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VERPTheVisitorExperienceandResourceProtection(VERP)FrameworkAHandbookforPlannersandManagersU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorNationalParkService
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VERPTheVisitorExperienceandResourceProtection(VERP)FrameworkAHandbookforPlannersandManagers
September1997U.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorNationalParkServiceDenverServiceCenter
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Contents
HOWTOUSETHISHANDBOOK 1OrganizationoftheHandbook 3
HISTORYANDTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHECARRYINGCAPACITYCONCEPT 4Introduction 4TheConceptofCarryingCapacity 4LimitsofAcceptableChange 5
OVERVIEWOFTHEVERPFRAMEWORKPurposeoftheVERPFramework 8SummaryoftheFramework 9VERPandNPSPlanning 11VERPandNEPA 12
ELEMENT1Assemble
an
Interdisciplinary
Project
Team
PointersforBuildingtheTeam 13
ELEMENT2DevelopaPublicInvolvementStrategy 15
8
13
PointersforDevelopingaPublicInvolvementStrategy 18ELEMENT3DevelopStatementsofParkPurpose,Significance,andPrimaryInterpretiveThemes;IdentifyPlanningConstraints 19
IdentificationofParkPurposeandSignificance 20PointersforDevelopingParkPurposeStatements 21ExamplesofParkPurposeStatements 21PointersforDevelopingParkSignificanceStatements 22ExamplesofParkSignificanceStatements 24
IdentificationofPrimaryInterpretiveThemes 25PointersforArticulatingPrimaryInterpretiveThemes 26ExamplesofPrimaryInterpretiveThemesandParkThemes 26
IdentificationofPlanningConstraints 28
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PointersforIdentifyingPlanningConstraints 28ExamplesofPlanningConstraints 29
ELEMENT4AnalyzeParkResourcesandtheExistingVisitorUse 30
Analysisas
It
Relates
to
VERP
30
PointersforAnalysis 32
ExperientialResourceAnalysis 33PointersforExperientialResourceAnalysis 38
ExistingUseandFacilitiesAnalysis 38PointerforExistingUseandFacilitiesAnalysis 39
ResourceConcerns/ResourceSensitivityAnalysis 40PointersfortheResourceConcerns/ResourceSensitivityAnalysis 41
ELEMENT5DescribeaPotentialRangeofVisitorExperiencesandResourceConditions 42
ImportanceofDiversity 42IdentifyingtheRangeofPotentialResourceConditionsandVisitorExperience 43
ExampleofZoneDescriptionsfromArchesNationalPark 46ExampleofZoneDescriptionfromIsleRoyalNationalParkMotorizedSensitive
WaterZone 47PointersforDeterminingtheRangeofResourceConditionsandVisitorExperiences 48
ELEMENT6AllocatethePotentialZonestoSpecificLocationsinthePark(PrescriptiveManagementZoning) 51
ExamplesofVERPZoning 52PointersforDevelopingManagementZoning 52DevelopmentofAlternatives 56PointersforDevelopingAlternatives 57
ELEMENT7SelectIndicatorsandSpecifyStandardsforEachZone;DevelopaMonitoringPlan 58
DefinitionofIndicatorsandStandards 58Indicators 60
SourcesofIndicators 60CharacteristicsofGoodIndicators 62SelectionofIndicators 64
Standards 67CharacteristicsofGoodStandards 67SettingStandards 69
ExamplesofPossibleIndicatorsandStandards 70RevisionofIndicatorsandStandards 70PointersforDevelopingandSelectingIndicatorsandStandards 72DevelopmentofaMonitoringStrategy 74
KeyComponentsofaMonitoringStrategy 75WhereResourceandSocialIndicatorsShouldBeMonitored 76WhenIndicatorsShouldBeMonitored 78HowResourceandSocialIndicatorsShouldBeMonitored 79
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Contents
ELEMENTS 8 & 9 MonitorResourceandSocialIndicatorsTakeManagementAction 81
Monitoring 81RangeofPossibleManagementActions 82Pointers
for
Selecting
Management
Tactics
85
APPENDIXADescriptionsoftheResourceExperienceOpportunityAreasDevelopedfortheArchesVERPPlan 87APPENDIXBDescriptionsoftheManagementZonesintheArchesVERPImplementationPlan 90GLOSSARY 96BIBLOGRAPHY 97LIST
OF
PREPARERS
103
FIGURES1. PlanningCorral 192. ResourceExperienceOpportunityAreas,ArchesNationalPark 363. ParkwideManagementZones,ArchesNationalPark 534. WindowsSectorManagementZones,ArchesNationalPark 54
TABLES1. ResourceExperienceAttributesforVisitorUse 372. PotentialManagementZones,ArchesNationalPark 453. SummaryoftheArchesNationalParkVERPZones 554. ExampleofanEvaluationMatrixforSelectingIndicators 665. ExamplesofIndicatorsandStandards 71
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HowToUsethisHandbook
In1992theNationalParkService(NPS)begandevelopingtheVisitorExperienceandResourceProtection(VERP)frame-
worktoaddressvisitorusemanagementandcarryingcapacityissuesintheunitsofthenationalparksystem.ArchesNationalParkwasthefirstunitinwhichtheVERPprocesswastested.InterestintheVERPframeworkintheNationalParkServicehassubsequentlysoared,andadditionalapplicationsarenowunderwayinseveralparkunits.Interesthasalsobeenexpressedbyothermanagementagenciesbothinthiscountryandinternationally.ThishandbookisintendedtoprovidesufficientguidancesothataNPSplanner,resourcemanager,orotherpractitionerassignedtoundertakeVERPplanningcandosowithconfidence.However,evenwiththishandbookapractitionerwillneedtohaveinitiativeandcreativity,bewillingtoexperiment,andbeabletomakejudgementcallsinordertosuccessfullycarryoutaVERPeffort.Frequentcommunicationwithindi
vidualsinvolvedinotherVERPeffortsmayalsobehelpful.Itmustbestressedthatthishandbookisnotmeanttobeacompleteguideonhowtodogeneralplanningforparks.Manyimportanttopicsthatshouldbeconsideredinthedevelopmentofparkplans,suchasthetreatmentofissues,publicinvolvement,andtheassessmentofalternatives,arediscussedbrieflyornotatall.ReadersshouldrefertotheNPSParkPlanningGuidelinesandtheParkPlanningSourcebook(bothinpreparation)formoredetailsonparkplanning.Duetothetimingoftheproductionofthesethreedocuments,theremaybeinconsistenciesandcontradictionsinterminologyanddirectionscontainedinthedocuments.Inthesecases,readersshoulddefertotheguidanceprovidedintheParkPlanningGuidelines.
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ThisHandbookis . . . ageneralguidetotheelementsthatmakeuptheVERPframework.It
definestheelements,explainstheirrelationshipstoeachotherandtoplanning,suggestssometerminology,andsharescurrentinsightsintothesuccessesandpotentialpitfallsinapplyingVERP.
aboutanewwayofaddressingvisitoruse(carryingcapacity)issuesinparks.TheVERPframeworkisamethodologyforvisitoruseplanningandmanagement.ManyoftheVERPelementsarealsoelementsofgeneralmanagementplanning.
intendedtoprovideoverallconsistencyintheapplicationoftheVERPmethodologysothattheframeworkcanevolveandimproveinanorderlyway.
acompilationofmanyideasandapproachesthatarenewand/orexperimentaltotheParkService.AstheVERPframeworkistestedinmoreparkareas,thishandbookwillneedtobeupdated.
ThisHandbook isnot . . . astep-by-stepguideonhowtoapplyVERP.Itisnotpossibleforthis
handbooktoanswerallthequestionsthatariseovertheapplicationoftheVERPframeworkineverypark.
adescriptionofasubstituteoralternativegeneralmanagementplanningprocess,althoughtheVERPframeworkmaybeusedinconjunctionwithgeneralmanagementplanning.
intendedtoprovidearecipethatrequiresthattheVERPframeworkbeappliedexactlythesamewayineveryparkunit.
thefinalwordontheVERPprocess.Itwilloftenbeuptothepractitionertochooseacourseofactiondeemedbestforeachparksituation.WearestilllearninghowtoimplementtheVERPframework.
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HowtoUseThisHandbook
ORGANIZATIONOFTHEHANDBOOKThefirsttwochaptersofthishandbookgiveanoverviewofthecarryingcapacityconceptandtheVERPframework.TheremainingchaptersareorganizedbynineVERPframeworkelements.Generallyeachofthesechaptersdescribesthepurposeorroleoftheelement,describeswhatitis,providesexamples,andofferspointersonhowtocompletetheelements.Thesechaptersvaryconsiderablyintheirlevelofdetail,dependingonhowfamiliarplanners/managersarewiththeelement.Attheendofthehandbookthereisaglossaryoftermsandalistofkeysourcesofadditionalinformation.
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HistoryandDevelopmentoftheConceptofCarryingCapacity
ThePurposeoftheNationalParkServiceconservethesceneryandthenaturalandhistoricobjectsandthewildlifethereinprovidefortheenjoymentofthesameinsuchmannerandbysuchmeansaswillleavethemunimpairedfortheenjoymentoffuturegenerations1916NPSOrganicAct(16USC1)
Thenationalparks containnaturalandculturalresourcesofgreatimportancetothenationand,inmanycases,totheinter-nationalcommunity.Giventhesignificanceofthisresourcebase,publicdemandtoseeandexperiencetheseareasshouldnotbesurprising.Inthedecadesofthe1970sand1980s,visitationincreasedtremendouslyinthenationalparksystem.Inthe1990stheincreaseinvisitationhasslowed,butuselevelsarestillrisinginmanyparks.Thisupwardtrendisexpectedtocontinueintothenextcentury.TheincreasingvisitationtothenationalparksystemismakingitmoredifficultfortheNationalParkServicetofulfillitsdualmissiontoprovidefortheenjoymentofnationalparkswhileconservingresourcesforfuturegenerations.Concernoverrising
visitationinparks,andaccompanyingimpactsonresourcesandon
visitor
experience,
has
led
the
National
Park
Service
to
focus
increasingattentionontheconceptofcarryingcapacity.
THECONCEPTOFCARRYINGCAPACITYTheunderlyingconceptofcarryingcapacityhasarichhistoryinthenaturalresourceprofessions.Inparticular,ithasprovenausefulconceptinwildlifeandrangemanagementwhereitreferstothenumberofanimalsofanyonespeciesthatcanbemaintainedinagivenhabitat.Carryingcapacityhasobviousparallelsandintuitiveappealinthefieldofparkmanagement.Infact,it
wasfirstsuggestedinthemid1930sasaparkmanagementconceptinthecontextofthenationalparksystem.However,thefirstrigorousapplicationofcarryingcapacitytoparkplanningandmanagementdidnotoccuruntilthe1960s.
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HistoryandDevelopmentoftheConceptofCarryingCapacity
Theinitialscientificapplicationsofcarryingcapacityinparksfocusedontheimpactsonparkresourcesresultingfromvisitoruse.Itsoonbecameapparent,however,thattherewasanotherdimensionofcarryingcapacitydealingwiththesocialaspectsofthevisitorexperience.Inthe1964monographTheCarryingCapacity
of
Wild
Lands
for
Recreation,
J.
A.
Wagar
reported
that
hisstudywasinitiatedwiththeviewthatthecarryingcapacityofrecreationlandscouldbedeterminedprimarilyintermsofecologyandthedeteriorationofareas.However,itsoonbecameobviousthattheresourceorientedpointofviewmustbeaugmentedbyconsiderationofhumanvalues.Thepointwasthatasmorepeoplevisitapark,boththenaturalandculturalresourcesoftheareaandthequalityofthevisitorexperiencecanbeaffected.ThroughtheyearsithasbecomeevidentthatthereisaconflictbetweenParkServiceeffortstoencouragetheuseofparksbymakingthemmoreaccessibletomorepeople,anditseffortstoensurethatparkresourcesareprotectedandopportunitiesforqualityvisitorexperienceopportunitiesareprovided.
