid to make mistakes.


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(4) Teacher : That’s ok if you make mistake.

(5) Sandi : gerund is ....verb sir. (the voice becomes slow and weak)

(6) Other students laugh hearing the student’s answer, because the answer

is wrong and the voice becomes slow and weak (context).

(7) Teacher : Ok, no problem with your answer. The most important

thing is that you can answer.

(8) Teacher : Now, the man who laughs loudly. Answer the next

question.

From the conversation above, it can be seen that teacher dominates the class and

the teacher shows his power by using the imperative sentence.

The concept of power according to Fairclough (1995: 1) is conceptualized

both in terms of asymmetries between participants in discourse events, and in

terms of unequal capacity to control how texts are produced, distributed, and

consumed (and hence the shapes of texts) in particular sociocultural contexts. A

range of properties of texts is regarded as potentially ideological, including

features of vocabulary and metaphors, grammar, presuppositions and implicatures,

politeness conventions, speech-exchange (turn-taking) systems, generic structure,

and style. Van Dijk (2001: 300) says that power involves control from member of

a people group to others in form of action, so the power group can limit the

freedom of other group that will influence their mind. It implies that the people

who have power can control the behaviour of people who under control.

Moreover, Brown and Gilman (1960: 255) say that the power can be in the

forms of physics, prosperity, age, sex, or institutional role. Similarly, according to

Thomas (1995: 127), there are three kinds of power; legitimate power (the power

which comes from role, age, or status), referent power (the power which is gained


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by someone because he or she is admired and many people wants to be like him or

her), and the expert power (the power which is gotten by someone because of his

or her knowledge or skills). In the context of teacher in the classroom, a teacher

has legitimate power and expert power because the teacher has the higher social

status than that of students and the teacher is assumed as the source of knowledge.

If the teacher is admired by students, it means that a teacher also has referent

power.

The form of teacher’s power in the classroom can be seen from the

teacher’s expression both explicitely and implicitely. It can be in the forms of

warning, instruction, question, argumentation and etc. In other words, some of

teachers’ expressions are known containing the power manifestation after

analyzed deeply, for example when a teacher says “listen to me”. This sentence is

not only a common argument from a teacher that students must give attention to

teacher. However, according to Fairclough (1989: 125) if the sentence above is

analyzed based on the context and linguistics elements such as the relationship

between speaker and listener, transivity, modus, modality and active-passive, that

sentence is probably the form of power owned by teacher to students.

Linguistic elements can be used to know how a sentence has power

manifestation the speaker’s speech acts. One of approaches which uses linguistic

elements to know the power manifestation is critical discourse analysis (CDA).

Critical discourse analysis approach is not only to describe the use of language in

a discourse, but also to correlate between the use of language and the power

applied by a group of people who has its power. In critical discourse analysis,


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language is an important factor to see the power imbalance in a society.

According to Fairclough (1989: 109-111) critical discourse analysis has three

dimensions that have to be analized. They are text, discourse practice and

sociocultural practice. Analysis in text dimension is a descriptive analysis to know

how power is manifested in text through vocabulary, grammar, and textual-

structure. The result of analysis in this dimension will be interpreted in the

discourse practice dimension. Then, the analysis is continued by finding the

explanation in the sociocultural practice dimension.

Suharyo and Irianto (2009: 26) in their research argue that the

manifestation of power in classroom has some functions: (1). Teacher can manage

or control the classroom. (2). It will force students to pay attention, trust, and obey

toward the teacher’s instruction. (3). In order to make students believe with

teacher’s talk. (4). Students respects to teacher. and (5). It is to differentiate

between the teacher’s and students’ status.

Right now, the research about the use of power in language in the English

teaching classroom especially in Indonesia is still rare. While according to

Fairclough, the expert of critical discourse analysis, that in classroom, there is a

form of power that can be revealed by using critical discourse analysis. Because

of that, the researcher is interested in conducting a reseach about the use of power

and langauge in the English language Teaching (ELT) classroom and knowing

which kind of language of power mostly used during ELT classroom.


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B. Problem Statements

This study seeks to explore two main issues:

1. How is power in language represented in the speech acts forms?

2. To what extents are the effects of power in language on students’ learning

attitude?

C. The Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are:

1. To describe the power in language represented in the speech acts.

2. To explore the effects of power in language done by teachers on students’

learning attitude.

D. The Significance of the Study

Right now, the study or research about the language and power in

organization, social and politic aspect has been popular. However, the study about

the relationship between language and power in education view is rare especially

in English Language Teaching (ELT) classroom. In fact, the phenomena of using

power in classroom cannot be avoided as long as there are interactions between

teacher and students. The perception of power in classroom perspective is how

the influence of teacher’s acts or expressions toward the students’ learning

attitude. The researcher expects by conducting this research, it can give

contribution:

1. To Teacher

The result of this research is expected to give input to teachers on how to

design the humanistic teaching learning activities. In this context, teachers can


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use power to develop students’ potential maximally. Teachers can involve

students actively in deciding teaching material and learning model. In the

learning process, teachers must be able to create enjoyable learning

atmosphere by increasing the quality of communication between teachers and

students in the classroom. The good communication between teachers and

students can create the good atmosphere for students in learning English. So, it

is expected that the objective of language learning can be achieved. About

how deep teachers’ acts to their students, so it will make them become aware

on their students.

2. To Students

This research is expected to give information to students about the positive

effects of power manifestation by teachers in the classroom. In addition, it is

expected students’ consciousness about the application of students center

learning will be emerged. Students must actively involve in teaching learning

process.

3. To Other Researchers

The research about the manifestation of power in language in ELT classroom

is still rare, so the researcher expects the result of this research will be the

underpinning of the research in this field.


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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Concept of Research

The concept of this research is to analyze the implementation of power in

using language by a teacher in the classroom. It is to show that the perspective of

language is not only in the form of language, but also it can be seen from the

fuction of language. In this context, the language is as the form of power

manifestation. The form of power can be known from the teacher’s utterances in

the classroom. The utterances are the form of speaker’s speech acts. To identify

the power manisfestation from the teacher’s speech acts, it needs to be analyzed.

To analyze it, reseracher uses the critical discourse analysis. The researcher uses

the teory of critical discourse analysis from Norman fairclough.

1. Critical Discourse Analysis

a. The Nature of Critical Discourse Analysis

In daily activities, humans cannot be separated from language because

language is used as a tool of communication. In a communication, there is an

interaction between speakers and hearers. In this interaction, there is a tendency of

unequal power relationship between speakers and hearers. It can be seen from

how someone dominates in a conversation or someone can controll the other’s

talk. One way to study this uneqality in language use is critical discourse analysis.

According to Van Dijk (2001: 352) critical discourse analysis is a type of

discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power abuse,

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dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in

the social and political context. Bukhari and Xiaoyang (2013: 9) define Critical

Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a field that is used to analyze the written and spoken

texts to explore the discursive sources of power, dominance inequality and bias.

With such dissident research, critical discourse analysts take explicit position, and

thus want to understand, expose, and ultimately resist social inequality.

Kristina (2013: 24) mentions the term critical refers to an attempt to

reveal, identify and explain implicit and explicit relation and association between

language, power and ideology. According to Van Dijk (1998a) Critical Discourse

Analysis is a field that is concerned with studying and analyzing written and

spoken texts to reveal the discursive sources of power, dominance, inequality and

bias. It examines how these discursive sources are maintained and reproduced

within specific social, political and historical contexts. In a similar vein,

Fairclough (1993: 135) defines Critical Discourse Analysis as discourse analysis

which aims to systematically explore often opaque relationships of causality and

determination between (a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b) wider

social and cultural structures, relations and processes; to investigate how such

practices, events and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relations of

power and struggles over power; and to explore how the opacity of these

relationships between discourse and society is itself a factor securing power and

hegemony.

Critical Discourse Analysis can effectively be applied for exploring the

educational issues in the contexts of conflict between power and social realities. It


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is supported by Huckin et al., (2012) who say that Critical Discourse Analysis is

useful to investigate the relationships between the teaching, learning and

curriculum, and school and community role as well as ideologies and power (basic

factor for educational policies) and their impacts on the classroom process and

teaching – learning activity. Kristina (2013: 23) says Critical Discourse Analysis

explores the unequal or hierarchical power among participants in a spoken and

written interaction. Likewise, Critical Discourse Analysis focuses on revealing

explicit and implicit socio-political domination, which includes social change,

power abuse, ideological imposition, and social injustice by critically analyzing

language as social action. From the definitions above, it can be concluded that

critical discourse analysis is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily

studies about the the way of social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are

enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the educational, social and

political context.

b. The Approaches of Critical Discourse Analysis

There are several approaches to critical discourse analysis with different

components and framework. Van Dijk (1998) puts a stronger emphasis on the

study of relationship between discourse, power, dominance and social inequality.

The second approcah is deliverd by Ruth Wodak. Wodak (1996) focuses her study

on the issues of racism, sexims, and anti-semitism by explicating critically at the

historical dimension of discourse. Wodak and Meyer (2001) cover three steps in

critical discourse analysis, namely:


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1. Describing the content or specific topic of a discourse.

2. Investigating discursive and argumentative strategies used.

3. Analyzing the realizations of particular written linguistics meanings in a

specific context.

Next approach is explained by Norman Fairclough. Fairclough (1989: 20)

views language as a form of social practice and proposes a multi-dimensional

framework for exploring discourse by employing three separates form of analysis,

namely analysis of discourse (description phase), analysis of discourse practice

(process of text production, distribution and consumption) which is commonly

referred to as interpretation phase and analysis of discursive events as instance of

socio-cultural practice (explanation phase). Fairclough (1995: 11) adds that

analysis of discourse practice includes analysis of social structure will of course

do badly on Schegloffs criteria for analytical relevance, including social class,

power (in a social structural rather than a situational sense) and ideology.

In this research, the researcher will focus on the critical discourse analysis

from the Norman fairclough. Fairclough (1998) argues that Critical Discourse

Analysis has offered educational researchers ways of investigating language use

within social contexts. By questioning the taken-for-grantedness of language and

enabling explorations of how texts represent the world in particular ways

according to particular interests, Critical Discourse Analysis provides

opportunities to consider the relationships between discourse and society, between

text and context, and between language and power (Fairclough, 2001).


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As mentioned above, Fairclough developed the approach of critical

discourse analysis as the the development of critical language study in Langauge

and Power in 1989. Fairclough says that as the goal of critical analysis, discourse

can be seen from three dimensions of discourse. They are: (1) Text in the form of

oral and written. (2) discourse practice; the process of producing and interpreting

the text. (3) Sociocultural practice; the context of society, institution and culture

that determine the meaning and form of a discourse. Briefly, those three

dimensions can be seen in the figure below.

Figure 1. The Picture of CDA Dimension (page 98)

From the figure above it can be seen that the first dimension is the description

analysis step to identify how power is manifested in text. The second dimension is

the link to correlate the text and sociocultural practice. Interpretation is done to

the text in discourse practice. Next, the explanation about the reason how power is

implemented by linking the analysis with sociocultural practice. Sociocultural

practice can be seen from environtment, institution, and society.

TextDiscourse Practice

Sociocultural Practice


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2. The Nature of Langauge

a. Definition of Language

Humans need language to utter their expressions, needs, desires, and etc.

Language is very important for human being to communicate with others.

Definition of language is very various. Brown (2000: 5) defines language as a

system of arbitrary conventionalized vocal, written, gesture symbols that enables

members of a given community to communicate intelligibly with one another.

According to Thomas and Wareing (2005: 5) language is as a systematic way of

combining smaller units into larger units for the purpose of communication. For

example, when a speaker combines the sounds of language (phonemes) to form

words (lexical items) according to the ‘rules’ of the speaker’s language. Those

lexical items can be combined to make grammatical structures, again according to

the syntactic ‘rules’ of speaker’s language. Todd (1995: 6) defines language as a

set of signals by which human beings communicate. Moreover, Schiffrin (2005:

2) defines language as the ‘verbalization of thought’ and is neither straight

forward to process nor to break down into manageable pieces. It means that

language is an integral part of cognitive development in form of verbalisation of

thought or a finite set of elements. Language is one of the greatest graces owned

by humans that acquired since childhood. Besides acquiring language, humans

can also produce and develop their language. By having language, humans can

interact with other.

Todd (1995: 6) points out about language. First, human language is not

only a vocal system of communication. It can be expressed in writing, with the


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result that it is not limited in time and space. Secondly, each language is both

arbitrary and systematic. It means that none of languages behave in exactly the

same way yet each language has its own set of rules. The last is that there are no

primitive or inferior languages. It means that, although people live in the most

primitive conditions but all languages appear to be equally complex and all are

absolutely adequate to the needs of their users.

In addition Fairclough (1989: 22) says that language as a form of social

practice. There are three implication from this definition. First, It can be implied

that language is a part of society. Second, language is a social process. The last is

that language is a socially conditioned process. It is different with Coultas (2003:

5) who says that language can reflects the speaker’s personality, beliefs, attitudes

and values. According to Harmer (1991: 4) language is an intesely political issues

since it is bound up with identity and power. It can be concluded that language has

relationship with society and it can be used as the reflection of speaker’s

personality, beliefs, attitudes, identity and power.

b. Functions of Langauge

Language is an integral part of human’s existence. Human needs language

for a variety of purposes of administration, commerce, education and

communication. It is natural and beneficial to use mother language for the

purposes of education and communication. Many experts have diffrent

argumentation about the function of language. Brown and Yule (1996: 14)

propose the function of language becomes transactional function and interactional


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functions. Transactional function is a function to reveal the contents, while the

interactional function is a function of language in social relations and personal

attitudes. Besides as a communication tool, language is also used as power tool.

Moreover Chouliaraki and Fairclough (1999) assume that individuals and groups

use language to achieve a variety of social purposes and considers the relationship

between everyday social practices (social events) and society (social structures).

Thomas and Wareing (2005: 8) describe the functions of language into

two; referential function and affective impact. These two functions are the ones

most clearly associated with power. The referential function is the one associated

with what objects and ideas are called and how events are described (i.e. how we

represent the world around us and the effects of those representations on the way

we think. The affective function of language is concerned with who is ‘allowed’

to say what to whom, which is deeply tied up with power and social status. By

selecting one as appropriate and not another, someone will exploite the affective

aspect of language and show the sensitiveness to the power or social relationship

between speaker and the person who is addressed. For example, saying ‘I think

it’s time you wash your hair’ will be an acceptable comment from a parent to a

young child, but it will not usually be acceptable from employees to their boss.

Here are more examples:

(a) Put that bunch of flowers on the table.

(b) Please put that bunch of flowers on the table.

(c) I wonder if you’d mind putting that bunch of flowers on the table.


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(d) If you wouldn’t mind awfully, do you think you might put that bunch

flowers on the table.

Halliday in Brown and Yule (1996: 251) outlines seven functions of

language. They are:

a. The instrumental function. Language is to manipulate the environtment, to

cause certain events to happen. For examples: “This court finds you

guilty” and “Don’t touch the stove”. Those sentences are communicative

acts that have a specific perlocutionary force; they bring about a particular

condition.

b. The regulatory function. Language is as the control of events. For

example: “Upon good behaviour, you will be eligible for parole in ten

months”. The regulations of encounters among people- appropval,

disapproval, behaviour control, setting laws and rules- are all regulatory

features of language.

c. The representational function. Language is to make statements, convey

facts and knowledge, explain, or report that is to represent reality as one

sees it. For example: “The sun is hot” and “ the president gave a speech

last night”.

d. The interactional function. Language is to ensure social maintenance.

e. The personal function. The language is to express feelings, emotions, and

personality.


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f. The heuristics function. Language is to acquire knowledge, to learn about

the environtment. Heuristics functions are coveyed in the form of

questions that will lead to answer.

g. The imaginative function. Language is to create imaginary systemsor

ideas. Through the imaginative dimensions of language, someone is free to

go beyond the real world to soar the heights of the beauty of language

itself.

3. The Nature of Power

a. The Definition of Power

The main topic of critical discourse analysis is about the power

manifestation by someone or institution to another one. Talking about power, it

cannot be separated from the way of someone to dominate or to controll the

others, and the other ones struggle to maintain their position. The practice of

power manifestation can be seen in the dialogue between a doctor and patient,

teacher and students, boss and workers, government and citizens, the mass media

and audiences, and so forth.

According to Fairclough (1995: 1), power is conceptualized both in terms

of asymmetries between participants in discourse events, and in terms of unequal

capacity to control how texts are produced, distributed and consumed (and hence

the shapes of texts) in particular sociocultural contexts. A range of properties of

texts is regarded as potentially ideological, including features of vocabulary and

metaphors, grammar, presuppositions and implicatures, politeness conventions,


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speech-exchange (tum-taking) systems, generic structure, and style. Van Dijk

(2001: 300) says that power involves control from member of a people group to

others in form of action, so the power group can limit the freedom of other group

that will influence their mind. It means that the people who have power can

control the behaviour of people who under control.

Moreover, Brown and Gilman (1960) say that the power can be in form of

physics, prosperity, age, sex, or institutional role. According to Thomas (1995:

127), there are three kinds of power; legitimate power (the power which comes

from role, age, or status), referent power (the power which is gained by someone

because he or she is admired and many people wants to be like him or her), and

the expert power (the power which is got by someone because of his or her

knowledge or skills). In the context of teacher in the classroom, a teacher has

legitimate power and expert power because he or she has social status higher than

students and he or she is as the source of knowledge. If he or she is admired by his

or her students, it can be said that a teacher also has referent power.

b. Analyzing of Power Through Critical Discourse Analysis

The understanding of language necessarily entails some understanding not

only of the world, but also of the conversational ‘context’ of an utterance.

Fairclough (1989) says that the power and ideology can be revealed from the

language used. Theory and practice used to see the relationship between language

and society is started from description analysis and continued to interpretation

analysis and the last is the explanation.


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1). Description

In the stage of description, all data in the form of utterance is analyzed

based on vocabulary, grammar, and textual structure. In addition Fairclough

(1989) describes the vocabulary analysis involves experimential value, relational

values, and expressive values. Experimential value is related to classification

schemes, idealogical words, rewording and overwording, meaning relations

(synonymy, hyponymy, and antonymy), and metaphors. Relational values is

related to euphemistics expression and formal and informal words. The last is

expressive values which is related to positive and negative evaluation.

