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UHLIG’S CORROSION HANDBOOK
THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY SERIES
ECS-The Electrochemical Society
65 South Main Street
Pennington, NJ 08534-2839
http://www.electrochem.org
Corrosion HandbookEdited by Herbert H. Uhlig
Modern Electroplating, Third Edition
Edited by Frederick A. Lowenheim
Modern Electroplating, Fifth Edition
Edited by Mordechay Schlesinger and Milan Paunovic
The Electron Microprobe
Edited by T. D. McKinley, K. F. J. Heinrich, and D. B.Wittry
Chemical Physics of Ionic Solutions
Edited by B. E. Conway and R. G. Barradas
High-Temperature Materials and TechnologyEdited by Ivor E. Campbell and Edwin M. Sherwood
Alkaline Storage Batteries
S. Uno Falk and Alvin J. Salkind
The Primary Battery (in Two Volumes)
Volume I Edited by George W. Heise and N. Corey Cahoon
Volume II Edited by N. Corey Cahoon and George W. Heise
Zinc-Silver Oxide Batteries
Edited by Arthur Fleischer and J. J. Lander
Lead-Acid Batteries
Hans Bode
Translated by R. J. Brodd and Karl V. Kordesch
Thin Films-Interdiffusion and Reactions
Edited by J. M. Poate, M. N. Tu, and J. W. Mayer
Lithium Battery Technology
Edited by H. V. Venkatasetty
Quality and Reliability Methods for Primary BatteriesP. Bro and S. C. Levy
Techniques for Characterization of Electrodes andElectrochemical Processes
Edited by Ravi Varma and J. R. Selman
Electrochemical Oxygen Technology
Kim Kinoshita
Synthetic Diamond: Emerging CVD Science and
Technology
Edited by Karl E. Spear and John P. Dismukes
Corrosion of Stainless Steels
A. John Sedriks
Semiconductor Wafer Bonding: Science and Technology
Q.-Y. Tong and U. G€oscle
Uhlig’s Corrosion Handbook, Second Edition
Edited by R. Winston Revie
Atmospheric Corrosion
Christofer Leygraf and Thomas Graedel
Electrochemical Systems, Third Edition
John Newman and Karen E. Thomas-Alyea
Fundamentals of Electrochemistry, Second Edition
V. S. Bagotsky
Fundamentals of Electrochemical Deposition, Second
Edition
Milan Paunovic and Mordechay Schlesinger
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
Mark E. Orazem and Bernard Tribollet
Fuel Cells: Problems and Solutions
Vladimir S. Bagotsky
UHLIG’S CORROSION HANDBOOK
THIRD EDITION
Edited by
R. WINSTON REVIE
CANMET Materials Technology LaboratoryOttawa, Ontario, Canada
Copyright � 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Uhlig’s corrosion handbook / edited by R. Winston Revie–3rd ed.
p. cm. –(The ECS series of texts and monographs)
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-08032-0
Printed in the United States of America
eBook ISBN: 978-0-470-87285-7
oBook ISBN: 978-0-470-87286-4
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Herbert H. UhligMarch 3, 1907–July 3, 1993
This Handbook is dedicated to the memory of Herbert H. Uhlig.
Herbert Uhlig began his career at MIT in 1936 where, with the exception of the
interruption caused by World War II, he remained until his retirement nearly 40 years
later, bringing the MIT Corrosion Laboratory to a level of international prominence that
it retains to this day as a major center of excellence. He helped to establish the Corrosion
Division of The Electrochemical Society in 1942 and served as President of the Society
in 1955–1956. His characteristics as an uncompromising innovator and meticulous
scientist who insisted on reliable data and on achieving results led to the success of his
many endeavors as educator and mentor, including the Corrosion Handbook, published in
1948, that he conceived, organized, and edited.
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Robert Baboian
RB Corrosion Service
Greenville, Rhode Island
Donald L. Jordan
Ford Motor Company
Dearborn, Michigan
Russell D. Kane
iCorrosion LLC
Houston, Texas
Martin Kendig
Rockwell International Science Center
Thousand Oaks, California
Pradip R. Khaladkar
E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
Wilmington, Delaware
Ronald M. Latanision
Exponent-Failure Analysis Associates, Inc.
