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, ,

: , . . , , , .

. , , .

(quantity) (standard), (Unit) . , .

SI : SI (System International de Units) .

:

m

-1

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() kg

s

A

K

Cd

mol

:

rad

sr

:

x m2

x x m3

/ m s-1




/ m s-2

/ rad s-1

/ rad s-2

/ kg m-3

x kg m s-1

: 'SI ' . , . , (factors of the power of ten). (Simon Stevin) , 1586 .

(base 10 arithmetic), . , . : = 299792.458 / ; 2.99792458 x 108 / .

SI : (1000 ), ( 0.001 3) (10000 2) SI , SI .

:




tera T 1000000000000

giga G 1000000000

mega M 1000000

kilo k 1000

hecto k 1000

(none) - - 1

deci d 0.1

centi c 0.01

milli m 0.001

micro 0.000001

nano n 0.000000001

: , Mtre des Archives Kilogramme des Archives . , .

CGS (

) MKS (

MTS (




) )

(l) (cm) (m)

(m) (g) (kg) (t)

(t) (s)

(v) / (cm/s) / (m/s) / (m/s)

(a) (Gal) /2 (m/s) /2 (m/s)

(F) (dyn) (N) (sn)

(p) (Ba) (Pa) (pz)

(W) (erg) (J) (kJ)

(P) / (erg/s) (W) (kW)

()

(p) Pas pzs

SI , SI . .

SI

Conversion

factor[10][11][12]




second (s) second (s) 1

metre (m) centimetre (cm)

ngstrm ()

0.01

1010

kilogram (kg) gram (g) 0.001

square metre (m2) are (are) 100

(ms2

) gal (gal) 102

ampere (A)

ampere

abampere or biot

statampere

1.000022

10.0

3.3356411010

kelvin (K)

degrees Celsius (C) centigrade (C)

K = C + 273.15

1

candela (cd) international candle 0.982

mole (mol) No legacy unit n/a

hertz (Hz) cycles per second 1

joule (J) erg (erg) 107

watt (W)

(erg/s)

horsepower (HP)

Pferdestrke (PS)

107

745.7

735.5

newton (N)

dyne (dyn)

sthene (sn)

kilopond (kp)

105

103

9.80665




pascal (Pa)

barye (Ba)

pieze (pz)

atmosphere (at)

0.1

103

1.0197105

coulomb (C) abcoulomb

statcoulomb or franklin

10

3.3356411010

volt (V)

international volt

abvolt

statvolt

1.00034

108

2.997925102

farad (F) abfarad

statfarad

109

1.1126501012

henry (H) abhenry

stathenry

109

8.9875521011

ohm ()

international ohm

abohm

statohm

1.00049

109

8.9875521011

siemens (S)

mho ()

abmho

statmho

0.99951

109

1.1126501012

weber (Wb) maxwell (Mx) 108

tesla (T) gauss (G) 1104

(A/m) oersted (Oe) 10

3/4 =

79.57747

(Pas) poise (P) 0.1

(m2s

1) stokes (St) 10

4




lumen (lm) stilb (sb) 104

lux (lx) phot (ph) 104

becquerel (Bq) curie (Ci) 3.701010

gray (Gy)

roentgen (R)

rad (rad)

2.5810-4

0.01

sievert roentgen equivalent man (rem) 0.01

katal (kat) No legacy unit n/a

,

: . , . , . . , , . . ,, , .




, , , . , .

: (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research - CSIR) . . 1942 (Central Legislative Assembly) , 1860 . 39 50 . 17000 .

(Aerospace Engineering), (Structural Engineering), , , , , , ,, .

AMPRI -

, (Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute, Bhopal) CMMACS -

, (Centre for Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation, Bangalore) CBRI - , (Central Building Research

Institute, Roorkee) CCMB - , (Centre for

Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad) CDRI - , (Central Drug Research

Institute, Lucknow)




CECRI - , (Central Electro Chemical Research Institute, Karaikudi)

CEERI - , (Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani)

CFRI - , , (Central Mining & Fuel Research Institute, Dhanbad)

CFTRI - , (Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore)

CGCRI - , (Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Kolkata)

CIMAP - , (Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow)

CLRI - , (Central Leather Research Institute, Chennai)

CMERI - , (Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur)

CMRI - , (Central Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad)

CRRI - , (Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi)

CSIO - , (Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh)