In grammatical analysis, the concept involves three aspects; experimential

value, relational values, and expressive value. First, the experimential value is

related to the type of process and participant predominate, normalizations, active

or passive sentences, and positive or negative sentences. Fairclough (1989) argues

that this concept is used to express the form of power. While the form of active

and passive sentences is related to the stress of voice in expressing. The passive

sentence is used because the speaker does not know the subject or does not want

to describe the subject. Someone who has power tends to use active sentence by

placing him or her as the subject, for example by saying “I want you to work in

pairs”. To guise the power expression, someone can use passive sentence, for

example by saying “Working in pairs is a must”.

The second value of grammar is relational values. This value is related to

how grammar codes the both sides relation between social relationship. The

aspects of relationals values includes modes sentences (declarative, grammatical


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question, and imperative). This values are used to identify the relationship

between members, for example where someone who has power can freely use

imperative modes. In the context of in the classroom a teacher can say “Do the

exercise!” to the students. Another example is the using of declarative modes in

modality relational value by a teacher to students in the classroom by saying “You

have to do the exercise”. The last is expressive value. It can be seen from the use

of expressive modality. For example is if a teacher as a source of knowledge can

say “I don’t think cheating is good”. Students may assumes that it is a kind of

teacher’s ideology about the prohibitation of cheating.

The last step of description stage is textual structure analysis which

involves interactional conventions and larger-scale structure. Interactional

conventions involve the way of participants controls the turns of others. There are

four devices used for this; interruption, enforcing explicitness, controlling topic,

and formulation.

2). Interpretation

The next stage used in finding the relationship between language and

society is the interpretation stage. It is related to how text is linked by the

discourse process (discourse practice dimension). Fairclough (1989: 141) says that

interpretation are generated through a combination of what is in the text and what

is ‘in’ the interpreter. The focus of context interpretation is the relationship

between situational context and discourse type. Text interpretaion will be

analyzed based on four levels of interpretation domains. They are surface of

utterance, meaning of utterance, local coherence, and text structure and point.


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Surface of utterance is related to the process by which interpreters convert strings

of sounds or marks on paper into recognizable words, phrases, and sentences.

Meaning of utterance is related to how utterance represents the semantics and

pragmatics aspects. Local coherence is used to see the coherence relation which

tie together the parts of a whole text. The text structure and point is to see the

structure and point of a text.

3). Explanation

The last stage is the explanation of the relationship between interaction

and social context. The objective of the stage of explanation is to portray a

discourse as part of a social process, as a social practice, showing how it is

determined by social structure, and what reproductive effects discourses can

cumulatively have on those structures, sustaining them or changing them. It

means that explanation is a matter of seeing a discourse as a part of process of

social struggle, within a matrix of relation of power. In this stage, the result of

interpratation will be matched with the result of respondents’ interview about

teacher profile to know their ideology.

4. The Nature of Speech Act

a. Definition of Speech Acts

According to Searle, to understand language one must understand the

speaker’s intention. Since language is intentional behavior, it should be treated

like a form of action. Thus, Searle refers to statements as speech acts. The speech

act is based unit of language used to express meaning, an utterance that expresses


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an intention (Searle 1969). Speech acts are the underlying actions performed when

someone speaks. Some examples are: inform command, promise, refuse, etc.

Recognizing the speech act that is being performed in the production of an

utterance is important because it is the speech act that to some extent tells what

the speaker intends someone to do with the propositional content of what he says.

It is suitable with the definition of speech acts given by Yule (2006: 118) who

defines speech acts as the action performed by a speaker with an utterance.

Normally when a speaker produces an utterance, he expects that his

communicative intention will be recognized by the hearer. For example in the

situation of a work where a boss has a great deal of power, says “you’re fired” to

his employee. The boss’s utterance of the expression is more than just a statement.

The utterance can be used to perform the act of ending the employment.

Yule (1996: 48) says that the action performed by producing an utterance

will consist of three related acts. They are a locutionary act, illocutionary act, and

perlucotionary act. Locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or producing a

meaningful linguistic expression. Illocutionary act is performed via the

communicative force of an utterance. Perlucotionary act is an utterance with a

function without intending it to have an effect. Another expert, Leech (1983: 199)

briefly defines them as:

locutionary act: performing an act of saying something

illocutionary act: performing an act in saying something

perlocutionary act: performing an act by saying something


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Moreover he explains that locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or

producing meaningful linguistic expression. The locutionary act can be viewed as

a mere uttering of some words in certain language, while the illocutionary and

perlocutionary acts convey a more complicated message for the hearer. An

illocutionary act communicates the speaker’s intentions behind the locution and a

perlocutionary act reveals the effect the speaker wants to exercise over the hearer.

b. The Classification of Speech Acts

Yule (1996: 53) classifies speech acts into five types: declarations,

representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives.

1. Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their

utterance.

a. Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.

b. Referee: You’re out!

2. Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker

believes to be the case or not. It involves statements of fact, assersations,

conclusions, and descriptions. For examples:

a. The earth is flat.

b. It was a warm sunny day.

3. Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what speaker feels. They

express the psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes,

dislikes, joy or sorrow.


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For examples:

a. I’m really sorry!

b. Congratulations!

4. Directives are those kinds of speech acts that the speakers use to get someone

else to do something. They express what the speakers want. They can be in

form of commands, orders, requests, and suggestions. For examples:

a. Could you lend me a pencil, please?

b. Don’t touch that!

5. Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit

themselves to some future action. They express what the speaker intends.

They are promises, threats, refusals, and pledges. For examples:

a. I’ll be back.

b. I’m going to get it right next time.

Schiffrin (2005: 2) infers the speech act from three properties; the

content of utterence, the force or mood of the utterence and the position of the

utterance within a conversation.

1. The content of the utterance means the proposition expressed by the utterance.

Defining what that is is not always easy. For example when a speaker says

“Shut the door”. It means the speaker wants someone “Bring it about that, by

some (future) action, the proposition ‘The door is shut’ becomes true in the

context of the physical world”. Of course it also uses background knowledge

and knowledge of the speaker to deduce the content of an utterance. It can be


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assumed for simplicity’s sake that this is possible to do – although not

necessarily unambiguously so.

2.The force or mood of the utterance: This is achieved by what it is called as

descriptive, prescriptive and requestive markers, which roughly correspond to

the traditional mood types declarative, imperative and interrogative.

3. The position of the utterance within a conversation. The placing of an utterance

in a conversation is important because the same content can be interpreted as

different speech acts depending upon its position relative to other utterances in

the same context. This inevitably affects the understanding of the function of

the utterance.

For example, take the following hypothetical conversation:

(1) A: The door is shut. (assert)

(2) B: The door is not shut. (disagree)

(3a) A: The door is not shut. (concede)

(3b) A: The door is shut. (insist)

This is a very crude example of how exactly the same utterance, even uttered

in the space of a couple of turns, must be interpreted as performing quite different

functions in the conversation. Obviously no-one actually ever speaks with the

content fully specified in this way, this is just intended to be representative; if this

conversation were to take place, it would be realized in a much more natural

manner. However, it is clear that the only way one can attribute different speech

act meanings to the same utterance (or the same propositional content of an

utterance) is by reference to the conversational context and to the order in which it


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comes in the dialogue. For example if on the performance of (3a) we only

consider the preceding utterance, then the act would be deemed one of agreement

rather than concession. Without some method of retaining where we are in the

dialogue, we would be unable to interpret the current speech act satisfactorily.

Sinclair and Coulthard (1992) develop utterance into 14 acts; marker,

statement, elicitation, check, directive, informative. Moreover they say that the

structure of speech in the classroom mostly is started by the teacher. Teacher

initiation can be divided into two; dependence speech and independence speech.

Independence speech can be in form of teacher elicit, teacher inform, teacher

direct, and teacher check. Teacher elicit is speech delivered by a teacher to direct

students to one topic to know whether students remember or know about the topic

or not. Elicit can be done not only in pre-teaching but also during the teaching.

Teacher explanation is an utterance which is used by a teacher to give the fact,

opinion or information to the students. Directive is an utterance to make students

do something. Check is the utterance used by a teacher to check whether students

understand, do, or finish the work given by a teacher. Dependence speech happen

in the form of reinitiation, listing, repeat, and reinforcement. They happen depend

on teacher elicit, direct. While the students’ initiative can be divided into two;

pupil elicit and pupil inform. The example of students’ elicit is when studets have

difficulty and they make questions. And the example of students’ inform is when

students give information related to the topic.

Verschueren (1999: 24) argues that all speech acts in any language

anywhere in the world fall into five categories:


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1. Assertives: expressing a belief, making words fit the world, and

commiting the speaker to the truth of what is asserted.

2. Directives: expressing a wish, making the world fit the words, and

counting as an attempt to get the hearer to do something.

3. Commissives: expressing an intention, making the world fit the words and

counting as a commitment for speaker to engage in a future course of

action.

4. Expressives: Expressing a variety of psychological states, and simply

counting as expressions of a psychological state.

5. Declarations: Not expressing any psychological state, making both the

words fit the world and the world fit the words, and the point of which is

to bring about a change in (institutional) reality.

In this study, the researcher uses only three categories of speech acts to

know teacher’s power manifestation in language classroom. It is suitable with

Jumadi (2005: 9) who says that the speech acts that can represent the power

manifestation of the teacher in the classroom are directives, assertives, and

expressives.

5. The Nature of English Language Teaching

a. Theories of English Language Teaching

The position of English in Indonesia is as foreign language means that

English is not used as a means of communication by Indonesian people but it is

taught in the classroom. In other words, Indonesian people uses English just as a


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subject in school especially in the English lesson class. To make students have

English ability, improving the role of English language teaching is very important.

Widdowson (1991: 3) defines language teaching as a research activity whereby

experimental techniques of instruction are designed to correspond with

hypothetical principles of pedagogy. Richards and Rodgers (2002: 18) view the

general principles and theories of language teaching are how languages are

learned, how knowledge of language is presented and organized in memory, or

how language itself is structured. While Brown (1987) argues that teaching cannot

be defined on its own, it must be include learning. Language teaching is activities

which are intended to bring about language learning (Stern, 1996: 21). It means

that English language teaching is a set of activities generated from the principles

and theories of language teaching involving how English is learned which is

intended to improve students’ English skills and enriching their knowledge about

English language

Moreover, Richards and Rodgers (2002: 20) say that at least there are

three different theoritical views of language teaching. They are the structural

view, the fuctional view, and the interactional view. The structural view states that

language is the system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning.

The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements of linguistic

system such as phonological units, grammatical units, grammatical operations,

and lexical items.

The second view is the functional view where this view claims that

language is a vehicle of expressiong functional meanings. This view argues that


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the focus of language teaching should be on the semantic and communicative

aspects rather than grammatical aspect and leads to a specification and

organization of language content by categories of meaning and function rather

than by elements of structure and grammar. The focus of teaching language

according to functional view is on the communicative process involving

negotiating meaning, sending and receiving messages and expressing values. It is

suitable with the main function of language as the communication tool. In other

words, we can say that the great idea from the functional view is that the goal of

learning language essentially is how to make the learners have the communicative

competences.

Richards (2006: 3) sees communicative competences as understanding

how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions,

understanding how to adjust language depending on the setting (socio-linguistics),

knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts such as

interviews and conversations for instance, as well as having the ability to continue

communication in spite of one’s limitations in the language through the use of

different strategies. It can be concluded that after learning a language, the learners

are assumed that they are able to communicate well with others, know the content

of reading text, handle the job interviews, and etc rather than how to answer the

grammar test.

The third view is the interactional view. This view sees language as a

vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performances of


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social interaction between individuals. Areas of language teaching of this view

include interactional analysis, conversation analysis, and ethnomethodology.

In the teaching learning process, designing of teaching goal is important.

Meanwhile, the goal of language teaching should be planned. Cook (2002) makes

an open-ended list of the goals of language teaching that includes:

1. Self-development. The student becomes in some way a 'better' person through

learning another language. This goal is unrelated to the fact that some people

actually use the second language, as in the group-related dynamics of

Community Language Learning.

2. A method of training new cognitive processes. By learning another language,

students acquire methods of learning or new perspectives on themselves and

their societies.

3. A way-in to the mother-tongue.The students' awareness of their first language

is enhanced by learning a second language.

4. An entrée to another culture. Students can come to understand other groups in

the world and to appreciate the music and art of other cultures.

5. A form of religious observance. For many people a second language is part of

their religion, whether Hebrew for the Jewish religion, Arabic for Muslims, or

indeed English for Christians in some parts of the world.

6. A means of communicating with those who speak another language. We all

need to cope with people from other parts of the world, whether for business

or pleasure.


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7. The promotion of intercultural understanding and peace. For some the highest

goals of language teaching are to foster negotiation rather than war or

changes in the society outside the classroom.

Richards (2006: 2) proposes the goals of language teaching as

communicative language teaching. The purpose of communicative language

teaching is teaching of language competence including the following aspects of

language knowledge:

1). Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and

functions.

2). Knowing how to vary the use of language according to the setting and the

participants. For example, knowing when to use formal and informal

speech.

3). Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts. for

examples, narratives, reports, interviews, and conversations)

4). Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in

one’s language knowledge. For example through using different kinds of

communication strategies.

Indeed, the goals of communicative approach can be reached if the

students have much more opportunity to produce utterances in the classroom.

Teacher should be able to facilitate students to increase their English ability.

Teacher is also expected able to motivate students in order to increase their self-

confidence to speak English. However, in the reality teacher still has power to

dominate the classroom.


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b. Power manifestation in ELT Classroom

Humans learn other languages for their existance. However, learning a

second language i.e. English is definitely more difficult than acquiring the mother

tongue. The setting of learning between first and second language learning is also

different. In acquiring first language, learners usually acquire their language

spontaneously and naturally. It is different from the learning of second language

where the setting is in the classroom with formal situation. The learner does not

get individual attention. The atmosphere is not child friendly like their home. The

exposure to the language is for a limited period of time 30 to 45 minutes or an

hour a day in comparison to 24 hours of language filled atmosphere at home. The

learner does not have any opportunity to use the language outside the class. Even

in the class there is a very little opportunity to use the language. It is more of a

passive reception of the language in the classroom than the actual production of it.

Another factor that can influence the success of learning of second language is the

teacher. Sometimes the teacher is not proficient in language and the learner has a

poor role model to imitate. In addition, learning is very much seen as under the

control of the teacher. Teacher still dominates the classroom. In other words,

teacher has shown his or her power to the classroom. Meanwhile, Harmer (1990:

52) says that a teacher is a major factor in the continuance of a student’s

motivation.

Teacher has the important role in the success of teaching learning process.

The duty of teacher is not only to share the knowledge, but also how to motivate

students to learn. Harmer (1991: 53) proposes three areas where teacher’s


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behaviour can directly influence students’ continuing participation in the

classroom.

(1). Goals and goal setting. Motivation is closely bound up with a person’s desire

to achieve a goal. Crookes and Lehner (1998) specify that should be carefully

considered as goals in the teaching of ESL and EFL. As such, three goals

must be considered: (a) Simultaneous development of English communicative

abilities (b) Application of knowledge to develop a critical awareness of the

world (c) Ability to act on knowledge and awareness to improve matters.

(2). Learning environtment. Although teacher may not be able to choose the actual

classroom, a teacher still can do a lot about the classroom physical

appearance and the emotional atmosphere of lesson. Both of these can have a

powerful effect on the initial and continuing motivation of students.

(3). Interesting classes. Teacher needs to provide students with a variety of

subjects and exercise to keep them engaged.

However, in the reality the participation of students in teaching learning

process is still low. One factor makes students’ participation in the classroom low

is the teacher’s dominance in the classroom. Teacher’s dominance means the

teacher has performanced the power manifestation in the classroom. The forms of

teacher’s power manifestation can be seen from teacher’s speech acts. As has

mentioned earlier that there are five speech acts that can represent teacher’s power

in language in the classroom. Here are speech acts forms which can represent

teacher’s power in the classroom context.


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1. The representation of power in directive speech act.

Directive act potentially represent the power in language use. Power

illocutionary speech act requires that someone is doing something in

accordance with the intent of speaker’s utterances. In realization, the use of

speech acts presentes the speaker’s power.

a. Representation of power in command form

As one type of directive speech acts, command has certain

characteristics. In expressing a particular speech, speaker wants the

listener do what the speaker expresses. In the context of classroom, the

form of command can occur when teachers provide guidance on learning

programs, such as the direction of the learning materials that students will

learn in a semester, the evaluation system will be implemented, as well as

textbooks and worksheets to prepare students. In other words, when giving

directions concerning matters that are considered urgent, teachers tend to

use direct commands that present the dominant power.

However, viewed from the context of the classroom discourse, this

phenomenon associated with the dominating culture that is still widely

used in the learning system in Indonesian school. In a culture of learning

that is dominating, school rules, learning materials, evaluation systems,

and textbooks tend to be determined by the school or the teacher.

b. Representation of power in request form

Besides the command, the teachers and students are also using the

directive with a request form). Compared with command, requests have


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lower levels of restriction so that power also tends to be more humanistic

represented. In classroom discourse, besides using order acts, a teacher

also used request acts to his students. Fairclough (1998: 55) says that there

is a close relationship between request and power. In addition Fairclough

(1998:55) devides request acts into two; direct request and indirect request.

Direct requests mark the power relationship explicitly and usually in

imperative form. For example a boss request to his secretary: “Type this

letter for me by 5 o’clock”. On the other hands, indirect requests mark the

power relationship more or less implicit. In addition indirect requests can

be more or less indirect, and they typically expressed grammatically in

questions of various degrees of elaborateness and corresponding

indirectness. For example: (1) Can you type this letter for me by 5

o’clock?, (2) Could I possibly ask you to type this letter for me by 5

o’clock?. There are also other ways of indirectly requesting, for instance in

this sentence: I would like to have the letter in the 5 o’clock post.

However, compared with order acts, request acts have lower levels of

restriction so that power also tends to be more humanistic represented.

c. Representation of power in prohibition form

The form of prohibitation equals to command but in form of negative

command. For example, a teacher prohibits students to not come late. If

there is a students breaks the teacher’s rule, there will be a punishment

from a teacher. Al-Saaidi, Al-Shaibani & Al-Husseini (2013) classify the

prohibition acts into three levels: Prohibition in syntatic level, Prohibition


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in semantic level, and Prohibition in pragmatic level. According to the

syntactic point of view, there are various ways in which prohibition can be

achieved. These ways are as follows:

1. Imperative sentence

The imperative can be used to forbid an action. According to Jawad

quoted by Al-Saaidi, Al-Shaibani & Al-Husseini (2013), the basic

difference between a ‘command’ and a ‘prohibition’ is that the former

indicates instructing the addressee to do something whereas the latter

indicates instructing the addressee NOT [author’s emphasis] to do a

given thing. Thus, it could be claimed that a ‘prohibition’ is a kind of a

negative ‘command’. For examples: keep clean!, Don’t open your

book!