Natick, Massachusetts
Barry MacDougall
National Research Council of Canada
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Tomomi Murata
Japan Science and Technology Agency
Saitama, Japan
Srdjan Ne�si�cOhio University
Athens, Ohio
Howard W. Pickering
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Pierre R. Roberge
Royal Military College of Canada
Kingston, Ontario
Canada
Guenter A. Schmitt
Iserlohn University of Applied Sciences
Iserlohn, Germany
Roger W. Staehle
University of Minnesota and Industrial Consultant
North Oaks, Minnesota
Graham Wood
University of Manchester
Manchester, UK
CONTENTS
Foreword xvii
Foreword to the Second Edition xix
Preface xxi
Contributors xxiii
Introductory Notes on Climate Change, Life-Cycle Design,
and Corrosion of Steel
xxvii
T. Murata
PART I BASICS OF CORROSION SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
1 Corrosion Failure Analysis with Case Histories 3
L. E. Eiselstein and R. Huet
2 Cost of Metallic Corrosion 15
J. Kruger
3 Economics of Corrosion 21
E. D. Verink, Jr.
4 Lifetime Prediction of Materials in Environments 31
R. W. Staehle
5 Estimating the Risk of Pipeline Failure Due to Corrosion 75
M. Nessim
6 Designing to Prevent Corrosion 83
E. D. Verink, Jr.
7 Simplified Procedure for Constructing Pourbaix Diagrams 93
E. D. Verink, Jr.
ix
8 Pourbaix Diagrams for Multielement Systems 103
W. T. Thompson, M. H. Kaye, C. W. Bale, and A. D. Pelton
9 Computation of Pourbaix Diagrams at Elevated Temperature 111
M. H. Kaye and W. T. Thompson
10 Galvanic Corrosion 123
X. G. Zhang
11 Dealloying 145
R. Heidersbach
12 Passivity 151
J. Kruger
13 Localized Corrosion of Passive Metals 157
H. Bohni
14 Stress Corrosion Cracking 171
R. N. Parkins
15 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking and Sulfide Stress Cracking 183
M. Elboujdaini
16 Corrosion Fatigue 195
Y.-Z. Wang
17 Flow Effects on Corrosion 203
K. D. Efird
18 Erosion–Corrosion in Single- and Multiphase Flow 215
J. Postlethwaite and S. Nesic
19 Carbon Dioxide Corrosion of Mild Steel 229
S. Nesic
20 High-Temperature Oxidation 247
C. A. C. Sequeira
21 Thermochemical Evaluation of Corrosion Product Stabilities
for Alloys in Gases at High Temperature
281
W. T. Thompson, R. C. John, and A. L. Young
22 A Procedure to Compute Equilibrium Gas-Phase Speciation forUse with Predominance Diagrams
287
M. H. Piro, B. J. Lewis, and W. T. Thompson
23 Atmospheric Corrosion 299
P. R. Roberge
x CONTENTS
24 Atmospheric Corrosion in Cold Regions 327
G. A. King
25 Corrosion by Soils 333
T. R. Jack and M. J. Wilmott
26 Microbial Degradation of Materials: General Processes 351
J.-D. Gu, T. E. Ford, and R. Mitchell
27 Corrosion Probability and Statistical Evaluation of Corrosion Data 365
T. Shibata
PART II NONMETALS
28 Corrosion of Refractories and Ceramics 387
M. Rigaud
29 Corrosion of Glass 399
B. Grambow
30 Microbiological Degradation of Polymeric Materials 421
J.-D. Gu, T. E. Ford, D. B. Mitton, and R. Mitchell
31 Durability of Concrete 439
V. M. Malhotra
32 Microbiological Corrosion of Concrete 451
J.-D. Gu, T. E. Ford, and R. Mitchell
33 Microbial Degradation of Wood 461
P. I. Morris
34 Use of Chemicals to Prevent Degradation of Wood 469
J. N. R. Ruddick
PART III METALS
35 Metal–Matrix Composites 481
L. H. Hihara
36 Environmental Degradation of Engineered Barrier Materials
in Nuclear Waste Repositories
503
R. B. Rebak
37 Corrosion Behavior of Electrodeposited Nanocrystals 517
U. Erb
38 Corrosion of Shape Memory and Superelastic Alloys 529
L. E. Eiselstein
CONTENTS xi
39 Microbiological Corrosion of Metallic Materials 549
J.-D. Gu, T. E. Ford, and R. Mitchell
40 Electronic Materials, Components, and Devices 559
R. P. Frankenthal and L. F. Garfias-Mesias
41 Corrosion of Electronics: Lead-Free Initiatives 565
M. Reid and L. F. Garfias-Mesias
42 Metastable Alloys 571
K. Hashimoto
43 Carbon Steel—Atmospheric Corrosion 579
I. Matsushima
44 Carbon Steel—Corrosion in Freshwaters 589
I. Matsushima
45 Carbon Steel—Corrosion by Seawater 601
