UHLIG’S CORROSION HANDBOOK

THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY SERIES

ECS-The Electrochemical Society

65 South Main Street

Pennington, NJ 08534-2839

http://www.electrochem.org

Corrosion HandbookEdited by Herbert H. Uhlig

Modern Electroplating, Third Edition

Edited by Frederick A. Lowenheim

Modern Electroplating, Fifth Edition

Edited by Mordechay Schlesinger and Milan Paunovic

The Electron Microprobe

Edited by T. D. McKinley, K. F. J. Heinrich, and D. B.Wittry

Chemical Physics of Ionic Solutions

Edited by B. E. Conway and R. G. Barradas

High-Temperature Materials and TechnologyEdited by Ivor E. Campbell and Edwin M. Sherwood

Alkaline Storage Batteries

S. Uno Falk and Alvin J. Salkind

The Primary Battery (in Two Volumes)

Volume I Edited by George W. Heise and N. Corey Cahoon

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Zinc-Silver Oxide Batteries

Edited by Arthur Fleischer and J. J. Lander

Lead-Acid Batteries

Hans Bode

Translated by R. J. Brodd and Karl V. Kordesch

Thin Films-Interdiffusion and Reactions

Edited by J. M. Poate, M. N. Tu, and J. W. Mayer

Lithium Battery Technology

Edited by H. V. Venkatasetty

Quality and Reliability Methods for Primary BatteriesP. Bro and S. C. Levy

Techniques for Characterization of Electrodes andElectrochemical Processes

Edited by Ravi Varma and J. R. Selman

Electrochemical Oxygen Technology

Kim Kinoshita

Synthetic Diamond: Emerging CVD Science and

Technology

Edited by Karl E. Spear and John P. Dismukes

Corrosion of Stainless Steels

A. John Sedriks

Semiconductor Wafer Bonding: Science and Technology

Q.-Y. Tong and U. G€oscle

Uhlig’s Corrosion Handbook, Second Edition

Edited by R. Winston Revie

Atmospheric Corrosion

Christofer Leygraf and Thomas Graedel

Electrochemical Systems, Third Edition

John Newman and Karen E. Thomas-Alyea

Fundamentals of Electrochemistry, Second Edition

V. S. Bagotsky

Fundamentals of Electrochemical Deposition, Second

Edition

Milan Paunovic and Mordechay Schlesinger

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

Mark E. Orazem and Bernard Tribollet

Fuel Cells: Problems and Solutions

Vladimir S. Bagotsky

UHLIG’S CORROSION HANDBOOK

THIRD EDITION

Edited by

R. WINSTON REVIE

CANMET Materials Technology LaboratoryOttawa, Ontario, Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Uhlig’s corrosion handbook / edited by R. Winston Revie–3rd ed.

p. cm. –(The ECS series of texts and monographs)

Includes index.

ISBN 978-0-470-08032-0

Printed in the United States of America

eBook ISBN: 978-0-470-87285-7

oBook ISBN: 978-0-470-87286-4

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Herbert H. UhligMarch 3, 1907–July 3, 1993

This Handbook is dedicated to the memory of Herbert H. Uhlig.

Herbert Uhlig began his career at MIT in 1936 where, with the exception of the

interruption caused by World War II, he remained until his retirement nearly 40 years

later, bringing the MIT Corrosion Laboratory to a level of international prominence that

it retains to this day as a major center of excellence. He helped to establish the Corrosion

Division of The Electrochemical Society in 1942 and served as President of the Society

in 1955–1956. His characteristics as an uncompromising innovator and meticulous

scientist who insisted on reliable data and on achieving results led to the success of his

many endeavors as educator and mentor, including the Corrosion Handbook, published in

1948, that he conceived, organized, and edited.

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Robert Baboian

RB Corrosion Service

Greenville, Rhode Island

Donald L. Jordan

Ford Motor Company

Dearborn, Michigan

Russell D. Kane

iCorrosion LLC

Houston, Texas

Martin Kendig

Rockwell International Science Center

Thousand Oaks, California

Pradip R. Khaladkar

E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

Wilmington, Delaware

Ronald M. Latanision

Exponent-Failure Analysis Associates, Inc.