2. Declarative sentence

Allan (1986) confirmed that a declarative sentence can be used in

performing any subcategory of speech act including prohibition to

denote an actualization of the illocutionary act. This is done either

through clauses containing a performative verb, or through the

meaning of the predicates in such sentences as the followings:

Example 1: I forbid you to speak to him. [Clause containing a

performative verb]

Example 2: Adam must not be allowed out on the balcony. [Predicate]


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3. Negative verb be with to + infinitive

Thomson and Martinet (1980) states that prohibition can be

carried out through another common construction which is the negative

verb be with to infinitive.

Example: You are not to come into my room without knocking.

4. Block Language

Prohibition can be expressed by another construction that is of a

block language. Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik, (1985) discusses

that block language appears in functions as labels, titles, (some)

newspaper headlines, headings, notices, and advertisements. For

examples: No entry!, No smoking area!, and No camera! (the context in

the fashion boutique).

According to semantic level, the prohibition can be in form of

modality sentences. There are negative modal auxiliaries which can be

used with prohibitive sentences such as (must not, may not, cannot, shall

not, and have not got to). For example: (1) Students must not use

dictionaries in the examination. (2) You cannot go abroad without a

passport.

According to pragmatic level, prohibition act can be classified as

Prohibitive Performative Verbs and Hedges. Allan (1986) argues that the

verb spells out the illocutionary force of the performative clause

effectively because the meaning of the performative verb presents the

essence of the illocution, e.g. I promise, I forbid, and I prohibit. While for


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hedge, Fraser (1980) says that some illocutionary acts can be effectively

performed by a type ofcsentence which is called “hedged performative”.

For example, to utter: “I must forbid you from saying anything” may

count as an act of forbidding, though the literal interpretation of this is

only a report of obligation.

d. Representation of power in permission form

The form of permission usually happen in the classroom, when a teacher

gives permission to students to do or not do something. For example, a

teacher gives permission to a sick students go home earlier.

e. Representation of power in advice form

In the context in the classroom, as one who has more experience, a teacher

usually gives advices to students to do positive thing or not to do negative

thing. For example, when a teacher advices students to not stay up.

Teacher explains the bad effect to stay up to students.

f. Representation of power in asking form

Asking is one form of directive form of power in the classroom. A teacher

can give questions to his or her students, and students have to answer it. It

means that by giving questions, a teacher expects students give

information related to the questions. Questions can be related to the

subject or not. For example, a teacher asks students the definition of

simple sentence. Another example is teacher asks students why they did

not come yesterday.


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2. The representation of power in assertive speech acts

Assertive is one of speech acts that can represent the form of power,

whether by teacher or students. According to Searle (1976), speech acts has

function to inform others about something. This function is very important in the

classroom context, because the process in transfering knowledge, skills, and

attitude in the learning process can not be separated from the process of giving

information.

3. The representation of power in expressive speech acts

The expressive speech acts is also the representation of power of teacher

and students. The expressive act is the expression about psychological conditionss

such as the feeling of happiness, unhappiness, like, dislike, sorrow, and etc.

6. The Nature of Attitude

a. Definition of Attitude

The duty of a teacher in the class is not only to share the knowledge or

skills to students but also to form the good character of students. One form of

good characters must be owned by students is learning attitude, because

students’attitudes will influence their learning achievement. Students’ perceptions

of courses and attitudes toward learning play a significant role in retention and

enrollment (Seymour and Hewitt, 1997; Gasiewski et al., 2012). However, it

cannot be avoided that the teacher also performs power manifestation in the

classroom. Consequently, it will influence to students’ learning attitude. The

definitions of attitude are complex and various. Brown (2001: 61) says that


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attitude is characterized by a large proportion of emotional involvement such as

feelings, self, relationships in community. Gardner (1985: 91-93) claims that

attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object, inferred on

the basis of the individual’s beliefs or opinions about the referent. Moreover,

Gajalakshmi (2013) says that attitude is determined by the individual’s beliefs

about outcomes or attributes of performing the behavior (behavioral beliefs),

weighted by evaluations of those outcomes or attributes. From the definitions

above, it can be concluded that attitude is a set of beliefs developed in a due

course of time as outcomes someone’s perception about something or someone. In

this context, students’ learning attitude is a set of students’ belief towards teaching

learning process as an accumulation from students’ perception about teacher and

learning activities.

Thus, a person who holds strong beliefs that positively valued outcomes

will result from performing the behavior will have a positive attitude toward the

behavior. Conversely, a person who holds strong beliefs that negatively valued

outcomes will result from the behavior will have a negative attitude.” Attitude

concept can be viewed from these three dimensions. These dimensions are based

on the three theoretical approaches of behaviorism, cognitivism and humanism. It

means that people’s attitudes are believed to be the result of cognitive, affective

and behavioral processes that are influence by our past and current experiences

and social interactions. These processes can have an influence in the way people

remember, interpret, judge, and respond to social information. This notion is

based on the idea that people attitudes have a powerful impact on behavior and


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attitude formation. More generally, people thoughts, actions, character and

conduct do not always match our inner convictions.

b. Students’ Attitude

Attitudes toward learning are believed to influence behaviors such as

selecting and reading books, speaking in a foreign language etc. Especially in

education, if the students have positive attitude towards any subject, they can

achieve many things in that specific area. There is an interaction between

language learning and the environmental components in which the students were

grown up. Both negative and positive attitudes have a strong impact on the

success of language learning. Chamber (1999) asserts that learning occurs more

easily, when the learner has a positive attitude towards the language and learning.

However, observing students’ attitude directly is rather difficult because their

beliefs tend to be hidden. It just can be inferred from their behaviour both verbal

and nonverbal.

Discovering students’ attitude about language will help both teacher and

student in the teaching learning process. Therefore, teacher has to consider the

crucial role of affective domain. The characteristics of affective domain are:

interest, values and tendency and most of these shape our attitudes (Saracaloğlu,

2000). Valuing, belief, interest and expectations are refers to affective

characteristics. In the same work, Saracaloğlu (quoted from Bloom 1973) points

out that these affective characteristics have a great impact on learning as well.

Baker (1988) identifies the characteristics of attitude:


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1. Attitudes are cognitive (i.e. are capable of being thought about) and affective

(i.e. have feelings and emotions attached to them).

2. Attitudes are dimensional rather than bipolar-they vary in degree of

favorability/unfavorability.

3. Attitudes predispose a person to act in a certain way, but the relationship

between attitudes is not a strong one.

4. Attitudes are learned, not inherited or genetically endowed.

5. Attitudes tend to persist but they can be modified by experience.

From the characteristics above, it can be seen that actually the stuednts’

attitude towards teacher’s or teacher’s teaching method is not absolute. Gardner

(1972) suggests “of course teaching techniques and teachers’ personalities can

certainly affect the attitudes and motivation of students”. Because of that by

knowing the bad effect of negative attitude in learning English in the classroom, it

should have intents communication between teacher and students in order to gain

the goal of teaching and learning.

B. Review of Related Research

Chairil Anwar Korompot in 1999 did a research with the title Teacher-

Students Power Relationship in Language Classroom: A Comparative Case Study

in ESL and EFL Context. The purpose of this research is to investigate the

representation and realisation of aspects of teacher-students power relationship

(TSPR) by the teacher and students of an Australian ESL study center and those

of its Indonesian EFL counterpart in order to investigate the relevance of the


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power and sharing concept in different context of second language learning. The

study is concerned with four research questions. These have been formulated in

terms of (a) the contextual factors of TSPR, (b) Teacher’s and students’

perception of and experiences with the principal acts of TSPR, (c) the students’

learning styles preferences that reflect their power relational representation, and

(d) realisation of TSPR prcatices in classroom interactions in the Australian and

Indonesian context. This study proposes that power sharing issues should be

‘embraced’ comprehensively before taking further steps in applying such modern

approaches as students center (language) learning and communicative language

teaching in ESL and EFL pedagogy. The findings of the study are expected to

contribute more insights into the contextual factors worthy of consideration in

applying modern approaches to ELT in different settings of teaching and learning,

and to support the establishment of student autonomy as the central goal in

learning and communicative competence in L2 pedagogy. This research has

similarity to the researcher’s research where both of them are study about

teacher’s power in ELT classroom. However, there are some differences between

the researcher’s research and this research. First, the kind of this research is about

comparative study between teacher and students power relationship in ESL and

EFL context. The researcher (Chairil Anwar Korompot) compared between the

teacher’s and students from Australia and the power relationship between

teachers’ and students from Indonesia. While this research is only to investigate

teachers’ power in using language in Indonesian classroom context.


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The second research which is correlated with the language and power in

classroom is the research done by Karen F. Thomas and Steven D. Rinehart with

the title Instituting Whole Language:Teacher Power and Practice. This paper

describes some of the issues and concerns regarding power and empowerment in

one school district striving to institute whole language. This research is started

with the argumentation about the implemention of whole language classrooms and

how the power in language used by teachers happen in this classroom. First

researcher compared between the role of teachers in the whole language teachers

and traditional reading basal program teachers. On one hand, whole language

teachers are empowered teachers in control of learning in their classrooms, while

on the other hand, teachers in traditional, basal-driven reading programs are held

accountable for program dictates and objectives written outside their power. At

the core of this issue is the role of the empowered teacher that is, one who will be

in charge of the classrooms. Moreover, researcher argued that teachers as agents

in control of power to evaluate others and create concepts that attribute motivation

to others. The areas of research involves 1) teacher perception of administrative

power in implementing certain literacy practices; 2) teacher professional training

and personal literacy pursuits as personal empowerment issues; and 3) current

classroom literacy activities. The similarity of this research with this research is

both of them have the same goal, to describe the teachers’ power in language in

classroom. However, the differences are in the areas of research. The areas of

research involves 1) teacher perception of administrative power in implementing

certain literacy practices; 2) teacher professional training and personal literacy


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pursuits as personal empowerment issues; and 3) current classroom literacy

activities. In another hand, the area of study in this research is to describe the

teachers’ power in language in the form of speech acts. Then, this is to know

which power aspects mostly used by teachers in the classroom. The last is to

explore the effect of power in language done by teachers towards students’

learning interest.

The third reasearch is done by J. Trevor Morley with the title Power and

Ideology in Everyday Discourse: The Relevance of Critical Discourse Analysis in

Pragmatic Linguistics Today. This paper focuses on what is arguably one of the

most compelling and contentious issues in pragmatics today. It explores the

relationship between language and concepts of ideology and power in the

linguistic practices of contemporary society through a critique of a critical

discourse analysis (CDA) approach to linguistic enquiry, as evidenced in a study

and brief review of one of its major practitioners, Norman Fairclough. Essential

differences with other mainstream linguistic approaches are emphasized in

exploring and explaining the social basis of the ideological and power dimensions

that underpin discourse in society. It is maintained that the development of a

critical linguistic awareness, which informs a capacity to resist and change

exploitative and dominating linguistic practices, is an issue which should be of

importance to everyone with a concern and interest in the problems of our

contemporary society. This paper briefly looks at the difference between critical

discourse analysis (hereafter Critical Discourse Analysis) and other mainstream

linguistic approaches. It also describes the centrality of Critical Discourse


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Analysis in modern pragmatic linguistic enquiry. Next, it examines the

collaborative style of Fairclough's writing. It also considers Fairclough's

interpretation of the concepts of inequality, domination and emancipation in

society. It stresses the importance of a practical application of Critical Discourse

Analysis; and the last, it acknowledges some perceived omissions. The researcher

assumes that Fairclough's work, in its attention to language as social practice

dealing with the social conditions of discourse production and its hidden power,

ideology and domination dimensions, was a forerunner of a now-prevalent

linguistic emphasis. It has today clearly found its audience and has changed the

nature of important aspects of pragmatic enquiry. While Fairclough energized a

new approach to the study of pragmatics it would be naive to expect CLA, in

itself, to begin to restore social inequalities or injustices. However, a widespread

understanding of critical language analysis and the power dimensions hidden in

language can be an important first step in contributing to a more informed, critical

awareness of the realities of the social order, contributing to opening opportunities

to dominated groups and individuals in our society in accessing and participating

more fully in various, decision-making power forums. The similarity between this

research with the researcher’s research is in the analysing of data where both of

these researches use critical discourse analysis from Fairclough. However both of

them also has difference especially in practice. This paper is only describe the

power in language in Fairclough theory only. It is opposite with this research

where this research wants to know the power of language from teachers in ELT


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classroom context. To know the teacher’s power, the researcher will do some

obeservations in the ELT classroom and from interviewing the teachers.

The fourth related research is done by Dolores Fernández Martínez in 2012

with the title Critical Learning: Critical Discourse Analysis in EFL Teaching. The

paper was published in Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 3, No.

2, pp. 283-288, March 2012. Researcher says that discourse analysis, the study of

language use within its social context, has plenty of utilitarian aspects, especially

for language learners. Besides being a means of communication, language is a

practice that not only constructs, but is also constructed by the ways language

learners understand themselves and their social environment. Critical discourse

analysis promotes the application of critical thinking to social situations and the

unveiling of hidden connections between language use, ideology and power. This

paper aims to demonstrate how critical discourse analysis can be implemented in

foreign language teaching in order to help students develop their internal values

and critical thinking skills. The main principles of critical discourse analysis can

be incorporated in order to turn a song, a t-shirt slogan or an email into the

subject of linguistic exploitation and socio-cultural debate. Moreover, he expalins

that Critical Discourse Analysis promotes the application of critical thought to

social situations and the unveiling of strategies in texts. Discourse analysis, and

more specifically, critical approaches offer the learner new skills to interpret

society and culture. Teachers can improve their teaching practices by

investigating actual language use both in and out of the classroom. Likewise,

discourse analysis stimulates students to reflect on the huge amount of analysable


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information they receive every day through different means. The research offered

in the paper combines theory, method and practice, and has been exemplified

through its application on apparently innocuous or entertaining texts, quite

different from traditionally considered socially relevant discourse. Connotations

of power, control or social inequality can also be present in the zodiac or in the

lyrics of a song. Discourse analysis is not restricted to significant texts and

contexts. Journalists, writers of e-mails, composers of songs and creators of

slogans are conscious of the potential of words to have an impact on the reader

and shape his feelings and behaviour. This proposal also persuades students to

employ the insights obtained from their analysis in order to produce their own

brief and effective messages. Every kind of text offers the learner a new platform

to apply his critical skills and reveal hidden meanings or motivations. Critical

learning awakens students’curiosity about their surrounding information and

leads them to think that they can be manipulated while they think they are just

being informed. All in all, the classroom presents tangible and attractive ways of

interpreting contemporary culture; it is an excellent forum for teaching discourse

analysis and for making students aware that there is a rich and complex world

outside to be analysed and criticalized. The similarity of this paper with this

research is in the using of critical discourse analysis in the classroom context.

However, this research is quitely different with this papaer, where this research is

not only to analyze the power fby using critical discourse analysis, but also to

know the effect of power manifestation to the classroom atmosphere that will

impact to students’ learning interest.


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The fifth research is done by Parviz Maftoon and Nima Shakouri from

Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, Science and Research Branch,

Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. This paper with the title The Concept of

Power in Teacher Talk: A Critical Discourse Analysis was published in World

Applied Sciences Journal, 2012. They assume that teachers do not see themselves

as powerful and in some ways, they are sadly correct in this assessment.

However, the words employed by the people keep their language strong. Thus,

even those who are in power, but unable to employ the appropriate words in

appropriate context will lose their power. The concept of power in a class is not

what a dominant group has on the subordinate group, but is defined in terms of

resistance created on the part of students. As to the writers, power and resistance

run in parallel, even between the teacher and his/her students. In the paper, the

writers, having provided a review of ideas regarding critical discourse analysis

(hereafter Critical Discourse Analysis) investigated the concept of power in

teacher’s talk and examined how power is exercised and resisted in classroom.

From this research, it can be concluded that Critical Discourse Analysis pursue

one common goal that is representing the dialectic relationship between language,

power, ideology and the influential role that language plays in emanation of

power and legitimizing social inequalities. Therefore, critical discourse analysts

are giving a serious effort to clarify and denaturalize the hidden power relations,

ideological processes that exist in linguistic text. They attempt to awaken the

unconscious of those people who contribute to the establishment and

legitimization of ideology through their ignorance. The similarity of this research


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and this paper is both of them are same in investigating teachers’ power in the

ELT classroom. However, both of them are quitely different. This research is

focused on teacher’s power in using language in ELT classroom and to know

how this will impact to the students’ interest in learning English. This paper is

not only about the power of teacher in the classroom, but also to view the

teachers’ ideology.

From the articles above, the researcher sees that right now there is no

research in Indonesia which describes the power in language represented in the

forms of teachers’ speech acts in ELT classroom which is analyzed by using

critical discourse analysis. Besides that, this research also explores the power in

language done by teacher’s toward students’ learning attitude. Therefore, this

research can fill the gap of previous researches.


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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHOD

A. Research Setting

1. Time

This research was started on January 2014. The research was started by

making a research plan including collecting previous data that related to the

teaching learning activities which drawing the situation where the power were

used during teaching learning process. The time setting of this study includes

preparation stage up to the reporting stage as stated in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Time Setting of the Study

No ActivityMonth

Jan Feb March April May June July Aug

1 Planning √ √ √

2 Proposal seminar √

3Collecting and Analyzing the Data √ √ √

4 Submitting the Report √

5 Final Examination √

From the table above, it showed that this research was conducted during eigth

months.

3. Place

This reserach was conducted in STKIP Bangkalan, Madura. STKIP PGRI

Bangkalan is one of colleges located in Madura island. The previous name of

STKIP was IKIP PGRI which was established in 1975 in Bangkalan, Madura. In

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1985 this istitute renamed into STKIP PGRI Bangkalan, Madura island. In 2004,

STKIP PGRI Bangkalan added English Education as one of its study programs.

Right now, STKIP PGRI Bangkalan has five study programs.

B. Research Method

This study was conducted under the principles of qualitative study.

Cresswell (2008: 46) defines qualitative study as “ a type of educational research

in which the research relies on the views of participants; ask board, general

questions; collect data consisting largerly of words (or text) from participants;

describes and analysis these words for themes; and conducts the inquiry in

subjective, biased manner”. The purpose of this study is to investigate the

phenomena of using power in language by teachers’ in classroom. Denzin and

Lincoln (2005) in Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2006, 466) states that a

variety of approaches in qualitative research includes case study, ethnography,

critical ethnography, performance ethnography, grounded theory, testimoni, life

history, narrative inquiry, participatory action research, clinical research,

interpretive study, arts-based inquiry, autoethnography, and phenomenology.

