教學媒體與教育應用教學媒體與教育應用發展歷史回顧發展歷史回顧

Feb, 2006

The Field of InstructionalThe Field of InstructionalDesign and TechnologyDesign and Technology

Analysis of learning and performance Analysis of learning and performance problem,problem,

Design,Design, Development,Development, Implementation,Implementation, Evaluation, andEvaluation, and Management of instructional or non-Management of instructional or non-

instructional resourcesinstructional resources In educational institutes or workplacesIn educational institutes or workplaces

媒體的概念與分類媒體的概念與分類 MediumMedium （單）（單） , media, media （複）：中介（（複）：中介（ BB

etweenetween ））– Media → Multimedia → Interactive multimediaMedia → Multimedia → Interactive multimedia

分類：分類：– 感官感官 : : 視、聽、觸、、、視、聽、觸、、、– 特性：平面、立體、情境化、、特性：平面、立體、情境化、、– 技術：化學、電子（類比、數位）、、技術：化學、電子（類比、數位）、、– 使用：放映、互動、模擬、、、使用：放映、互動、模擬、、、

歷史最悠久的「教學媒體」歷史最悠久的「教學媒體」 TeacherTeacher ChalkboardChalkboard TextbookTextbook 以上通常不被歸類為教學媒體以上通常不被歸類為教學媒體 Instructional (educational) mediInstructional (educational) medi

a often refer to other physical ma often refer to other physical meanseans

Media Historical TimelineMedia Historical Timeline

1840 Photography1840 Photography 1920 Radio Broadcast1920 Radio Broadcast 1936 Black-White TV1936 Black-White TV 1936 Color Film1936 Color Film 1953 Color TV1953 Color TV 1958 VCR1958 VCR 1989 Macintosh II with digital sound1989 Macintosh II with digital sound 1989 PC with Sound Blaster1989 PC with Sound Blaster … … Internet 1,500MB/sec …Internet 1,500MB/sec … ……

From Early 1900s…From Early 1900s…

School museumsSchool museums Visual and Audiovisual Visual and Audiovisual

instructionsinstructions Media use during World War IIMedia use during World War II Instructional televisionInstructional television ComputerComputer InternetInternet

School MuseumSchool Museum

First in St. Louis, 1905First in St. Louis, 1905 Exhibits, Stereographs (3-D photos)Exhibits, Stereographs (3-D photos) Slides, films, etc.Slides, films, etc. Not intended to supplant teacher or Not intended to supplant teacher or

textbooktextbook Supplementary curriculum materialsSupplementary curriculum materials

Visuals and AudiovisualsVisuals and Audiovisuals

Motion picture projectorsMotion picture projectors First instructional film in 1910First instructional film in 1910 With advance in radio, sound-With advance in radio, sound-

recording, sound motion picture, visual recording, sound motion picture, visual became audiovisual (1920s-1930s)became audiovisual (1920s-1930s)

Great commercial interests, but lost Great commercial interests, but lost $50 million due to Great Depression$50 million due to Great Depression

Audiovisual continued to evolveAudiovisual continued to evolve Dale (1946): Cone of experienceDale (1946): Cone of experience

During World War IIDuring World War II

Audiovisual movement slowed downAudiovisual movement slowed down But extensively used in militaryBut extensively used in military 1943-1945: 400 training films, 600 film 1943-1945: 400 training films, 600 film

strips produced for Army Air Forcestrips produced for Army Air Force Little time to collect hard data for Little time to collect hard data for

evaluation, but survey showed evaluation, but survey showed effectiveeffective

Amazed enemy (Germany)Amazed enemy (Germany)

Post World War IIPost World War II

Intensive research undertaken to Intensive research undertaken to identify principles of learning to identify principles of learning to facilitate designfacilitate design

Findings largely ignoredFindings largely ignored Media comparison studies usually Media comparison studies usually

showed showed students learned equally students learned equally regardless of meansregardless of means of presentations of presentations

Scholars argued studies should focus Scholars argued studies should focus on media attributes, examination on media attributes, examination effects, or instructional methodseffects, or instructional methods

Instructional TelevisionInstructional Television Tremendous growth in 1950sTremendous growth in 1950s Two factors:Two factors:

– 141 Channels set aside by FCC for public service141 Channels set aside by FCC for public service– $170 million sponsored by Ford Foundation$170 million sponsored by Ford Foundation

Interests abated in 1960, perhaps due to Interests abated in 1960, perhaps due to mediocre instructional qualitymediocre instructional quality

Instructional television was not widely Instructional television was not widely adopted by schools. Why?adopted by schools. Why?– Teachers’ resistanceTeachers’ resistance– Expense and maintenanceExpense and maintenance– Not adequate for various conditions for learningNot adequate for various conditions for learning