Natick, Massachusetts

Barry MacDougall

National Research Council of Canada

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Tomomi Murata

Japan Science and Technology Agency

Saitama, Japan

Srdjan Ne�si�cOhio University

Athens, Ohio

Howard W. Pickering

The Pennsylvania State University

University Park, Pennsylvania

Pierre R. Roberge

Royal Military College of Canada

Kingston, Ontario

Canada

Guenter A. Schmitt

Iserlohn University of Applied Sciences

Iserlohn, Germany

Roger W. Staehle

University of Minnesota and Industrial Consultant

North Oaks, Minnesota

Graham Wood

University of Manchester

Manchester, UK

CONTENTS

Foreword xvii

Foreword to the Second Edition xix

Preface xxi

Contributors xxiii

Introductory Notes on Climate Change, Life-Cycle Design,

and Corrosion of Steel

xxvii

T. Murata

PART I BASICS OF CORROSION SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

1 Corrosion Failure Analysis with Case Histories 3

L. E. Eiselstein and R. Huet

2 Cost of Metallic Corrosion 15

J. Kruger

3 Economics of Corrosion 21

E. D. Verink, Jr.

4 Lifetime Prediction of Materials in Environments 31

R. W. Staehle

5 Estimating the Risk of Pipeline Failure Due to Corrosion 75

M. Nessim

6 Designing to Prevent Corrosion 83

E. D. Verink, Jr.

7 Simplified Procedure for Constructing Pourbaix Diagrams 93

E. D. Verink, Jr.

ix

8 Pourbaix Diagrams for Multielement Systems 103

W. T. Thompson, M. H. Kaye, C. W. Bale, and A. D. Pelton

9 Computation of Pourbaix Diagrams at Elevated Temperature 111

M. H. Kaye and W. T. Thompson

10 Galvanic Corrosion 123

X. G. Zhang

11 Dealloying 145

R. Heidersbach

12 Passivity 151

J. Kruger

13 Localized Corrosion of Passive Metals 157

H. Bohni

14 Stress Corrosion Cracking 171

R. N. Parkins

15 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking and Sulfide Stress Cracking 183