CSMCRI - , (Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar)

IGIB - , (Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Delhi)

IHBT - , (Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur)

IICB - , (Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata)

IICT - , (Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad)

IIP - , (Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun)




IMMT - , (Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar)

IMT - , (Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh)

IITR - , [Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow (Formerly known as Industrial Toxicology Research Centre)]

NAL - , (National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore)

NBRI - , (National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow)

NCL - , (National Chemical Laboratory, Pune) NEERI - , (National Environmental

Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur) NGRI - , (National Geophysical

Research Institute, Hyderabad) NIO - , (National Institute of Oceanography,

Dona Paula) NISCAIR - ,

(National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, New Delhi) NISTADS - , ,

(National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies, New Delhi) NML - , (National Metallurgical Laboratory,

Jamshedpur) NPL - , (National Physical Laboratory, New

Delhi) IIIM - , (Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu) NEIST - ,

(North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat) NIIST -

, (National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology - Thiruvananthapuram)

SERC - , (Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai)




,

: , , , , (Material phenomena) , (Matter) .

. , . . . , , . . .

(Definition) ( ) .

. , , . . . . . , . , . .




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c =

. .

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( 624 . 546 .) . (585 ., 528 .) . ( 535. 475 .) . . ( 490430 .) ,,, . . .




(15961650) . . . . . . . . ,, .

*(Mass),

(Volume),

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,, .

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, 13.73 ( 0.12) [1] . . . " " (observable universe) . . 92 . ( . 299,792,458 ; , 9,460,730,472,580,800 . , 9,460,730,472,580,800 . 92 8.80 1026 .) ; , .

13.73 , (radius) 13.73 . , 92




? 13.73 x 2 (, 27.46) . . , " " , (, ) . . : (1) . , , . , 5 , 5 . (2) space (balloon ) . , .

, 27.46 92 .

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.

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: (force) . .




. , . . , .

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(light) . . - . 380 740 .




2,99,792.458 / ( 1,86,282 ) . . " " , .

, , , , , - .

. , . , .

, . [Raman Scattering]




[Raman Effect] ; .

; ; ;

, .

, , , .

, , , .

, . c , v , ( ) n ,




. , n = 1 , n > 1 .

, . , . .

(Reflection) .

The Sun is Earth's primary source of light. About 44% of the sun's electromagnetic radiation that reaches the ground is in the visible light range.

. ; . ; 6000 . 44% . . 10% , . ; , .




. :

- .

- .

, , . :

:SI radiometry units :SI light units

.

(1592-1655) . 1960- . , 1965- (Hypothesis of Light)




. . , . , .

, . , . 1704- (Opticks) - . 18- . (Laplace), . (Black Hole) . , . ( , .) - (Large Scale structure of Space-time) .

1660- . 1678- . (Treatise on Light) . , (Luminiferous ether) .




.

Thomas Young's sketch of the two-slit experiment showing thediffraction of light. Young's experiments supported the theory that light consists of waves.

, ( 1800- .); , . , . , , .

. 1746- Nova theoria lucis et colorum .

, , 1817- . , . 1821- , .

, , . , - .




, . . 1850- . , ; , 20- .

( ) 1900- , . (quanta) - - . 1905- , . 1923- , - ( ) , . 1926- . () .

; . - , , , ; , . , .




:

1845- , , ; . . 1846- , . , 1847- .

. ; , . , ; 1862- On Physical Lines of Force . 1873- (Treatise on electricity and magnetism) , ; . , ; , , ,




. , , , , .

( ), () . (-: ).

(Sound) . " , , " .

. 16 20,000 . (infrasonic), (ultra-sonic) . .

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. ,

.

. . , . .

, , . . . . , . . . , . . 20 C (68 F) , , 343 (1,230 ) . 20 C




1482 . 5960 . .

(Pitch) . . . . . . . . (Amplitude) . . . (Inverse Square Law) . , .

. 0.000000000001 W/m2 . . 1 W/m2 120 dB . , , , .

. 20 20 . (infrasonic) ,




(ultra-sonic) . . , . 1000 6000 . .

. . . .

. . , . .

, , , . .

(Nutrition) , . (Nutrients) .




. (Nutrition), (Nutrient) .

, . , , . , , ( ), .

, , ; , .

. , : .

, , , ( ), ( ), (.. ..) . , , , , , , , , , , .