I. Matsushima
46 Carbon Steel—Corrosion by Soils 609
I. Matsushima
47 Localized Corrosion of Iron and Steel 615
I. Matsushima
48 Weathering Steel 621
T. Murata
49 Corrosion of Steel in Concrete 633
J. P. Broomfield
50 Ethanol Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Steels 649
J. Beavers, F. Gui, and N. Sridhar
51 Austenitic and Ferritic Stainless Steels 657
M. A. Streicher, Revised by J. F. Grubb
52 Duplex Stainless Steels 695
M.-L. Falkland, M. Glaes, and M. Liljas
53 Martensitic Stainless Steels 707
J. F. Grubb
54 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 715
E. Ghali
55 Cobalt Alloys 747
P. Crook and W. L. Silence
xii CONTENTS
56 Copper and Copper Alloys 757
C. A. C. Sequeira
57 Lead and Lead Alloys 787
F. E. Goodwin
58 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 809
E. Ghali
59 Nickel and Nickel Alloys 837
D. C. Agarwal and N. Sridhar
60 Tin and Tinplate 853
T. P. Murphy
61 Titanium and Titanium Alloys 861
J. Been and J. S. Grauman
62 Zinc 879
X. G. Zhang
63 Zirconium Alloy Corrosion 893
B. Cox
PART IV CORROSION PROTECTION
64 Controlling Flow Effects on Corrosion 903
K. D. Efird
65 Erosion–Corrosion: Recognition and Control 907
J. Postlethwaite and S. Nesic
66 Using Plastics, Elastomers, and Composites for Corrosion Control 915
P. R. Khaladkar
67 Corrosion Control of Steel by Organic Coatings 971
C. H. Hare
68 Selection and Use of Coatings for Underground
or Submersion Service
985
R. Norsworthy
69 Engineering of Cathodic Protection Systems 1001
J. H. Fitzgerald III
70 Stray-Current Analysis 1013
J. H. Fitzgerald III
71 Corrosion Inhibitors 1021
S. Papavinasam
CONTENTS xiii
72 Computer Technology for Corrosion Assessment and Control 1033
S. Srinivasan
PART V TESTING FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE
73 Principles of Accelerated Corrosion Testing 1047
D. L. Jordan
74 High-Temperature Oxidation—Testing and Evaluation 1053
C. A. C. Sequeira
75 Testing for Flow Effects on Corrosion 1059
K. D. Efird
76 Accelerated Testing of Electronics to Simulate Long-Term
Worldwide Environments
1063
L. F. Garfias-Mesias and M. Reid
77 Testing for Environmentally Assisted Cracking 1071
R. D. Kane
78 Test Methods for Wet H2S Cracking 1087
M. Elboujdaini
79 Atmospheric Corrosion Testing 1095
D. L. Jordan
80 Galvanic Corrosion Testing 1101
X. G. Zhang
81 Testing of Aluminum, Magnesium, and Their Alloys 1103
E. Ghali
82 Testing of Polymeric Materials for Corrosion Control 1107
B. Thomson and R. P. Campion
83 Corrosion Testing of Refractories and Ceramics 1117
M. Rigaud
84 Evaluation and Selection of Corrosion Inhibitors 1121
S. Papavinasam
85 Practical Corrosion Prediction Using
Electrochemical Techniques
1129
D. C. Silverman
86 Electrochemical Noise 1167
D. A. Eden, Revised and updated by Q. J. Meng,
M. Mendez, and M. Yunovich
xiv CONTENTS
PART VI CORROSION MONITORING
87 Corrosion Monitoring 1181
P. R. Roberge
88 Diagnosing, Measuring, and Monitoring Microbiologically
Influenced Corrosion
1203
B. J. Little, R. I. Ray, and J. S. Lee
Glossary of Selected Terms Used
in Corrosion Science and Engineering
1217
Index 1223
CONTENTS xv
FOREWORD
In the roughly 10 years since the appearance of the second
edition of the Corrosion Handbook, new technologies and
new engineering systems have found their way into the global
marketplace at an increasing rate. It is no wonder now that a
third edition would be timely and appropriate. It is also no
surprise that the third edition would expand the scope of the
previouseditions to includechaptersoncomposites suchasare
used inairframes, shapememoryalloyswhichfindapplication
in medical devices, and electrodeposited nanocrystals as well
as application-specific chapterswhich address thematerials of
construction of the engineered barriers for nuclear waste
containment, ethanol-induced stress corrosion cracking of
carbon steels, and other such topics. An entirely new section
on corrosion monitoring also appears in the third edition.