M. Elboujdaini

16 Corrosion Fatigue 195

Y.-Z. Wang

17 Flow Effects on Corrosion 203

K. D. Efird

18 Erosion–Corrosion in Single- and Multiphase Flow 215

J. Postlethwaite and S. Nesic

19 Carbon Dioxide Corrosion of Mild Steel 229

S. Nesic

20 High-Temperature Oxidation 247

C. A. C. Sequeira

21 Thermochemical Evaluation of Corrosion Product Stabilities

for Alloys in Gases at High Temperature

281

W. T. Thompson, R. C. John, and A. L. Young

22 A Procedure to Compute Equilibrium Gas-Phase Speciation forUse with Predominance Diagrams

287

M. H. Piro, B. J. Lewis, and W. T. Thompson

23 Atmospheric Corrosion 299

P. R. Roberge

x CONTENTS

24 Atmospheric Corrosion in Cold Regions 327

G. A. King

25 Corrosion by Soils 333

T. R. Jack and M. J. Wilmott

26 Microbial Degradation of Materials: General Processes 351

J.-D. Gu, T. E. Ford, and R. Mitchell

27 Corrosion Probability and Statistical Evaluation of Corrosion Data 365

T. Shibata

PART II NONMETALS

28 Corrosion of Refractories and Ceramics 387

M. Rigaud

29 Corrosion of Glass 399

B. Grambow

30 Microbiological Degradation of Polymeric Materials 421

J.-D. Gu, T. E. Ford, D. B. Mitton, and R. Mitchell

31 Durability of Concrete 439

V. M. Malhotra

32 Microbiological Corrosion of Concrete 451

J.-D. Gu, T. E. Ford, and R. Mitchell

33 Microbial Degradation of Wood 461

P. I. Morris

34 Use of Chemicals to Prevent Degradation of Wood 469

J. N. R. Ruddick

PART III METALS

35 Metal–Matrix Composites 481

L. H. Hihara

36 Environmental Degradation of Engineered Barrier Materials

in Nuclear Waste Repositories

503

R. B. Rebak

37 Corrosion Behavior of Electrodeposited Nanocrystals 517

U. Erb

38 Corrosion of Shape Memory and Superelastic Alloys 529

L. E. Eiselstein

CONTENTS xi

39 Microbiological Corrosion of Metallic Materials 549

J.-D. Gu, T. E. Ford, and R. Mitchell

40 Electronic Materials, Components, and Devices 559

R. P. Frankenthal and L. F. Garfias-Mesias

41 Corrosion of Electronics: Lead-Free Initiatives 565

M. Reid and L. F. Garfias-Mesias

42 Metastable Alloys 571

K. Hashimoto

43 Carbon Steel—Atmospheric Corrosion 579

I. Matsushima

44 Carbon Steel—Corrosion in Freshwaters 589

I. Matsushima

45 Carbon Steel—Corrosion by Seawater 601

I. Matsushima

46 Carbon Steel—Corrosion by Soils 609

I. Matsushima

47 Localized Corrosion of Iron and Steel 615

I. Matsushima

48 Weathering Steel 621

T. Murata

49 Corrosion of Steel in Concrete 633

J. P. Broomfield

50 Ethanol Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Steels 649

J. Beavers, F. Gui, and N. Sridhar

51 Austenitic and Ferritic Stainless Steels 657

M. A. Streicher, Revised by J. F. Grubb

52 Duplex Stainless Steels 695

M.-L. Falkland, M. Glaes, and M. Liljas

53 Martensitic Stainless Steels 707

J. F. Grubb

54 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 715

E. Ghali

55 Cobalt Alloys 747

P. Crook and W. L. Silence

xii CONTENTS

56 Copper and Copper Alloys 757

C. A. C. Sequeira

57 Lead and Lead Alloys 787

F. E. Goodwin

58 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 809

E. Ghali

59 Nickel and Nickel Alloys 837

D. C. Agarwal and N. Sridhar

60 Tin and Tinplate 853

T. P. Murphy

61 Titanium and Titanium Alloys 861

J. Been and J. S. Grauman

62 Zinc 879

X. G. Zhang

63 Zirconium Alloy Corrosion 893

B. Cox

PART IV CORROSION PROTECTION

64 Controlling Flow Effects on Corrosion 903

K. D. Efird

65 Erosion–Corrosion: Recognition and Control 907

J. Postlethwaite and S. Nesic

66 Using Plastics, Elastomers, and Composites for Corrosion Control 915

P. R. Khaladkar

67 Corrosion Control of Steel by Organic Coatings 971

C. H. Hare

68 Selection and Use of Coatings for Underground

or Submersion Service

985

R. Norsworthy

69 Engineering of Cathodic Protection Systems 1001

J. H. Fitzgerald III

70 Stray-Current Analysis 1013

J. H. Fitzgerald III

71 Corrosion Inhibitors 1021

S. Papavinasam

CONTENTS xiii

72 Computer Technology for Corrosion Assessment and Control 1033

S. Srinivasan

PART V TESTING FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE

73 Principles of Accelerated Corrosion Testing 1047

D. L. Jordan

74 High-Temperature Oxidation—Testing and Evaluation 1053

C. A. C. Sequeira

75 Testing for Flow Effects on Corrosion 1059

K. D. Efird

76 Accelerated Testing of Electronics to Simulate Long-Term

Worldwide Environments

1063

L. F. Garfias-Mesias and M. Reid

77 Testing for Environmentally Assisted Cracking 1071

R. D. Kane

78 Test Methods for Wet H2S Cracking 1087

M. Elboujdaini

79 Atmospheric Corrosion Testing 1095

D. L. Jordan

80 Galvanic Corrosion Testing 1101

X. G. Zhang

81 Testing of Aluminum, Magnesium, and Their Alloys 1103

E. Ghali

82 Testing of Polymeric Materials for Corrosion Control 1107

B. Thomson and R. P. Campion

83 Corrosion Testing of Refractories and Ceramics 1117

M. Rigaud

84 Evaluation and Selection of Corrosion Inhibitors 1121

S. Papavinasam

85 Practical Corrosion Prediction Using

Electrochemical Techniques

1129

D. C. Silverman

86 Electrochemical Noise 1167

D. A. Eden, Revised and updated by Q. J. Meng,

M. Mendez, and M. Yunovich

xiv CONTENTS

PART VI CORROSION MONITORING

87 Corrosion Monitoring 1181

P. R. Roberge

88 Diagnosing, Measuring, and Monitoring Microbiologically

Influenced Corrosion

1203

B. J. Little, R. I. Ray, and J. S. Lee

Glossary of Selected Terms Used

in Corrosion Science and Engineering

1217

Index 1223

CONTENTS xv

FOREWORD

In the roughly 10 years since the appearance of the second

edition of the Corrosion Handbook, new technologies and

new engineering systems have found their way into the global

marketplace at an increasing rate. It is no wonder now that a

third edition would be timely and appropriate. It is also no

surprise that the third edition would expand the scope of the

previouseditions to includechaptersoncomposites suchasare

used inairframes, shapememoryalloyswhichfindapplication

in medical devices, and electrodeposited nanocrystals as well

as application-specific chapterswhich address thematerials of

construction of the engineered barriers for nuclear waste

containment, ethanol-induced stress corrosion cracking of

carbon steels, and other such topics. An entirely new section

on corrosion monitoring also appears in the third edition.