In this study, researcher applied etnographic approach. Etnographic

research is one of the qualitative research design which is useful to investigate the

behaviour patterns of teachers and students at school and in the school

community. Latief (2012: 131) says that etnography refers to study of human

cultures. In education, etnographic research is used to describe teachers’ and

students’ behaviour; their needs, their interactions, their language use, etc. In

addition, spradley in Latief (2012: 133) says that etnographic research is used to


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describe educational system, process, and phenomena, to understand teachers’ and

students’ needs, experiences, viewpoints, and goals which is useful as the basis of

designing appropriate educational programs to ultimately improve the quality of

students learning. Moreover, etnographic research is one of the qualitative

research design involving verbal data, collected using human instrument,

presented in a narrative story, and analyzed inductively using verbal analysis and

interpretation to discover salient patterns and theme.

C. Sources of The Data

The data resources used by the researcher here were:

1) Events

Events as the source of the data in this research were in the form of teaching

learning process done in the classroom of English study Program STKIP

Bangkalan, Madura.

2) Informants

The subject of this research was English teachers of STKIP Bangkalan,

Madura. In this research, researcher chose four teachers as the informants.

They were selected based on the criteria such as gender, job position, length

of work. The criteria determined by the researcher were referred to the

research needs. In this research the informants involved two female teachers

and two male teachers. The teachers participated were anonymously in this

study.


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3) Documents

Documents were any written sources gotten from the institution such as

lesson plan and learning contract, interview, observation including the

recording transcription and other fieldworks.

D. Techniques of Collecting Data

For the purpose of this study, the data was collected and analysed in form

of observation field notes, researchers’ journals, transcripts from recorded

interview and students’ documents. There were three techniques which were used

in collecting the data in this study, they were:

1. Interview

Cresswell (2008: 225) states that a qualitative interview occurs when

reserchers ask one or more participants open-ended and general questions and

record their answer. The interview that was conducted in this reserach is by using

open questions where the participants are given freely to express their opinion.

The researcher interviewed four teachers. The objective of interview to teachers

was to know the teachers’ perception about the implementation on power in

language done by a teacher in ELT classroom. Besides that, the researcher also

interviewed two students to know their responses toward teachers’ utterances that

containing the power elements in language.

2. Observation

Cresswell (2008: 221) defines observation as the process of gathering

open-ended, first hand information by observing people and places at a research


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site. In this study, the researcher was as a passive participant observer, where the

researcher observed and recorded notes without being involved in the activities of

the participants, acted as a spectator of the scene under study and maintained a

certain distance from it and never intervening. In this research, the researcher did

observation toward the interaction activities done by teachers and students in the

classroom.

3. Document Analysis

Cohen and Crabtree (2008) states that when studying a culture, social

setting or phenomenon collecting and analyzing the texts and artifacts produced

and used by members can foster understanding. When analyzing texts and

artifacts, the researcher focused on how and for whom the artifacts are created,

what was included and not included in the document, and how the document was

used. In this study, the documents used were learning contract, and teachers’

lesson plans.

E. Trustworthiness

According to Guba and Lincoln (in Trochim, 2006: 162), there are four

criteria for judging the soundness or trustworthiness of qualitative research, they

are:

1. Credibility, which involves establishing that the result of qualitative reserach

are credible or believeable from the perspective of the aprticipants in the

reserach.


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2. Transferability, which refers to the degree to which the resuls of qualitative

research can be generalized or transfered to other contexts or setting.

3. Dependability, which emphasizes the need for the research to account for the

ever-changing context within which research occurs.

4. Comfirmably, which refers to the degree to which the results could be

comfirmed or collaborated by others.

Furthermore, Merriam (1998: 204-205) proposes six basic strategies to

enhance trustworthiness as follows:

1) Triangulation

In triangulation, researcher can use multiple investigators, multiple sources of

data, or multiple methods to confirm the emerging findings. By using multiple

investigators, the researcher can establish validity through pooled judgment

and validate case study materials by using outside sources. Multiple source

means that the researcher use many source in collecting the same data. For

example, in order to get the comprehensive conclusion about teachers’ power

manifestation, the researcher can use field note, video of teaching learning

process, recording of interview, and documents of teaching learning as the

source of data. Those multiple sources of data can be use to lead the researcher

to the conclusion of the case being investigated. Meanwhile, multiple methods

can be used by the researcher to collect the data by using multiple methods of

data collection such as interview, observation, document analysis, etc.


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2) Member checks

Member checking strategy means that the researcher takes data and tentative

interpretations back to the people from whom they were derived and asking

them if the results are plausible. In member checking, the researcher sentt

back the result of interview transcription to the subject of the research. It was

used to clarify whether what the researcher obtains from the interview is

appropriate or not to what the subject of the research means.

3) Long-term observation

Applying long-term observation means that the researcher has to repeat

observations of the same phenomenon. Thus, the researcher gathers the data

over a period of time in order to increase the validity of the findings.

4) Peer examination

In peer examination, the researcher asks colleagues to comment on the

findings as they emerge. If the researcher use peer examination means that the

researcher will involve inter rater in investigating the case. Thus, the inter

rater can examine the findings of the research.

5) Participatory or collaborative modes of research

In this strategy, the researcher involves the participants in all phases of

research from conceptualizing the study to writing up the findings. It means

that the researcher and the subject of the research create together the concept

of the research up to concluding the result of it.


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6) Researcher’s biases

This strategy clarifies the researcher’s assumption, worldview, and theoretical

orientation at the outset of the study.

In this study, the researcher checked for the accuracy of the findings by

employing a combination of multiple validity strategies: triangualation, long-term

observation and member checks.

F. Techniques of Analyzing the Data

Data analysis means effort to organize, provide structure and elicit

meaning. It is a process to impose some order in a large body information so that

some general conclusions can be reached or communicated in a research report.

All qualitative analysis involves attempts to comprehend the phenomenon under

study, synthesize information and explain relationships, theorize about how and

why the relationships appear as they do, and reconnect the new knowledge with

what is already known. The task of analyzing qualitative data can appear

overwhelming but becomes manageable when broken down into key stages.

Creswell (2007) describes the data analysis spiral. Once data are collected,

they must be organized and managed. The researcher must become engaged with

the data through reading and reflecting. Then data must be described, classified,

and interpreted. Finally, the researcher represents or visualizes the data for others.

Creswell describes how this spiral fits with various approaches to qualitative

inquiry (narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case

study). In different texts, the approaches to analysis of qualitative data vary


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slightly, but we believe they can be described in three stages: (1) organizing and

familiarizing, (2) coding and reducing, and (3) interpreting and representing.

In this reserach, the research approach is ethnographic research.

Ethnographic research employs a range of data sources: fieldnotes from person,

audio-and –video recordings and transcripts, interviews, and also questionnaire

respons (Hammersley, 1998: 35). Technique of data analysis in this study is the

qualitative data analysis technique Spradley model. According to Spradley (1980,

this analysis involves four steps; domain analysis, taxonomy analysis,

componential analysis, and theme analysis.

1. Domain analysis is a data analysis to decide cultural domain containing

the smaller categories which involve cover term, included term, and

semantic relationship.

2. Taxonomy analysis is a set of categoriesorganized on the basis of a single

semantic relationship. A taxonomy reveals subsets and the way they are

related to the whole.

3. Componential analysis is the systematic search for the attributes

(components of meaning) associated with cultural categories. It discovers

contrasts among the members of a domain, these contrasts are best thought

of as attributes or components of meaning. A "component" is another term

for "unit"; thus, componential analysis is looking for the units of meaning

that people have assigned to their cultural categories.

4. Theme analysis is the data analysis to decide the relationship between

domain and to give a holistic view of a culture or cultural scene..


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In practice, all steps of the data analysis were not carried out in a linear

sequence after all the data was collected. It were carried out simultaneously during

and after the data was collected. Thus there was the interaction between the

processes of data collection and data analysis as well as other elements such as the

recording of data, writing reports (interim), and submission of research questions.

The interaction of these elements forms a cyclical pattern as seen in the following

picture.

Figure: 3.1 Technique of analyzing the data adapted from Bradley

The data of this research involves primary and secondary data. The primary

data was gotten by observation, interview, and record of the activities between

teachers and students in the classroom. Secondary data was gotten from the literatures

supporting the teory. In processing the data from the recording, the researcher needs

to analyze to know the power components in teaching and learning process. Because

of that after recording, the researcher made a transcript of teacher and students’

Analyzing Data

Making a Record

Collecting Data

Asking Questions

Selecting a Project

Writing a Report


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Figure 3.2. Research Procedure

utterance. However, this research is focus on teacher’s utterances in form of power in

using language. To process the data analysis in this research, researcher used critical

discourse analysis from Fairclough. Data was analysed in the form of text dimension,

discourse practice, and sociocultural practice.

According to Fairclough (1989: 109), there are three stages of critical

discourse analysis; description of text, interpretation of the relationship between

text and interaction, and the explanation of the relationship between interaction

and social context. In text dimension, the data was analysed related to vocabulary,

grammatical, and text structure. It can be seen in Figure 3.2.

Teacher’s Speech Acts in the Classroom(Illocution)

Categorization

Assertive ExpressiveDirective

AnalysisText Dimensions Description Analysis- Vocabulary- Grammar- Text Structure

Discourse Practice Dimension Interpretation Analysis

Sociocultural Practice Dimension Explanation Analysis

Conclusion


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From the figure above, the teachers’ utterances were classified to find the

teachers’ speech acts involving directive, assertive and expressive speech acts.

Then, the utterances above were transcribed and analyzed based on vocabulary,

grammar and text structure category.

Vocabulary analysis involves:

1). Experimential value. It was related to classification schemes, idealogical

words, rewording and overwording, meaning relations (synonymy, hyponymy,

and antonymy), and metaphors.

2). Relational values. It was related to euphemistics expression and formal and

informal words.

3). Expressive values. It was related to positive and negative evaluation.

Grammar analysis involves:

1). Experimential value. It was related to the type of process and participant

predominate, normalizations, active or passive sentences, and positive or

negative sentences.

2). Relational values. The aspects of relationals values included modes sentences

(declarative, grammatical question, and imperative), relational modality and

pronouns we and you.

3) Expressive value. It could be seen from the use of expressive modality.

Textual structure analysis involves:


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1). Interactional conventions which involved the way of participants controlled the

turns of others. There were four devices used for this; interruption, enforcing

explicitness, controlling topic, and formulation.

2). Larger-scale structure.

The next step was the interpretation step. It was related to how text was

linked by the discourse process (discourse practice dimension). Fairclough

(1989:141) says that interpretation are generated through a combination of

what is in the text and what is ‘in’ the interpreter. The focus of context

interpretation is the relationship between situational context and discourse type.

Text interpretaion was analyzed based on four levels of interpretation domains.

They were: surface of utterance, meaning of utterance, local coherence, and

text structure and point.

The last stage of critical discourse analysis was the explanation of the

relationship between interaction and social context. The objective of the stage

of explanation was to portray a discourse as part of a social process, as a social

practice, showing how it was determined by social structure, and what

reproductive effects discourses could cumulatively have on those structures,

sustaining them or changing them. It means that explanation is a matter of

seeing a discourse as a part of process of social struggle, within a matrix of

relation of power. In this stage, the result of interpratation will be matched with

the result of respondents’ interview about teacher profile to know their

ideology.


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CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the result of study conducted in English Department

of STKIP PGRI Bangkalan, Madura. The study was purposed (1) to describe the

power in language represented in the speech acts, (2) to explore the effects of

power in language done by teachers toward students’ learning attitude. The result

is described and discussed into two parts: Research Findings and Discussion.

A. Research Findings

Based on the data collected through video of classroom activity,

observation in the classroom, questionnaire and interview to the teachers and

students, the researcher presents the result of research. It is described into two

subheadings, including the description of power form in language represented in

the speech acts and the effects of power in language done by teachers toward

students’ learning attitude.

Table 4.1 Research Findings

A. Power Forms The Effects of Power in LanguageDirective Assertive Expressive Positive Negative

1. Command 1. Assertion 1. Pleasure 1. Students are enjoyful in doing teacher’s request

1. The teacher’s status influences the students’ perspective in responding teacher’s command

2. Request 2. Maintain 2. Displeasure 2.Teacher’s prohibition acts

2. Students tend to be afraid in facing the

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are the forms of training for students to be more discipline

fierce teacher’s questions

3. Prohibition 3. Students consider that the teacher’s permission acts have less negative effect to them

3.The displeasure expression has the high restriction of illocutionary power because it can decrease students’ learning motivation

4. Permission 4. The teacher’s advice influences their learning attitude towards positive side.

4. Advice 5. The students will be happy if the teacher appreciates their arguments

5. Asking 6. The teacher’s intervention will omit the students’ doubtness

7. The teacher’s pleasure expression will trigger students to be more active in the classroom

From the table above, it can be seen that there were three speech acts

forms of power conducted by the teachers in the classroom and there were seven

positive effects and three negative effects of power manifestation in ELT

classroom.


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1. Power Forms in Language Represented in The Speech Acts in STKIP

PGRI Bangkalan Madura

The power represented by a teacher can be seen from his/her utterances in

speech acts forms. Here are some kinds of power in teacher speech acts in the

classroom context.

a) The representation of power in directive speech acts.

The directive speech acts can be divided into six forms.

1) Power in Comand form

2) Power in Request form

3) Power in Prohibition form

4) Power in Permission form

5) Power in Advice form

6) Power in Asking form

b) The representation of power in assertive speech act

c) The representation of power in expressive speech act

a). Representation of Power in Directive Speech Acts

Directive utterances potentially produce the power form. The illocutionary

power of these utterances is the attempt to get someone to do something. Bach and

Harnish in Geis (1995: 18) say that directive utterances express the speaker's

attitude toward some prospective action by the hearer and his intention that his

utterance, or the attitude it expresses, be taken as a reason for the hearer's action.

The speaker acts on the belief that he or she has sufficient authority over the


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addressee that simply expressing his or her desires should be sufficient to

guarantee compliance. In the classroom discourse, the directive acts commonly

happen and conducted by the teacher especially in managing the class atmosphere.

The directive acts that usually manifested by teacher in the classroom including

command, request, prohibition, permission, advice, and asking forms. In applying

these acts, a teacher represents the power form can be in high restriction, standard,

or low (humanistic) form. Therefore, it will show how a teacher views his or her

status compared to their students’.

1) Power in Command Form

Here are the examples of power in language conducted by a teacher in

command form.

[1] Teacher : Remember that when you answer the questions, when you choose the answer whether A, B, C or D, you have to give the following reason. (1) Kenapa anda menjawab itu, kenapa anda menjawab ini. (2) Ok! (3) It means that support your answer by giving me the sentence, paham? (4)

Students : Yes.(5)Teacher : Good. You know what I hope. (6) Can we start now? (7)Students : Yeah. (8)

Description

The dialogue [1] shows the stituation where a teacher was giving

instruction in answering the questions. The teacher asked students to give the

reason for their answer. Viewed from the form of command it could be

classified into direct command where it could be seen from the using of

modality ‘have to’ in turn (1) , the imperative “OK!” turn (3) and tag question

of “paham?” (4). Besides that, the teacher also used the pronoun “you” to the


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students and pronoun “I “and “me” to herself (1), (2), (4) and (6). To make

understandable of the instruction or command, teacher changed the language

into Bahasa Indonesia.

Interpretation

From the dialog [1], it can be interpreted that the teacher used the high

restriction of command. It can be seen from the relational modality ‘have to’.

Fairclough (1989: 126-127) says that the relational modality is the modality

which has to do with speaker’s authority to other participants (in term of

relation). In this context, students were in the position of social subject who

are in the passive and constrained condition (Fairclough, 1989:39). Viewed

from the pronouns used in the dialog [1], the teacher used pronoun “you”, and

“anda” to her students and “I” and “me” to herself, it can be assumed that the

teacher placed her and her students as concept of a superior-subordinate.

While to show that the instruction is essential, the teacher used the imperative

“OK!” and question tag “paham?”. Teacher wanted to insist that students must

provide the reason for their answer.

Explanation

The dialog [1] represents the form of power possessed by a teacher in the

classroom in the form of direct command utterance. As one type of directive

speech acts, direct command has certain characteristics. In expressing a particular

speech, speaker wanted the listener did what the speaker expressed. In the context


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of classroom, when giving directions concerning matters that are considered

urgent, teachers tend to use direct commands that present the dominant power.

However, viewed from the context of the classroom discourse, this

phenomenon associated with the dominating culture that is still widely used in the

learning system in Indonesian school. In a culture of learning that is dominating,

school rules, learning materials, evaluation systems, and textbooks tend to be

determined by the school or the teacher.

[2] Teacher : When you are writing about something, when you make some notes about something, do not only just write and write but try to understand what kinds of words that you use. (1) Sambil dipahami kalimatnya. (2) Membaca begitu juga. (3) Jangan membaca lewat saja harus dikenali apa maknanya, apa maksudnya. (4)

(Then the teacher go around the class to check students’ work and ask to one of students)

Teacher : What about you, finish? (5)Student : Not yet mam. (6)

Description

A teacher tends to use indirect command when he or she discusses the

topic related to personal and sosial (interactional) relationship that has subjective

characteristics. In the dialog [2], it can be seen that the teacher used the indirect

order of directive speech acts in the turn (1), (2), (3), and (4). The teacher

explained to her students that if they wanted to write down a text, they had to

understand the words they used. It was equal to reading a text, students had to

understand the vocabularies in that text material. The expressions show the power

forms in indirect order are “... do not only just write and write but try to

understand..” and “...Jangan membaca lewat saja harus dikenali apa maknanya,


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apa maksudnya..” The teacher implicitly command students to understand what

they write and what they read.

Interpretation

In the dialog [2], the teacher used the indirect command to deliver the

teaching material related to personal and sosial relationship. In this case, the

teacher used indirect command to give idea or advice to students in order to

understand with what they write or read. The advices given by a teacher could be

caused that the students used to write and read material without understanding it.

It can be assumed that after given the advice the students will change their old bad

habit. In this dialog it could be seen that a teacher wanted to share her experience

and her students followed the teacher’s habit.

In the context of teacher in the classroom, the teacher had the legitimate,

the referent and expert power. Thomas (1995: 127) says that legitimate power is

the power which comes from role, age, or status. Referent power is the power

which is gained by someone because he or she is admired and many people wants

to be like him or her, and the expert power is the power which is gotten by

someone because of his or her knowledge or skills. In the context of teacher in the

classroom from the dialog [2], a teacher had legitimate power where in the class

the teacher has higher social status than that of students. Because the teacher

wanted her students follow what she did, the teacher wanted to be admired figure

in her class. It is called as referent power. The last, the teacher had expert power

because she was as the source of knowledge.