Corrosion is ubiquitous: All engineering systems are
subject to environmental degradation in service environ-
ments, whether these systems are used to meet the energy
needs of the inhabitants of this planet; to provide clean air; to
treat and transport water, food, and other products typical of
our commercial world; to both save and improve the quality
of our lives; and to ensure the readiness of those engineering
systems that are of importance in terms of national defense
and homeland security as well as many others. From heart
stents to nuclear electric generating stations, corrosion is part
of our world.
The Corrosion Handbook continues today, as it has since
its first appearance over 60 years ago, to serve as a trusted
resource to generations of corrosion engineers. There are
many reasons to believe that its presence in the libraries of
engineering practitioners of all kinds is greater now than ever
before. First, it appears that much of the expertise in this area
of technology, which resided for decades in the staff and
laboratories of metal producers, has retired and is not being
replaced as many of the metal producers have responded to
the global economy of the past decade and more. Second, the
interest of young people in engineering education, including
corrosion engineering, is also in decline. Third, as the global
economy recovers from the meltdown of the recent past,
nations with a strong manufacturing base that creates pro-
ducts of value to the market will respond most quickly. But
this will require an educated and informed engineering
workforce. It is a concern to me that industrialized nations
all over theworld are on the brink of losing this technological
infrastructure through retirement, the decline of traditional
manufacturing industries, and declining student interest.
Without a means of capturing this expertise in a useful form
the next generation of engineers are going to find a gap in
their knowledge base. I am confident that this volumewill be
of value in that context. Every industrialized nation must
have the capacity and intellectual strength necessary to
design, manufacture, and maintain either contemporary
engineering systems or emerging engineering systems that
may find their way into the marketplace of the future. The
Corrosion Handbook remains an invaluable resource in that
regard, and once again Winston Revie has assembled a
world-class group of authors in producing a comprehensive
volume covering the entire field of contemporary corrosion
engineering.
R. M. LATANISION
February 2010
Director (Emeritus)
The H. H. Uhlig Corrosion Laboratory, MIT, and
Corporate Vice President
Exponent–Failure Analysis Associates, Inc.
Natick, Massachusetts
xvii
FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION
The first and, prior to the current volume, only edition of the
Corrosion Handbookwas published in 1948. It represented a
heroic effort by Professor Herbert Uhlig and the leadership of
the relatively newly established Corrosion Division of the
Electrochemical Society. It was intended, as Professor Uhlig
recorded in the Preface to the 1948 edition, to serve as “. . . aconvenient reference volume covering the entire field of
corrosion, to bring together, in effect, much of the informa-
tion scattered broadly throughout the scientific and engineer-
ing literature.” Its success was equally heroic: the Corrosion
Handbook has served generation after generation of corro-
sion engineer and today, more than a one-half of a century
since its first appearance, the volume remains a trusted
resource in the personal libraries of many of those who
populate the world’s engineering community.
Over the years that I knew Professor Uhlig personally, he
often mentioned to me his concern for the need to produce a
revised edition of theHandbook. I am confident that hewould
have been very pleased that one of his doctoral students at
MIT, Winston Revie, had taken up this challenge. Winston,
just as his mentor, is a meticulous and innovative corrosion
scientist. This truly monumental revision of the Corrosion
Handbook is certain to serve the engineering community
well as we enter the new millennium. Much has happened in
corrosion science and engineering since 1948, and the con-
tributors to this volume, an assembly of the international
leaders in the field, have captured these changes wonderfully
well. The breadth of corrosion and corrosion control is made
clear by the inclusion of ceramics, polymers, glass, concrete
and other materials as well as of metals, the focus of the first
edition. The introduction of standards into corrosion science
and engineering is emphasized as is life prediction, and
economic and risk analyses associated with environmental
degradation of materials.