Corrosion is ubiquitous: All engineering systems are

subject to environmental degradation in service environ-

ments, whether these systems are used to meet the energy

needs of the inhabitants of this planet; to provide clean air; to

treat and transport water, food, and other products typical of

our commercial world; to both save and improve the quality

of our lives; and to ensure the readiness of those engineering

systems that are of importance in terms of national defense

and homeland security as well as many others. From heart

stents to nuclear electric generating stations, corrosion is part

of our world.

The Corrosion Handbook continues today, as it has since

its first appearance over 60 years ago, to serve as a trusted

resource to generations of corrosion engineers. There are

many reasons to believe that its presence in the libraries of

engineering practitioners of all kinds is greater now than ever

before. First, it appears that much of the expertise in this area

of technology, which resided for decades in the staff and

laboratories of metal producers, has retired and is not being

replaced as many of the metal producers have responded to

the global economy of the past decade and more. Second, the

interest of young people in engineering education, including

corrosion engineering, is also in decline. Third, as the global

economy recovers from the meltdown of the recent past,

nations with a strong manufacturing base that creates pro-

ducts of value to the market will respond most quickly. But

this will require an educated and informed engineering

workforce. It is a concern to me that industrialized nations

all over theworld are on the brink of losing this technological

infrastructure through retirement, the decline of traditional

manufacturing industries, and declining student interest.

Without a means of capturing this expertise in a useful form

the next generation of engineers are going to find a gap in

their knowledge base. I am confident that this volumewill be

of value in that context. Every industrialized nation must

have the capacity and intellectual strength necessary to

design, manufacture, and maintain either contemporary

engineering systems or emerging engineering systems that

may find their way into the marketplace of the future. The

Corrosion Handbook remains an invaluable resource in that

regard, and once again Winston Revie has assembled a

world-class group of authors in producing a comprehensive

volume covering the entire field of contemporary corrosion

engineering.

R. M. LATANISION

February 2010

Director (Emeritus)

The H. H. Uhlig Corrosion Laboratory, MIT, and

Corporate Vice President

Exponent–Failure Analysis Associates, Inc.

Natick, Massachusetts

xvii

FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION

The first and, prior to the current volume, only edition of the

Corrosion Handbookwas published in 1948. It represented a

heroic effort by Professor Herbert Uhlig and the leadership of

the relatively newly established Corrosion Division of the

Electrochemical Society. It was intended, as Professor Uhlig

recorded in the Preface to the 1948 edition, to serve as “. . . aconvenient reference volume covering the entire field of

corrosion, to bring together, in effect, much of the informa-

tion scattered broadly throughout the scientific and engineer-

ing literature.” Its success was equally heroic: the Corrosion

Handbook has served generation after generation of corro-

sion engineer and today, more than a one-half of a century

since its first appearance, the volume remains a trusted

resource in the personal libraries of many of those who

populate the world’s engineering community.

Over the years that I knew Professor Uhlig personally, he

often mentioned to me his concern for the need to produce a

revised edition of theHandbook. I am confident that hewould

have been very pleased that one of his doctoral students at

MIT, Winston Revie, had taken up this challenge. Winston,

just as his mentor, is a meticulous and innovative corrosion

scientist. This truly monumental revision of the Corrosion

Handbook is certain to serve the engineering community

well as we enter the new millennium. Much has happened in

corrosion science and engineering since 1948, and the con-

tributors to this volume, an assembly of the international

leaders in the field, have captured these changes wonderfully

well. The breadth of corrosion and corrosion control is made

clear by the inclusion of ceramics, polymers, glass, concrete

and other materials as well as of metals, the focus of the first

edition. The introduction of standards into corrosion science

and engineering is emphasized as is life prediction, and

economic and risk analyses associated with environmental

degradation of materials.