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Explanation

The illocutionary power of indirect command is lower than direct

command. The speaker utters the indirect command to the hearer to give

suggestion and advice. The speaker does not force the hearer do what the speaker

says. In the classroom discourse, the teacher usually used indirect command to

give a description about something good or possitive for students. Teacher as

someone who has more experience and knowledge than students shares to them

what he or she has know in order to give the right view toward a subject or life. It

is usually in form of suggestion or advice.

2). Representation of Power in Request Form

In classroom discourse, the teacher’s request can be classified as the

power representation owned by a teacher toward students. This dialogue described

the power representation in request form by a teacher.

[3] The teacher gives a question and one of students tries to answer.

Teacher : OK, come on, ada yang mau mencoba? Silahkan. (1)Student : Get.... get in touch with some body is contact some body. (2)Teacher : Contact some body. (3) How do you know? (4)

Can you make supporting sentence? (5)Student : The speaker says “give me a call”. (6)Teacher : Give me a call means that kontak saya, hubungi saya. (7)

What about the others, Same? (8)Studets : Same. (9)

Description

The situation of dialogue happened when the teacher gave a question to

students. However, no one was brave to answer the question. Then, the teacher

elicited students to answer it by saying “OK, come on, ada yang mau mencoba?


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Silahkan”. Finally one of students was ready to answer although he was nervous

that could be seen in repeation word and vibrating sound (in turn 2). In turn 3 of

the dialogue, the teacher repeated the student’s answer and requested student to

give more detail explaination by giving supporting sentences (turn 6). After

student gave supporting sentence, the teacher repeated what the student said and

translated it into Bahasa Indonesia. To assert the answer, the teacher delivered a

question to ask the other students’ agreement by asking “same?” The students

replid by saying “same”.

Interpretation

In the dialogue [3], the teacher gave an elicitation to students to answer

the question by saying “OK, come on, ada yang mau mencoba? Silahkan”. It can

be interpreted that the teacher wants the students be active in the class. Teacher

tried not to dominant in the classroom. However, the students did not give the

responses until the teacher elicited them. It could be caused the students’ anxiety

in answering teacher’s question. The anxiety associates with the learner’s

perception of how other onlookers; instructors, classmates or others; may

negatively view their language ability. The anxiety could be in the form of the

feeling of uneasiness, worry and nervousness. The feeling of anxiety can be seen

in how student answered the questions nervously. In the turn (2), the student

answered repeatedly by saying “get.... get in touch...”.

Moreover, in this dialogue, the teacher twice repeated the student’s

answers in turn (3) and (7). First, the teacher repeated the student’s answer of


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“Contact some body”. The second repetation was in the turn (7) “Give me a call”.

Repetation is a kind of teacher’s positive feedback toward student’s response.

According to Viano and Canejos (1996: 131) one functions of repetation done by

a teacher is to confirm student’s production. In this context, the teacher confirmed

the student’s answer.

In turn (5), the teacher delivered an indirect request by saying “Can you

make supporting sentence?”. In this context the teacher wanted students to give

more explanation toward their answer. To know the relationship between teacher

and students, it can be seen from the using of modality words by the teacher in the

classroom. Modality which the teacher used in this request can be categorized as

relational modality (Fairclough: 1989: 126-127). Viewed from the ideology

appears in this sentence where the teacher use the modality “can” is the

relationship between ordinate and subordinate relationship. However it still shows

the humanistic form of power,

Explanation

The activeness of students in the classroom can be seen in their responds

toward teacher’s elicitation or questions. Although the teacher has given them

chance to be active, the students still feel anxiety. Usually they will answer

teacher’s question nervously. The factors of students’ anxiety in the classroom

can be from the students’ perception about the subject and from the students’

perception toward the teacher. The context of dialogue [3] was the situation where

students studied listening subject. Listening is still assumed as the difficult subject


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for Foreign English Students. So it is normally if the student is the dialogue [3]

felt nervous in answering teacher’s question. Because of that, the role of a teacher

in responding students’ answer is very important to avoid students’ saving face in

order they are not asshamed if they answer wrongly.

In dialogue [3], teacher also repeated what the student’s answer. It is a kind of

possitive feedback. Teacher did not correct the student’s answer. The teacher

repeated the student’s answer just to confirm the student’s answer. The teacher

repeated the student’s utterance usually to make it clearer. In this context, because

the student’s answer nervously so the sound did not clear enough to other students

in the classroom. It is clear that the teacher repeated the student’s answer because

the sound of student was not clear because of his anxiety in answering teacher’s

question.

The form of power represented in the dialogue [3] was the teacher’s utterance

“Can you make supporting sentence?”. It was a kind of power in request form

exactly in indirect request. Request act is almost same with command acts where

the speaker want the listener do what the speaker’s say. The difference is just in

the restriction. Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness

than that direct speech acts. The request act has the lower restriction than order

act. Viewed from the ideology appeared in this sentence was the concept of a

superior-subordinate relationship. However, sometimes the power is manifested

unintentionally by a teacher in the classroom. They consider it is a normal thing

happens in the classroom.


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3). Representation of Power in Prohibition Form

The power in language in prohibition act is often expressed by the

negative form of the verb, though it may be expressed by the affirmative form as

well. Allan (1986) states that prohibition is a speech act whereby a speaker forbids

someone from doing something. The dialogue [4] shows the power representation

in prohibition form.

[4] Teacher : What is the meaning of breeze not breezy? [1] Student 2 : Angin sepoi-sepoi. [2] Teacher : Do not tell me. [3] Maksudnya jangan di artikan sekarang,

Sementara saya tidak kepo dulu. [4] You will know about the definition of breeze by listening the passage. [5] Do not open your dictionary and do not ask your friend. Ok. [6] Jangan menggunakan fasilitas. [7]

Description

The dialogue [4] describes the situation happened in the classroom where

the teacher asked the meaning of breeze to students in turn [1]. Then one of the

students answered “angin sepoi-sepoi”. The student answered it after looked at

dictionary. Hearing that answer, the teacher replied by saying “Do not tell me”.

Teacher wanted the student not answer based on the dictionary. It is supported by

the following teacher’s argument “Maksudnya jangan di artikan sekarang,

Sementara saya tidak kepo dulu”. After that the teacher asked students to answer

the question based on the listening passage. Once again the teacher asked students

to not open the dictionary or ask to their frineds. Finally the teacher closed her

argument by saying “Jangan menggunakan fasilitas”. From the dialogue [4], it can

be seen that the teacher used the prohibition acts four times, in turn [3] and [7]

once and in turn [6] twice.


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Interpretation

From the dialogue [4], it can be seen that the teacher used the prohibition

expression four times. The teacher prohibited students to open the dictionary

because the teacher expected the answer came from the students’ understanding

toward the listening record. In the turn (2), the students answered the meaning of

freezy as angin sepoi-sepoi after they looked at the dictionary. It was not suitable

with the teacher’s expectation. The teacher’s expectation was the meaning of

“freezy” in connotative meaning not as denotative meaning. That the reason why

the teacher prohibited the students to open English-Bahasa Indonesia dictionary.

Besides that the teacher also prohibited students to discuss with othe friends or

use the other facilities such mobile phone.

Explanation

The prohibition expression tends to have high restriction degree where the

speaker prohibit the hearer to do something. It shows that the speaker tries to

dominate the hearer. There is the consequence if the hearer breakes the speaker’s

prohibition. In the classroom discourse, the teacher often performs this act. It can

be related to the teaching process or to the students’ attitude. For example, the

teacher prohibits students to turn on their mobile phone during study. Another

example, the students may not wear slippers in the classroom. The consequences

from this prohibition can be in form of warning or prohibition of studying.

4). Representation of Power in Permission Form

[5] Teacher : Have you found the answer? [1] Sudah dipahami? [2] Belum? [3]Silahkan di coba. [4] Saya coba yang pertama.[5] Get in touch


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with some body. [6] Get in touch bukan berarti anda menyentuh orang lain. [7] So, dari dua kali mendengar dan anda juga menggunakan your prior knowledge. [8] What do you thing about number one? [9] What do you think about get in touch with some body? [10] Is it contact some body atau menghubungi seseorang or move closer? [11] OK, come on, ada yang mau mencoba? Silahkan. [12]

One of students tries to answer.

Student : Get.... get in touch with some body is contact some body. [13]

Description

In the dialogue [5] the teacher expressed the permission expression twice,

in turn [4] “Silahkan di coba” and [12] “ada yang mau mencoba?, silahkan”. The

first expression appeared after the teacher checked the students’ work and the

students’ understanding to the question by saying “Have you found the answer?

[1] Sudah dipahami? [2] Belum? [3]”. After looking at the students’ response

where nobody answered the question, the teacher initiated to give explanation to

elicit students’ respose. The elicitation was done by giving explanation in

Indonesian language, advice to use the students’ prior knowledge and questions.

Then the teacher let students to answer the question. Finally one of students

answered the teacher’s question.

Interpretation

In dialogue [5], it can be seen that there are two contradictions where the

teacher dominated the classroom that can be known from some questions and

explanation and the teacher tried to not dominated the classroom by giving chance

the students to answer, in turn [4] and [12]. The domination of the teacher in

dialogue [5] happened because the teacher saw that the students’ didi not response

her question. The teacher checked the students’ work by asking “Have you found


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the answer?”. Knowing that the students did not response her, the teacher asked

the students’ understanding to the work, in turn [2] and [3]. Then the teacher let

students to answer the question, turn [4]. Because no body answered the question,

the teacher tried to elicit students to answer the question. She explained that the

meaning of get in touch with somebody has the connotative meaning not touch the

someone’s skin. After that the teacher adviced students to use their prior

knowledge to understand the listening passage and gave some triggering

questions. Assuming that she has given some elicitation, the teacher let students to

answer her question. Finally one of them answered the question.

Explanation

In the dialogue [5], it can be interpreted that the permission expression

delivered by the teacher has the purpose to reduce teacher’s domination in the

classroom. The teacher wanted that the students also involved in the classroom

activity. compared to the other directives acts, the permission act has the lower

restriction. The modality “silahkan” shows that the teacher let the students involve

in the classroom activity. In other words, the students may express their argument,

idea, or opinion. So, it can be said that the permission act is the more humanistic

power compared to other directive acts.

5). Representation of Power in Advice Form

[6] Teacher : Which one......? [11] Give somebody something. [12] How do you know? [13] Can you give me supporting sentence? [14] Gak papa yang pentingkan coba dulu. [15] Ketika anda salah di situ adalah mengevaluasi. [16] Just guessing. [17]

Student : Alasannya buk.... [18]


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Teacher : Miss? [19] ...... miss [20](Then teacher appoints another student)

Description

The dialogue [6] describes the situation where the teacher wanted the

students give more explanation about their answer. In the turn (15) and (16) the

teacher gave the advice to students to not be shy in making mistake in answering

the question. The teacher argued that making mistake in answering the question is

normar. The most important thing is that the students are brave to express their

idea or answer. More over, the teacher said that when the students make mistake,

it means they can evaluate their answer. By giving the advice to the students, it

means that the teacher has motivate students to be more active in the classroom.

Interpretation

The duty of teacher is not only to share the knowledge but also to motivate

the students in studying. One way to motivate the students is by giving the advice.

In the dialogue [6] the teacher gave the advice to students twice. First, the teacher

adviced the students to not be shy in making mistake while answering the

questions. It could be seen that the students usually would be silent when the

teacher asked them. They were afraid if their answer were wrong, so the other

students would laugh them. It is the time for the teacher to motivate the students.

The second advice was when the teacher said that when they made mistake

essentially they had evaluated their mistake. They would know in which part they

were wrong. So in the next time they would not make the same mistake.


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Explanation

Harmer (1991) says that the motivation that students bring to class is the

biggest single factor affecting their success. It means that the motivated students will be

more successfull that those unmotivated students. One duty of a teacher is to increase

students’ motivation in learning. The teacher has the important role in the class

because the teacher has the authority in managing the classroom. The teacher has

the expert power, the power which is gotten by someone because of his or her

knowledge, skills or experience. Because of his or her expert the teacher can give

advice to the students. In the dialogue [6], the teacher gave the advices to students

by giving motivation. The motivation given by the teacher in order to to increase

students’ self-confident in answering the question.

6). Representation of Power in Asking Act

The power form in asking act can be found in the dialogue below.

[7] Teacher : Let’s go no. 4. (1) Rina.... just telling us (2) Student : annoy (3) Teacher : How do you know annoy? (4) What’s the mean of annoy?

(5) What’s the mean of annoy? (6) Student : jengkel (7) Teacher : Jengkel... (8) How do you know that’s jengkel? (9) Student : ......... Teacher : kenapa? Student : Repeat mam. Teacher : Ok.

Description

The situation in dialogue [7] was when the teacher appointed one of the

students to answer the question. Then the student answered it by saying “annoy”.

After that the teacher gave some questions to clarify the student’s answer. The


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student clarified her answer into Bahasa Indonesia. Because the student’s answer

was not satisfying, the teacher asked again to the student about her answer. The

student still did not answer the teacher’s question. Finally the student requested to

repeat the listening record.

Interpretation

As one of the directive acts, question act potentially represents the

teacher’s power in the classroom. The power element in this act is where the

teacher wanted information from the students about their given question. Stubs

(1983: 104-109) classify the questions into two, yes no question and wh question.

Yes no question is closed question where this question limits the respondent’s

answer. While wh question is open question where the respondent’s answer is not

limited.

In the dialogue [7], the teacher gave five questions to the student. The

questions delivered by the teacher were about the student’s clarrification about her

answer. It happened because the teacher was not satisfied with the student’s

answer. In the first question, the teacher wanted to know how can the student

answer “annoy”. The second question is about the meaning of annoy. While the

third question was same with the second question. This question has function to

stress the meaning of annoy. From the questions given by the teacher, the student

only aswered by translating the meaning of annoy into Bahasa Indonesia. The

student’s answer was not satisfying the teacher. It can be seen from the following

question “How do you know that’s jengkel?”. The student still kept silent and did


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not response the teacher’s request. Finally the students requested to repeat the

listening passage. From the dialogue [7], it can be known how the teacher did not

get the information from the student.

Explanation

Asking as one form of teacher power in the classroom essentially is a

command act in introgative form. Asking is the expression where the speaker

wants information from the hearer. In the context of classroom, the teacher

delivers the question because she or he expects the students can give the

information what the teacher wants. The dialogue [7] showed how the teacher

expected the more information from the student’s answer. However, the teacher

could not get what she wanted. The student just translated from her answer into

Bahasa Indonesia (turn 7). Finally the student requested the teacher to repeat the

listening record.

b). The Representation of Power in Assertive Speech Act

Assertive is one of speech acts that can represent the form of power,

whether by teacher or students. According to Searle (1976), speech acts has

function to inform others about something. This function is very important in the

classroom context, because the process in transfering knowledge, skills, and

attitude in the learning process can not be separated from the process of giving

information. Jumadi (2005: 88) argues that the assertive speech acts that have the


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power representation owned by a teacher in classroom discourse such as assertion,

suggestion, maintain, and appraise.

1). Representation of Power in Assertive Act

Assertion act done by a teacher is commonly found in classroom

discourse. A teacher uses this act in the classroom, such to ensure the students

with the teacher’s argument to make they agree with teacher’s idea. The form of

assertion act can be seen in the next dialogue.

[8] Teacher : No. 4. Rina menjawab itu annoy but the reason she needs repetation.(1) Sambil lalu dipending mungkin another ada yang tau supporting sentencenya kayak apa.(2)

Teacher : Diana...(3)Student : Gets something difficult. (4)Teacher : Gets something difficult. (5) How do you know?(6)Student : He does not understand anything.(7)Teacher : He does not understand anything.(8) So, is it same with be

breeze?(9) Jadi sama dengan be breeze?(10) So, actually be breeze at breath fluency something that’s quiet difficult.(11) Remember that when we try to understand about the context, mereka masuk ke sentence is not enough, but we have to know about the intonation.(12) Buktinya intonation dari the speaker kadang mengantar kita ke pemahaman yang sebenarnya.(13) Let me repeat.(14) {Teacher plays the listening recording}.

Teacher : Focus on the phrase freezy.(15)After playing the listening recording, the teacher started discussing the answer with the students Teacher : I don’t understand anything.(16) It makes me.....(170Students : Crazy(18)Teacher :Crazy.(19) Kalau Bahasa Indonesianya anda akan

menyatakannya seperti ini.(20) Saya tidak tahu sama sekali, males saya, jengkel saya.(21) So, actually from the intonation anda tahu seperti apa tadi kan?(22)

Students : Annoy(23)Teacher : Annoy....(24) OK. Let’s go.(25)

Description

The dialogue [8] describes how the teacher wanted not only the answer

from the studen, but also the supporting sentence or the reason from their answer.


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This dialogue also showed the teacher power representation in asserting act. The

asserting act done by the teacher was to omit the doubt of the students’ answers.

In this dialogue the teacher gave the question from the listening passage about the

meaning of breeze. First, the teacher asked Rina to answer the question and gave

the supporting sentence. Rina answered it “annoy”. When the teacher asked to

give the supporting sentence, Rina could not give it even she wanted to repeat the

listening recording. The teacher did not accept Rina’s request and the teacher

offered to other students to answer the question. Then the teacher appointed Diana

to answer the question. Diana answer “Gets something difficult”. Diana’s answer

was different with Rina’s answer. When the teacher asked Diana to give suppoting

sentence, Diana said that the speaker says “He does not understand anything”.

To response the Diana’s answer, the teacher wanted the clarification by

repeating the Diana’s answer and asking the similarity between the Diana’s

answer and breeze. The teacher seemed not satisfied with Diana’s answer and

gave the explanation to understand the context of the speaking and listened the

speaker’s intonation. Teacher argued that the speaker’s intonation can bring the

contextual meaning. It shows that the teacher used the asserting act to ensure the

students toward their answers. Teacher did it because the students’ answers were

different each another. Then the teacher repeated the listening recording and asked

students to focus on the phrase breeze.

After playing the listening recording, the teacher explained the meaning

of breeze in Bahasa Indonesia and the intonation of the speaker. In turn (21), (22),

and (23) the teacher asserted the meaning of breeze. So the students understood. It


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can be said that the teacher’s power in asserting the differences among students’

answer will omit the students’ doubt toward the answer.