LIMITSOFACCEPTABLECHANGE(LAC)Theearlyscientificworkoncarryingcapacityhasblossomedintoanextensiveliteraturebaseonresourceandsocialaspectsofparkuseandtheirapplicationtocarryingcapacity(forexamples,seetheBibliography).Butdespitetheimpressiveliteraturebase,
efforts
to
determine
and
apply
carrying
capacity
to
parks
haveoftenresultedinfrustration.Theprincipaldifficultyliesindetermininghowmuchresourceorsocialimpactistoomuch.Giventhesubstantialdemandforpublicuseoftheparks,somedeclineorchangeinresourceconditionandthequalityofvisitorexperienceisinevitable.Buthowmuchdeclineorchangeisappropriateoracceptable?Thisissueisoftenreferredtoasthe
limitsofacceptablechange(LAC)andisfundamentaltoaddressingcarryingcapacity.In1985theU.S.ForestServicepublishedaprocessfordealing
withtheissueofrecreationalcarryingcapacityinwilderness.TheprocesswasfirstappliedattheBobMarshallWildernessComplexinMontana.Sincethattimeseveralplanningandmanagementframeworkshavebeendevelopedtoaddresscarryingcapacity,includingtheNationalParksandConservation
AssociationVisitorImpactManagement(VIM)process,theParksCanadaManagementProcessforVisitorActivities(knownasVAMP),andtheParkServiceVERPprocess.Whileeachframeworkincludesrefinementstosuitindividualagency
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missions,policies,andprocedures,alloftheframeworksshareacommonsetofelements.Alloftheseframeworksincludeadescriptionofdesiredfutureconditionsforparkresourcesand
visitorexperiences,theidentificationofindicatorsofqualityexperiencesandresourceconditions,establishmentofstandardsthat
define
minimum
acceptable
conditions,
the
formulation
of
monitoringtechniquestodetermineifandwhenmanagementactionmustbetakentokeepconditionswithinstandards,andthedevelopmentofmanagementactionstoensurethatallindicatorsaremaintainedwithinspecifiedstandards.
AnotherwayoflookingatthebasiclogicoftheLACprocessandotherframeworkshasbeenarticulatedbyDavidColeofthe
AldoLeopoldWildernessResearchInstituteandoneoftheoriginalauthorsoftheLACconcept.AccordingtoCole,theintentofcarryingcapacityplanningistodevelopacompromisebetweentheabsoluteprotectionofresources(inthiscaserefer-ringtotheenvironmentalconditionsandthevisitorexperience)andtheunrestrictedaccesstoresourcesforrecreationaluse.TheLACprocesswasdesignedtohelpdefinethiscompromise.ThebasiclogicoftheLACprocess,accordingtoCole,isasfollows:
IdentifyTwoGoalsinConflict.Inthecaseofnationalparks,thetwogoalsareusuallytheprotectionofenvironmentalconditionsandvisitorexperiences(goal1)andtheunrestrictedaccesstoresourcesforrecreationaluse(goal2).
EstablishthatBothGoalsMustBeCompromised.Ifoneortheothergoalcannotbecompromised,thentheLACprocessisnotneededonegoalmustsimplybecompromisedasnecessarytomeettheonethatcannotbecompromised.
DecideWhichGoalWillUltimatelyConstraintheOther.Inthecaseofnationalparks,thegoalofprotectingenvironmentalconditionsandvisitorexperienceswillalmostalwaysconstrainthegoalofunrestrictedaccess.
WriteLACStandardsforthisUltimatelyConstrainingGoal.LACstandardsexpresstheminimallyacceptableconditionsfortheenvironmentandvisitor.
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HistoryandDevelopmentoftheConceptofCarryingCapacity
CompromisethisGoalUntiltheStandardsAreReached.Allowtheenvironmentalconditionsandvisitorexperiencestodegradeonlytotheminimallyacceptablestandard.Recreationalaccessshouldnotbesubstantiallyrestricteduntilthestandardsarereached.
CompromisetheOtherGoalasMuchasNecessary.Oncestandardsforenvironmentalconditionsandvisitorexperiencesarereachednomoredegradationisallowed,andrecreationalaccessisrestrictedasneededtomaintainstandards.
LookingatthebasiclogicoftheLACprocessinthiswayishelpfulforseveralreasons.First,thiswayofthinkingillustratesthatthefundamentalchallengeinvisitorusemanagementisnotsomuchtheresolutionofresourceprotectionandvisitoruseconflicts.Instead,theemphasisshouldbeondefiningcomplementaryvisitorexperienceopportunitiesandresourceconditions,andthendeterminingtowhatextentunrestrictedrecreationalaccesscanbeaccommodated.Second,thislogicallowsmanagerstorecognizethatunrestrictedaccessavalueheldstronglybymanyrecreationistsisavalidgoal,butone
whichcannotalwaysbeaccommodatedinlightoftheequallyvalidgoalsofvisitorexperiencediversityandresourceprotection.Third,anunderstandingofthegenericthoughtprocessishelpfulinunderstandinghowthevariousframeworksmaybeadaptedorfine-tunedfordifferentsituationswithoutlosingthecriticalelementsoftheframeworks.Fourth,becausetherehasbeen
interest
on
the
part
of
managers
to
apply
the
LAC
process
toproblemsotherthancarryingcapacity,theexaminationofthegenericprocesshelpsindeterminingthesituationsinwhichsuchapplicationsmaybeusefulandthosesituationsinwhichtheymaynot.SincetheinceptionoftheLACprocess,landareamanagersandplannershavecontinuedtotest,adapt,andrefinetheprocess.TheVERPframeworkisoneoftheadaptationsoftheLACprocess.InVERPplanning,theprocessisexpandedtoaddressawidevarietyofresourcesettingsandfrontcountryaswellasbackcountryexperiences.
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OverviewoftheVERPFramework
PURPOSEOFTHEVERPFRAMEWORKUnderthe1978NationalParksandRecreationAct(P.L.95-625),theNationalParkServiceisrequiredtoaddresstheissueofcarryingcapacityinitsgeneralmanagementplans(GMP).NPSmanagementpoliciesandplanningguidelinesacknowledgethisresponsibility.Theconceptofcarryingcapacityisintendedtosafeguardthequalitybothoftheparkresourcesandthevisitorexperience.Parkresourcesinthiscontextencompassesallofthebiophysical,aesthetic,andculturalelementsandfeaturescontainedinapark.
Asitappliestoparks,visitorcarryingcapacityisdefinedasthetypeandlevelofvisitorusethatcanbeaccommodatedwhilesustainingacceptableresourceandsocialconditionsthatcomplement
the
purpose
of
apark.
Underthisdefinitioncarryingcapacityisinterpretedprimarilyasaprescriptionofresourceandsocialconditions,andsecondarilyasaprescriptionfortheappropriatenumbersofpeople.Inherentintheabovedefinitionaretheunderstandingofthepurposeofaparkandthedevelopmentofmanagementprescriptionsspecifyingappropriateresourceandsocialconditions.
Anotherbasicassumptionisthatcarryingcapacityworkisundertakenwiththeintentofmanagingvisitoruse.Visitorusemanagementbeginswithaplan,butitcontinuesasancyclicalprocessinvolvingmonitoring,evaluation,andtakingactiontomakeadjustments.Discussionsabouttheappropriatefocusandscopeofeffortshaveledtothefollowingworkingdefinition.VERPis:
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Overview
aplanningandmanagementframeworkthatfocusesonvisitoruseimpactsonthevisitorexperienceandtheparkresources.Theseimpactsareprimarilyattributableto
visitorbehavior,uselevels,typesofuse,timingofuse,andlocationofuse.
Itshouldbenotedthatcrowdingisonlypartofwhatcontributestoortakesawayfromthevisitorexperience.However,itistherapidlyincreasingvisitationinmanyparksthatisdrivingtheinterestinandtheneedforusingtheVERPframework.ManagershaveothertoolsbesidestheVERPframeworkforevaluatingthequalityofparkinterpretationprogramsandtheadequacyoffacilitymaintenance,forexample,eventhoughthesefactorscertainlyinfluencethequalityofthevisitorexperience.
SUMMARYOF
THE
FRAMEWORK
NineelementsareintegraltotheVERPframework.Theelementsaresummarizedbelow;eachelementisdiscussedinfurtherdetailinsubsequentchapters.Whilethescopeoftheelements,theorderinwhichtheyareundertaken,andthespecificmethodsusedtocompletetheelementsmayvaryindifferentsituations,alloftheelementsarenecessarytoimplementaVERPprogram.Althoughtheelementsarenumberedandmayappeartofollowalinearprocess,itisimportanttorememberthattheVERPframeworkisiterative,withfeedbackandfeed-forwardoccurringthroughouttheelements.TheVERPframeworkisintendedtoprovidealogicandration-aleformakingdecisionsoncarryingcapacityissues.Itis,there-fore,importanttodocumentalldecisionsthataremadeduringthecourseofdevelopingandimplementingtheVERPelementsinapark.Thedocumentationofrationaleisparticularlyimportantwhenmanagersneedtomakecontroversialdecisions,suchaslimitingvisitoruseorincreasingdevelopment.
FrameworkFoundationElement1:AssembleanInterdisciplinaryProjectTeam.Acoreteamisneededandshouldincludethosepeoplewhocandeveloptheplanandthosewhowillimplementtheplan.Awide
varietyofconsultantswithvariousbackgroundsandexpertisemaybeneededtoassistthecoreteam.Element2:DevelopaPublicInvolvementStrategy. As in anyplanningeffort,thepublicmustbeinvolvedinVERPplanning.
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BothNPSstaffandpublicsexternaltotheagencyshouldbeconsidered.Apublicinvolvementstrategyshouldbepreparedearlyintheframework.Element3:DevelopStatementsofParkPurpose,Significance,andPrimaryInterpretiveThemes;IdentifyPlanningConstraints.ThesestatementsformthefoundationuponwhichtheVERPplanandimplementation strategiesarebuilt.Allsubsequentelementsmustbeconsistentwithandsupportiveofthesestatements.Thiselementmayalreadyexistinmanyparks,havingbeendevelopedinpreviousplanningefforts.Butifthisworkhasnotbeendone,theworkonVERPelementsshouldnotcontinueuntilallofthesestatementsarearticulatedandclearlyunderstood.
AnalysisElement4:AnalyzeParkResourcesandtheExistingVisitorUse.Theobjectiveofthiselementistounderstandasfullyaspossibleparkresourcesandexistingvisitoruseandexperience.Thisanalysisshouldbedocumented,usuallythroughacombinationofmaps,matrixes,andtext.
PrescriptionsElement5:DescribeaPotentialRangeofVisitorExperiencesand
Resource
Conditions
(potential
prescriptive
zones).
Potentialzonesaredescribedbydifferentdesiredvisitorexperience
opportunitiesandresourceconditionsthatcouldbeprovidedinagivenpark,consistentwiththeparkpurposeandsignificance.Thezonedescriptionsprescribetheappropriatekindsandlevelsofactivity,development,andmanagement.Thesepotentialzonesaredescribedintextonly;theyareappliedtospecificgeographicalareasinelement6.Element6:AllocatethePotentialZonestoSpecificLocationsinthePark(prescriptivemanagementzoning).Inthiselementthezonesdescribedinelement5areassignedtospecificlocationsinapark.Thezoningschemeprescribesfutureconditions;itisnotdescriptiveofexistingconditions,althoughinsomecasesthecontinuationofexistingconditionscouldbethedesiredfuture.Ifappropriate,theplanningteamshoulddevelopalter-nativezoningschemesandassesstheirbeneficialandadverseimpacts,consistentwiththeNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA).
