Post on 07-Feb-2018
The Synergistic Leadership Theory:
• Socially Just
• Gender inclusive
• Relevant to both male and female
leaders
Willystine Goodsell advocated for Social
Justice in the early 1900’s.
• During an era when many sociologists (both males and females) were writing favorably about eugenics, Goodsell, a sociologist, challenged their position and the commonly-accepted political and public belief that a woman’s place was in the home.
• Promoting equity for women, she insisted that girls needed to be prepared for wage-earning occupations (Goodsell, 1924).
She also indicated:
• that ―… girls and
women… be given as
thorough and allround
preparation for work as
is given to their
brothers‖ (Goodsell,
1924, p. 213).
In the ensuing 100 years,
• Women now sit in the same classrooms
with the same curriculum as do their
―brothers.‖ So, in this sense, Goodsell’s
desire for a challenging curriculum for
women has, for the most part, been
achieved. However, today, almost 100
years later, there are challenges related
to the curriculum.
Perhaps Goodsell would be pleased to note:
that women comprise at least 50% of students in educational leadership programs (Grogan & Brunner, 2005), and
that according to Shen, Wegenke, and Cooley (2003) between 1987-1988 and 1999-2000, the percentage of female secondary principals doubled---from approximately 12% in 1987-1988 to 23% in 1999-2000.
However
There is a concern with the curriculum
in educational leadership programs,
particularly related to leadership theory
and its relevance for women.
A National Organization and Theory
Though concern about theory in
educational administration began as
early as 1954, emerging from annual
meetings of the National Council of
Professors of Educational
Administration (Knezevich, 1975),
social justice issues were not at the
forefront of those discussions.
Continued Challenges to Leadership Theory
For two decades theories in leadership and
management have been challenged for failure to
include the female presence and voice in theory
development (Brown & Irby, 1994; Shakeshaft &
Nowell, 1984).
These same leadership theories did not particularly
include other minorities. Thus, such theories are
not socially just.
Social Justice DefinedSocial justice is defined not only by what it is but also by what it is not, namely injustice. By seeking justice, we anticipate the ideal. By questioning injustice we approach it. Integrating both, we achieve it. It is one thing to agree that discrimination is wrong. That is the easy part. It is another to make a conscious choice to confront the discrimination that emerges from everyday interactions in organizations and communities.
That brings out another element of social justice– the necessity of courage. And so, it seems that social justice requires interactions among a well-developed theoretical /historical viewpoint, a penchant for activism, the choice to meld the two and the courage to do it (McKerrow & Shockley-Lee, 2005). From Advancing Women in Leadership Journal
Social Justice
In the field of education, social justice promotes:
• democracy in schooling
• equitable practices in schools
• equal treatment in social, economic, and political arenas
• removal of racial, linguistic, gender, and class-based barriers
• academic excellence for all children
• elimination of hostile environments
• equal power relationships
• opportunities and resources for career advancement
• voice to the marginalized or the oppressed
• changes in attitudes, thoughts, and action (Brown, Irby & Lara-Alecio, 2004)
Katz and Ryan (2005) emphasized that
social justice should be embedded in
institutional practices so that all members of
the university community demonstrate
actions that distribute justice.
Universities Espouse the Importance
of Social Justice
• Achieving the 21st Century demands for social
justice in educational leadership requires that
equity in leadership theory be addressed.
• Equitable leadership theory acknowledges
experiences of both genders and a variety of
ethnicities and cultures.
Gender in Leadership Programs
In general university leadership programs are
doing little to address the needs of women
leaders, ―the historically andocentric paradigm
is still present in UCEA educational
programs‖ (Logan, 1999).
Curriculum Relevancy in Leadership
Programs
• 1985: Shakeshaft suggested that female students were not being prepared as well as their male counterparts. (Shakeshaft, 1985).
• 2000: Programs have been criticized for the knowledge base being biased, not including experiences of women administrators (Skrla, Reyes, & Scheurich, 2000).
• 2001: Female superintendents expressed they find their preparation programs less relevant than their male counterparts (Iselt, Brown, & Irby, 2001).