While the introduction of new technologies has dramati-

cally changed virtually every aspect of life on the Earth in the

fifty years since the appearance of the Corrosion Handbook,

what remains a persistent reality in the engineering enterprise

is that engineering systems are built of materials. Whether an

airframe, integrated circuit, bridge, prosthetic device or,

perhaps as we shall see in the not too distant future, implant-

able drug delivery systems—the chemical stability of the

materials of construction of such systems continues to be a

key element in determining their useful life. This new edition

of the Corrosion Handbook will serve, among others,

designers, inspectors, owners and operators of engineering

systems of all kinds, many of which are unknown today, for

generations to come. Dr. Revie has succeeded, just as did his

mentor in 1948, in producing a convenient reference volume

covering the entire field of corrosion.

R. M. LATANISION

H. H. Uhlig Corrosion Laboratory

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts

xix

PREFACE

The objective in preparing this third edition of Uhlig’s

Corrosion Handbook has been to provide an updated

book—one affordable volume—in which the current state

of knowledge on corrosion is summarized. The fundamental

scientific aspects and engineering applications of new and

traditional materials and corrosion control methods are dis-

cussed, along with indications of future trends. The book is

intended to meet the needs of scientists, engineers, technol-

ogists, students, and all those who require an up-to-date

source of corrosion knowledge. This new edition contains

a total of 88 chapters divided among six parts:

I. Basics of Corrosion Science and Engineering

II. Nonmetals

III. Metals

IV. Corrosion Protection

V. Testing for Corrosion Resistance

VI. Corrosion Monitoring

Topics discussed in chapters that are new in this edition

include failure analysis (Chapter 1), principles of accelerated

corrosion testing (Chapter 73), metal–matrix composites

(Chapter 35), nanocrystals (Chapter 37), ethanol stress cor-

rosion cracking (Chapter 50), computation of Pourbaix dia-

grams at elevated temperature (Chapter 9), high-temperature

oxidation (Chapters 20 and 74), dealloying (Chapter 11), and

diagnosing, measuring, and monitoring microbiologically

influenced corrosion (MIC) (Chapter 88). Dr. Tomomi

Murata has provided some very insightful introductory notes

on the effects of climate change, life-cycle design, and

corrosion of steel under changing atmospheric conditions.

Throughout the book, extensive reference lists are includ-

ed to help readers identify sources of information beyond

what could be included in this one-volume handbook.

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the authors who wrote the

chapters of this edition as well as the reviewers, who, in

anonymity, carried out their work in the spirit of continuous

improvement. I would also like to acknowledge the members

of the Editorial Advisory Committee, who made many

constructive suggestions to help define, focus, and clarify

the discussions in this new edition. I would like to acknowl-

edgeMary Yess and her staff at The Electrochemical Society

Headquarters in Pennington, New Jersey, for their support

during the preparation of this book. I greatly appreciate the

encouragement and support of Bob Esposito and his staff at

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. in Hoboken, New Jersey.

Finally, I would like to thank my many friends and

colleagues at the CANMET Materials Technology Labora-

tory, where it has been my privilege to work for the past

32 years.

R. WINSTON REVIE

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

xxi

CONTRIBUTORS

�Agarwal, D. C., DNVColumbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio, USA

Bale, C.W., D�epartement de g�enie physique et de g�enie desmat�eriaux, Ecole Polytechnique, Montr�eal, Qu�ebec,Canada

Beavers, J, A., DNV Columbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio, USA

Been, J., Alberta Innovates Technology Futures, Calgary,

Alberta, Canada

B€ohni, H., Institute of Materials Chemistry and Corrosion,

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Z€urich,Switzerland (Retired)

Broomfield, J. P., Corrosion Consultant, London, UK

Campion, R. P., MERL Ltd., Wilbury Way, Hitchin, UK

Cox, B., Centre for Nuclear Engineering, University of

Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Retired)

Crook, P., Haynes International, Kokomo, Indiana, USA

(Retired)

�Eden, D. A., Honeywell Process Solutions, Houston,

Texas, USA

Eiselstein, L. E., Exponent-Failure Analysis Associates,

Inc., Menlo Park, California, USA

Efird, K. D., Efird Corrosion International, Inc., The

Woodlands, Texas, USA

Elboujdaini, M., CANMET Materials Technology Labo-

ratory, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Erb, U., Department of Materials Science and Engineering,

University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Falkland, M. L., Outokumpu Stainless AB, Avesta,