Viewed from the the using of pronoun, in this dialogue the teacher used

pronoun “we” or “kita” when remained students to understand the context of the

speaking and the the intonation of the speaker. According to Fairclough (1989:

127-128), the use of pronoun “we” shows the solidarity of people where the

participants are on the same ground of ideas or beliefs. It means that the teacher

assumed that she had similarity status with the students as the English foreign

language speakers. However, in the turn (20) and (22), the teacher used pronoun

“anda” means the teacher reduced the solidarity level where the use pronoun

“anda” same with “you” but it has has higher solidarity that “kamu”.

Interpretation

When there are the different arguments whether between students to

student or between the students and teacher, the teacher has to give the assertive

utterances to ensure the students and in order to omit the doubt among students. In

the dialogue [8], there are different answers from Rina and Diana about the

meaning of “breeze”. In the beginning, the teacher asked Rina to support her

answer with the supporting sentence or the reason. Because Rina could not give it,

the teacher pointed Diana to answer the question. However the Diana’s answer

was diffrent with Rina’s answer. So there were two answers from one question.

Because there were two answers, the teacher needed to assert the right

answer. In order to make the students could answer correctly, the teacher


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explained the importance of understanding the speaking context and the speaker’s

intonation and asked the students focused on the “be breeze” phrase. In this

context, it can be assumed that the teacher wanted to assert that in understanding

the meaning of phrase “be brezee” the students must consider the context of

speaking and the intonation of the speaker”. It also happened in turn (21), (22),

and (23) where the teacher asserted the meaning of breeze from the speaker’s

intonation. Finally the students could understand the meaning of breeze. From the

dialogue above, it can be concluded that the teacher successfully ensured students

toward the doubt in answering the question.

Explanation

From the dialogue [8], it can be seen that the teacher manifested her power

in asserting act by performing the ideology that the teacher was someone who

gave knowledge in the classroom and decide the true or not the answer. The

teacher gave explanation how to understand the meaning of a phrase. It shows that

the teacher is a knowledgeable person. By sharing her knowledge she hoped the

students could follow her idea. In addition, the teacher also prefered asking

students to think by using their own knowledge to understand English words

based on the context rather than asking them to open the dictionary.

In this dialogue it also can be seen that the teacher has the authority to ask

the clarification from the students’ answer. The teacher asked the student to

clarify her answer five times, two times after Diana answered the questions and

three times after Diana gave supporting sentence. In addition, in this dialogue, the


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teacher did not gave clarification toward students’ answer whether it was correct

or incorrect. Consequently, Diana might assume that Rina’s answer was incorrect,

so she chose different answer.

2). Representation of Power in Maintain Act

[9] Teacher : I have a game dimana nanti saya akan hitung sampai 20 dan

nanti berhenti dan kertas ini tidak boleh berhenti.(1)

The teacher shows some pieces of paper that will be used for the game. Suddenly students make noisy and refuse that game. Teacher : I have no. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.(2) Ada lima soal. Siapa yang

kebagian ini (paper) harus menjawab soal.(3)Students still make noisy to refuse the teacher’s proposal.Students : Gak mau pak.... gak mau....(4)Teacher : Jangan biasakan menjawab tidak mau.(5) Harapan saya yang

penting dijawab.(6) Pertanyaan ada di soal selanjutnya.(7)Teacher shows the material book.

Description

The dialogue [9] occured when the class entered the middle of teaching

learning activity. The dialogue describes the situation where the teacher proposed

the game to students in the classroom. This game had purpose to make the

learning will be more enjoyable and to refresh the classroom atmosphere. Teacher

argued that the situation of the class was not condussive yet after having lecture

around one hour. However, the students did not agree with the teacher’s proposal

and refused it. The teacher continued his argument by giving explanation that he

had five pieces of paper with numbers one until five and had prepared five

questions that must be answered. Listening the teacher’s explanation, the students


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still refused the teacher’s idea. Then the teacher adviced students to not refuse his

idea. The teacher just expected students could answer the question given. The

teachers added that the question were from the book that they had. Finally the

students agreed with the teacher’s idea.

Interpretation

Teacher as one who has an authority in the classroom, can force his or her

idea to students. The force used in the classroom has the purpose in order to the

teacher’s idea can be accepted or agreed by students. From the turn (5), (6) and

(7), we can see that the teacher endeavorded to maintain his idea in order to be

accepted by students. In the first sentence of maintaining act was the prohibiton

form. Teacher used in suggested students to not complain with his idea.

Essentially, the prohibition is a negative form of command expression. Then the

teacher started lowering the command by giving the teacher’s expectation. To

make his idea was accepted, the teacher informed that the question were in the

student’s book. It could reduce the students’ anxiety toward the teacher’s

questions.

Explanation

Maintaining the argument can be categorized as the power manifestation

by a teacher in the classroom. In the context of classroom discourse, the teacher

endovours his or her argument in order to apply the teacher’s plan. Before

teaching in the classroom, a teacher must prepare his or her lesson plan. Lesson


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plan cointains the goal of learning, the teaching activity, exercise, teaching

evaluation and etc. In the dialogue [9], the teacher has prepared a game in order to

refresh the classroom atmosphere. The situation of the classroom in the dialogue

[9] was at 2. pm. It means that the students were tired.

Usually when a teacher offers the game to students, they will agree.

However, when a teacher in this dialogue said that there were questions that must

be answere, the studenst became anxious. They tried to refuse the teacher’s idea.

As one who has legitimation in managing the classroom, a teacher tried to

maintain his idea. It can be seen that the teacher wanted to show that he has power

in the classroom.

c). The Representation of Power in Expressive Speech Act

In this research, there are two kinds of expressive act; pleasure expression

and displeasure expression. These expressions contains the power manifestation in

the context of classroom discourse.

1). Representation of Power in Pleasure Expression Act

Here is the dialogue that shows how a teacher express his or her pleasure

in the classroom.

[10] Teacher : Remember that when you answer the questions, when you choose the answer whether A, B, C or D, you have to give the following reason. (1) Kenapa anda menjawab itu, kenapa anda menjawab ini. (2) Ok! (3) It means that support your answer by giving me the sentence, paham?(4)

Students : Yes.(5)Teacher : Good. You know what I hope. (6) Can we start now? (7)Students : Yeah. (8)


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Description

The Dialogue [10] turn (6) describes the pleasure expression from a

teacher toward students’ response. The teacher uttered the pleasure expression

after hearing students’ response toward teacher’s explanation. In this dialogue, the

teacher gave explanation about how to answer the question. Teacher stated that

when students answered the question, they must support it with the reason. In the

last explanation, the teacher uttered the tag question “paham?” to stress that the

students understood the teacher’s explanation. Then, students answered that they

understood. The teacher replied “good. You know what I hope”. From this

expression, the teacher was happy and satisfied with the students’ response. The

students’ response was suitable with what teacher’s expectation.

Interpretation

In teaching learning process, a teacher will be happy when the students do

what the teacher’s expectation such as understand with teacher’s explanation or

instruction, answer correctly the teacher’s question, do what the teacher’s ask, and

etc. The teacher will express his or her pleasure in the form of expressive act. In

the dialogue [10], the teacher expressed her pleasure after receiving students’

response toward her instruction. In turn (1), (2), (3) amd (4) the teacher gave

instruction to students to give explanation with their answer. The teacher asked

them whether they understood or not with the instruction. The students said “yes”.

It means they understood the teacher’s instruction. In turn (6) the teacher


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expressed her pleasure by saying “good. You know what I want”. This expession

showed the teacher were happy and satisfied toward students’ understanding.

Explanation

In classroom discourse, usually the use of expressive act in pleasure form

is the result of response toward hearer’s act. It is a form of reward given by the

speaker to the hearer because the speaker is happy toward with what he or she

expected to the hearer is done by the hearer. In the classroom context, giving

reward is important. Reward given by a teacher in the classroom can raise

students’ motivation and attitude in learning. The student assume that the teacher

has appraise them. In other words, the reward given by a teacher in pleasure

expression is a form of power owned by a teacher.

2). Representation of Power in Displeasure Expression Act

Besides expressing pleasure, the teacher also ever express the displeasure.

Here is the dialogue that shows how a teacher express his or her pleasure in the

classroom.

[11] (Teacher goes around the class checking the students’ work, stops to one of students’ seat and responds to one student’s work)Teacher : What about you, finish? (1)Student : Not yet mam. (20Teacher : Pulpennya gitu, gak jelas pulpennya. (3)Then the teacher leaves him.

Description

The dialogue [11] describes the situation when a teacher went around the

classroom to check the students’ work. Then the teacher stopped to one student’s


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seat. The teacher asked to that student about his work. The student responsed her

by saying “not yet mam”. After looking at student’s work, the teacher commented

about the form of student’s writing “Pulpennya gitu, gak jels pulpennya” and left

him. It shows that the teacher expressed the displeasure after looking at student’s

work. The teacher’s comment was not about the result of student’s work but about

the form of student’s writing which was not clear. The student did not write by

using a good pen so it was not clear.

Interpretation

Besides pleasure expression, displeasure expression commonly used by a teacer in

the classroom. It can be caused that the teacher is not satisfiied with the students’

acts or responses. As one who has an authority in the classroom, a teacher hope

the students do what she or he wants. However, not all the teacher’s instruction

can be done well by the students. Intentionally or unintentionally the teacher

expresses the displeasure. In the dialogue [11], the teacher expressed her

displeasure after looking at one student’s work. The teacher did not comment the

result of student’s work but the style of student’s writing. Teacher commented the

pen used by a student which was not clear. In this context, the teacher did not

explicitly asked student to change his pen because she assumed her students

mature enough to decide right or wrong thing. Here we can see that the teacher

showed her power in form of displeasure expression. The effect of an displeasure,

the teacher left the student without commenting the result of student’s work.


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Explanation

In the teaching learning process, the use of displeasure expression by a

teacher can give a certain restriction to students. If happy expression is identified

as reward, displeasure expression can be assumed as a punishment which has

negative effect to students. For a teacher, displeasure expression is a form of

response to the classroom conditions such as student’s attitude and classroom

atmosphere. By expressing displeasure, the teacher expected something from the

students. In the dialogue [11], the teacher express her displeasure after looking at

the writing style of students. The teacher felt uncomfortable reading student’s

work. Implicitly, the teacher wanted that student changed his pen to better one.

2. The Implication of Power in Language Manifestation by Teachers

Toward Students’ Learning Attitude.

The manifestation of power does not only happen in politic activity but

also in the classroom activity. The application of power in language usually done

by a teacher because he or she has legitimation to control the class. The forms of

power that teachers do in the classroom involve making the regulation before,

during, and after the teaching learning process, distributing someone’s speaking in

the classroom, controlling the topic of learning, and etc. Usually before teaching

and learning conducted, a teacher will make a learning contract. The learning

contract is an agreement or a regulation between teacher and students containing

their duties and responsibility in the implementation of their teaching learning

process. It is arranged by teachers that is needed by students in a lesson, which is


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in accordance with the demands of the course curriculum followed by students. It

means that the learning contract is a form of power owned by a teacher in

controlling the classroom. For the teacher, it is important for every class or subject

makes an agreement before the teaching learning activities conducted. It is

suitable with the teacher who became informant in this research when researcher

asked the importance of learning contract. The informant says:

“Kontrak belajar merupakan interaksi antara mahasiswa dengan dosen

yang tidak hanya berupa pengajaran tetapi juga berupa kontrak yang merupakan

kesepakatan antara mahasiswa dan dosen yang tidak hanya berupa materi yang

akan diajar tetapi juga berupa aturan-aturan atau rule-rule nya yang akan

disepakati dalam perkuliahan tersebut. Contohnya aturan sebelum masuk atau

penilaian. Hal itu sangat penting. Sehingga anak itu sudah menggunakan

metakognitifnya, dia sudah mempunyai strategi apa yang harus dilakukan dalam

perkuliahan ini. Bagaimana resikonya dan seterusnya. Dan resiko tersebut pasti

akan terakumulasi di nilai.”

From the explanation above, the teacher argued that the learning contract

is important for the continuity the teaching learning process. The learning contract

is an agreement between the teacher and students not only about the teaching

material, but also the rules or regulations during the teaching learning process.

The regulations can be in form of the rules of attending the class or the students’

score. More over, the teacher said that the learning contract can train students use

their cognitive competence, so they have the strategy during the study. They will

know the risk from breaking the rules that will be accumulated to their score. It


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can be concluded that the learning contract has power to push students obey the

regulations.

The purpose of learning contract application is how to manage class in

order to gain the goal of learning. The object of this regulation is students.

According to students who became the informants of this research that they

argued that the learning contract is very important for students where they will

know the description of the subject and the method used by the teacher. In

addition, they said that the learning contract was also about the regulations in the

class such as the studying time and punishment. For the efeectiveness of this

contract the student said that “lumayan efektif, karena masih ada mahasiswa yang

meremehkan. It means that the implementation of learning contract was effective

enough. However, there are some students underestimated it. It can be concluded

that the learning contract is an agreement between the teacher and students

containing the subject description, teaching method, regulations, and punishment

in order to gain the learning goal. The learning contract can be as an instrument

for teacher to controll the classroom activities. It can be implied that the learning

contract is one of power manifestations owned by a teacher.

The form of teacher power not only in making regulation, but also in

teacher’s utterances. Because the teacher has an authority in the classroom,

teacher’s utteraces have power that affect to students’ learning attitude. Here were

the the influeces of teacher’s power in language toward students’ learning attitude.

that were divided into three speech act forms; power in directive speech act,

assertive speech acts and expressive speech acts.


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a). The influence of Power in Directive Speech Acts

Teacher’s directive utterances potentially produce the power form. The

illocutionary power of these utterances is the attempt to get students to do

something. The directive speech acts can be categorized into six. They are power

in Command form, power in Request form, power in Prohibition form, power in

Permission form, power in Advice form, and power in Asking form.

1). Power in Command Form

Teacher in the classroom, intentionally or unintentionally giving command

to the student. According to teacher they said that “wajar, karena anak tidak sama

kesadarannya”. It means that the teacher assumed it was normal to give command

to students because not all students has the consciousness. It can be implied that

the teacher considered the power of teacher in command form is normally

happend in classroom discourse. Teacher can give commad because his or her

authority in the classroom.

If the teacher considered that the command act was normally happended in

the classroom, the students said that it was normal but they argue that not all

teacher gave command especially the new teacher.

“...untuk yang benar-benar dosen dalam tanda kutip memang banyak sih memerintah seperti bawa kamus..... tapi bagi dosen yang masih baru atau yang magang boleh diberi kelonggaran”

When they were asked about their feeling toward the teacher’s command

utterances, they said that it was ok and no problem. However, one of students said


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he would be more respect the command of STKIP teachers rather than the invited

teachers. As information that in STKIP, there are two kinds of teachers; the

teachers owned by STKIP and invited teachers. It can be seen that the status of

teacher has power to ensure students in the classroom. The students will be more

respect the command of STKIP teachers’ rather than the invited teachers. While

asked about when they disagreed with the teacher’s command, the students said

that they disagreed when the students had to bring the dictionary. They argued

that they have ever disagreed with the teacher’s command. As stated by one

student below:

“bagi mahasiswa, kalau saya berpendapat itu bagus, Cuma menurut pandangan sih masak bahasa Inggris trus waktu kuliah masih bawa kamus, kok kayak SD atau SMA gitu”.

From that student’s argument, it can be seen that the student disagreed with the

teacher’s command when the students had to bring the dictionary to campus.

They assumed that it looked like the school students. Although, the student

disagreed, they argued that they still obeyed the teacher’s command. In other

words, the students were not brave to utter they disagreement. They still respect of

the teacher’s command. It can be concluded that the teacher’s command has the

illocutionary power. The effect of teacher’s power in command form toward the

students’ learning attitude is the students are not brave to utter honestly about

their feeling when they disagree with the teacher’s command.


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2). Power in Request Form

In the classroom discourse, a teacher commonly utters the request

expression when he or she needs something. Request is more polite form of

command. The students usually have no objection when a teacher asks them to do

something. The response of the teachers when they were asked about the

teacher’s request act were that it was normal for the teacher to ask students to do

something. They added that usually the students enjoyed doing the teacher’s

request. Similar to the teacher, the students argued that they were enjoyable when

a teacher asked them do something.

Usually the teacher asked the students to take the in focus, attendance list

or books in the office. Here was the example of teacher’s request expression to

students: “Could you take the books in my locker, please”. From the form of

request it was the polite form where the teacher used the past tense. When the

student were asked about his response toward that teacher’s request the student

said that “Wajar aja, lagian gak enak juga sama dosennya gitu”. It means that it

was natural if the student did the teacher’s request. However, from the student’s

response it can be implied that the student did not have the heart to refuse the

teacher’s request. It can be concluded that there is no negative effect toward

students’ learning attitude when the teacher performs the request act in the

classroom. The students are enjoyable do the teacher’s request because they

assume it is a natural thing.


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3). Power in Prohibition Form

As a controller of classroom atmosphere, a teacher often makes regulations

in form of prohibition. In the classroom discourse, the teacher prohibits the

students to do something can be related to the subject or related to the students’

attitude. Here are some prohibitions in Indonesian classroom:

- Students may not smoke in the classroom.

- Students may not wear slippers in campus.

- Students may not attend the class if they are late more than 15 minutes.

- Students may not activate their mobile phone in the classroom. etc

Asked about the prohibition act conducted by a teacher in the classroom,

here is the teacher’s response:

“... sedikit banyak saya ingatkan (untuk tidak merokok, mencontek), bukan berarti 100 % saya sikapkan. Paling tidak minimal mereka punya perasaan tidak enak sendiri.”

From the teacher’s response above it can be seen that the teacher tried to remain

students to not break the campus’ regulations such as not smoking in the

classroom or cheating in the test. However, the teacher assumed that the students

were mature enough to decide which one was permitted and which one was

prohibitted. Thus, they would be ashamed if they broke the regulations.

To know the students’ response toward the teacher’s prohibition act, here

was the student argument.

“ Mengenai larangan itu kadang-kadang, kalau sesuatu yang penting itu wajib. Contohnya waktu mata kuliah pelajaran itu ada yang main HP misalnya ada HPnya bunyi. Respon gurunya langsung tegas untuk mematikan HPnya atau keluar”


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From the student’s argument above, it can be inferred that the student’s argument

almost same with the teacher’s argument where the teacher sometimes remained

them to not do something unless it was important. The student gave an example

when a student’s mobile phone rang in teaching learning process, the teacher

woud warn student to turn off the phone or ask that student to get out. It can be

implied that the teacher does not always remain students to not do something in

the class because the teacher assumes that the university students are mature

enough unless for the important thing such to turn off the mobile phone in

teaching learning process.