• Significant to the analysis of the theory taught in leadership programs is the fact that 75% of the pool from which entry level administrators will be drawn over the next decade are female (Hoxby & Leigh, 2005); therefore, it is important to ensure that the theory taught that should be a basis for guiding leadership actions be socially just.
• Equitable leadership theory acknowledges experiences of both genders and a variety of ethnicities and cultures, as stated earlier.
Historically, theories in leadership and
management did not embrace the concept of
social justice in that they failed to include the
female presence or voice. Additionally, those
theories would not have been able to address the
current realities of our schools and society.
Problems with Leadership Theories
• Theories run counter to goals of social justice.
• Theories traditionally included samples limited to males in corporate and military environments.
• Theories do not reflect currently advocated leadership practices or organizational paradigms.
• Theories are not relevant for all leaders.
• Theories perpetuate barriers that women and minority leaders encounter.
• Theories promote stereotypical norms for organizations.
• Theories fail to give voice to women and minorities; they do not consider the voice of diversity.
In an early analysis of leadership
theories, Shakeshaft (1989) found
gender-biased language and the absence
of females in related research studies.
Irby, Brown, and Trautman (1999) examined 24
familiar leadership theories and reaffirmed the
allegation that the conceptualization of leadership
theory was formulated through ―a male lens‖ and was
―subsequently applied to both males and females.‖
These theories were examined for:
(a) the inclusion of the female experience or attitudes;
(b)gender as a significant variable in development of the
theory;
(c) females in the sample population;
(d) use of non-sexist language, and
(e) generalizability.
Expanding Current Leadership Theory
―Exposing our students solely to traditional
leadership literature (including to leadership
theories) essentially legitimizes traditionally
male perspectives and delegitimizes the
behavior and perspectives of women‖ (Young
& McLeod, 2001).
Expanding Current Leadership Theory
―It is reasonable that because women’s
lived experiences as leaders differ from
men’s, new theoretical understanding of
a leadership that is premised on social
justice might emerge‖ (Grogan, 1998).
Expanding the Curriculum to Include
Socially Just Theory
Expanding the curriculum to include female-inclusive theory
will assist us to:
(a) promote social justice
(b) reflect currently advocated leadership practice;
(c) address the concerns, needs, and realities of women;
(d) reduce the barriers women encounter;
(e) and prepare women and men to create and work
effectively in inclusive systems.
Theory in the Past 20 Years
• Over the past 20 years, several
leadership concepts or theories which
move toward social justice have
emerged. Some have consciously
included the experiences and
perspectives of female leaders while
some have not.
Leadership/Organizational Concepts or
Styles• Authentic Leadership (Leadership Style—interactive
leadership and the nature of the leader’s impact) (Terry, 1993)
• Caring Leadership (Leadership Style– collectively achieve the organization’s goals through forming connections and enhancing relationships) (Gilligan, 1982; Grogan, 1998; Noddings, 1984)
• Ethical Leadership (Leadership Style--honors personal integrity and responds to the needs of others in promoting justice) (Starrett, 2004)
• Feminist Leadership/Organizations (Leadership Style and
Organizational Concept– participatory leadership in shaping
rules, goals, and practices) (Tong, 1989; McCall, 1995;
Morgan, 1994)
• Interactive Leadership (Leadership Style– effective in
flexible, non hierarchical organizations; preferred by
women) (Rosener, 1990)
• Learning-focused Leadership (Leadership Style—focus on
teaching and learning) (Beck & Murphy, 1996)
• Power to and power with (Leadership Style—democratic and collaborative leaders view power as a property of the group; consider power as a collective action and the ability to get things done with others) (Brunner, 1999; Brunner & Duncan, 1998)
• Relational Leadership (Leadership Style—five attributes of leadership are collaboration, caring, courage, intuition, and vision) (Regan, 1990; Regan & Brooks, 1995)
• Servant Leadership (Leadership Style–places good of others over self) (Greenleaf, 1977; Sergiovanni, 1992; Schlosberg, 2003)
