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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter 6: Learning.
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Transcript of © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter 6: Learning.
![Page 1: © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter 6: Learning.](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062518/56649e4f5503460f94b461f8/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Chapter 6: Learning
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Learning
• A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience– Distinguishes between changes due to
maturation and changes brought about by experience
– Distinguishes between short-term changes in performance and actual learning
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Classical Conditioning
• Type of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Classical Conditioning
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Classical Conditioning
• Habituation
• Applying conditioning principles to human behavior– Phobias– PTSD
• Panic attacks – Can be relieved by classical conditioning
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Classical Conditioning
• Extinction– Occurs when a
previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears
• Spontaneous recovery– The re-emergence of
an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Classical Conditioning
• Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus generalization– Occurs when a
conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus
• Stimulus discrimination– Ability to differentiate
between stimuli
Conditioned Stimulus
New Stimulus
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Classical Conditioning
• Learned taste aversion– When humans learn they are allergic to
certain foods they learn to avoid that food
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Operant Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning – Learning in which a voluntary response is
strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences
– B.F. Skinner
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Operant Conditioning
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect– Responses that lead to
satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, and responses followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement – The process by which
a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
• Reinforcer– Any stimulus that
increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Operant Conditioning
• Primary reinforcer– Satisfies some biological need and
works naturally, regardless of a person’s prior experience
• Secondary reinforcer– A stimulus that becomes reinforcing
because of its association with a primary reinforcement
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
• Positive reinforcement– A stimulus added to the environment that
brings about an increase in a preceding response
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
• Negative reinforcement– Unpleasant stimulus which when removedremoved
from the environment leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will occur again in the future
• Escape conditioning• Avoidance conditioning
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
• Punishment– Stimulus that decreasesdecreases the probability that a
prior behavior will occur again• Positive punishment weakens a response through
the application of an unpleasant stimulus• Negative punishment consists of the removal of
something pleasant
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement– Behavior that is reinforced every time is
occurs
• Partial reinforcement– Behavior that is some but not all of the
time
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed-ratio schedule– Reinforcement is given only after a
certain number of responses
• Variable-ratio schedule– Reinforcement occurs after a varying
number of responses rather than after a fixed number
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Schedules of Reinforcement• Fixed-interval
– Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, overall rates of response are relatively low
• Variable-interval– Time between reinforcements varies
around some average rather than being fixed
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Schedules of Reinforcement
“Scalloping Effect”
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Operant Conditioning
• Stimulus control training– Behavior is reinforced in the presence of a
specific stimulus, but not in its absence
• Discriminative stimulus– Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will
follow the response
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Operant Conditioning
• Superstitious behavior
• Shaping – Process of teaching a complex behavior by
rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Operant Conditioning
• Biological constraints– Built-in limitations in the ability of animals to
learn particular behaviors– Application of conditioning in rats to discover
land mines
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Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning
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Cognitive Approaches to Learning
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Cognitive Approaches to Learning
• Latent learning– A new behavior is learned but not
demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it
• Observational learning– Learning through observing the
behavior of another person called a model
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Cognitive Approaches to Learning
• Violence in television and video games– Most experts agree that watching high levels
of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively, and research supports this claim
– “Media copycat” killings
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Cognitive Approaches to Learning
• Learning styles– Relational style
• Master material best through exposure to a full unit or phenomenon
– Analytical style• Master material best when they can carry out an
initial analysis of the principles and components underlying a phenomenon or situation
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Learning Styles