When asked the students’ respons toward the teacher’s prohibition, the

teacher said that:

“The students are welcome karena saya bilang itu untuk hal-hal tertentu tidak semuanya ketika membahas topik ini anda jangan membuka kamus untuk topik ini silahkan karena contohnya ketika di listening tidak ada waktu untuk membuka kamus ketika masuk ke tes. Di biasakan dari sekarang”.

It means that the teacher considered that the student would be welcomed with the

teacher’s prohibition act. The teacher prohibitted students for certain condition

like not to open dictionary in listening subject because the teacher argued that the

students did not enough time to open the dictionary. The teacher added that this

prohibition would train students’ listening ability. It can be implied that the

teacher’s power in prohibition form has the illocutionary power where the teacher

controll the students by limiting the students’ activities. Moreover, the teacher

assumed that the students would accept the teacher’s prohibition act.


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Perceiving the teacher’s power in prohibition form, a student argued that

the students must obey the regulations in the learning contract. However, he said

that the students could take permission to teacher if they would do something that

was not suitable with the regulation. He told an experience where there was a

student asked permission to the teacher to turn off his mobile phone because he

waited the important information.

However, sometimes a student ever broke the campus rules. One of

students told that he was found smoking in the classroom. His response just

grimaced and stopped smoking. As information that STKIP prohibits its students

to smoke in the campus area. From the students’ explanation, it can be described

that the teacher’s prohibition act has the influence toward students’ attitude. The

students consider that the teacher’s prohibition is a must. However, the teacher

does not apply it rigitly. It can be negotiated as long as it was proper.

4). Power in Permission Form

In classroom discourse, a teacher commonly performs the permission act.

The teacher permits students to do something. It indicates that the teacher has an

authority to students. Here are the examples of teacher permission acts toward

students. The teacher lets students come to the classroom. The teacher lets

students go home earlier. The students let students to giving or answering the

questions. Asked about the teacher’s permission act, here was the teacher’s

response.


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“Tidak masalah asal tidak dibuat-buat kadang saya ya wajar-wajar saja, tetapi untuk HP baru saya tegur. Sebenanya untuk HP sudah saya bilang tong di silent kan atau di off kan dulu. Toleransi.. belajar toleransi.”

From the teacher’s response above, it can be seen that the teacher said that it was

natural as long as it was still in proper. However there was an regulation that

cannot be toleranted such turning off the mobile phone in the classroom.

Moreover, the teacher said that it trained students to be tolerant to the teacher and

other students. To perceive the teacher’s permission act, here was the student’s

response:

“Contoh bentuk izin seperti pulang cepat dan datang terlambat. Untuk pulang cepat memang boleh asalkan penting banget, sedangkan untuk datang terlambat maksimal dua pertemuan dan boleh masuk kalau sudah di izin kan”.

Viewed from the student’s response above, it can be interpreted that there was a

condition where the teacher gave permission to the students. The condition

usually had been discussed in learning contract at the first meeting.

Based on the researcher observation, the form of permittion acts not only

let students go home earlier or let the late students attend the class, but also in

form of letting students asking ans answering the question. The students would be

happy if they are permitted to give the questions or to answer the questions. On

the contrary, the researcher saw the students felt disappointed whet they were not

permitted to gave or answer the questions. It can be concluded that the permission

act of a teacher potentially contains the power representation. The teacher can

decide which one may be done and which one may not be done by students in the

classroom. Because it has been discussed between the teacher and students, it can

be assumed that this directive act influence the students’ learning attitude


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especially related to the learning in the classroom. Furthermore, it has lees

negative effect when the teacher does not permit the late students attend the

classroom, because the students has known it has been discussed in the learning

contarct. So, they know the risk of breaking the learning contract.

5). Power in Advice Form

Advice is a directive acts commonly used by a teacher in the classroom. it

can be categorized as the humanistic power representation. The teacher usually

advices the students because the teacher assumes that he or she has more

knowledge, experience, or information than students. By sharing these wisdoms,

the teacher expects the students will get inspiration. Here was the teacher’s

response toward teacher’s power in advice form.

“Saya selalu memasukkan nasehat karena tidak hanya mengajar tapi saya juga mendidik, minimal bagaimana karakter dia, kenapa mereka di beri materi ini seperti untuk apa kedepannya. Kalau anda menjadi guru anda akan seperti ini. Saya beri tahu mereka. Jadi mereka tidak hanya di isi akademiknya saja tapi juga culture habit. Hati mereka juga harus diimbangi.”

From the teacher’s response above, it can be seen that the teacher always inserts

the advice during teaching learning activities. The teacher argued that the duty of

teacher was not only teaching but also educating the students. It was important to

build the students’ character. Moreover, they are the teachers to be. They will do

the same thing; advicing the students. It can be inferred that the teacher has

performed the expert and legitimate power, the power owned by someone because

of having the knowledge and because of his or her status.


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When the researcher asked the students’ response toward teacher’s advice,

the students said that the teacher used to give advice to students especially in

motivating students. Here was the student’s response toward teacher’s advice.

“Dosen selalu memberikan nasehat biasanya berupa motivasi. Mahasiswa senang dan tidak ada masalah soalnya kan mahasiswa disini juga gitu. Jadi dosennya sudah tahu kualitas mahasiswa disini. Biasanya saran berupa semangan dan juga pendidikan.”

From the student’s response, it can be interpreted that usually the teacher gave

advice in form of motivation and related to the education. The students assumed

that it was not a problem if a teacher adviced them and they were happy.

Moreover, the students said that the teacher gave advice because the teacher knew

the quality of students. However , the teacher assumed that the students were

happy when the teacher adviced them even they considered the teacher as their

mother. Here was the teacher’s argument about the students’response toward the

teacher’s advice.

“Alhamdulillah mereka senang, bahkan ada yang memanggil saya bunda. Mungkin mereka menganggap saya jadi ibu bagi mereka”.

Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that the teacher’s

advice is very important to raise students’ motivation. The content of teacher’s

advice can be about students’ character, learning motivation, or education. The

students’ perception toward teacher’s advice was positive. It means that the

teacher’s advice influeces students’ learning attitude.


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6). Power in Asking Form

Asking is one form of power representation conducted by a teacher in the

classroom. The illocutiory power of this act is the teacher wants information from

the students. Allen and Guy (1978:165) say that there are four fuctions of question

in classroom discourse. They are to clarification, repetation, verification and

searching information. Here was the response of teacher about the teacher’s power

in asking form:

“Biasanya kalau saya lebih suka mengajukan pertanyaan siapa yang bisa menjawab silahkan ancungkan tangan. Biasanya tidak ada kriteria kepada siapa pertanyaan itu diajukan, biasanya berdasarkan absen biar lebih objektif”.

From the teacher’s explanation, it can be seen that the teacher did not have the

special criteria to whom the question would be given and the fuction of question

was to get information about the teacher’s question. While based on the researcher

observation, the researcher found other forms of question given by the teachers,

for example in clarifying the students’ answer (can you give supporting sentence?)

and verification (You mean annoying?). When the researcher asked to the

students about teacher’s asking act, they said that “Biasanya habis penjelasan

diumpankan ke mahasiswa”. It means that the teacher usually gave the question

after explaining the teaching material. Furtermore, talking about the students’

response toward teacher’s question they argued that “Lumayan senang kadang

deg-degan terutama kalau dosennya killer”. In other words, the student was pretty

happy with the teacher’s question, but the student also nervour especially toward

fierce teacher.


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From the teacher’s explanation and students’ response toward teacher’s

question, it can be implied that the asking form has the influece to students’

learning attitude where they are so afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions.

They argued that they were anxiety if their answer was incorrect. It was suitable

with the researcher’s observation in the classroom. The researcher found that the

students who were not ready to answer the teacher’s question would answer

shakily.

b). The influence of Power in Assertive Speech Acts

Assertive act is a form of power represented by a teacher in the classroom.

Teacher’s assertive utterances potentially produce the power form. According to

Searle in Jumadi (2005:88) that assertve act has the function to inform someone

about something. Moreover Jumadi (2005:88) says that viewed from its function,

this speech act tends to represent an expert power. In this research, the researcher

classified this speech act performed by a teacher in the classroom into two:

assertion in clarifying students’ different idea and in maintaining teacher’s

argument.

1). Power in Asserting Form

The use of assertive power by a teacher in the classroom can be found

easily especially in discussion. The different of students’ opinion in answering a

question or in arguing a topic can produce a doubt among students. The teacher as

a fasilitator in the classroom should take a part in mediating this difference. In


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other words, it can be said that the teacher can intervere by asserting an answer to

avoid a difference in the classroom in order to get the correct information.

Perceiving the teacher’s intervention by asserting in the classroom, here

was the teacher’s response:

“Kalau ada perbedaan pendapat. Kalau dalam hal materi iya (intervensi), kalau diluar materi saya biarkan dulu. Contohnya dalam presentasi. Saya biarkan dulu. Saya ingin tahu anak itu mengeluarkan curiosity rasa penasaran mereka. Saya biarkan dulu baru saya evaluasi. Pertama presenternya dulu baru partisipannya, dan baru saya pertemukan keduanya itu. Jadi sama-sama saya evaluasi keduanya. Jadi saya biarkan dulu sementara saya penegn tahu bagaimana attitude mereka, tidak langsung mengcut.”

In this teacher’s explanation, there was an intervetion from a teacher when there

was the different opinion in a discussion. However, the teacher did not directly

interfere this debate. The teacher gave chance to students to express their idea.

After that, the teacher will evaluate them, firstly from the presenter and continued

to the participants in the classroom. Finally, the teacher will inform the correct

one. It can be assumed that the teacher assertion wa important in clarifying some

students’ idea. It shows that the teacher has the power to influence students’

opinion. It was also supported by students where they agreed if the teacher must

interfere the different argument in a discussion. Here was the stduent’s opinion:

“Iya harusnya selalu ada karena dosen sebagai fasilitator ikut berpartisipasi juga. Kalau ada perbedaan pasti di tengahi”

From the teacher’s and student’s opinion, it can be concluded that the teacher’s

assertion always needed in moderating the students’ differences. Indeed it will

influece stuedents’ perception toward a learning. Students’ will be more confident

in expressing their idea.


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2). Power in Maintain Form

In the classroom discourse, the different argument between a teacher and

students commonly happens. As a human being, a teacher can make an error or

mistake. Even in digital era where the information can be gotten easily gives

chance to students to get information not only from the teachers but also from

internet. It will be possible the students know earlier than a teacher. A good

teacher will be respect toward information or correction from the students.

However, there are so many teachers defend their argument. To perceive it it was

the teacher’s response:

“Saya welcome (terhadap perbedaan pendapat tersebut), kalau ada perbedaan saya akan bawa sumbernya dan menyuruh mahasiswa bawa bukunya. Dan saya akan mengatakan bahwa saya tidak sempurna. Pernah ada perbedaan tentang perguruan tinggi. (kalau ada perbedaan) kita tanya ke sumber lain. Kalau berkaitan tentang teori bawa bukunya dan kita bahas. Jika berkaitan dengan update informasi kita browning internet.”

In this teacher opinion, the teacher was very welcomed in responding the different

argument with students. Teacher invited students to discuss the differences and

asked students to find other sources as comparison. In addition, the use of internet

was useful as the references. It can be interpreted that the teacher very appreciated

the students’ opinion. The teacher did not consider the students’ argument as a

harm. The students had different oipinion about this. One of them said that

sometimes the teacher defended his or her argument. Finally the students agreed

with the teacher’s argument in the class but they were still unsatisfied. Commonly

they just grumbled in the outside of the class. It can be concluded that the teacher


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may defend his or her argument but it must be proved by the data or theory. The

students will grumble at outside the class as a form of their unsatisfication. It can

be seen that teacher’s defend act has the influence to students’ learning attitude.

The students will be happy if the teacher appreciate their argument. In contrary,

they will grumble outside the class because of teacher’s defence act.

c). The Influence of Power in Expressive Speech Acts

Expressive speech acts are the forms of speech acts to express the

psychological feeling of speakers such as pleasure, displeasure, pity, and etc. In

the classroom discourse the teacher’s pleasure and displeasure expression have the

illocutionary power. Because these acts has the power representation, these will

have the influece to students’ learning attitude. Here are the explanation.

1). Power in Pleasure Expression Form

The expression of pleasure is commonly performed in the classroom

especially by the teacher. The teacher uses this expression as a positive response

toward students’ act where it is also to show teacher’s appreciation. By giving this

expression it will affect to student’s learning attitude. The students tend to be

happy when they get teacher’s appreciation. To know about this expression, here

wa the teacher’s argument.

“Penting bagi seorang pengajar memberikan apresiasi terhadap keberanian anak dalam menjawab ataupun bertanya. Dengan begitu anak tersebut akan lebih termotivasi untuk aktif di kelas. Bentuk apresiasi itu bisa berupa applause atau good. Dan yang pasti bisa memotivasi siswa yang lain untuk lebih aktif lagi.


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It can be inferred that the teacher’s pleasure expression was good for student to

raise students’ motivation in the classroom. It was a form of teacher’s appresiation

toward students’ activeness in the classroom. Furthermore, it will spread the

students’ braveness and motivation to other students. The form of this

appreciation can be in form of applause or praise expression like “good”.

The students agreed with the teacher’s argument that appreciation is

important to raise student’s motivation. Here was the student’s argument.

“Iya ada biasanya berupa tepuk tangan atau mengatakan good. Menurut saya itu bagus karena apa ya... pokoknya mahasiswa itu senang. Ada rasa kepuasan tersendiri sehingga kita ingin lagi dan lagi”.

From the student’s argument, it can be seen that the students would be happy

when the teacher appreciated them. It would trigger students to be more active in

the classroom. In other words, the teacher’s pleasure expression can increase

students’ motivation. Automatically the students will be more interested with the

study.

2). Power in Displeasure Expression Form

Besides pleasure expression, in the classroom the teacher also often utter

the displeasure expression. The teacher uses this expression as a negative response

toward students’ action where it is also to show teacher’s punishment. For

example from the researcher observation where the teacher expressed her

displeasure when she looked at students’ hand writing style. This expression also

tends to be used in responding students’ answer. However, based on the

observation the teacher never used this expession to respond the students’ wrong


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answer. It is also suitable with the teacher’s argument about it. Here was the

teacher’s argument about the using of displeasure expression:

“Tidak masalah mahasiswa buat salah, saya biasa mengatakan bagus mungkin ada yang menambahkan. Tapi saya lihat dulu untuk semester awal saya akan mengatakan seperti itu. Tapi semester delapan, ketika tidak fokus terhadap apa yang diminta saya agak keberatan dan akan di tegur. Pokoknya beda treatmentnya.“Saya akan panggil, saya beritahu kepada dia, jadi kalau dapat sekian jangan salahkan saya. Biarkan dia berpikir. Karena sudah cukup dewasa. Yang penting sudah saya ingatkan bagaimana responnya dia dia harus nego dengan dirinya sendiri”.

The teacher said that she would not blame students when tehy made mistake in

answering the question. Teacher would offered to another student to answer the

question. However, it would be different if the eighth semester students made

mistake. The teacher would warn them to be focus with teacher’s request. Teacher

argued that they were mature enough to decide the right thing. It can be inferred

that the teacher avoided using displeasure expression in the classroom.

In accordance with the teacher’s argument, the students argued that the

teacher never complained or uttered the displeasure expression in the classroom.

However, they said that they would be displeasure if the teacher blamed the

students’ mistake. It has ever occured when the researcher did observation in the

classroom, the student was ashamed when the teacher complained the student’s

work. This expression has negative effect to students’ learning attitude. The

students will be less confident. In conclusion, the displeasure expression has the

high restriction of illocutionary power. By avoiding this expression means the

teacher has appreciated the students’ work.


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Finally, the researcher concludes the finding of this research as follows:

1. In the classroom discourse, a teacher can represent his or her power in

language into some speech acts forms. They are directive, assertive and

expressive. The directive speech acts are the teacher’s utterances as the

attempt of teacher to get students do something. The directive speech acts

can be classified into six forms of act; command request, prohibition,

permission advice, and question. Next, the assertive speech acts, the

utterance of a teacher to ensure the students with the teacher’s argument to

make they agree or believe with teacher’s idea. It can be classified into

assertion and maintain acts. The last, the expressive speech acts, the

teacher’s psychological states about the students. It can be classified into

pleasure and displeasure expressions.

2. The application of teacher’s power in speech acts forms can influence

students’ learning attitude.

Directive speech acts

a. Command act:

- The students are fine with the teacher’s command act. However,

the status of teacher will influence their degree of respect toward

teacher’s command.

- The students are not brave to utter honestly to refuse the teacher’s

command. Consequently, they do the teacher’s command not

sincerely.


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b. Request act:

- The students are enjoyful do the teacher’s request because they

assume it is a natural thing.

- There is no negative effect toward students’ learning attitude when

the teacher performs the request act in the classroom.

c. Prohibition act

- The teacher’s prohibition act has the influence toward students’

attitude because the students consider that the teacher’s prohibition

is a must. There are the consequences if the students break the

prohibition. It train students to be more discipline.

- Some teachers do not apply prohibitionit rigitly. It can be

negotiated as long as it was proper.

d. Permission act

- Students consider that the teacher’s permission act has less

negative effect to them because they have known the items that

may or may not done by the students during study.

- Generally, the teacher has announced the regulations about

permission before the teaching learning activity and the students

has known the risk of breaking the regulation.


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e. Advice act

- The teacher’s advice influences students’ learning attitude towards

positive side because it can increase students’ motivation and add

students’ knowledge, information and experience.

- The teacher’s advice gives the description to students about

students’ character, students’ future, learning motivation, and

education field.

f. Asking act

- The asking act has the influece to students’ learning attitude.

Students tend to be afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions.

- The students argue that they are so anxious because they are afraid

if their answer is wrong.

Assertive speech acts

a. Assertion act:

- Students need teacher’s intervention when there are different

arguments among students.

- In moderating the differences among students’ arguments, the

teacher has to be objective.

b. Maintain act:

- The students will be happy if the teacher appreciate their argument.

In contrary, they will grumble at outside the class if the teacher too

defend his or her arguments.


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- In defending his or her argument, the teacher shoud provide the

data or theory because he or she will be a model for his or her

students.

Expressive speech acts

a. Pleasure act:

- The teacher’s pleasure expression will trigger students to be more

active in the classroom.