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, , (), . , , , ,




( ) . ( ) .

: , , , ,, .

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( ) ( , ) . ( " (Calories)" 'c' C ). 17 (4 ) , 37 (9 ) . . , , , . (, )




.

, . (, , ) () . . , , ; . , . , . ( ) . ; . .

( ) () . .

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( ) . ( ). . , , . ( ) ( ) . , -3 -6 . - ; ; .

, . , . ( ) , ( ). ,




.

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.

-6 1 1 . -3 , - 2 ( ) - 1 ( ) . , () ( ) ( ) -5 . , ; -3 -6 , (.. ) .

, , , , , , , .

(.. , ). . ( , ) . ( ) () .




. , . , ( ) ( - ). , . ( ) : , , ( ) . ; .

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, , , ,




. "" , . , . , , ( ) . , ; .

; " " . , . 200 / () ( ):

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: , , , , , , , ( ), . ( ), 6 . .




.

70 . , ; , , . .

, 810 ( 2 ) . . . 1945 : " 1 . ." ( ): 2.7 , 3.7 . , . - 2.2 , 3.0




- 2.4 (. 9 ) 3 ( 12.5 ) , .

, ( ) . , . .

, 20 , ( ). ; , , .

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. , . (, ) , ( , , ) (- , ). ( ) ; 4,000 . , .. - . . . ( , ). . .




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.

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. .

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1985 . 20 , . 2006 30 .

, , "" . . . , "100- ". , . , "" ,




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, 1976 1988 34,000 - "..., , . , " .

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. ,

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, 1990-2000 .

. . . , . , , , .

, . 2005 , () 0.8 - 1 ( ) , " " . , (2008), , "




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10,000 , , , , , , . . , . .

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475 , , . 400 , " , " .

1500 , . 1747 , , , . , "" . 1930 .

1770 , " " , . 1790 , . 1800 , , , .

1816 , , , . 1840 , (), ( ) ( ) . 1860,




, .

1880 , , ( ) ( ) . .

1896 , . 1897 . , . . , 12 .

1900 1900 , . 1906 , . , . . " " ,




. 1907 . . . 1911 .

1912 , "vital ()" "amine ()" vitamin () , , . .

1913 , (1915 ; ) . . 1919 , , . 1922 , , . 1922 , .. .. , 1925 " " .

1925 , . 1927 , , 1928 . 1928 - , 1932 . 1935 , 1937 . - .




1930, , . 1935 , . 1936 . 1938 , . .

1940 , . 1941 () .

1992 , . 2002 , . 2005 , .

(Biodiversity) . , , , , . . , , , , .




. , , . , . , . , . , , . .

. , . . " , , , , " .

. . . 3.5 . , .




, , , . , , , . , , . , , . :

(genetic diversity) (species diversity) (ecosystem diversity)

1992 ,

(United Nations Earth Summit) ,d;ndhU tiutpyf;fzj;ij toq;fpaJ. ,jd;gb> capupaw; gy;tifik vd;gJ> jhq;fSk; xU gFjpahfTs;s epyk;> fly; kw;Wk; Vida ePHrhH #oypay;Kiwikfs; kw;Wk; tho;#oypaw; njhFjpfs; cl;gl;l vy;yh ,lq;fisAk; rhHe;j capupdq;fs; kj;jpapyhd gy;tifik MFk;. ,J capHtiffSf;Fs;Sk;> mtw;Wf;F ,ilapYk;> #oypay;Kiwik rhHe;Jk; cs;s gy;tifikfis cs;slf;Ffpd;wJ.




If;fpa ehLfs; mitapd; capupaw; gy;tifik kfhehl;by; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;l fhuzj;jpdhy;> rl;lg+Htkhd mq;fPfhuk; ngwf;$ba epiyapYs;sJ> filrpahfj; jug;gl;l tiutpyf;fzNkahFk;.