• Value-added Leadership (Leadership Style–substitutes moral authority for bureaucratic leadership) (Covey, 1990; Sergiovanni, 1994)
• Visionary Leadership (Leadership Style–visioning for anticipation for change) (Nanus, 1992)
Theories/Concepts/
Models• Constructivist Leadership (Leadership
Concept– embraces some female leadership behaviors, but not developed specifically to include female leadership perspectives) (Lambert, 1995)
• Organizational Framework (Organizational Model– embraces some feminist organizational characteristics, but was not developed specifically as a feminist organizational theory) (Bolman & Deal, 1991)
• Systems Theory (Organizational Theory– no
specific mention of females, but schools are
viewed as learning community) (Senge,
1990)
Theory of Social Justice Leadership
• Focuses on commonalities among principals
who have attained social justice on their
campuses through their actions
• Stresses the need for leaders to ―…both enact
and develop resistance in service of advancing
social justice and educating marginalized / all
students.‖ (Theoharis, 2004) p. 60
• Does not address particularly the need for a
leadership theory that is socially just
• The Synergistic Leadership Theory
(Leadership Theory– developed
purposefully as a systems and postmodern
theory to include the female voice and
experience) (Irby, Brown, Duffy, &
Trautman, 2002)
The Synergistic Leadership Theory:
• Socially Just
• Gender inclusive
• Relevant to both male and female
leaders
The Synergistic Leadership Theory
• The theory is based on four equal factors:
-Attitudes, beliefs, and values
-Leadership behavior
-External forces
-Organizational structure
• The theory is modeled by a tetrahedron with six interactive pairs. Each factor is equal; no structural hierarchy exists, and each factor interacts with the others.
Rotating Tetrahedrong- multiple vantage
points
• http://www.math.ubc.ca/~morey/java
/rotator/trot.html
Multiple Vantage Points
• Takes a macro perspective
of the interactions among
beliefs, external forces,
people, behaviors, and
organizations.
• Critical to creating complete
picture of realities.
• Michelangelo focused on
many vantage points to
create a masterpiece.
The Tetrahedral Model
Organizational
Structure
Leadership Behaviors
Beliefs, Attitudes, Values
External
Forces
Beliefs, Attitudes, Values
Importance of professional growth
Openness to change/diversity
Adherence to tradition
Collegial trust/support
Importance of character, ethics,
integrity
Importance of programs for at-
risk/gifted students
Role of teachers/learners
Purpose of school
Role of teachers/administrators
Importance of employee well-
being
Organizational StructureRotates Leadership
Uses expertise of members, not rank
Has consensually derived goals
Values members
Rewards professional development
Relies on informal communication
Disperses power
Promotes community
Promotes nurturing and caring
Promotes empowerment
Has many rules
Has separate tasks and roles
Maintains a tall hierarchy
Initiates few changes
External ForcesPerception/Expectations of
Supervisor/ColleaguesPerceptions/Expectations of
Community
Local, state, and national
Regulations, Resources, and
Location
Culture of Community
Socio-economic status
Language/Ethnic Groups
Political/Special Interest Groups
Leadership BehaviorsAutocratic
Delegator
Collaborator
Communicator
Task-oriented
Risk-taker
Relational
Nurturer
Controller
Stabilizer
Intuitive
SLT: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values
• foundation for guiding principals that
“apply at all times in all places”
• values, ideas, norms, and teachings
that are manifested in actions
– Examples
• values professional growth
• open to change
• values diversity
• values integrity
SLT: External Forces
Influencers outside the control of the organization or the leader that interact with the organization and the leader and that inherently embody a set of values, attitudes and beliefs:
– local, national, and international community and conditions
– governmental regulations, laws
– demographics
– cultural and political climate
– technological advances
– economic situations
– policy-making board decisions
SLT: Organizational Structure
The characteristics of organizations
and how they operate:
-Bureaucratic organizations: division of
labor, rules, hierarchy of authority,
impersonality, and competence
-Feminist organizations- participative
decision making, systems of rotating
leadership, promotion of community and
cooperation, power sharing
The SLT
• creates a framework for describing interactions and dynamic tensions among leadership behaviors, organizational structures, external forces, and attitudes and beliefs