Computers: 1950-1995Computers: 1950-1995 Early CAI done in IBM in 1950sEarly CAI done in IBM in 1950s 1960s-1970s PLATO (Programmed Logic for 1960s-1970s PLATO (Programmed Logic for

Automatic-Teaching Operations) in IllinoisAutomatic-Teaching Operations) in Illinois By 1970, little impact found on educationBy 1970, little impact found on education In 1980s, wide spread interest for instructional In 1980s, wide spread interest for instructional

useuse– Less expensiveLess expensive– More functionsMore functions

By 1983, computers used for instruction in By 1983, computers used for instruction in more than 40% elementary, 75% secondary more than 40% elementary, 75% secondary schoolsschools

By mid-1990s, still small impact, few By mid-1990s, still small impact, few innovationsinnovations

Recent DevelopmentRecent Development

Rapid advance in computer & InternetRapid advance in computer & Internet A survey of 750 companies (1999): A survey of 750 companies (1999):

Training via technology from less than 6% Training via technology from less than 6% in 1996 to more than 22% by 2000in 1996 to more than 22% by 2000

Between 94-95 and 97-98 academic years, Between 94-95 and 97-98 academic years, enrollment of distance learning doubledenrollment of distance learning doubled

Recent interest toward performance Recent interest toward performance supportsupport

歷史上的今天歷史上的今天 :: 教育科技教育科技 數位學習國家型科技計畫數位學習國家型科技計畫 (eLearnin(eLearnin

g), Taiwang), Taiwan– 20022002 起起 , 5, 5 年內投入年內投入 4040 億台幣億台幣– FY1999, FY1999, 擴大內需擴大內需 , 64, 64 億台幣億台幣

Visions 2020, USAVisions 2020, USA– Visioning exercise facilitated by Department of CVisioning exercise facilitated by Department of C

ommerceommerce– 14 Papers included14 Papers included

Survey of International InvestmenSurvey of International Investment in ET R&Dt in ET R&D– Published 2002, Funded by the Spencer FoundatiPublished 2002, Funded by the Spencer Foundati

onon– Around the world: FY1999, US$ 16 billion in educaAround the world: FY1999, US$ 16 billion in educa

tional technologytional technology

1945 & 19971945 & 1997in in The Atlantic MonthlyThe Atlantic Monthly

As We May Think, 1945As We May Think, 1945– By Dr. Vannevar Bush (Father of multimediBy Dr. Vannevar Bush (Father of multimedi

a)a)– Scientific research for war?Scientific research for war?– Inventions have extended man's physical poInventions have extended man's physical po

wers rather than the powers of his mind. wers rather than the powers of his mind. Computer Delusion, 1997Computer Delusion, 1997

– By Todd OppenheimerBy Todd Oppenheimer– Questioning investment in computers in schQuestioning investment in computers in sch

oolsools

Father of MultimediaFather of MultimediaDr. Vannevar BushDr. Vannevar Bush

“Consider a future device for individual use, which is a sort ofmechanized private file and library. It needs a name, and to coinone at random, ``memex'' will do. A memex is a device in which anindividual stores all his books, records, and communications, andwhich is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory.

As We May Think, The Atlantic Monthly, 1945

It consists of a desk, and while it can presumably be operated from a distance, it is primarily the piece of furniture at which he works. On the top are slanting translucent screens, on which material can be projected for convenient reading. There is a keyboard, and sets of buttons and levers. Otherwise it looks like an ordinary desk.”

Computer DelusionComputer DelusionTodd OpennheimerTodd Opennheimer

The Atlantic Monthly, 1997

“There is no good evidence that most uses of computers significantly improve teaching and learning, yet school districts are cutting programs --- music, art, physical education --- that enrich children’s lives to make room for this dubious nostrum…”

What were the visions?What were the visions?

先來想像一下、、、先來想像一下、、、

Classroom as theater (Slides,16Classroom as theater (Slides,16mm)mm)

Teaching machine (TV)Teaching machine (TV) Interactive and Fun (Multimedia)Interactive and Fun (Multimedia) Individualized with no boundary Individualized with no boundary

(Hypermedia)(Hypermedia) ……

02:10

Canon 電子紙

Classroom as TheatreClassroom as Theatre

Thomas Edison, 1922

“… the motion picture is destined to revolutionize our education system and … in a few years it will supplant largely, if not entirely, the use of textbooks.”

Teaching MachineTeaching Machine

Sydney Pressey, 1926

“… teaching machines are unique among instructional aids, in that the student not merely passively listen, watches, or reads but actively responds. And as he does so he finds out whether his response is correct or not. And a record may be kept which aids in improving the materials.”