Sweden

Fitzgerald III, J. H., Grosse Pointe Park, Michigan,

USA

Ford, T. E., University of New England, Biddeford, Maine

USA

Frankenthal, R. P., Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technolo-

gies, Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA (Retired)

Garfias-Mesias, L. F., DNV Columbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio,

USA

Ghali, E., Department ofMining,Metallurgy andMaterials,

Laval University, Qu�ebec, Canada

Glaes, M., Outokumpu Stainless AB, Avesta, Sweden

Goodwin, F. E., International Lead Zinc Research

Organization, Inc., Research Triangle Park, North

Carolina, USA

Grambow, B., La Chantrerie, Laboratoire SUBATECH

(UMR6457), Ecole desMines deNantes,Nantes Cedex 3,

France

Grauman, J. S., TIMET, Henderson, Nevada, USA

Grubb, J. F., Technical & Commercial Center, ATI

Allegheny Ludlum Corp., Brackenridge, Pennsylvania,

USA

Gu, J.-D., School of Biological Science, The University of

Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Gui, F., DNV Columbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio, USA

Hare, C. H., Coating System Design Inc., Lakeville,

Massachusetts, USA (Retired)

Hashimoto, K., Tohoku Institute of Technology, Sendai,

Japan

�Deceased.

xxiii

Heidersbach, R., Dr. Rust, Inc., Cape Canaveral, Florida,

USA

Hihara, L. H., Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA

Huet, R., Exponent-Failure Analysis Associates, Inc.,

Menlo Park, California, USA

Jack, T. R., University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

John, R. C., Shell International E&P, Inc., Houston, Texas,

USA

Jordan, D. L., Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan,

USA

Kane, R. D., iCorrosion LLC, Houston, Texas, USA

Kaye, M. H., Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear

Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology,

Oshawa, Ontario, Canada

Khaladkar, P. R., E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co, Inc.,

Wilmington, Delaware, USA

King, G. A., CSIRO Building, Construction and Engineer-

ing, Highett, Victoria, Australia (Retired)

Kruger, J., Department ofMaterials Science and Engineer-

ing, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland,

USA (Retired)

Latanision, R. M., Exponent-Failure Analysis Associates,

Inc., Natick, Massachusetts, USA

Lee, J. S., Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space

Center, Mississippi, USA

Lewis, B. J., Department of Chemistry and Chemical

Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada,

Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Liljas, M., Outokumpu Stainless AB, Avesta, Sweden

Little, B. J., Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space

Center, Mississippi, USA

Malhotra, V. M., Consultant, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

�Matsushima, I., Maebashi Institute of Technology,

Maebashi, Japan

Mendez, M., Honeywell Corrosion Solutions, Houston,

Texas, USA

Meng, Q. J., Honeywell Corrosion Solutions, Houston,

Texas, USA

Mitchell, R., Laboratory of Microbial Ecology, Harvard

School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard

University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

Mitton, D. B., Gold Standard Corrosion Science Group,

LLC, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

Morris, P. I., FPInnovations, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Murata, T., Office of Technology Transfer Innovation

Headquarters, Japan Science and Technology Agency,

Tokyo, Japan

�Murphy, T. P., Campion Hall, University of Oxford,

Oxford, UK

Ne�si�c, S., Institute for Corrosion and Multiphase Flow

Technology, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

Nessim, M., C-FERTechnologies Inc., Edmonton, Alberta,

Canada

Norsworthy, R., Lone Star Corrosion Services, Lancaster,

Texas, USA

Papavinasam, S., CANMET Materials Technology Labo-

ratory, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

�Parkins, R. N., University of Newcastle upon Tyne,

Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

Pelton, A. D., D�epartement de g�enie physique et de g�eniedes mat�eriaux, Ecole Polytechnique, Montr�eal, Qu�ebec,Canada

Piro, M. H., Department of Chemistry and Chemical

Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada,

Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Postlethwaite, J., Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,

Canada (Retired)

Ray, R. I., Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space

Center, Mississippi, USA

Rebak, R. B., GE Global Research, Niskayuna, New York,

USA

Reid,M., StokesResearch Institute, University of Limerick,

Limerick, Ireland

Revie, R.W., CANMETMaterials Technology Laboratory,

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Rigaud, M., D�epartement de g�enie physique et de g�eniedes mat�eriaux, Ecole Polytechnique, Montr�eal, Qu�ebec,Canada