- The teacher’s pleasure expression can increase students’ motivation

because the students assume it is as the form of teacher’s

appreciation to them.

b. Displeasure act:

- The students assume that teacher’s displeasure act will affect to

their learning attitude because they will be ashamed when the

teacher complains their work.

- The displeasure expression has the high restriction of illocutionary

power. So, the teacher should avoid using this expression in the

classroom.

3. Factors affecting teachers’ power in the classroom are:

1. Teachers’ status.

The teachers’ status in the school will influence the respect degree of

students to teachers’ power. The higher status of a teacher in the the

school, the higher respect of students to teachers.


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2. Teachers’ teaching experience.

The experienced teachers usually have more powerful than new ones in

managing the classroom because they are more respectable in students’

view.

3. Teachers’ education background.

Teachers’ education background influences the teachers’ trustworthiness.

B. Discussion

Regarding the findings of this research, there are some theories that can be

generated. In this case, the researcher grounded the theory into two: Firstly, The

teacher performs a power manifestation in the classroom as an effort to controll

the teaching learning process. And secondly, the implementation of teacher’s

power in the classroom has an effect toward students’ learning attitude.

1. The Teacher Performs A Power Manifestation in the Classroom as An

Effort to Controll the Teaching Learning Process

The findings of this research showed that the teaching learning activity in

the classroom involving the interaction between teacher and students was the form

of language uses for social roles. The way of teacher’ interaction to students

reflected the teacher’s view to their students’ position. In the classroom, a teacher

has role not only as the knowledge source, but also as the controller of teaching

learning process. It means that a teacher has more power and authority than that of

students in the classroom. Tollefson (1995:9) says that power and domination may

be invisible, they permeate the fabric of classroom life. Moreover, Van Dijk


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(2001:300) says that power involves control from member of a people group to

others in form of action, so the power group can limit the freedom of other group

that will influence their mind. The form of controll conducted by the teacher in the

classroom can be in the forms teacher’s utterances involving directive, assertive

and expressive speech acts. These speech acts can produce the power in the

classroom because by implementing these speech acts essentially the teacher has

triggered students to do what the teacher’s want. It is supported by Leech (1996:

163) that the purposes of speech acts are to produce an effect in form of action

done by the hearer.

Essentially, the teacher’s directive utterances potentially produce the

power form. The illocutionary power of these utterances was proved when the

teacher attempted to get students doing his or her instruction. It was accordance

with Bach and Harnish in Geis (1995:18) who say that directive utterances

express the speaker's attitude toward some prospective action by the hearer and

his intention that his utterance, or the attitude it expresses, be taken as a reason for

the hearer's action. The speaker acted on the belief that he or she had sufficient

authority over the addressee that simply expressing his or her desires should be

sufficient to guarantee compliance.

During observation, in the classroom discourse, the directive acts were

commonly used by a teacher to controll the class. The directive acts were

manifested by teacher in the classroom including command, request,

prohibitation, permission, advice, and asking form. In applying these acts, a

teacher represented the power form could be in high, standard, or low


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(humanistic) restriction degree. Therefore, it showed how a teacher viewed his or

her status compared to their students’. The command act had the high restriction

because there were consequences if the students broke the rule. Viewed from the

teacher and students relationship, this power showed that the teacher had the

higher position rather than the students. In this context, students were in the

position of social subject who are in the passive and constrained condition

(Fairclough, 1989:39).

Next, request act. Based on the observation, this act was almost similar

with command act where the speaker wanted the listener did what the speaker’s

say. The difference just was in the restriction degree where it was lower than

command act. It was also associated with greater politeness than that command

act. Viewed from the ideology appeared, it was the concept of a superior-

subordinate relationship. However, sometimes the teacher unintentionally

performed this power in the classroom. Because this act did not clearly show the

power manifestation, the teacher considered it as a common thing in the

classroom. Moreover, Jumadi (2005: 75) says that request speech act is more

humanistic than command act.

The other speech act was the prohibition act. The researcher observed that

it tended to have high restriction degree where the teacher prohibited the students

did something. In other words, it showed the teacher’s domination toward

students. There was consequence of breaking teacher’ prohibition. Bach and

Harnish in Jumadi (2005:75) says that the prohibition act is related to the

speaker’s authority toward the listener to not do something. In the classroom


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discourse, it means that the teacher has the authority toward studetnts to not do

what the teacher prohibits.

Permission act could be classified into power representation. The speaker

let the listener do something. The research finding showed that in the classroom

discourse, the teacher performed this act to reduce teacher’s domination in the

classroom. The teacher wanted the students also involved in the classroom

activity. Compared to the other directives acts, the permission act had the lower

restriction because the students may express their argument, idea, or opinion. It

can be concluded that the permission act is the more humanistic power compared

to other directive acts. Bach and Harnish in Jumadi (2005: 79) say that permission

act can be categorized as humanistic power because the speaker has an authority

toward listener and let the speaker does something.

In the research finding, one of teacher acts was giving advice in the

classroom. Power forms affecting a teacher gave advice in the classroom were

experts power and legitimate power. The forms of expert power were experiece,

skills, knowledge and etc. Legitimate power was the status and the age of a

teacher. The purpose of advice was to motivate the students. The motivated

students will be easily receiving the lesson. Harmer (1991) says that the

motivation that students bring to class is the biggest single factor affecting their

success.

In the research finding, asking act was a form of teacher’s power in the

classroom. Essentially it was a command act in introgative form. The purposes of


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a teacher asked to students were to get information from the students, to clarify

and to verify the students’ argument. The forms of question could be in yes/no

questions and wh-questions. In the classroom discourse, the teacher could gave

question to any student he or she wanted. When the teacher gave question to a

student, the other students tent to be anxious waiting their turn. In other words, it

potentially produced the power. Banc and Harrish (1989: 48) say that the

illocutiory power of asking act is the speaker wants the listener gives information

what the speaker wants.

In this research, the researcher has found that the assertive act potentially

could represent the teacher’s power in the classroom. By expressing these speech

acts, the teacher wanted to show his or her superiority in form of expertise.

Usually the teacher used these expressions when there were different arguments

between teacher and students or among students. According to Searle in Jumadi

(2005: 88) that assertive act has the function to inform someone about something.

Moreover Jumadi (2005: 88) says that viewed from its function, this speech act

tends to represent an expert power.

There were two forms of power representation in this speech act. They are

assertion and maintain acts. Assertion usually used by the teacher to assert the

argument toward the differences among students arguments. Teacher as fasilitator

in the classroom should be able to moderate the different arguments. It was

important in order to omit the students’ doubt toward an information. Hymes in

Sumadi (2005: 89) says that the using of assertion act to avoid the doubt, giving


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the stress, and giving clarification. However, in moderating the diferences the

teacher should be objective. It showed that the teacher has an expert power.

Another form of assertive speech act was maintain act. In the research

finding, it has been explained that the teacher usually used this speech act to

defend his or her argument or policy. It happended when students protested or

complained with the teacher’s argument or policy. The teacher tried to ensure

students to do the teacher’s instruction. The teacher assumed that the teacher had

authority to control the class. Sumadi (2005: 99) says that the use of maintain act

tends to represent the expert power.

The expressive speech act is a description about teacher’s psychological

expression that shows the power form. In research finding, it was described into

two; pleasure expression and displeasure expression. The pleasure expression

showed the condition where the teacher was happy toward shis or her students. It

was also another form of teacher’s reward because the teacher was satisfied.

Besides that, in research finding, the researcher also described the power

representation in displeasure expression. In the teaching learning process, the use

of displeasure expression by a teacher could give a certain restriction to students.

If happy expression was identified as reward, displeasure expression was

considered as a punishment form which had negative effect to students. For a

teacher, displeasure expression is a form of response to the classroom conditions

such as student’s attitude and classroom atmosphere.


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From the explanation above, it can be concluded that in the teaching

learning process, in using language, there are forms of a power manifestation by

the teacher in the classroom in the form of speech acts. It is supported by

Tollefson (1995: 10) who says that authority and power are manifested and

perpetuated by the ways language is used and the purpose for which it is used.

2. The Implementation of Teacher’s Power in the Classroom has An Effect toward

Students’ Learning Attitude

In the research findings, it has been explained that the implementation of

teacher’s power in classroom has an effect toward students’ learning attitude. The

students’ attitude toward teaching learning process was related to teacher’s

treatment to them. consequently it will affect not only to students’ learning

achievement but also to students’ perception to teacher. Perkins and Adams in

2003 did a research about students’ learning attitude where they found that there

was correlation between teaching practice conducted by the teacher with the

students’ learning attitude and it was positive correlations between student

attitudes and conceptual learning gains.

The earlier form of teacher’s power in the classroom was the making of

learning contract. Learning contract is an agreement between the teacher and

students containing the subject description, teaching method, regulations, and

punishment in order to gain the learning goal. The learning contract can be an


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instrument for teacher to controll the classroom activities. It can be implied that

the learning contract is one of power manifestations owned by a teacher.

Based on research findings, the form of teacher power was not only in

making regulation, but also in teacher’s utterances. Because the teacher had an

authrity in the classroom, teacher’s utteraces had power that affected to students’

learning attitude. Here was the the influece of teacher’s power in language toward

students’ learning attitude. It was divided into three; power in directive speech act,

assertive speech acts and expressive speech acts.

The finding of this research explained that teacher’s directive utterances

potentially produced the power form. The illocutionary power of these utterances

was the attempt to get students to do something. The researcher classified the

directive speech acts into six categories, power in Command form, power in

Request form, power in Prohibition form, power in Permission form, power in

Advice form, and power in Asking form.

Based on research findings, the teacher’s command act has the

illocutionary power. The effect of teacher’s power in command form toward the

students’ learning attitude was the students were not brave to utter honestly about

their feeling when they disagreed with the teacher’s command. The status of

teacher also influeced the students’ respect degree. In other words, the higher the

status of a teacher in the institution, the greater the level of students’ respect

toward teacher’s command.

In this research, it was also found that although the students considered the

teacher’s request was fine, they did not have the heart to refuse the teacher’s


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request. There was no negative effect toward students’ learning attitude when the

teacher performed the request act in the classroom. It also showed the intimacy

relationship between teacher and students.

For the influece of teacher prohibition act toward students’ attitude, this

research also explained that the teacher’s power in prohibition form had the

illocutionary power where the teacher controlled the students by limiting the

students’ activities. Perceiving the teacher’s power in prohibition form, the

student argued that the students must obey the regulations made by the teacher

which has been agreed in the learning contract. In other words, the teacher’s

prohibition act had the influence toward students’ attitude. They were more

discipline.

Giving permission to students is a form of teacher’s authority in the class.

It has been explained in the research finding where the permission act of a teacher

potentially contained the power representation. The teacher had an authority to

decide which one may be done and which one may not be done by students in the

classroom. It implied that this directive act influenced the students’ learning

attitude especially in building students’ awareness.

Because the teacher has the expert and legitimate powers in the classroom,

students need teacher’s advices. The research findings concluded that teacher the

teacher’s advice was very important to raise students’ motivation. Usually, the

teacher gave advice about students’ character, learning motivation, education and


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etc. The students’ perception toward teacher’s advice was positive. It means that

the teacher’s advice raised students’ learning attitude better.

The last form of directive speech act is asking act. Based on the research

findings, the teacher’s questions had the influece to students’ learning attitude

where students were so afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions. They argued

that they were anxious if their answer was incorrect. Based on the observation,

some students were strained when the teacher asked and they would answer the

teacher’s question shakily.

In the research finding, it has been explained that assertive act was a form

of power represented by a teacher in the classroom. Teacher’s assertive utterances

potentially produced the power form. Searle in Jumadi (2005: 88) argues that

assertive act has the function to inform someone about something. Moreover

Jumadi (2005: 88) says that viewed from its function, this speech act tends to

represent an expert power. Furthermore, the researcher classified the influece of

these speech acts into two: assertion in clarifying students’ different idea and in

maintaining teacher’s argument.

Talking about the teacher’s assertion, this research found that the teacher’s

intervention always needed in moderating the students’ differences in the form of

teacher’s assertion. By asserting an argument, the teacher could omit the students’

doubt toward information, idea, opinion or data. It showed the teacher’s expert

power. However, the teacher must be objective in giving argument. The influence


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of applying this assertive speech act was the students would be more convinced to

their teacher’s ability.

Another form of assertive speech act is maintain act. The research findings

showed that in defending the argument, a must provide the supporting data or

theory. Based on the observation, the students grumbled at outside the class as a

form of their unsatisfication. So, teacher’s maintain act would influence the

students’ learning attitude. The students were happy if the teacher appreciated

their argument. In contrary, they would grumble outside the class if the teacher

maintain his or her wrong argument.

In the research findings, expressive speech acts described as the forms of

speech acts to express the psychological feeling of speakers such as pleasure,

displeasure, pity, and etc. In the classroom discourse, it was found that the

teacher’s pleasure and displeasure expression had the illocutionary power.

Based on the result of research, the teacher’s pleasure expression was the

form of reward from the teacher to students. The students would be happy if the

teacher appreciated their argument. It could trigger students’ activeness in the

classroom. So, students became more motivated studying that lesson. .In other

words, the teacher’s pleasure expression can increase students’ motivation.

Automatically the students will be more interested with the study.

Contrary with teacher’s pleasure expression, based on the research finding,

the teacher’s displeasure expression showed a form of punishment in responding

students’ mistake. Students said that they would be displeasure if the teacher


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blamed the students’ mistake. For college students, they would be ashamed when

the teacher uttered displeasure expressions in the classroom So, this expression

could produce negative effect to students’ learning attitude. The students would be

less confident. in conclusion, the displeasure expression had the high restriction of

illocutionary power. By avoiding this expression, it means the teacher has

appreciated the students’ work.

From the above explanation it can be concluded that the teacher’s power

manifestation can influence to students’ learning attitude. By considering the

findings of this research, the teacher can create more humanistic teaching learning

process especially in English language teacching. Fairclough (1989: 244) suggests

that the development of children’s language capabilities should proceed through

bringing together their existing abilities and experiences, their growing critical

awareness of language, and their growing capacity to engage in purposeful

discourse.


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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTIONS

In teaching learning process, intentionally or unintenationally, a teacher

performes the power manifestation in the classroom. It will bring some effects to

students’ learning attitude as mentioned in the previous chapter. The last chapter

presents about the conclusion, implication, and the suggestions.

A. Conclusion

Regarding the findings of this research, there are two main points related

to the power manifestation in language performed by the teachers in the classroom

of STKIP Bangkalan, Madura in the academic year of 2013/2014 that can be

summarized based on the problem statements as follows;

1. In the classroom discourse, a teacher can represent his or her power in

language into some speech acts forms. They are directive, assertive and

expressive speech acts. The directive speech acts are the teacher’s utterances

as the attempt of teacher to get students do something. The directive speech

acts can be classified into six forms of act; command request, prohibition,

permission advice, and question. Next, the assertive speech acts, the utterance

of a teacher to ensure the students with the teacher’s argument to make they

agree or believe with teacher’s idea. It can be classified into assertion and

maintain acts. The last, the expressive speech acts, the teacher’s psychological

states about the students. It can be classified into pleasure and displeasure

expressions.

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2. The application of teacher’s power in speech acts forms can influence

students’ learning attitude. Applying the directive, assertive and expressive

speech acts in the classroom affects to students’ learning attitude as follows;

1). The implications of command act toward students are there are different

views of students to teacher’s status in giving command and students are

not brave to utter honestly to refuse the teacher’s command. Consequently,

they do the teacher’s command not sincerely.

2). For the students, implementing teacher’s request is enjoyful because they

assume that it is a natural thing. There is no negative effect toward

students’ learning attitude when the teacher performs the request act in the

classroom.

3). The teacher’s prohibition act has the influence toward students’ attitude

because the students consider that the teacher’s prohibition is a must.

There are the consequences if the students break the prohibition. For the

teacher, It is as the form of train for students to be more discipline.

However, some teachers do not apply prohibitionit rigitly.

4). Students consider that the teacher’s permission act has less negative effect

to them because they have known the items that may or may not be done

by the students during study. Generally, the teacher has announced the

regulations about permission before the teaching learning activity and the

students has known the risk of breaking the regulation.

5). For students, the teacher’s advice influences their learning attitude towards

positive side because it can increase their motivation and add their


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knowledge, information and experience. Usually the teacher gives the

description to students about students’ character, students’ future, learning

motivation, and education field.

6). Teacher’s questions has the influece to students’ learning attitude. Students

tend to be afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions. They are so

anxious getting the turn to answer teacher’s questions.

7). For students, the teacher’s intervention when there are different arguments

among students is a must. It will influence student’s perception toward

teacher’s ability. In moderating the differences among students’

arguments, the students expect the teacher’s objectiveness.

8). The students will be happy if the teacher appreciates their arguments. In

contrary, they will grumble at outside the class if the teacher too defend his

or her arguments. In defending his or her argument, the teacher shoud

provide the data or theory because he or she will be a model for his or her

students.

9). The teacher’s pleasure expression will trigger students to be more active in

the classroom. It also can increase students’ motivation because the

students assume it is as the form of teacher’s appreciation to them.

10). The students assume that teacher’s displeasure expression will affect to

their learning attitude because they will be ashamed when the teacher

complains their work. Because the displeasure expression has the high

restriction of illocutionary power, the teacher should avoid using this

expression in the classroom.


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3. The power dominantly used by the teachers in the classroom is directive speech

acts, followed by expressive speech acts and the last is assertive speech acts.

B. Implication

The results of the research confirm that in teaching learning process, a

teacher intentionally or unintentionally performs the power in langauge

manifestation. The application of this power shows the teacher’s view toward

students. Moreover, the implication of this power manifestation affects to

students’ learning attitude. The teacher wants to maintain his or her status as the

controller and the owner of authority in the classroom. On the other hands, the

students want the humanistic teaching in the classroom. From this research, it can

be seen that there are an inequality and a struggle in teaching learning process.

C. Suggestions

From this research, some suggestion can be drawn as follows:

1. For Teachers

The research findings are expected as an alternative refernce for teachers

in conducting teaching learning process. The teachers should be realized that their

utterances have power that can influence students’ learning attitude. The students’

attitude can shape students’ perception toward their teachers. If the students’

perception is good, it will raise students’ motivation. On the other hands, it the

students’ perception is not good, it will decrease students’ motivation. So, it will

influence to teaching learning goal.


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2. For Students

They should keep in mind that essentially the purpose of teacher’s power

manifestation is how to make teaching learning process can run well. It needs

students’ awareness to reach the teaching learning goal.

3. For Researchers

Furthermore, it is also a very good idea for the next researchers especially

who are interested in teaching learning process in the classroom to use this

research as one of their main references.


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