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Overview
Element7:SelectIndicatorsandSpecifyStandardsforEachZone;DevelopaMonitoringPlan.Indicators(specific,measurablevariablesthatwillbemonitored)andstandards(minimumacceptableconditions)areidentifiedforeachzone.Amonitoringplanisdevelopedthatidentifiespriorities,methods,funding,
and
staffing
strategies
and
analysis
requirements.
MonitoringandManagementActionElement8:MonitorResourceandSocialIndicators.Theparkstaffregularlymonitorsresourceandsocialconditionsinvariouszones.Staffandfundinglimitationswillusuallynecessitatesettingprioritiesandmonitoringindicatorsonlyinthemostcriticalareas.Element9:TakeManagementAction.Whenmonitoringindicatesthatsocialorresourceconditionsareoutofstandardoraredeterioratingtowardastandard,managementactionmustbetaken.
VERPANDNPSPLANNINGTheVERPframeworkwasconceivedanddesignedtobepartoftheparkGMPprocess.Indeed,manyoftheelementsintheVERPframework,suchasdevelopingparkpurposeandsignificancestatementsanddescribingfutureconditionsbyindividualmanagement
zones,
will
be
integral
to
most
park
general
managementplans.AccordingtocurrentNPSguidance,general
managementplanswillqualitativelyaddresscarryingcapacitybydescribingthevisitorexperienceandresourceconditionbyzone.Mostfuturegeneralmanagementplans,therefore,willnotcontainfurthercarryingcapacitydetails.InmostcasesthemorequantitativeelementsoftheVERPframeworkspecifyingindicatorsandstandards,developingamonitoringstrategy,andidentifyingmanagementactionsneededtoaddressconditionswhenstandardsarereachedorexceededwillbeaccomplishedinanimplementationplanthatisdevelopedafterthecompletionofageneralmanagementplan.TheremaybeothersituationswhereVERPplanningwillbeappliedoutsideoftheGMPprocess.Forexample,itmaybenecessaryattimestoaddressvisitoruseissuesforparkswitholdergeneralmanagementplansortoaddressvisitoruseissuesinonlyoneortwoareasinapark.Aseparatevisitormanagementplanoranamendmenttoanexistingplanmaybeappropriateinthesecases.
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VERPandNEPAAllVERPplanning,includingthedevelopmentandrevisionofstandardsandmanagementactionsandthedevelopmentofaVERPimplementationplan,issubjecttotheprovisionsoftheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct.Asmuchaspossible,adecisiontopursueaVERPeffortshouldbeanalyzedintheenvironmentaldocumentationaccompanyingageneralmanagementplan.ButoftenitmaynotbepossibleinageneralmanagementplantopredictthefullrangeofmanagementactionsneededtoimplementaVERPeffortortheconsequencesofthoseactions.InthiscaseadditionalNEPAdocumentationmaybeneededtocoverthestandardsandmanagementactionsinaVERPimplementationplan.Ifmajororcontroversialactionsareproposedafteranimplementationplaniscompleted,oradecisionismadetoreviseindicatorsorstandards,furtherNEPAdocumentationmaybeneeded.(ForfurthergeneralguidanceonwhentoapplyNEPAcompliance,readersshouldrefertotheNationalParkServiceNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActGuidelines.)
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Element 1AssembleanInterdisciplinaryProjectTeam
Planningisacomplexchallengethatshouldbeaccomplishedbyaninterdisciplinaryteam.Carefulthoughtneedstobegiventoselectingteammemberstoensurethattheteamhasthenecessaryskills,knowledge,andexpertisetodevelopandguidetheimplementationofaplan.Acoreteamshouldbeassembledconsistingof
ateamleader/planner (someonetoleadtheteamthroughtheframework)
adecisionmaker(superintendent orassistantsuperintendent)
twoorthreekeyparkstaff/specialistsItisessentialthatalloftheseindividualsbepartofthecoreteam.Inadditiontothecoreteammembers,avarietyofconsultantswilllikelyparticipateatdifferentpointsinthedevelopmentofaplan.
POINTERSFORBUILDINGTHETEAM
Parkstaffmustplayamajorroleinthedevelopmentofaplanbecausetheywillberesponsibleforimplementingit.Iftheplanistosucceed,itisimportantthattheplanningteamculti
vatestaffunderstandingofandownershipintheplan. Developingaplanmaytakealotoftimeandeffort.Itis
essentialthatbeforebeginningworkonaplan,theparksuperintendentandparkstaffareawareofthefuturework-loadrequirementsandarewillingandabletomaketheneededtimecommitments.Thiscommitmentmustbestrongthroughouttheplanningeffort.Ifteammembersdonotattendmeetings,donotdoassignedwork,ordropofftheteam,thechancessignificantlyincreasethattheplanwillfail.
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(Theabilityofpeopletocommittoteamparticipationmaybeoneofthecriteriainselectingteammembers.)
Thecoreteamshouldbekeptrelativelysmall(i.e.,37members).Itshouldincludediverseperspectivesanddisciplines,and
should
represent
arange
of
park
staff
and
management.
Sincedirectionmustbegiventotheplanningteamonnumer
ousdetails,itisdesirabletohavethesuperintendentonthecoreteam.Ininstanceswherethesuperintendentcannotsitin,theassistantsuperintendentshouldparticipate.Inthelattercase,thesuperintendentshouldberegularlybriefedonthestatusoftheefforttoavoidanysurprises.
Thecoreteamshouldrelyonconsultantstoprovideadditionalskillsandabilities.Thenumberandtypesofconsult-antsandthedurationoftheirinvolvementwillvarydependingonthecoreteamsneedsandabilitiesandthecharacteristicsofthepark.SomeoftheseconsultantscouldbefromoutsidetheParkService,includingotheragencies,stakeholders,andresearchinstitutions.Individualswhomightparticipateindifferentplanningprojectsoratdifferenttimesonthesameprojectinclude
naturalresourcespecialists culturalresourcespecialists resourcemanagers interpretivespecialists naturalresourcescientists socialscientists geographicinformationsystemspecialists publicinvolvementspecialists parkmaintenancespecialists concessionmanagementspecialists landscapearchitectswriter/editors communityplanners facilitators statehistoricpreservationofficers
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Element 2DevelopaPublicInvolvementStrategy
ParkshaveagreatdealofsymbolicvaluetotheAmericanpublicandareoftenthefocusofintenseemotions.Publicinvolvementintheplanningprocesshelpstheplanningteamtounderstandthevaluespeopleholdinrelationtoparkresourcesandthevisitorexperienceandiscriticaltocreatingaplanthatcanbesuccessfullyimplemented.Underlyingallfundamentalplanningdecisionsarecompetingvalues,whichmustberesolvedbyadecisionastowhichvalueisofgreaterimportanceinthisparticularsituation.Aplanningdecisionisthecompromisebetweencompetingvaluesatagivenpointintime.Under-standingpublicvaluesenablestheplanningteamtomakeinformedplanningdecisions.Involvingthepublicintheplanningprocesshelpsaplanningteamto
learnaboutpublicconcerns,issues,expectations,andvalues
educatepeopleabouttheplanningprocess,issues,andproposedmanagementaction
learnaboutthevaluesplacedbyotherpeopleandgroupsonthesameresourcesandvisitorexperience
collectdataandvalidateproposals(e.g.,informationonpublicvaluesandissues,onhowpeopleuseapark,onexistinganddesiredconditions,andontheacceptabilityofproposedindicators,standards,andmanagementactions)
definetherangeofalternatives buildsupportamonglocalpublics,visitors,Congress,and
othersforimplementingtheplanDevelopingapublicinvolvementstrategyisoneoftheplanningteamsfirsttasks.Thestrategyshouldoutlineopportunitiesfor
Iknownosafedepositoryoftheultimatepowerofsocietybutthepeoplethemselves,andifwethinkthemnotenlightenedenoughtoexercisetheircontrolwithawholesomediscretion,theremedyisnottotakeitfromthem,buttoinformtheirdiscretionbyeducation.ThomasJefferson
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publicinvolvementthroughouttheplanningeffortandshouldbecarefullyandsystematicallydesignedaspartofthedecision-makingprocess.Thepublicandtheplanningteamshouldexchangeinformationandideasthroughouttheprocess,notjustafterdecisionshavebeenmade.Whenthisdoesnotoccur,public
comment
is
likely
to
be
received
either
too
early
or
too
late
tobeusable,oritmayfailtofocusonthecriticalissues.Thepublicneedstounderstandhowtheirinputwillbeused,howdecisionswillbemade,andtheconsequencesofpotentialmanagementaction.Thereshouldbealinkbetweenpubliccommentanddecisionmaking,orthepublicwillseenoreasontoparticipate.Thesuccessinimplementingapublicinvolvementstrategydependsuponpreplanningandpreparation.Foreachelementintheplanitisimportanttoknowwhytheteamisinvolvingthepublic,whatneedstobeaccomplished,andwhatinformationneedstobeexchangedbetweentheParkServiceandthepublic.Onlyafterthesequestionshavebeenansweredshouldtheteamdeterminewhichpublicinvolvementtechniqueswouldbemostappropriate.Thetimingofpublicinvolvementeventsshouldbesensitivetotheamountofinformationgeneratedandthedecisionsmadesincethelasttimetheteaminteractedwiththepublic.Theplanningteammayneedtoactivelysolicittheviewsofsomegroupsthatmightnototherwiseparticipateandmayneedtoexplorealternativeformsofpublicinvolvementthataresensitivetothegroupsneedsandculture.Itisimportanttoinvolveasmanypeople,organizations,andagenciesaspossiblethatmaybeaffectedbyorhaveastakeintheoutcomeofplanningandimplementationdecisions.Allgroupsandindividualsshouldhaveequalaccesstoinformationaswellasequalopportunitiestointeractwiththeplanningteam.Belowaresomefactorsthatshouldbeconsideredinidentifyingpublicstoinvolveinaplanningprocess.
Proximity.Peoplewholiveintheimmediateareaofthe
park
may
be
affected
by
noise,
the
influx
of
people,orthechangesinpublicuse.Becauseofthenationalinterestinparks,NPSmanagersmustconsiderandbalanceinformationreceivedfrombothlocalandnationalpublics.AsampleofvisitorsfromacrosstheUnitedStatesandnationallybasedorganizationsshouldalsobeinvolved.
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Element2
EconomicGainorLoss.Groupsmayhavejobsorcompetitiveadvantagestowinorlose.Forexample,concessionairesandlocaloutfittersmaydisagreewithtribesovertheuseofareassacredtothetribes.Use.Peoplesuseofaserviceorresourcemaybeaffectedbytheoutcomeoftheaction.Values.Somegroupsmaybeonlyperipherallyaffectedbythefirstthreefactorsbutfindthatsomeoftheissuesraisedbyaproposedactiondirectlyaffecttheirvaluestheirsenseofthewaythingsoughttobe.Wheneveraproposedactiontouchesonissuessuchasfreeenterpriseversusgovernmentcontrolorjobsversusenvironmentalprotection,theremaybeindividualswhoparticipateprimarilybecauseofthevaluesinvolved.