,d;wpaikahik

ehk; cz;Zk; cztpy; 80 rjtPjk; ,e;jcyfpy; thOk; jhtuq;fisAk;> tpyq;FfisAk; rhHe;J jhd; ,Uf;fpd;wd..... Neha;fspd; jhf;fj;jpy; ,Ue;J ek;ik fhf;Fk; kUe;Jfspy; Kf;fpag; gq;F tfpg;gJ ,e;jcapupdq;fspy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gLk; nghUl;fs; jhd;. ,Ug;gplq;fs; kw;Wk; Milfs; cUthf;Ftjw;Fk; jhtuq;fs; Kf;fpagq;F tfpf;fpd;wJ. ,t;thW ekf;F ,d;wpaikahjnghUl;fshdczT> cil> cwtplk; vd;wfhuzpfSf;F ehk; gy;YapHfisr; rhHe;Nj thoNtz;bAs;sJ. gy;YapH ngUf;fk; ,aw;ifahffz;Zf;F njupahky; eilngWk; gygzpfis nra;fpd;wJ. tsp kz;lyj;jpy; eilngWk; Ntjpapay; kw;Wk; ePH Row;r;rpfis rkd;gLj;JfpwJ. ePiu J}a;ik gLj;Jjy;(kPd;fs;) kw;Wk; kz;zpy; rj;Jfis kWRow;rp nra;J(kz;GO) tskhdepyj;ij nfhLf;fpwJ. gy;NtW Ma;Tfspd; gb ,g;gbg;gl;l ,aw;ifahd#o;epiyia ek;Kilamwptpay; tsHr;rpapd; %yk; mikj;J nfhs;sKbahJ vd;W Ma;thsHfs; njuptpf;fpwhHfs;.

rhd;whfg; g+f;fspy; g+r;rpfs; %yk; elf;Fk; kfue;jNrHf;ifia kdpjHfshdek;khy; elj;jKbahJ. njhopw;riyfSf;F Njitahd%yg;nghUl;fs; ngUk;ghYk; capupay; Mjhuq;fspy; ,Ue;Nj vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. vdNtjhd; ,e;jcapupay; Mjhuq;fis mopahky; ghJfhg;gJf;F cyfmstpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; jug;gLfpwJ.

(HIPPO) . .

(H-Habitat destruction) (I-Invasive species)




(P-Pollution) (P-human over population) (O-Overharvesting)

kf;fspd; tho;f;ifj; NjitfSf;fhfg; gytpisepyq;fs; fl;blq;fshfTk;> fhLfs; njhopw;rhiyfshfkhwpf;nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. capupdq;fspy; thoplq;f

is mopj;J kdpj thoplq;fs; ngUf;fp nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. fp.gp 1000 Kjy; ,d;Wtiu moptpw;F cz;lhdjhtuq;fs; kw;Wk; tpyq;fpdq;fs; kdpjeltbf;ifahy; Vw;gl;lNj MFk;.

mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLk; rpw;wpdq;fs;

cyfpy; gy;NtW gl;lcapupdq;fs; gy;NtW ,lq;fspy; me;j#oYf;FNfw;g$l;lkhftho;fpd;wd.. mt;thW $l;lkhftho;tjw;F fhuzk; fz;lq;fs;> fly;fs;> kiyfs;> MWfs; Mfpatw;why; xd;NwhL xd;W fye;Jtplhky; gpupj;Jitf;fg;gLtjhy; jhd;. Mdhy; jw;NghJ kdpjHfshy; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;lNghf;Ftuj;J trjpfshy; ,itfs; jq;fspd; #oypy; ,Ue;J vspikahf ,lk;ngaHfpd;wd. ,t;thW ,lk;ngaUk; rpw;wpdq;fs; me;j,lq;fspy; cs;srpw;wpdq;fspd; tsHr;rpia jdjhf;fp jd;Dila,dj;ij ngUf;fr; nra;fpd;wd. rhd;whf ntspehLfspy; ,Ue;J nfhz;Lte;J ekJ ehl;by; gapuplg;gLk; goq;fis nrhy;yyhk;.

kugZ khRghL

jhtuq;fs; kw;Wk; tpyq;Ffspy; elj;jg;gLk; kugZ Nrhjidfs; %yk; cUthf;fg;gLk; fyg;gpdq;fs;. ,jdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; fyg;gpdj;jpd; jhaftiffspy; (ufq;fspy;) khRghL Vw;gLfpwJ. ,t;thW khRgLk; tiffs; jq;fspd; jhaftiffSld; cl;fyg;G nra;Ak; NghJ ngUk; Mgj;J




tpistpf;Fk;. ,jdhy; fyg;gpdk; ,y;yhjjhtuq;fisg; ghHg;gJ mupjhfptpLk;.