While the introduction of new technologies has dramati-
cally changed virtually every aspect of life on the Earth in the
fifty years since the appearance of the Corrosion Handbook,
what remains a persistent reality in the engineering enterprise
is that engineering systems are built of materials. Whether an
airframe, integrated circuit, bridge, prosthetic device or,
perhaps as we shall see in the not too distant future, implant-
able drug delivery systems—the chemical stability of the
materials of construction of such systems continues to be a
key element in determining their useful life. This new edition
of the Corrosion Handbook will serve, among others,
designers, inspectors, owners and operators of engineering
systems of all kinds, many of which are unknown today, for
generations to come. Dr. Revie has succeeded, just as did his
mentor in 1948, in producing a convenient reference volume
covering the entire field of corrosion.
R. M. LATANISION
H. H. Uhlig Corrosion Laboratory
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
xix
PREFACE
The objective in preparing this third edition of Uhlig’s
Corrosion Handbook has been to provide an updated
book—one affordable volume—in which the current state
of knowledge on corrosion is summarized. The fundamental
scientific aspects and engineering applications of new and
traditional materials and corrosion control methods are dis-
cussed, along with indications of future trends. The book is
intended to meet the needs of scientists, engineers, technol-
ogists, students, and all those who require an up-to-date
source of corrosion knowledge. This new edition contains
a total of 88 chapters divided among six parts:
I. Basics of Corrosion Science and Engineering
II. Nonmetals
III. Metals
IV. Corrosion Protection
V. Testing for Corrosion Resistance
VI. Corrosion Monitoring
Topics discussed in chapters that are new in this edition
include failure analysis (Chapter 1), principles of accelerated
corrosion testing (Chapter 73), metal–matrix composites
(Chapter 35), nanocrystals (Chapter 37), ethanol stress cor-
rosion cracking (Chapter 50), computation of Pourbaix dia-
grams at elevated temperature (Chapter 9), high-temperature
oxidation (Chapters 20 and 74), dealloying (Chapter 11), and
diagnosing, measuring, and monitoring microbiologically
influenced corrosion (MIC) (Chapter 88). Dr. Tomomi
Murata has provided some very insightful introductory notes
on the effects of climate change, life-cycle design, and
corrosion of steel under changing atmospheric conditions.
Throughout the book, extensive reference lists are includ-
ed to help readers identify sources of information beyond
what could be included in this one-volume handbook.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the authors who wrote the
chapters of this edition as well as the reviewers, who, in
anonymity, carried out their work in the spirit of continuous
improvement. I would also like to acknowledge the members
of the Editorial Advisory Committee, who made many
constructive suggestions to help define, focus, and clarify
the discussions in this new edition. I would like to acknowl-
edgeMary Yess and her staff at The Electrochemical Society
Headquarters in Pennington, New Jersey, for their support
during the preparation of this book. I greatly appreciate the
encouragement and support of Bob Esposito and his staff at
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. in Hoboken, New Jersey.
Finally, I would like to thank my many friends and
colleagues at the CANMET Materials Technology Labora-
tory, where it has been my privilege to work for the past
32 years.