Parkstaffinvolvementisanimportantcomponentofpublicinvolvement,especiallyinlargeparkswheremanystaffmemberswillnotparticipatedirectlyindevelopingtheplan.Parkstaffunderstandingandinvolvementwilllikelybecriticalinestablishingcommunitysupportfortheplanandforsuccessfulplanimplementation.Whilepublicinvolvementcannotbeconsideredastatistically
validsurvey,itcanbeviewedasasnapshotofpublicopinion.Itshouldberememberedthattheinformationreceivedbytheplanningteamonlyrepresentsthepeoplewhoresponded.Also,publicinvolvementisnotavotingprocess.Theresultsofapublicinvolvementeffortshouldbeused,alongwiththeanalysisofotherinformationanddatagatheredduringtheplanningprocess,tomakerationalanddefensibleplanningdecisions.Goodplanningensuresthateveryonewhohasastakeintheoutcomeofadecisionunderstandsandcanacceptthedecisionasitisbeingmade.Toachievethisobjectivethepublicmustbeconvincedandunderstandthat
doingsomethingisbetterthandoingnothing theplanningprocessisreasonableandfair,andnotpredetermined parkmanagersaretrulylisteningtothepublic parkmanagersaretryingtominimizehardshipswhile
stillsolvingtheproblemsPublicinvolvementinVERPplanningiscriticalbecausecarryingcapacitydecisionsarevalue-laden.Publicopinionassistsin
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Element 3DevelopStatementsofParkPurpose,Significance,andPrimaryInterpretiveThemes;IdentifyPlanningConstraints
Parkpurposeandsignificancestatements,aswellastheNPSmission,clarifythemostbasicassumptionsaboutparkuseandmanagement,andprovidecontextforhowaparkshouldbemanagedorused.Thesefoundationelementscanbethoughtofthecornerstonesofacorral,asshowninfigure1.Thiscorralformstheboundariesthatlimitdecisionsconcerningapark.Ifparkpurpose,significance,primaryinterpretivethemes,andplanningconstraintshavenotbeenidentified,workonotherelementsoftheVERPframeworkshouldnotbeginuntilthestatementsareclearlyarticulatedandunderstoodbybothparkmanagementandthepublic.Ifparkpurposeandsignificancestatementsandprimaryinter-pretivethemesdoalreadyexist,theystillshouldbereviewedand
either
be
validated
or
updated.
ParkPurpose
NPSMissionLaws
PoliciesPark
Significance
alldecisionsaboutthepark
Figure1.PlanningCorral
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Purpose,significance,andprimaryinterpretivethemesshouldnotbeidentifiedearlyintheframeworkandlaterforgotten.EverythingtheplanningteamdoesintheVERPframeworkshouldbecontinuallytestedagainstparkpurpose,significance,andprimaryinterpretivethemes.
IDENTIFICATIONOFPARKPURPOSEANDSIGNIFICANCEThefoundationofparkplanning,andtheVERPframework,isformedbythepurposeandsignificanceofapark.Inanyplanningeffort,theparticipants(includingtheplanners,parkstaff,andthepublic)haveassumptions,frequentlynotarticulated,aboutthebasicpurposeandsignificanceofapark.Allplanningdiscussions,proposals,andassessments,andallmanagementdecisionsandactionswillbefilteredandevaluatedbyeachindi
vidualbasedonhisorherownsetofassumptions.Untiltheseassumptionsareexaminedandunderstoodbytheparticipants,subsequentplanningandmanagementwilllackfocusandcontinuity,andpublicunderstandingandconsentwillbedifficultorimpossibletoachieve.Parkpurposeisdefinedasthereasonorreasonstheareawassetasideasaunitofthenationalparksystem.Parksignificanceissummarizedinstatementsthatcapturetheessenceoftheparksimportancetoournaturaland/orculturalheritagewhatissoimportantaboutthisareathatitbelongsinthenationalparksystem?
Significance
statements
place
apark
in
abroader
regional,national,orinternationalcontext.Inadditiontoparkpurpose,allparksaresubjecttomanylegalandadministrativemandatesthatapplytomanagingthenationalparksystem.Somespecialmandatesalsomayapplytoaparticularparkthatareworthyofdiscussionandspecialconsideration,eitherbecausetheyareunusual(suchasaspecialprovisionforgrazingintheestablishinglegislationofapark)orbecausetheyaddanotherdimensiontoparkpurposeandsignificance(suchasthedesignationofanareaaspartofthenationalwildernesspreservationsystem,oradesignationasa
worldheritagesiteorbiospherereserve).Thesespecialman-datesmaybedocumentedinaparkplan,butarelistedseparatelyfromparkpurposeandsignificance.
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Element3
PointersforDevelopingParkPurposeStatements Purposestatementsarticulatethereasonstheparkexists;
theydonotincludemandatesformanagementorotherlegislativerequirements(seeexamples).
Purposestatementsmustbegroundedinparklegislation,legislativehistory,andotherformaldesignations(e.g.,wilderness,biospherereserve,orwildandscenicriverstatus).Careshouldbetakeninquotinglegislationorlegislativehistory
verbatimaspurposeorsignificancestatementsbecausethelanguageisoftenvagueandopentodifferinginterpretation. Wheneverpossible,wordscontainedinthelegislation,suchasoutstanding,natural,preserve,andenhance,shouldbedefinedorqualifiedbythepurposestatements(seeexamples).
Asmuchaspossible,purposestatementsshouldbespecifictotheunitinquestion.Ifapurposestatementcouldbeappliedtoanyparkinthesystem,itshouldbereexamined.
Parkpurposegenerallydoesnotchange.Butinsomecasestheycanevolveovertimeifconditionsandvalueschangeand/ornewinformationbecomesavailable.
Asageneralrule,parksshouldnothavemorethanthreetofivepurposestatements.
Allparticipants(planners,parkstaff,andthepublic)mustunderstandandaccepttheparkpurposestatements.Thestatementsaretheresultofextensivediscussionandclarification.Draftstatementsshouldbedevelopedbyasmall,facilitatedgroup,andthenthestatementsshouldbeevaluatedandrefinedbylargergroupsandthepublic.
ExamplesofParkPurposeStatements Tomanageparkscenery,naturalandculturalresources,and
wildlifeinamannerconsistentwiththe1916OrganicAct.Thisisnotaneffectivepurposestatement.ItismerelyarestatementoftheNPSmissionandpolicy.Allthisstatementreallysaysisthatwearegoingtoobeythelaw.
Toprovideforlivestockgrazing,consistentwithlegislationandproclamations,whileconservingandprotectingresources.
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Thisisnotanappropriatepurposestatement.Whileprovidingforlivestockgrazingisalegislativemandateforthisparticularpark,grazingisnotthereasontheparkwasestablished.Thisstatementwouldbemoreappropriatelydocumentedasaspecialmandate.
Preserveandprotectspecialgeologicfeatures:labyrinthsofremarkablecanyons,volcanicphenomena,fossiliferousdeposits,brilliantlycoloredstrata,andraresedimentation.Thisisamuchbetterpurposestatement.Ittiesthepurposeofthisparktothoseessentialfeaturesdetailedintheenablinglegislation.
Preserve(forresearch)andinterpret(forcommemoration)sitesandremainsassociatedwiththeAmericanColonialperiodfrom16071781.Again,thisstatementispark-specificandbeginstoestablishparkpriorities.Thewordspreserveandcommemorate,
whichappearedinthelegislation,arebetterdefined. Perpetuate,forfuturegenerations,arepresentativesampleofthe
naturalandculturalresourcesoftheBigDryDesert.Thisstatementgivessomeinformationaboutparkprioritiesandalsoqualifiesthewordpreserve,whichwasintheoriginallegislation.Atthispark,thepreservationoftheentireBigDryDesertwouldbeimpossiblebecauseofthesmallsizeoftheparkandincreasingdevelopmentoutsidetheparkboundary.Sothestaffusedthelanguage,perpetuate . . . a representativesample,asanachievablepurpose.
PointersforDevelopingParkSignificanceStatements Significancestatementsshoulddefinetheoverallsignificance
ofapark.Parksignificanceisnotaninventoryofparkresourcesorevensignificantparkresources;arepetitionofpurposestatements;astatementoffactaboutoradescriptionofaresource(withoutplacingthestatementincontext);orastatementthataresourceissignificant(withoutexplaining
whyitisimportant).
Agoodtestforsignificancestatementsistoask,Ifthisresourceorvaluewereremoved,wouldwestillhaveXYZNationalPark?Forexample,BlackRocksNationalMonumentwassetasidetopreservedistinctivevolcanicfeatures.
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Element3
Nearby,andinparkboundaries,isasectionoftrailrutsassociatedwiththeIrishmigrationtoMexico.Ifthevolcanicrocksweregone,wouldwestillhaveBlackRocksNM?Iftheanswerisno,thevolcanicrocksrepresentparksignificance.IftheIrishtrailwereremoved,wouldwestillhaveBlackRocksNM?
If
the
answer
is
yes,
even
though
the
trail
resource
may
carryitsownsignificance,andtheparkmayhavesomemanagementandprotectionresponsibilityforit,thetrailisnotrepresentativeofparksignificance.
Significancestatementsareintendedtohelpsetparkpriorities.Thetendencytomakesignificancestatementsinclusiveenoughtojustifyallongoingparkprogramsshouldberesisted.However,itshouldalsoberecognizedthatparkstaffsneedtodomanythingsthatarenotnecessarilysup-portedbytheirsignificance,butaredictatedbylawsorNPSpolicy.Forexample,aparkwhosesignificanceisprimarilyarcheologicalmayneedmanagementprogramsinplacetoprotecthabitatsforendangeredspecies,eventhoughtheendangeredspeciesarenotincludedinparksignificancestatements.
Theargumentmaybemadethatallparkresourcesareimportant,andtherefore,itisnotpossibletodeterminesignificanceorsetprioritiesallparkresourcesarethehighestpriority.However,parkmanagersneedtoknowwhatismostimportantwhenmakingdecisionsonallocatinglimitedmoneyandstafftime.
Donotforgettoconsiderparkvaluesfrommultipleculturalperspectives.Forexample,NativeAmericansmayhavedifferentviewsonthesignificanceofapark,whichshouldbeincludedinthelistofsignificancestatements.
Tofindinformationaboutsignificanceconsulttheparkenablinglegislationandassociatedhistory,documentationinsupportofspecialdesignations(suchasaworldheritagesiteorbiospherereserve),researchreports,andexperts.
Thenumberofsignificancestatementswillvarywitheachpark
unit.
However,
not
even
apark
as
large
and
diverse
as
YellowstoneNationalParkshouldhavemorethan10.Mostparkswillhavethreetofivestatements.Ifasignificancestatementcanbeappliedtoeveryunitinthesystem,itisnotagoodstatement;significancestatementsarepark-specific.(Seetheexamplesbelowformoretips.)
Aswithpurposestatements,allparticipants(planners,parkstaff,andthepublic)mustunderstandandacceptthepark
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significancestatementsandmustbeinvolvedinwritingthemand/orhaveinputinrefiningthem.Theinvolvementofexpertswhoknowandunderstandparkresourcesiscrucialindevelopingaccurateandusefulsignificancestatements.(Usuallyparkstaffmembersaretheexperts,buttheremaybeexperts
outside
the
staff
who
should
be
consulted.)
On
the
otherhand,significancestatementsthatarewrittenbyonlyoneortwoexpertsmayomitsomestatementsorfailtodescribeparksignificancesoitcanbeunderstoodbyparkstaff,planners,orthepublic.Draftsignificancestatementsshouldbedevelopedbyasmall,facilitatedgroup,andthenthestatementsshouldbeevaluatedandrefinedbylargergroupsandthepublic.
ExamplesofParkSignificanceStatements Theparkandsurroundingareaprovideawidearrayofrecrea
tionalactivities.Thisisnotagoodsignificancestatement.Canyouthinkofaparkaboutwhichthiscouldnotbesaid?
Theparkcontributessignificantlytolocaleconomiesinmanyways.Whilethismaybeatruestatement,andmayevenrepresentparksignificancetoalimitedsegmentofthepublic,itdoesnotrepresentthepartofAmericanheritagepreservedatthispark.Therefore,itisnotagoodsignificancestatement.It
wouldbeanappropriatepartofthedescriptionoftheparkanditsrelationshiptotheregioninwhichitislocated.
Theparkandsurroundingareaprovideadiversityoftravelexperiences,frompavedanddirtroads,totrails,andunmarkedbackcountryroutes.Thismaybeavaliddesiredfuture,butitismoreanevaluationoftheparkinfrastructurethanastatementabouttheoverallsignificanceofthepark.