ve;jnthU capupapYk; ntspg;Gwj; Njhw;wj;ij kl;Lk; mbg;gilahfitj;J fyg;gpdk; nra;ahky;> Mo;e;J Muha;e;J cl;Gwj; Njhw;wj;jpYk; cs;skhw;wq;fis fUj;jpy; nfhz;L Ma;T nra;tNj rpwe;jJ. rhd;whf jw;NghJ re;ijapy; cs;skugZ khw;wg;gl;l fj;jpupiaf;(Genetically Modified Brinjal) Fwpg;gplyhk;.

kdpjkf;fs;njhif mjpfupg;G

Mz;LNjhWk; mjpfupj;J tUk; kdpjkf;fs;njhif tsHr;rpAk; gy;YapH ngUf;fj;jpw;F jilahf,Uf;fpd;wJ. ,e;jkf;fs;j;njhif ngUf;fj;jhy; Rw;Wg;Gwr;#oy; ntFthfgjpf;fg;gLfpwJ mjdhy; g+kp ntg;gkakhjy; Nghd;wepfo;TfSk; epfo;fpd;wd. gy;YapH ngUf;fj;jpd; Kf;fpajskhffUjg;gLk; gtsg;ghiwfs;> g+kp ntg;gkakhjy;(Global Warming) epfo;Tf

shy; ,d;Dk; 20 Kjy; 40 tUlq;fspy; Kw;wpYk; mope;JtpLk; mghak; cs;sJ.

mjpfkhd mWtil jhtuq;fspy; tpisAk; nghUl;fis EfHtjw;fhf (czT) vd;W ngUk;gFjpia ehk; vLj;JtpLfpNwhk;> mitfspd; kuGtopfis cUthf;Ftjw;F Kjd;ikj; jug;gLtjpy;iy. mjpftpisr;ry; jUk; tPupaufg; gapHfis gapHnra;J mjpy; ,aw;iff;F kPwpamjpfkf#iy ngWfpNwhk;. ,jdhYk; gy;YapH ngUf;fk; ghjpg;gilfpwJ.

(Breathing) . , , , "" . , .




, (alveoli) (inhalation) , (exhalation) .

, . , 100% .

. , (capillary) / . , , . , , .

, (abdominal cavity), (thoracic cavity) . , . , . , . . , . . ,




, . , . . ..

. . . , . . , , . . , , .

, . . , . , , .

" " . , . , .

, , .




. () . , , . .

. , . , , . , . (mammalian diving reflex) , .

, . , , , .

. , , (Bohr effect) , . , .

, .




, . , . . . . , , . , . , .

, , . , , , . , . . , .

. 78% , 21% , 0.96% , 0.04% , , , . . , . . , .

4-5% , 4-5% .




, . 5% , , , , , , . , , , , .

, , . . . , , .

. , . , , . , , , . , , . .

: , .




, (blood vessels) . . , . , , , .

, , , , . . .

, , . 40% , 60% . (96%). 3%, ) 1%.

4-5 . 72 4.5 , 36 . , 4 . 300 (0.3 ) . . 1.9 .

. . , .

(blood plasma) ( ) . 55% 65% . .




, ( (colloids)) . , . (proteins), , , .

(albumin), () (fibrinogen), (globulin), . () . . , . (edema) . , , . . , , (gamma) . [[ , .

. , , . . ( ) 4 6 . 7 ( = ). . .

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, , .

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. , , .

. :

A B AB O Duffy Lutheran Bombay MN system

: (, ),

, , .

: .




: .

. .

, , , . ( , ) DNA . .

: . . , . . , (Androgens) . , , . .

: FSH ,




. FSH .

LH . 32C .

. . , . , , . . . . ATP . (Puberty) . . 125 . 12-15 . . . .

, ,

: . ,




. . .

: (Ecology) , , . , , ; (ecosystem) .

, , . , .

, , , , , , , . (holistic) .

(Ernst Haeckel) 1869 . . .

1895 , (Eugenius Warming) .




. .

(Ecology ) (oikos) . .

, . . , ,, , , , , , , , . , , , , . .

, ,

. .

, .

.




, (, , ), .

.

- , , , , , , - , , ,

.

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,

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, .

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->->->. .

r / K- , .

r - , . . .

K - , . . .

: ,




(, , , , ) . ,

.

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. -- ( ) . .

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, , , , .

, , , , .

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