R. WINSTON REVIE
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
xxi
CONTRIBUTORS
�Agarwal, D. C., DNVColumbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio, USA
Bale, C.W., D�epartement de g�enie physique et de g�enie desmat�eriaux, Ecole Polytechnique, Montr�eal, Qu�ebec,Canada
Beavers, J, A., DNV Columbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio, USA
Been, J., Alberta Innovates Technology Futures, Calgary,
Alberta, Canada
B€ohni, H., Institute of Materials Chemistry and Corrosion,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Z€urich,Switzerland (Retired)
Broomfield, J. P., Corrosion Consultant, London, UK
Campion, R. P., MERL Ltd., Wilbury Way, Hitchin, UK
Cox, B., Centre for Nuclear Engineering, University of
Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Retired)
Crook, P., Haynes International, Kokomo, Indiana, USA
(Retired)
�Eden, D. A., Honeywell Process Solutions, Houston,
Texas, USA
Eiselstein, L. E., Exponent-Failure Analysis Associates,
Inc., Menlo Park, California, USA
Efird, K. D., Efird Corrosion International, Inc., The
Woodlands, Texas, USA
Elboujdaini, M., CANMET Materials Technology Labo-
ratory, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Erb, U., Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Falkland, M. L., Outokumpu Stainless AB, Avesta,
Sweden
Fitzgerald III, J. H., Grosse Pointe Park, Michigan,
USA
Ford, T. E., University of New England, Biddeford, Maine
USA
Frankenthal, R. P., Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technolo-
gies, Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA (Retired)
Garfias-Mesias, L. F., DNV Columbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio,
USA
Ghali, E., Department ofMining,Metallurgy andMaterials,
Laval University, Qu�ebec, Canada
Glaes, M., Outokumpu Stainless AB, Avesta, Sweden
Goodwin, F. E., International Lead Zinc Research
Organization, Inc., Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina, USA
Grambow, B., La Chantrerie, Laboratoire SUBATECH
(UMR6457), Ecole desMines deNantes,Nantes Cedex 3,
France
Grauman, J. S., TIMET, Henderson, Nevada, USA
Grubb, J. F., Technical & Commercial Center, ATI
Allegheny Ludlum Corp., Brackenridge, Pennsylvania,
USA
Gu, J.-D., School of Biological Science, The University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Gui, F., DNV Columbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio, USA
Hare, C. H., Coating System Design Inc., Lakeville,
Massachusetts, USA (Retired)
Hashimoto, K., Tohoku Institute of Technology, Sendai,
Japan
�Deceased.
xxiii
Heidersbach, R., Dr. Rust, Inc., Cape Canaveral, Florida,
USA
Hihara, L. H., Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
Huet, R., Exponent-Failure Analysis Associates, Inc.,
Menlo Park, California, USA
Jack, T. R., University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
John, R. C., Shell International E&P, Inc., Houston, Texas,
USA
Jordan, D. L., Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan,
USA
Kane, R. D., iCorrosion LLC, Houston, Texas, USA
Kaye, M. H., Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear
Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology,
Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
Khaladkar, P. R., E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co, Inc.,
Wilmington, Delaware, USA
King, G. A., CSIRO Building, Construction and Engineer-
ing, Highett, Victoria, Australia (Retired)
Kruger, J., Department ofMaterials Science and Engineer-
ing, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland,
USA (Retired)
Latanision, R. M., Exponent-Failure Analysis Associates,
Inc., Natick, Massachusetts, USA
Lee, J. S., Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space
Center, Mississippi, USA
Lewis, B. J., Department of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Liljas, M., Outokumpu Stainless AB, Avesta, Sweden
Little, B. J., Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space
Center, Mississippi, USA
Malhotra, V. M., Consultant, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
�Matsushima, I., Maebashi Institute of Technology,
Maebashi, Japan
Mendez, M., Honeywell Corrosion Solutions, Houston,
Texas, USA
Meng, Q. J., Honeywell Corrosion Solutions, Houston,
Texas, USA
Mitchell, R., Laboratory of Microbial Ecology, Harvard
School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Mitton, D. B., Gold Standard Corrosion Science Group,
LLC, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Morris, P. I., FPInnovations, Vancouver, BC, Canada
Murata, T., Office of Technology Transfer Innovation
Headquarters, Japan Science and Technology Agency,
Tokyo, Japan
�Murphy, T. P., Campion Hall, University of Oxford,
Oxford, UK
Ne�si�c, S., Institute for Corrosion and Multiphase Flow
Technology, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
Nessim, M., C-FERTechnologies Inc., Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada
Norsworthy, R., Lone Star Corrosion Services, Lancaster,
Texas, USA
Papavinasam, S., CANMET Materials Technology Labo-
ratory, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
�Parkins, R. N., University of Newcastle upon Tyne,
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Pelton, A. D., D�epartement de g�enie physique et de g�eniedes mat�eriaux, Ecole Polytechnique, Montr�eal, Qu�ebec,Canada
Piro, M. H., Department of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Postlethwaite, J., Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,
Canada (Retired)
Ray, R. I., Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space
Center, Mississippi, USA
Rebak, R. B., GE Global Research, Niskayuna, New York,
USA
Reid,M., StokesResearch Institute, University of Limerick,
Limerick, Ireland
Revie, R.W., CANMETMaterials Technology Laboratory,
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Rigaud, M., D�epartement de g�enie physique et de g�eniedes mat�eriaux, Ecole Polytechnique, Montr�eal, Qu�ebec,Canada
Roberge, P. R., Department of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Ruddick, J. N. R., Department of Wood Science, Forest
Sciences Centre, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, B.C., Canada�Deceased.