Theparkcontainssignificantarcheologicalandhistoricalresources.Thisstatementisnotusefulbecausesignificanceisnotdefined.Aretheysignificantbecausetheyarerare,numerous,goodexamplesoftheirtype,theonlyonesinexistence,orwhat?
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Element3
TheparkcontainsoneoftheveryfewaccessibleexamplesofintertidalcommunitiesandchaparralcommunitiesrepresentativeofthesouthernCaliforniacoastalenvironment.Thissignificancestatementisuseful.Itcallsoutspecialfeatures
(intertidal
communities
and
chaparral
communities),
putsthemincontext(representativeoftheCaliforniacoastalenvironment),andqualifiesthesignificance(oneofveryfewaccessibleexamples).
Listedbelowaresomemoreclearstatementsofparksignificance.Theyexplainthenatureofthesignificanceandputtheareaincontext:
ThemostpristineandbiologicallydiverseareaoftheBigDryDesertoccurringintheUnitedStates.
TheclimacticcampaignoftheRevolutionaryWarthesymbolicendofBritishcolonization.
Theparkcontainsoneofthelastfree-flowingriversystemscontributingtomajorcanyonformationontheColoradoPlateau.
IDENTIFICATIONOFPRIMARYINTERPRETIVETHEMESPrimaryinterpretivethemesarethoseideasaboutparkresourcesthataresoimportantthateveryparkvisitorshouldunderstandthem.Thelistofprimarythemesdoesnotincludeeverythingaparkstaffmaywishorneedtointerpret,butshouldcoverthoseideasthatarecriticaltovisitorunderstandingofparksignificance.Thereisnotcompleteagreementamongplannersontheneedtoincludeprimaryinterpretivethemesasapartoftheplanningfoundation.Thosewhodonotbelievethatprimarythemesshouldbeincludedarguethatidentifyingthemesplacesmoreemphasisontheinterpretation programthanotherparkpro-grams.Thosewhosupportidentifyingprimarythemesarguethat,justassignificancestatementsbegintosetresourceprotectionpriorities,theprimaryinterpretivethemesflowoutofparksignificanceandhelpsetvisitorexperiencepriorities.Inother
words,theprimaryinterpretivethemeshelpdefinethevisitorexperienceopportunitiesthatshouldbeprovidedinapark.
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Anewtrendinsomeparksistoarticulateparkthemesthatarebroaderthaninterpretivethemesandcanbethoughtofasthemesforresourcemanagementandmaintenanceaswellasfortheinterpretationprogram.Examplesofbothkindsofthemesareofferedbelow.
PointersforArticulatingPrimaryInterpretiveThemes Primarythemesareonlythosebasicideasthatcommunicate
thesignificanceofthepark.Thisisnotanoutlineoftheentireparkinterpretationprogram.Donotlistallofparkinterpretivethemesandcallthemprimarythemes.
Tobemostuseful,themesshouldbewrittenascompletesentencestocommunicateacompletethought.Incompletethoughtsdonotprovideenoughfocustobeusefulinguidingplanningandmanagementefforts.Forexample,ratherthan
writing,theimportanceofSpanishandPortugueseexploration(atopic,notacompletethought),writeSpainandPortugalplayedmajorrolesinhumanunderstandingoftheglobetheyexploredthree-quartersoftheU.S.andcolonizedhalfofit(acompletethought,andtheactualmessagetobecon
veyed). Thelistofprimaryinterpretivethemesisshort.Mostparks
shouldnothavemorethanthreetofiveprimaryinterpretivethemes.
Keep
in
mind
that
some
significance
does
not
need
to
beinterpreted,onlyexperienced.Forexample,manyparksincludeunusualorparticularlyspectacularscenicvistasaspartoftheirsignificance;suchvistasrarelyrequireinterpretation.
ExamplesofPrimaryInterpretiveThemesandParkThemesThefollowingprimaryinterpretivethemesweredevelopedfortheBlueRidgeParkway:
TheBlueRidgeregionisamongthebiologicallyrichestareasinNorthAmerica.
MaterialculturesandlifewaysintheBlueRidgeprovinceillustratehowisolationandassimilationshapecultures.
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Element3
Theparkwayisaspecialroadwayandamanagedlandscapethatwasdesignedtomaximizescenicvalues.
AdifferentapproachtodevelopingprimaryinterpretivethemeswastakenatJohnDayFossilBedsNationalMonument:
AtJohnDayFossilBedsNationalMonumenttherearelotsoffossilsthereisagreatdiversityoffossilsthefossilsareverywellpreservedthefossilsrepresentanunusuallylongtimespanthefossilsaredatable
Thus,itiswonderfulplacetostudyevolutionarychange.AtIsleRoyaleNationalParktheparkstaffidentifiedparkthemesinsteadofprimaryinterpretivethemes.Thesethemesincorporatekeyresourcesandstoriesthatcharacterizethepark.Someexamplesoftheseparkthemesinclude:
Self-sufficiencyisawayoflifeonIsleRoyale.Self-sufficiencyisasimportanttodayforparkbackpackers,canoeists,andboatersasitwasforthosewhofirstusedandsettledtheislandNativeAmericans,Europeanminers,lighthousekeepers,andcommercialfishermen.
Isle
Royale
is
a
living
laboratory
where
plant
and
animal
life
canbestudiedinarelativelysimpleandcontrolledecosystem.Thetheoryofislandbiogeographyisillustratedbyboththelimitednumberandvarietyofspeciesfoundhere.
BecauseofIsleRoyalesgenerallyundisturbedsetting,itisanimportantsourceofinformationabouttheworldaroundushowtheworldevolved,howtheimpactsofcivilization
havealterednaturalsystems,andwhattheunmodifiedenvironmentholds.
TheParkServiceisstrivingtosustainthenativefisheryofIsleRoyaleNationalParkperhapsthemostexceptionalfisheryintheGreatLakesregion.ForcenturiesIsleRoyaleswatershaveattractedfishermenprehistoricpeople,immigrantcommercialfishermen,andtodayssportfishermen.Arelicofthepast,adaptivefishinglifestyleandtechnologystillremainsandremindsusofthissignificantislandculture.
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IDENTIFICATIONOFPLANNINGCONSTRAINTSPlanningconstraintsarethosedecisionsthataregivensandusually arenotreconsideredduringtheplanningeffort.Examplesincludedecisionsthatarecontainedinrecentlyapprovedplans,theconditionsofcurrentconcessioncontracts,under-standingsoragreementsmadebetweentheparkandanotheragency,tribalgovernment,ormembersofthepublic,pastpromises,andpoliticalcommitments.Manyplanningparticipantswillhavetheirownideasaboutwhatcanandcannotbeconsideredinaplanningprocess.Waitingtoolongtoclarifytheseassumptionswillcreateproblemsandcon-fusionlateron.Sometimesthepublicwillhavestrongfeelingsaboutissuesthatwillnotbeaddressedinaparticularplan.EarlyidentificationofwhatwillandwillnotbeaddressedintheplanningeffortisimportantinfocusingattentiononappropriateissuesandnotraisingexpectationsonissuesthatareoutsidethescopeoftheVERPframework.
PointersforIdentifyingPlanningConstraints Theremustbejustificationforplanningconstraints.The
opinionsandpersonalagendasofplannersormanagersorwehavealwaysdoneitthiswayarenotsufficient
justifications. Othergovernmentalagencymandatesmayaffectapark,and
therefore,shouldnotbeforgotten.Forexample,theman-datesofanadjacentnationalforestmayconstrainhowparkmanagementzonesareappliedincertainareas.
Goodsourcesofinformationonplanningconstraintsincludeparkandotherofficefiles,staffwithinstitutionalmemory(e.g.,longtermparkemployees),andsuperintendents (whomaybeagoodsourceforpoliticalandothertypesofrealandperceivedconstraints).
Plannersandparkstaffsfrequentlyassumethatconstraintsexistwheninfacttheyarenotreal.Constraintsalsomaybeassumedtobenon-negotiablewhenthatisnotthecase.Thus,thereisaneedtoquestionandvalidateplanningconstraintsbeforeacceptingthem.Thisisparticularlytrueforconstraintsseenasparkorlocaltraditions.Discussionofwhatactionsmustbedone(mustdos)andwhatactionsarenotpossible(cantdos)oftenbroadentheflexibilityandscopeoftheplan,ratherthannarrowingtheplan.
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Element3
Planningconstraintsshouldbeidentified,documented,andsharedwiththepublicasearlyintheplanningprocessaspossible.Allparticipantsmustunderstandtheseconstraints.
Constraintsmayneedtobereexaminedthroughoutaplanning
effort
to
ensure
they
are
still
valid.
Information
generatedasaresultofplanningmayalterthinkingonsome
constraints.
ExamplesofPlanningConstraints TheNationalParkServicewillnotbanmotorboats,sport
fishing,ordockingfacilitiesinthepark(politicalconstraint,pastpromise).
Fishingintheparkwillbemanagedincooperationwiththestate(pastformalagreement).
TheNationalParkServicewillminimizethelossordegradationofwetlandsinthepark(executiveorder).
Therewillbenoadditionallandacquisitionintheparkboundaries(politicalconstraint,pastpromise).
TheNationalParkServicewillkeepopentheXXXCampgroundregardlessofmoneyandstafflimitations(politicalcommitment).
TheNationalParkServicewillabidebythepoliciesoftheinteragencymanagementcommission(formalagreement).
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Element 4AnalyzeParkResourcesandtheExistingVisitorUse
Element4isintendedtoprovidetheplanningteamwithacommonunderstandingofparkresourcesandvisitorexperiences.Thetermresourceisdefinedhereasthebiotic,geologic,hydrologic,aesthetic,ethnographic,architectural,historic,andarchaeologicalelementsandfeaturescontainedinapark.Themixoftheseresourceshelpsshapevisitorexperiencesinapark.Theteamanalyzesresourcesandvisitorexperienceinorderto
categorizeimportantinformationandgivetheplanningteamacommonvocabulary
understandwhatexperienceopportunities,baseduponparkresources,couldbeprovidedtovisitorsintheconstraintsofresourceprotection
documentexistingconditionsandusesintheparkItisimportanttorememberthatthiselementdescribesexistingconditions;itdoesnotprescribefutureconditions.
ANALYSISASITRELATESTOVERPUsinganalysistechniquestoprovideaworkingunderstandingofresourcesandexistingconditionsiscommontoallplanningefforts.ThereareseveralaspectsoftheVERPframework,how-ever,thatrequiresomechangesinthewayNPSplannerstraditionallyhavecarriedoutanalysisactivitiesforplanning.
NeedtoDocumenttheAnalysis.Inthepastmuchanalysiswascarriedoutmoreorlessintuitivelyandthroughdiscussionamongtheplanningteammembers.Becauseoftheneedtodocumentthedecision-makingthoughtprocessthroughouttheVERPframework,theteams
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Element4
analysis,andtheconclusionstheteamdrawsfromitmustbedocumented.
NeedtoUnderstandResourcesfromanExperientialView-point.Theopportunitiesfordiversevisitorexperiencesinaparticularparkarelargelydeterminedbyresourcecharacteristicssuchasvariety,attractiveness andaccessibilitytovisitors,andtherelationshipofvariousresourcestoparkpurposeandsignificance.Plannersandmanagersneedtounderstandtheseresourcecharacteristicsinordertodefineandmanageforarangeofvisitorexperiencesthatisappropriatetothatpark.
NeedtoUnderstandtheAbilityoftheResourcetoWith-stand/TolerateUse.Providingopportunitiesforvisitorstoexperienceresourcesmustbeundertakeninthecontextofresourceprotectionandpreservation.Differentre-sourceshavedifferentabilitiestoaccommodatevarious
visitoractivities.Identifyingthemostsensitiveresourcesorresourceareasisaninitialstepinensuringtheprovisionofappropriatetypesandlevelsofvisitoruse.