• focuses on the interconnected behaviors, beliefs, values, structures, and forces that impact the leader, the people within the organization, and the structure of the organization. Tension between even two of the factors can negatively impact the effectiveness of the leader or organization
• is descriptive of the holistic environment of leading and those who lead in the organization
Aspects Particular to the SLT• female leaders were included in development
• the theory acknowledges a range of behaviors and organizational structures inclusive of those considered “feminine”
• female leaders may be impacted by external forces, organizational structures, and beliefs, attitudes and values in ways male leaders are not
• female leadership behaviors may interact with the factors in ways unlike the leadership behavior of males
• leaders at various positions or levels may be impacted by the factors of the theory in different ways
The SLT:
• assists leaders in understanding the political and cultural environment and in decision making
• is beneficial in determining why (or why not) a leader is perceived as successful
• assists in determining a candidate’s congruence with a particular organization and cultural and political environment
• fosters reflective practice as individuals engage in self-assessment based on factors
“Applying the SLT, leaders construct or reconstruct
themselves and their professional worlds.
Through the analysis of the interactions of the four
factors, leaders learn much about themselves, their
constituents, and their organizations.
Specifically they are able to analyze or consider their
leadership behavior, the organizational structure, the
beliefs, attitudes, and values, and the external
forces as they impact social justice” (Brown, Irby &
Lara, 2004).
Validation Studies
The SLT has been validated across
American ethnic cultures and
geographic locations as well as
internationally and with males and
females (Bamburg, 2004;
Hernandez, 2004; Holtkamp, 2001;
Trautman, 2000; Truslow, 2004;
Schlosberg, 2003).
Validation StudiesResearch indicates that the SLT:
• possesses explanatory power across a range of positions and by gender (generalizability) (Trautman, 2000)
• is practical and useful in understanding interactive systems (Trautman, 2000)
• is parsimonious (simply integrates a large number of variables) (Holtkamp, 2001)
• promotes dialogue around a model that is cognizant of female, as well as male, realities (Trautman, 2000; Truslow, 2001)
• is a viable theory with implications for practicing and future leaders (Bamburg, 2004)
• exemplifies contemporary leadership theories. It is systemic, contextual, relational and contingent (Schlosberg, 2003)
• is a useful tool for understanding leadership practices and educational organizations in another culture (Schlosberg, 2003)
• is a gender-inclusive theory that is applicable to female and male leaders (Hernandez, 2004; Trautman, 2000; Truslow, 2001)
• provides a current theoretical framework from which to examine the perceptions of superintendents and school boards with regard to the four factors of the theory (Hernandez, 2004)
• provides an explanation and understanding of the context of the superintendency and the superintendent – school board relationship, as well as identifies potential sources of conflict between the superintendent and school board (Hernandez, 2004)
The SLTThe SLT is a post-modernist theory. It does not advocate a binary
“either/or” criteria for the existence of new theories over old, but merely a co-existence or continuity of theories that are mutually co-dependent. Its purpose is not to replace the old, but to expand the knowledge base.
(1) adds to existing leadership theory to include:
-a theory that addresses gender, cultural, and political issues
-a theory that directly addresses social justice
-a theory situated in post-modernism
-a theory reflective of females’ leadership experiences
-a theory applicable to both men and women leaders
(2) enhances relevancy of theory presented in leadership programs for both females and males
Social JusticeWe believe that the use of the SLT can promote social justice
in schools--:
• democracy in schooling
• equitable practices in schools
• equal treatment in social, economic, and political arenas
• removal of racial, linguistic, gender, and class-based barriers
• academic excellence for all children
• elimination of hostile environments
• equal power relationships
• opportunities and resources for career advancement
• voice to the marginalized or the oppressed
• changes in attitudes, thoughts, and action (Brown, Irby & Lara, 2004)