xxiv CONTRIBUTORS
Sequeira, C. A. C., Instituto Superior T�ecnico, Lisboa,
Portugal
Shibata, T., Department of Materials Science and Process-
ing, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University,
Japan (Retired)
Silence, W. L., Consultant, Fairfield Glade, Tennessee,
USA
Silverman, D. C., Argentum Solutions, Inc., Chesterfield,
Missouri, USA
Sridhar, N., DNV Columbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio, USA
Srinivasan, S., Advanced Solutions–Americas, Honeywell
International, Inc., Houston, Texas, USA
Staehle, R. W., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis and
Industrial Consultant, North Oaks, Minnesota, USA
�Streicher, M. A., E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., and
the University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
Thompson, W. T., Centre for Research in Computational
Thermochemistry, Royal Military College of Canada,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Thomson, B., MERL Ltd., Wilbury Way, Hitchin, UK
Verink, Jr., E. D., Department of Materials Science and
Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida,
USA (Retired)
Wang, Y.-Z., Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission,
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Wilmott, M., Wasco Coatings Ltd., Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Young,A.L., Humberside Solutions Ltd., Toronto, Ontario,
Canada
Yunovich, M., Honeywell Corrosion Solutions, Houston,
Texas, USA
Zhang, X. G., Teck Metals Ltd., Mississauga, Ontario,
Canada
�Deceased.
CONTRIBUTORS xxv
INTRODUCTORY NOTES ON CLIMATE CHANGE,LIFE-CYCLE DESIGN, AND CORROSION OF STEEL
T. MURATA
Japan Science & Technology Agency, Saitama, Japan
A. CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is attributed mainly to increased CO2 in our
atmosphere because of anthropogenic activities and is
expected to increase as much as 50% by 2030 compared to
the concentration in 2005, that is, 359 ppm [1, 2]. Such a
change will affect the corrosion of carbon steel through
acidification due to increased concentration of HCO3� and
Ca2þ in waters at temperatures a few degrees Celsius higher
than those in 1990. In addition, other influential factors that
will arise from climate change include the following:
1. Increase in precipitation
2. Formation of aerosols with CO2 emission
3. Increased SOx emissions caused by the use of sulfur-
bearing coal due to oil shortages
4. Enhanced biological growth in waters
For these reasons, the corrosivity of environments in the
future will be complex, and a simple acidification model will
not be adequate. To predict the effects of climate change on
corrosion, computational analyses and systematic corrosion
studies are required to develop models based on projected
climate change.
“Time of wetness” is universally considered to be a key
corrosion index for atmospheric corrosion. In recent years,
weather instability has led to changes in global rainfall
distribution, changes that could lead to new and different
predictive indices for atmospheric corrosion. For corrosion in
waters, microbiological factors are expected to increase
in importance with the changing climate. In contrast to the
environmental factors that pertain to corrosion in air and
water, the heterogeneous distribution of chemicals in
contaminated soils in industrialized areas results in nonuni-
form soil corrosivity. Dynamic corrosionmodels are required
with on-site monitoring systems.
B. LIFE-CYCLE DESIGN
To minimize the environmental burden and to attain a
sustainable society, life-cycle design of steel structures is
required to ensure safety, reliability, durability, and the best
use of materials and energy throughout the life cycle. The
life-cycle concept will be required for future design and
construction of social as well as industrial infrastructure. For
example, in developing a life-cycle design for weathering
steels, discussed in Chapter 48, reliable corrosion data for
long-term service and a systematic approach to minimize
both corrosion damage and social costs are necessary.
In general, corrosion is studied using a set of parameters
under simplified or fixed conditions. In the real world, in
response to constantly changing environmental parameters,
corrosion behavior also changes. For this reason, an under-
standing of corrosion dynamics is required, and the corrosion
protectionmodels that are implementedmust have a capacity
to reflect dynamic environmental conditions that are subject
to constant change.
REFERENCES
1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Climate
and Water,” Technical Paper VI, Geneva, June 2008.
2. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
“Implications of Proposed CO2 Emissions Limitations,” Tech-
nical Paper IV, Geneva, Oct. 1997, Figure 6, p. 16.
xxvii