NeedtoTestorQuestiontheAppropriatenessandCurrentLocationofExistingFacilitiesandInfrastructure.InthepasttheParkServicesusualresponsetoincreasingpressurefromvisitorusehasbeentohardensitesand/ortoincreasethecapacityoffacilitiesandinfrastructure (suchasroadsandutilitysystems).TheVERPframeworkoffersadditionalsolutionsbasedonthedesirabilityofexperiencesthatmayrequirefewerfacilities,smallerfacilities,orfacilitiesindifferentlocationsthancurrentlyareprovided.
AnalysisresultsareusedthroughouttheVERPplanningelementsto
helpdefinethepotentialrangeofmanagementzonesthatmaybeappropriateinaparticularpark
helpdeterminewhereparticularmanagementzonesmightbeplacedinapark(forexample,higherusezonesshouldbeallocatedtomoreresilientresourceareas)
justifywhycertainzonesareallocated(ornotallocated)tocertainlocations;asbaselinedataagainstwhichtoevaluatetheimplicationsofzoningareasonewayversusanother(impactanalysis)
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helpparkmanagersmakemanagementdecisionslongafteraparticularplaniscompleted.
Analysisisacreativeprocessthereisnoonerightwaytoaccomplishit,solongastheneededoutcomesareproduced.Inthis
section
of
the
handbook,
we
discuss
three
kinds
of
analysis,
allofwhicharerecommendedforaVERPproject.Whileexamplesarepresented,plannersshouldkeepinmindthattheseexamplesarenotnecessarilytheonlymethodsthatcouldbeemployed.Analysismethodsmustbetailoredtotheneedsofeachindividualsituation,theavailabilityofdataandtechnologyineachparticularpark,andthecapabilitiesandexperienceoftheplanningteam.
PointersforAnalysis Whiletherearedifferentapproachesthatcanbefollowedin
thiselement,whateverapproachisusedmustbedocumented.Thiswillhelpkeeptrackofimportantdecisionsmadealongtheway,anditwillbeeasierfortheplanningteamtomakeadjustmentsandcorrecterrors.
Itisimportanttothinkaboutwhatinformationisreallyneededfortheplan.Ontheonehand,thereismoreparkresourceinformation,anditismoreaccessiblethaneverbefore.Ontheotherhand,theteamwillprobablyfindthatitdoesnothavealltheresourceinformationitwouldlike.Theinventory
of
resources
and
existing
conditions
should
be
tailoredtoparksignificance,thegoalsandproblemsbeing
addressedintheplan,andthelevelofdetailneeded.Takingthetimetodefineneededbaselineinformationwillhelpensurethattheteamgets theappropriateinformationandavoidswastingtimeanddollarscollectingunnecessarydata.Keepinmindthatitisbettertotakeactiontoprotecttheresourcestheteamknowsaboutthantodonothingbecausetheteamdoesnothaveascompleteinformationasitwouldlike.
Tounderstandapark,itisnecessarytounderstandthecon-textorenvironmentinwhichtheparkislocated.Landsadjacenttoaparkmayaffecttheconditionorsensitivityofparkresources,visitorexperiences,andtheneedtoprovidevariousopportunitiesinapark.
Thereisafullrangeofgraphicandtextoptionsthatprovideflexibilityindisplayinganalysisinformation.Acombinationoftext,matrices,andmapsiscommon.Datalayeroverlaysmay
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Element4
bedigitizedandusedasapartofageographicinformationsystem(GIS),ortheymaybehanddrawnonpolyesterfilm(e.g.,Mylar)formanualoverlayingofonesheetoveranother.ThedecisiontouseGISorhand-drawnmapsisdependentuponthecomplexityofdata,thetimeframeforcompletingthe
VERP
work,
the
project
budget,
the
availability
of
digitizeddata,andthestaffexpertisetodothespecializedcom
puterwork.
Resourceanalysisisusuallybestperformedbyexperts(someofwhommaynotbeontheplanningteamorparkstaff)whoknowtheresourcesandhavetheknowledgeortheunder-standingtocarryoutaccurateevaluations.Theplanningteammayalsowantothers,includingvisitors,stakeholders,andcitizens,toreviewtheresultsofthisanalysis,becausetheyoftencanprovidevaluableinsightsandobservations.
EXPERIENTIALRESOURCEANALYSISThepurposeofthiskindofanalysisistohelptheplanningteamunderstandtheparkasasystemofphysicallydefinableandexperientiallydifferentspaces.Aparklandscapecanbethoughtofashavingafloorplanwithacollectionofindividualroomsorlandscapeunitsthatcanbeenteredandexperienced,liketheroomsofabuilding.Theintentofthistaskistodefinetheparkfloorplanbyidentifyingandmappingalloftheindividualunitsthatcomprisethefloorplan.Innaturalparks,topography,hydrology,
and
vegetation
will
primarily
define
the
park
landscapeunits;inculturalresourceparks,architecturalelements
andstructuresandlandscapeplantingsalsomaydefineunits.Toaccomplishthisanalysis,variousdatalayersarecombinedandanalyzedtodefineasetofpolygonsthatsegmenttheentireparkintounitsorrooms.Thepolygonsarebasedontheedgesorboundariesenclosingspaceswithrelativelyhomogeneous
vegetation,thecharacteristicsofthesurroundinglandformandwaterform,or,inthecaseofaculturalarea,thearchitecturalstyleorfunctionofaparticularspace.Identifyinglandscapeunitsinvolveslocatingandmappingsuchelementsasprominentridgelines,steeptopographicslopes,forestedges,groupedformswhichdominateanarea,architecturalwalls,buildings,landscapeplantings,junctionsbetweenlanduseareas,andlandcoverpatterns.Oncelandscapeunitsaredefined,theexperientialqualitiesofeachunitcanbedescribed.Thesedescriptionsmightcontaininformationoncolors,textures,spatialenclosure,vegetativecover,andothernaturalorculturalresourcescontainedinthe
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unit.Characterizingtheexperientialqualitiesofthelandscapeunitsmayshowthatsomeunitsprovideverysimilarkindsofexperienceopportunities.Tocarrytheroomanalogyfurther,ahousemayhavetenrooms:fivebedrooms,threebathrooms,akitchen,andalivingroom.Similarly,landscapeunitsthatshareexperience
characteristics
may
be
grouped
into
opportunity
areas.Forexample,aparkmayhaveninelandscapeunitsdefinedbytopographyandvegetation,butbecausethreeoftheunitsareverysimilartoeachother,theparkwouldhaveonlysevenopportunityareas.Ifallninelandscapeunitswereexperientiallydistinct,thelandscapeunitsandopportunityareas
wouldbethesame.Howopportunityareasaremappedmaydifferforeachpark,butthedelineationoftheopportunityareasshouldbedeter-minedbytheresources.Opportunityareasshouldnotbedefinedbyorbelimitedtoexistingparkvisitationpatterns,theestablishedvisitationuses,ortheexistinginfrastructure(e.g.,roads,trails,visitorcenters,comfortstations,overlooks).Statingthisanotherway,planningteamsshouldmapopportunityareas(i.e.,developaparkfloorplan)onlybasedonresource-related overlays.Thisallowstheresources,thelocationsofattractions,andthekindsofexperienceopportunitiestodirecttheneedforandthelocationofparkinfrastructure,ratherthanthereverse.Twoexamplesofopportunityareasthatweredevelopedforthe
ArchesVERPplanarethefinsanduplandblackbrushflat.Fins.ThisopportunityareaincludestheDevilsGarden,
FieryFurnace,KlondikeBluffs,andHerdinaParkareas.Theyaredominatedbytheorange-to-reddish Entradasandstonefinsandspires.Intheseareastherearelabyrinthsofspires,fins,chutes,andarches.Thevisitorexperienceinthisopportunityareaisverymuchinwardlyfocusedbecauseofthehighverticallandformsthatlimitmovementandviewsalongnarrowcorridors.Theimmediateforegroundandthefocusedcorridorviewsofland-formsdominatetheexperience;incontrast,theimportanceofcolorandvegetationcoverisminimal.
UplandBlackbrushFlats.ThisopportunityareacoversmostofWillowFlats.Theseareasaregenerallyflat,withsomerelief,andappearsandyorrocky.Theyhavefewdistinguishablegeologicfeatures.Low,dark,blackbrushdominatesthelandscape.Thevegetationcanappeartobeanobstacle,andtherearenoobviousroutesthroughtheareas.
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Element4
Figure2showsalloftheopportunityareasthatwereidentifiedatArches.(AlloftheArchesopportunityareasaredescribedinappendixA.)Foreachoftheopportunityareas,theArchesteamevaluatedseveral
attributes
to
determine
which
could
support
or
sustain
visitoruse,aswellastherelativeabundanceofvariousresourcesandthecomparativeimportanceofeachareatotheparkpurpose,significance,andprimaryinterpretivethemes.Thisanalysishelpedtocomparethehumanvaluesinherentineachoftheopportunityareasandhighlightedareaswhereresourcesensitivitymaybeinconflictwithdesiredvisitor.Italsoassistedindeterminingthepotentialrangeofvisitorexperiencesandmanagementzonesforthepark.Table1showstheanalysisthatwasdevelopedforArches.Asshowninthetable,sixspecificattributeswereanalyzedforeachopportunityarea.Theseincludethe
relativeabundanceoftheresourcearea,bothinandout-sidethepark
abilityoftheresourceareatoconcealtheevidenceofvisitoruseordevelopment
abilityoftheresourceareatosupportorsustainvisitoruse
potentialinterestoftheresourcetovisitors relativeimportanceoftheareatotheparkpurpose,sig
nificance,andprimaryinterpretivethemes sitesorfeaturesintheresourceareathatareofcritical
importancetoparkpurpose,significance,andinterpretivethemes
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Figure2.ResourceExperienceOpportunityAreasofArchesNationalPark
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TABLE1.RESOURCEATTRRIBUTESFORVISITORUSE
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PointersforExperientialResourceAnalysis Theplanningteammayneedtoprepareseveralmapsaswell
astextandmatricestoidentifythelandscapeunitsandopportunityareas.Forexample,atArches,edgeswerecoarselyidentifiedonamaptitled,LandscapeFramework.Then,thelandscapeunitswereestablishedbydrawinglineswhichfollowthenaturalboundariesandedgesdefinedduringthelandscapeframeworkanalysis.Landscapeunitswerecomparedtoseewhichunitssharedsimilarexperienceopportunities.Thesesimilarunitsweregrouped,codedonamap,andnamedtoreflecttheresourceexperienceavailablethere.Todifferentiatetheexperiencegroupsfromlandscapeunits,thegroupsweretermedresourceexperienceopportunityareas.Thecharacteristicsandpatternsofeachgroupofareasweredescribedanddocumentedinwritingandonamatrix.Thisdocumentationallowedtheintroductionofinformationthat
wasdifficultorimpossibletomap.
Landscapeunitsandopportunityareasaredescriptiveanalysistools,notprescriptivezoningtools.Whiletheresourcecharacteristicsinanopportunityareawillhelpplannersdecidewhatmanagementzonesmightbeappropriateorinappropriateinaparticulararea,theopportunityareaboundariesshouldnotbeusedtodeterminemanagementzoningboundaries.Somemanagementzoneboundariesmayturnouttobethesameorsimilartoopportunityareaboundaries,butthisshouldoccurbycoincidence,notbydesign.
Itisveryimportanttounderstandhowresourcesshapethevisitorexperience,independentofparkinfrastructure.Keepresourceinformationseparatefromtheinventoriesofparkfacilitiesandvisitoruse(seenextsection).
EXISTINGUSEANDFACILITIESANALYSISThepurposeofthisanalysisistounderstandtheexistingvisitorexperienceopportunitiesofferedintheparkbydocumenting
whatpeoplearedoing,wheretheyaredoingit,howmanypeopleareusingvariousparkareas,andwhatfacilitiesandinfrastructurearecurrentlypresentinthepark.Analysiscanhelpusunderstandsomeofthereasonspeoplegowheretheygoanddo
whattheydointhepark,includingtheidentificationofkeyattractionssites,activityareas,andhotspots.