Roberge, P. R., Department of Chemistry and Chemical

Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada,

Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Ruddick, J. N. R., Department of Wood Science, Forest

Sciences Centre, University of British Columbia,

Vancouver, B.C., Canada�Deceased.

xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Sequeira, C. A. C., Instituto Superior T�ecnico, Lisboa,

Portugal

Shibata, T., Department of Materials Science and Process-

ing, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University,

Japan (Retired)

Silence, W. L., Consultant, Fairfield Glade, Tennessee,

USA

Silverman, D. C., Argentum Solutions, Inc., Chesterfield,

Missouri, USA

Sridhar, N., DNV Columbus, Inc., Dublin, Ohio, USA

Srinivasan, S., Advanced Solutions–Americas, Honeywell

International, Inc., Houston, Texas, USA

Staehle, R. W., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis and

Industrial Consultant, North Oaks, Minnesota, USA

�Streicher, M. A., E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., and

the University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware

Thompson, W. T., Centre for Research in Computational

Thermochemistry, Royal Military College of Canada,

Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Thomson, B., MERL Ltd., Wilbury Way, Hitchin, UK

Verink, Jr., E. D., Department of Materials Science and

Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida,

USA (Retired)

Wang, Y.-Z., Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission,

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Wilmott, M., Wasco Coatings Ltd., Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia

Young,A.L., Humberside Solutions Ltd., Toronto, Ontario,

Canada

Yunovich, M., Honeywell Corrosion Solutions, Houston,

Texas, USA

Zhang, X. G., Teck Metals Ltd., Mississauga, Ontario,

Canada

�Deceased.

CONTRIBUTORS xxv

INTRODUCTORY NOTES ON CLIMATE CHANGE,LIFE-CYCLE DESIGN, AND CORROSION OF STEEL

T. MURATA

Japan Science & Technology Agency, Saitama, Japan

A. CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is attributed mainly to increased CO2 in our

atmosphere because of anthropogenic activities and is

expected to increase as much as 50% by 2030 compared to

the concentration in 2005, that is, 359 ppm [1, 2]. Such a

change will affect the corrosion of carbon steel through

acidification due to increased concentration of HCO3� and

Ca2þ in waters at temperatures a few degrees Celsius higher

than those in 1990. In addition, other influential factors that

will arise from climate change include the following:

1. Increase in precipitation

2. Formation of aerosols with CO2 emission

3. Increased SOx emissions caused by the use of sulfur-

bearing coal due to oil shortages

4. Enhanced biological growth in waters

For these reasons, the corrosivity of environments in the

future will be complex, and a simple acidification model will

not be adequate. To predict the effects of climate change on

corrosion, computational analyses and systematic corrosion

studies are required to develop models based on projected

climate change.

“Time of wetness” is universally considered to be a key

corrosion index for atmospheric corrosion. In recent years,

weather instability has led to changes in global rainfall

distribution, changes that could lead to new and different

predictive indices for atmospheric corrosion. For corrosion in

waters, microbiological factors are expected to increase

in importance with the changing climate. In contrast to the

environmental factors that pertain to corrosion in air and

water, the heterogeneous distribution of chemicals in

contaminated soils in industrialized areas results in nonuni-

form soil corrosivity. Dynamic corrosionmodels are required

with on-site monitoring systems.

B. LIFE-CYCLE DESIGN

To minimize the environmental burden and to attain a

sustainable society, life-cycle design of steel structures is

required to ensure safety, reliability, durability, and the best

use of materials and energy throughout the life cycle. The

life-cycle concept will be required for future design and

construction of social as well as industrial infrastructure. For

example, in developing a life-cycle design for weathering

steels, discussed in Chapter 48, reliable corrosion data for

long-term service and a systematic approach to minimize

both corrosion damage and social costs are necessary.

In general, corrosion is studied using a set of parameters

under simplified or fixed conditions. In the real world, in

response to constantly changing environmental parameters,

corrosion behavior also changes. For this reason, an under-

standing of corrosion dynamics is required, and the corrosion

protectionmodels that are implementedmust have a capacity

to reflect dynamic environmental conditions that are subject

to constant change.

REFERENCES

1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Climate

and Water,” Technical Paper VI, Geneva, June 2008.

2. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),

“Implications of Proposed CO2 Emissions Limitations,” Tech-

nical Paper IV, Geneva, Oct. 1997, Figure 6, p. 16.

xxvii