Television as Teaching MachineTelevision as Teaching Machine

Edward R. Murrow, 1958

“This instrument can teach, it can illuminate; yes, it can even inspire. But it can do so only to the extent that humans are determined to use it to those ends. Otherwise, it is merely lights and wires in a box..”

When two vowels go walking.01:30

Teaching MachineTeaching Machine

B. F. Skinner, 1961

“A frame of textual material appearing in the square opening is incomplete: in place of certain letters or figures there are holes. Letters or figures can be made to appear in these holes by moving slides... When the material has been completed, the student checks his response… if they are correct, moves a new frame of material into place…“

“… with the help of teaching machines and programmed instruction, students could learn twice as much in the same time and with same effort as in a standard classroom.“

高互動教室高互動教室「按按按」的硬體設計採用師生慣用的紅外線遙控裝置，經由與後端教材題庫的結合，教師可輕易運用於教學活動中，所有學生學習歷程的資料都會在學生每按一次遙控器按鍵後，傳回後端的學習資料庫中，配合恰當的資料統計與分析過程，老師及家長可精確了解到學生的學習情況。

01:05

中央大學 , 2000

Richard E. ClarkRichard E. Clark

“The best current evidence is that media are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition.”

Media Will Never Influence Learning, 1983; 1994

“… the choice of vehicle might influence the cost or extent of distributing instruction.”

“… it was not the medium which influenced learning but instead certain attributes of media that can be modeled by learners and can shape the development of unique ‘cognitive process’.”

台灣的發展台灣的發展 1976 1976 淡江大學 大一英文淡江大學 大一英文 CAICAI 1986 1986 台北西松國中 英文台北西松國中 英文 CAICAI 實驗教學實驗教學 1990 TANET1990 TANET 1998 1998 擴大內需方案擴大內需方案 2000 2000 亞卓市亞卓市 EduCitiesEduCities 2002 eLearning2002 eLearning ……

非關教育非關教育 ,, 很久以前的願景…很久以前的願景…Scientific American, 1889

“… the improvement in city condition by general adoption of the motor car can hardly overestimated. Street clean, dustless, and odorless, with light rubber-tired vehicles moving swiftly and noiselessly over smooth expanse, would eliminate a great part of the nervousness, distraction, and strain of modern metropolitan life.”

Behaviorism vs. ConstructivismBehaviorism vs. Constructivism

Learning from “teacher”Learning from “teacher” Learning from “technology” (or Learning from “technology” (or

media)media)

Learning with “facilitators” (or Learning with “facilitators” (or “peers”)“peers”)

Learning with “technology” (or tools)Learning with “technology” (or tools)

Thomas C. Reeves, 1998Thomas C. Reeves, 1998 Learning “from” media and technologyLearning “from” media and technology

TelevisionTelevision– No conclusive evidence, TV stultifies mindNo conclusive evidence, TV stultifies mind– TV viewing not displaces academic TV viewing not displaces academic

activitiesactivities– Positive effectiveness Instructional TV, Positive effectiveness Instructional TV,

especially while production aided by real especially while production aided by real teachersteachers

– No difference between live teacher and No difference between live teacher and video presentationvideo presentation

Thomas C. Reeves, 1998Thomas C. Reeves, 1998 Learning “from” media and technologyLearning “from” media and technology

Computer-based InstructionComputer-based Instruction– Positive effectiveness in general Positive effectiveness in general

as tutor: Motivation and as tutor: Motivation and Standardized achievement testStandardized achievement test

– Less time to complete a given Less time to complete a given lessonlesson

– No significant impact of No significant impact of intelligent tutoring due to intelligent tutoring due to technical difficultiestechnical difficulties

Thomas C. Reeves, 1998Thomas C. Reeves, 1998 Learning “with” media and technologyLearning “with” media and technology

Great effectiveness within Great effectiveness within constructivist learning constructivist learning environmentenvironment

Representing knowledge support Representing knowledge support deep reflective thinkingdeep reflective thinking

Mindfulness and engagementMindfulness and engagement Learning to learn, and wishing to Learning to learn, and wishing to

innovateinnovate

Emperor’s New Clothes? Emperor’s New Clothes? Jamie McKenzie, 1995Jamie McKenzie, 1995

Too often, lower order task and Too often, lower order task and basic skills examinedbasic skills examined

Too little work on measuring gains in Too little work on measuring gains in higher order skillshigher order skills

Biased research; flawed Biased research; flawed methodologymethodology

Little evidence that growth in skills Little evidence that growth in skills persists beyond initial “gadget persists beyond initial “gadget stage”stage”

Feedback & QuestionsFeedback & Questions