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Element4
Informationtheteammayneedforthisanalysisincludesthe locationofparkfacilities(e.g.,roads,parkingareas,
trails,buildings,utilitycorridors)
differencesinstandardsand/orfunctionsofthefacilities(e.g.,paved,unpaved,gravel-surfacedroads;surfaced,unsurfacedtrailsandboardwalks;visitorcenters,administrationbuildings,restrooms)
typesofactivities(e.g.,hiking,crosscountryskiing,scenicviews)
thecirculationofvisitortrafficandthesequenceinwhichopportunityareasarevisited
levels,timing,
and
seasonality
of
visitor
use
activitynodes areaswithspecialusedesignations(e.g.,wildernessareas,
wildandscenicrivers,historicdistricts) developmentandlandusepracticesexternaltothepark
(e.g.,roadsandtrails,landownership,existingactivities,landusezoning)
keyattractionsintheregion,especiallythosetypicallyincludedinparkvisitoritineraries
PointerforExistingUseandFacilitiesAnalysis
Oneofthemostcommonareasofinformationlackinginparksishowmanypeoplearewhereatanyonetime.Ideally,thisinformationshouldbecollectedpriortobeginningaVERPeffort;however,ifthisdoesnotoccur,plannerswillneedtorelyheavilyonparkstaffknowledgetoobtainthisinformation.ThiskindofdatacanbeobtainedbyresearchersespeciallyforaVERPeffort,butgatheringvisitorusedataacrosslargeparkareaswillbecostlyandtimeconsuming.
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RESOURCECONCERNS/RESOURCESENSITIVITYANALYSISThepurposesofthisanalysisaretoidentifytheprimaryresourceconcernsandresourcesthataresensitivetohumanuseorenvironmentalchange.Identifyingresourceconcernsandsensitiveresourceshelpstheplanningteamdefinepotentialmanagementzonesandapplythezonestotheparkinamannerthatminimizesconflictbetweenvisitoruseandresourceprotection.Resourceconcernsorthreatsareoftendescribedintext.Forexample,aconcerninsomeareasisthatthepopulationsofcertainbirdspeciesaredecliningbecausetheycannolongerfindenoughlarge,uninterruptedtractsofforestinwhichtobreed.Ashortparagraphcouldprovideenoughinformationtohelpaplanningteamsitedevelopmentandtransportationcorridorssothatforestsarenotfurtherfragmented,orsothatforestfragmentsarereconnected.Schematicmaps(withnotes,symbols,andarrows)canalsobeusedtoillustrateresourcethreats.Theproductofresourcesensitivityanalysisistypicallyoneormoremapsshowingtherelativeresourcesensitivityofdifferentareastohumanactivityorenvironmentalchange(e.g.,habitatalterationorfacilitydevelopment).Individualsensitiveresourcesarefirstmappedatrelativelycoarsescale,eitherbyhandorinaGISformat.Thentheindividualmapsareoverlaid(againbyhandordigitally)tocreateasynthesismapshowingthe
spatial
distribution
of
all
of
the
sensitive
resources
and
their
locationsrelativetootherparkfeatures,suchasinfrastructure.Theoverlaymethodalsoidentifiesplaceswheremorethanonesensitiveresourceoccursinthesamearea.Insomecases,beforeoverlayingtheresourcelayers,theplanningteamassignsahigherweight(orvalue)tocertainresourcesknowntobemoresensitiveorvulnerabletoimpacts.Ontheresultingsynthesismap,highlysensitiveareasrepresenteitherparticularlysensitiveindividualresourcesorareaswheretwoormoresensitiveresourcesco-occur.Thetypeofsensitiveresourcesidentifiedandmappedmayvary
withthesizeandcharacteroftheparkandwiththenatureofavailableinformation.Examplesinclude
archeologicalresourceswetlandareas floodplainareas erosivesoilandsteepslopes
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Element4
threatenedandendangeredspeciesandtheirhabitat rareorspecialplantcommunitiesorassociations(e.g.,
dunes,bogs,tundra) corridorsforanimalmovement(oftendrainagesor
streamcourses)wildlifewinterrange criticalnesting,mating,orbreedingareas historicalsitesandstructures historicdistricts
PointersforResourceConcerns/ResourceSensitivityAnalysis
When
planning
teams
use
synthesis
maps,
questions
often
ariseregardingspecificresourcesincertainareas.Therefore,itisusuallyhelpfulfortheteamtohaveindividualresourcemaps(aswellassynthesismaps)availableforreference.
Theteamshouldunderstandthenatureoftheecosystemcharacteristics,suchassuccession,nutrientcycling,energyflow,anddisturbanceregimes.Theteamshouldalsoconsult
withexpertsasneeded.Understandingtheecosystemstructureandfunctionwillhelpidentifyresourcethreats,aswellascomponentsandrelationshipsthatmustbepreservedtoensureecosystemhealth.IntheArchescase,forexample,insightsintotheimportanceofthecryptobioticsoilcrust(alivingsoilconsistingofcynobacteria,lichens,andmosses)ledtheplanningteamtousesoilcrustasanindicatorofecosystemintegrity.
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Element 5DescribeaPotentialRangeofVisitorExperiencesandResourceConditions(PotentialManagementZones)
Inelementfive,thefocusmovesfrombeingdescriptivetobeingprescriptive.Inthiselementtheteambeginstoformulateanddescribefutureconditionsforapark.Elementfivefocusesondeterminingwhatresourceandmanagerialconditionsandvisitorexperienceopportunitiesshouldexistinapark.
IMPORTANCEOFDIVERSITYProvidingopportunitiesforarangeofvisitorexperiencesisanimportantpartofplanningformostnationalparks.Onemightask,whyshouldaparkprovideopportunitiesformorethanonetypeofexperience?Visitorscometonationalparksfor
verydifferentandsometimesconflictingreasons.Byprovidingadiversityofsettings,visitorscantheoreticallyselectwhichexperience(s)mostcloselymatchthereasonthattheycametothepark.Also,planningforadiversityofexperienceshelpstoavoidtheconflictsthatoftenoccuramongvisitorswhowantdifferentthingsfromtheirvisits.Nationalparksnormallyprovideopportunitiesforadiversityofexperiencesbyprovidingavarietyofsettingsorenvironmentsforvisitors.Forexample,inYosemiteNationalPark,avisitorcanexperiencealargelyurbanenvironment(YosemiteValley)andalsoexperiencewildernessinthehighSierras.InYosemite,asinothernationalparks,manyotheridentifiablesettingsarebetweenthesetwoextremes.Inthepastparkmanagersandplannersdidnottrytodefinethetypesofvisitorexperienceopportunitiesdifferentareasinaparkcouldbestprovide.Italsowasnotrecognizedthatchangesinthelevelsofvisitoruseandinbehavior,aswellasvisitorimpactsandmanagementreactionstothoseimpacts,affectthediversityofvisitorexperiencesintheparks.Mostvisitorswenttoareasintheparkswithspecialattractions(e.g.,OldFaithful
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Element5
Geyser,YosemiteValley)and/ortoeasilyaccessibleareas.Parkmanagersandplannerslargelyrespondedtoincreasingvisitoruselevelswithwhatwerebelievedtobeappropriateinfrastructureandmanagementpolicies.Forinstance,sitesoftenwerealteredtoaccommodatemorevisitoruse.But,theincreasedlevels
of
use
and
reactive
management
action
frequently
changed
thecharacteristicsofthesettingsandthevisitorexperience.TheVERPframeworktakesadifferentapproachfromwhat
wasdoneinthepast.Theframeworkisprescriptiveandproactiveabout
whatvisitorexperienceopportunitiesareprovidedinapark
whattheessentialelementsofthoseexperiencesare,howmuchlandshouldbeallocatedtovariousvisitorexperienceopportunities
whereintheparkshouldtheopportunitiesbeprovided.TheVERPframeworkalsoisintendedtoensurethatadiversityofexperiencesisavailableinapark.Itisnotintendedtoensurethatadiversityofexperienceswillbeavailableateveryattractioninthepark,norisitintendedtoprotectallexperiencesinallzones.Itmaynotbepossibletoprovideopportunitiesforadiversityofexperiencesatuniqueattractions,suchasatOldFaithfulGeyser.
IDENTIFYINGTHERANGEOFPOTENTIALRESOURCECONDITIONSANDVISITOREXPERIENCESTheobjectiveofelementfiveistodeterminetherangeofpotentialvisitorexperiencesandresourceconditionsthatcanbeaccommodatedinapark.Thisisdonebycreatingaseriesofpotentialmanagementzones.Eachpotentialzoneisdefinedbythe
resourceconditions socialconditions kindsandlevelsofvisitoruses kindsandlevelsofparkdevelopment kindsandlevelsofmanagementactivity
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Bothmatricesandwrittennarrativesaredevelopedtodescribethepotentialzones.Itisusuallybesttostartoutdevelopingamatrixsimilartotable2.Thematrixconsistsoftwoaxes.Oneaxisliststhepotentialzones,whiletheotheraxisconsistsofkeyfactors,ordescriptors,thatdescribethepotentialqualityofthezones
and
differentiate
one
potential
zone
from
another.
Thepotentialzonenamesarerelativelyunimportantbutshouldbederivedfromthevisitorexperienceopportunitiesorresourcesinthezoneinsteadoftheinfrastructureinthezone.Forexample,rural(anexperienceopportunity)isabetternamethanunpavedroad(aninfrastructurefeature).Thedescriptorsusuallycanbeseparatedintothreemaincategories.
SocialDescriptors.Thoseaspectsabouttheexperiencethatarerelatedtotheeffectofvisitorsonothervisitors(e.g.,visitorbehavior,numbers).
ResourceDescriptors.Thebiological,geological,cultural,orscenicaspectsrelatedtotheexperience.
ManagerialDescriptors.Thoseaspectsofthevisitorexperiencethatarecontrolledbymanagement(e.g.,infrastructure,thepresenceofparkstaff,theintensityofmanagement,andsigning).Oncethematrixisfilledin,
writtendescriptionsofeachofthepotentialzonesshouldbe
completed.
These
narratives
expand
on
the
matrix,
providingamoreholisticperspectiveonthezonesandtheircharacteristics.
Afterthedescriptorsarechosen,thematrixisfilledinbytheplanningteam.Theobjectivehereistoseekaconsensuson
whatthepotentialzonesareandhowtheyqualitativelydifferfromotherzonesitisnotnecessarytobedefinitiveandquantitativeatthispoint.Wordsqualifyingthedescriptorsmayinclude:large,small,moderate,high,low,extreme,minuscule,notapplicable,medium,andvariable.Developingthepotentialzonesmaytakeseveraldays.Substantialrevisionsmayberequiredastheteambeginstorelatethepotentialzonestospecificgeographicalareas(seeelement6).Newdescriptorsoftenareadded;othersmaybedeleted.Potentialzonesmaybecombinedwhenthereappeartobelittledifferencebetweenthem.Otherpotentialzonesmaybeaddediftheteamsubsequentlyidentifiesomissionsintherangeofdesiredvisitorexperiencesandresourceconditions.
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TABLE2.POTENTIALMANAGEMENTZONES,ARCHESNATIONAL
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Examplesofpotentialzonesaredescribedbelow.ThefirsttwodescriptionsarefromtheArchesVERPimplementationplan.ThethirdisfromtheIsleRoyaleNationalParkGeneralMan
agementPlanandisincludedtoshowsomeofthevarietyofzonesandthewaystheymaybedescribed.(Adescriptionofallthe
zones
from
the
Arches
plan
is
included
in
appendix
B.)
ExampleofZoneDescriptionsfromArchesNationalParkPedestrianZone.Thiszoneiscomprisedofhighusetrailcorridorsthataccessprimeparkfeatures.Theareasinthiszonearepredominatelynatural,butwithmuchevidenceofthesightsandsoundsofpeople.Visitorscansee,touch,smell,andhearparkresourcesastheywalkalongawell-definedtrail,buttheywillnotfeelliketheyarefarfromtheircarsorconveniences.Pavedorhardenedtrailsandsmallinterpretivestructuresaretheonlyfacilitiespresent.Sometrailswouldbeaccessibletovisitorswithdisabilities.Tousethisarea,visitorsmustmakeashorttimecommitmentandphysicallyexertthemselvestosomedegree.Therearelimitedopportunitiesforchallengeandadventure,andtheneedforoutdoorskillsisrelativelyunimportant.TheprobabilityofencounteringvisitorsisveryhighandmoderateforencounteringNPSstaff;manypeoplemaybepresent.No
vehiclesorstockarepermittedinthiszone.Visitors,sites,andtrailsareintensivelymanagedinthepedestrian
zone
to
ensure
resource
protection
and
public
safety
(e.g.,
withfences,intensivelawenforcement,andrestrictionsonvisitoractivities).Resourcescanbemodifiedforessentialvisitorandparkoperationneeds,buttheyarechangedinawaythatharmonizeswiththenaturalenvironment.Exceptfortheseessentialchanges,theParkService'stoleranceforresourcedegradationhereislow.HikerZone.Thiszoneisappliedtotrailcorridorsandareasofasomewhatmoreprimitivenaturethanthoseinthepedestrianzone.Thehikerzoneprovidesasenseofbeingimmersedinanaturallandscapeandfeelssomewhatdistantfrommostcomfortsandconveniences.Unpaved,maintainedtrails,andsome-timescairnedroutesaretheonlyfacilitiesinthiszone.Opportunitiesexisttoexperiencechallengeandadventure.Visitorsmustcommitablockoftime,havesomeoutdoorskills,andexpendsomephysicalexertiontousethearea.Theprobabilityofencounteringothervisitorsismoderatetohigh(althoughthereareopportunitiesforsolitaryexperiences)andmoderate
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Element5
forencounteringNPSstaff.Novehiclesorstockarepermittedhere.
Ahighlevelofmanagementisprovidedforresourceprotectionandsafetypurposesinthehikerzone(e.g.,placingstonesalongtrail
edges
and
restricting
off-trail
use
and
group
sizes).
Some
resourcemodificationsareevident,buttheyharmonizewiththenaturalenvironment.ParkServicetoleranceforresourcedegradationhereislow.
ExampleofZoneDescriptionfromIsleRoyaleNationalParkMotorizedSensitiveWatersZoneVisitorExperience.Thiswouldbeazonewheremotorboat-borne
visitorsandotherscouldgotofindrelativelytranquil,naturalmarinesurroundings.Theprobabilityofencounteringother
visitorswouldbemoderate,butsolitudewouldbepossible.Tolerancefornoise,visualintrusions,andsocialinteractionwouldbemoderate.Anychallengeoradventurewouldprobablyrelatetonavigationindifficultclimaticconditions.Visitorswouldneedtoberelativelyself-sufficient.ResourceConditionorCharacter.ThiszonecouldbeinshelteredLakeSuperiorharborsandbayswherecalmwatersandrelativelyquietaredesirableforsafety,resource,orvisitorexperiencereasons.Itmightbeappropriate,forexample,inharborsor
bays
where
water
birds
nest
or
where
facilities
such
as
visitor
centersorcampgroundsarelocated.Amoderatelevelofmanagementwouldbeprovidedforresourceprotectionandvisitorsafety.Thetoleranceforresourcedegradationinthiszone
wouldbelow.AppropriateKindsofActivitiesorFacilities.Human-poweredandmotor-poweredwatercraftcouldbefoundinthesewaters.Boats
wouldtravelatslowspeedsandleavenowake.Boatanchorageswouldbeappropriatehere.
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POINTERSFORDETERMININGTHERANGEOFRESOURCECONDITIONSANDVISITOREXPERIENCES Potentialmanagementzonesdescribetheconditionstobe
created,sustained,ortolerated,nottheactionsnecessarytocreatetheconditions.Inotherwords,thezonesdescribewhattheteamistryingtocreate,nothowtocreatethoseconditions.
Usuallythereareneitherdefinitivedatatoguidetheteamindeterminingtherangeofresourceconditionsandvisitorexperiencesnorcheckpointstoensurethattheteamisontrack.Developingthiselementrequiresmuchbrainstorming,discussion,andopen-mindedness onthepartoftheteam.Itisgreatlyaidedbyafacilitatorandbyindividualsintimatelyfamiliarwithparkresourcesandvisitors.
Becausethedeterminationofwhataparkshouldorshouldnotprovideislargelysubjectiveandoftenvalueladen,afullunderstandingofpublicvaluesandexpectationsisrequired.Thedevelopmentofpotentialmanagementzonesisgenerallydonebytheteamandreviewedandrefinedbylargergroupsandthepublic.
Someguidancefordeterminingtherangeofpotentialzonesappropriatetoaparticularparkisprovidedbythe
regionalcontext
of
the
park
parkpurpose,significance,andprimaryinterpretive
themes(definedinelement3) distributionandabundanceofdifferentparkresources
mappedinelement4(e.g.,vegetation,terrain,orsensitivewildlifemightgivecluesastowhatexperienceopportunitiesmightbeprovidedaswellaswhatshouldnotbeprovided)
Understandingvisitorwantsandneedscanhelpdeterminearangeofdesirablevisitorexperiencesandresourceconditions.Thisinformationcanbeobtainedthroughavisitorsurveyoranewsletterwithanaccompanyingresponseform.
Alternatively,theinformationmaybecollectedusingfocusgroupsorbyholdingconversationswithvisitors.Attheveryleast,individualswhointeractwithparkvisitorsonadailybasisshouldbeinvolvedindevelopingthiselement.Inmostparks,theseindividualsaretheinterpreters,informationdeskpersonnel,maintenancepersonnel,andotherprovidersof
visitorinformation.Theymaybepermanentorseasonalpark
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Element5
employees,volunteers,orinterpretativeassociationemployees.Becausetheseindividualslistentoandanswervisitorquestionsdaily,itplacestheminapositiontoprovidegoodinformationandthoughtstotheplanningteam.
Inventorying
the
surrounding
region
will
help
determine
what
typesofvisitorexperienceopportunitiesmightbestbepro
videdoutsidetheparkandthetypesofopportunitiesthatcanoccuronlyinit.Providingarangeofrecreationalopportunitiesinaregionisdesirabletosatisfythediversityofrecreationtastes.Nooneparkmanageroragencyshouldfeelobligatedtomeetthedemandsofallrecreationalusers.Eachagency,forexample,couldaimatprovidingoneormorespecifictypesofrecreationalopportunitiesandreferthosewantingsomethingdifferentelsewhere.Obviously,regionalcollaborationamongprivateandpublicmanagersismandatoryifafullandappropriatemixofopportunitiesandbenefitsistobeprovided.
Ariskinelement5isthattheteamwillonlylookattheexistingvisitorexperiences,recreationalactivities,resourceconditions,andmanagerialconditionsanddescribethem.Thismaybeappropriate;however,potentialopportunitiesmaybemissediftheteamisnarrowlyfocusedonwhatis,ratherthan
whatcouldbe,oriftheteamhurriesthroughthiselement.Goingbacktotheexperientialresourceanalysisworkmaybeusefulincheckingtoseeifpotentialexperienceopportunitieshavebeenmissed.
Indescribingapotentialzone,ateamisoftentemptedtousewordsthatactuallydescribeanactivityratherthananexperience.Thisshouldbeavoideditistheexperienceonwhichtheteamshouldbeconcentrating.Forexample,ateammightcreatedifferentpotentialzonesforhiking,equestrianuse,andovernightcamping.Theseareallactivities,notexperiences.Thepotentialzoneinsteadshouldfocusontheintendedexperience(e.g.,givingvisitorsanopportunityasenseofbeinginwildlands,withopportunitiesforchallengeandadventure).Dependingonthedesiredexperience,itispossiblethatonepotentialzonemightprovideopportunitiesforalloftheaboveactivities.
Thegoalofmanagementzoningistoidentifyareaswithdifferentmanagementrequirements.Somevariationsofvisitorexperiencesandresourcesettings,andmanydifferentvisitoractivitiesmayoccurinasinglezonesolongasthemanagementprescriptionsremainconstant.Sometimesthereisatendencyforteammemberstobeeitherlumpersorsplittersindevelopingpotentialzones.Splitterscanbogdownthe
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processbytryingtodefinedifferentmanagementzonesforeverydifferentexperienceorsetting.Lumperscanmakethezonesuselessbyincludingareasinthesamezonethatmustbemanageddifferently.Amiddlegroundmustbesoughtthatdefinesenoughzonestoclarifymanagementrequirements
withoutover
complicating
the
zoning
scheme.
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Element 6AllocatethePotentialZonestoSpecificLocationsinthePark(PrescriptiveManagementZoning)
Inelement6,thepotentialmanagementzonesdescribedinelement5areallocatedtospecificgeographicareas.Thisprocessofmanagementzoningisakeyplanningtoolformakingdecisionsaboutwhatisappropriateandnotappropriateinapark,andwhatcanandcannotoccurindifferentareasoftheparkintermsofresourcesmanagement,visitoruse,anddevelopment.Thereisnosetway,nostandardizedapproach,noranycomputerprogramtomanipulatetheinputsfromtheprecedingelementsandderiveaninstantmanagementzoningschemeforapark.Thisiswherethecommittedworkofaninterdisciplinaryteamprovesitsvalue.Theteammustlookatthedesiresandconcernsofthepublicasdiscussedinelement2,theplanningfoundationestablishedinelement3,thepotentialsandlimitationsoftheparkresourcesidentifiedinelement4,andtherangeofpotentialvisitorexperiencesandresourceconditionsdescribedinelement5.Synthesizingallofthisinformation,theteambeginstodiscernandorganizepatterns.Thesepatterns,examinedvisuallythroughmapsandoverlays,andverballythroughteamdiscussions,helpguidetheallocationofmanagementzonestogeographicalunitsthatcanbeidentifiedontheground.
Alllandandwaterinaparkmustbezoned.Eachareashouldbeincludedinonlyonezonebecausenoareacanbemanagedmorethanonewayatatime.However,iftheteamdecidesthatanareashouldbemanageddifferentlyindifferentseasonstheareacouldbeplacedindifferentseasonalzones.
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EXAMPLESOFVERPZONINGThefollowingmapsshowexamplesofhowArchesNationalParkwaszonedbytheplanningteam.Figure3showsthezoningschemefortheentirepark.Severalpopularareaswerezonedatamorespecificscale;thesecondmapoftheWindowsSection(figure4)isanexampleofsuchanarea.Asummaryofthe
Archesmanagementzonesisincludedforreference(formoredetails,seeappendixB).Notethatzoneswithheavilyusedroadsandtrails,wherethe
visitorexperiencetendstobelinear,weremappedascorridors.Loweruseareas,wherethevisitorexperiencetendstobemoreunstructured,weremappedaspolygons.Whilethisisexpectedtobeacommonapproach,itisbynomeansintendedtobearule.Whethercorridorsorpolygonsworkbestwillvarywithindividualparksandsituations.Itmayevenbepossibletohavethesamezone(e.g.,abackcountrytrailzone),appliedasacorridorinsomeareasofaparkandappliedasapolygoninotherareasofthesamepark.OntheWindowssectionmap,noticehowthepedestrianzonecorridortraversesthesensitiveresourceprotectionzonepolygon.Theparkpurposestatementsdirecttheparktoprotectextraordinaryexamplesoferodedsandstoneformationsandthe
settinginwhichtheyoccur.Thisapplicationofthezoneswasusedtomeetthemanagementgoalofkeepingvisitorsontrailsinordertoprote