Post on 19-Jan-2017
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
ISTANBUL KÜLTÜR UNIVERSITY, ENGINEERING FACULTY CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Dr. Erdal COSKUN
THE LECTURE NOTES OF CE012 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM PRINCIPLES
INTRODUCTION
• Thirty thousand years ago, peopleroamed from place to place huntinganimals for food and looking forwild plants to eat. As they werealways moving, they did not buildhouses.
• Much later on, they began to putup shelters, tents made of animalskins, and tried to protectthemselves from the weatherconditions.
• They might find caves where theycook and sleep. Caves were betterplaces to live in, but tents had theadvantege of being easily moved.
Capodocia-Türkiye
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BRIEF HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
• Structural engineering has been in use since ages, and one of the greatest ancientstructures was the Pyramid of Giza that was constructed in the 26th century BC. Themajor structures during the medieval period were the pyramids since the shape of thepyramids is basically stable.
• Theoretical knowledge about the structures was limited, and construction techniqueswere based on experience only. The real advancement in the structural engineering wasachieved in the 19th century during the industrial revolution when significant progresswas achieved in the sciences of structural analysis and materials science.
• No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or thebehavior of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only reallytook shape with the industrial revolution and the re-invention of concrete. The physicalsciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissanceand have been developing ever since.
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PYRAMID OF GIZA
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Hanging Gardens of BabylonBabylon’s hanging gardens were constructed by King
Nebuchadnezzar II in modern-day Iraq in about 600 BCE. These
gardens may have been named after the lush vines trailing
down the tiered structure, which looked to be suspended in the
desert sky.
Temple of ArtemisOne of the ancient world’s largest temples, the Temple
of Artemis in Turkey was completed in 550 BCE.
Soaring 18 m high, the temple consisted of a
colonnade of about 106 columns encircling a marble
sanctuary covered by a tiled roof.
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The building is circular with a portico of three ranks of huge granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two
groups of four behind) under a pediment opening into the rotunda, under a coffered, concrete dome, with a central
opening (oculus) open to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheon's dome is still the world's
largest unreinforced concrete dome. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same,
43.3 meters. It is one of the best preserved of all Roman buildings.
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The ColosseumCompleted in 80 CE, the Colosseum was Ancient
Rome’s premier entertainment venue. Reigning
emperors hosted epic contests inside the huge
amphitheater, with gladiators (trained fighters)
battling in front of up to 50,000 people.
Chichen ItzaBuilt by the Mayan civilization between 1000 and 1200
CE, El Castillo is part of Mexico’s ancient Chichen Itza
site. With a temple at the top, the 24 m step-pyramid is
dedicated to the feathered-serpent god Kukulcan.
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Taj MahalAfter 12 years of construction, the Taj Mahal
complex in Agra, India, was completed in 1648. Its
centerpiece is the white marble-tiled mausoleum
dedicated to the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan’s
wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
The Great Wall of ChinaChina’s first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi began
construction on the Great Wall in about 200 BC. With
fortified walls made of packed-dirt, stonework, and
rocks, succeeding dynasties added to the structure over
many centuries. Today, it stretches 6,508 km east to
west.
HAGIA SOPHIA-ISTANBUL
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Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the typical example ofByzantine architecture and to have "changed the history of architecture.”It was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years, until thecompletion of the Seville Cathedral in 1520.It was designed by two architects, Isidoreof Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles.
THE GREAT ARCHITECT SINAN
(MIMAR SINAN)• Mimar Sinan (born 1490, Turkey-
died July 17, 1588,
Constantinople [now Istanbul])
was the chief Ottoman Architect
and Civil Engineer for Sultans
Suleyman I, Selim II, and Murad
III.
• By mid-life Sinan acquires a
reputation as a valued military
engineer and is brought to the
attention of Sultan Suleyman
(1520-66) who in 1537 appoints
Sinan (aged fifty) as head of the
office of royal architects.
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THE GREAT ARCHITECT SINAN
(MIMAR SINAN)
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The diameter of the dome, which exceeds the 31 m of theSelimiye Mosque (Edirne) which Sinan completed when hewas 80, is the most outstanding example of the level ofachievement reached by Sinan.
When Sinan reached the age of 70, he had completed theSüleymaniye Mosque (Istanbul) complex.This building, situated on one of the hills of Istanbul facing theGolden Horn, and built in the name of Süleyman theMagnificent, is one of the symbolic monuments of the period.
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MASONRY STRUCTURES
Yedikule Walls,Istanbul
Galata Tower, Istanbul
SHORT REVIEW OF STRUCTURAL
MECHANICS AND HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT
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ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Mechanics, is the branch of physics concerned with thebehaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces ordisplacements, and the subsequent effect of the bodies ontheir environment.
� Statics - bodies at rest or moving with uniform velocity
� Dynamics - bodies accelerating
– Strength of Materials - deformation of bodies under forces.
– Structural Mechanics - focus on behavior of structuresunder loads.
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ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Rigid Body Mechanics
Deformable Body Mechanics
Strength of Materials
Statics
Dynamics
Fluid Mechanics
STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
• Structural mechanics deals with forces and motions of
structural systems, it is necessary to study the forces, the
motions, and the relation between them.
• It is an extension in application of mechanics of rigid and
deformable bodies.
• Rigid body is a body that ideally does not deform under a
force.
BUT !
– All material deforms.
– When deformations are small assume the body is rigid.
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THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
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• The historical development of mechanics of materials is a fascinating blend of boththeory and experiment Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) performed experiments to determine the strength of wires, bars, and beams.
• Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) developed the mathematical theory of columns andcalculated the theoretical critical load of a column in 1744, long before anyexperimental evidence existed to show the significance of his results.
GALILEO'S (NOT QUITE RIGHT) THEORY
OF BENDING STRESS
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Galileo developed ahypothesis concerningbending stress thatwas sensible but notcorrect.
A better theory wasnot widely understooduntil more than 60years later.
SIR ISAAC NEWTON
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• Sir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 – 31March 1727) was an English physicist,mathematician, astronomer, naturalphilosopher, alchemist, and theologianand one of the most influential men inhuman history. His PhilosophiæNaturalis Principia Mathematica,published in 1687, is considered to bethe most influential book in the historyof science, laying the groundwork formost of classical mechanics. In thiswork, Newton described universalgravitation and the three laws ofmotion which dominated the scientificview of the physical universe for thenext three centuries.
“If I have seen further than others, it is because
I have stood on the shoulders of giants.”
TIME-LINE
• 384: Aristoteles• 1452: Leonardo da Vinci made many contributions.• 1638: Galileo Galilei published the book "Two New Sciences" in which he examined the failure of simple
structures.• 1660: Hooke's law by Robert Hooke. σ=E.ε , ∆l=F.l/(E.A)• 1687: Issac Newton published "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" which contains the
Newton's laws of motion. F=m.a (force=mass x acceleration)• 1750: Euler-Bernoulli beam equation.• 1700: Daniel Bernoulli introduced the principle of virtual work.• 1707: Leonhard Euler developed the theory of buckling of columns.• 1826: Claude-Louis Navier published a treatise on the elastic bahaviors of structures.• 1835: Mohr deformations of structures graphical methods.• 1873: Carlo Alberto Castigliano presented his dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici", which contains his
theorem for computing displacement as partial derivative of the strain energy. This theorem includes themethod of least work as a special case.
• 1936: Hardy Cross' publication of the moment distribution method which was later recognized as a form ofthe relaxation method applicable to the problem of flow in pipe-network.
• 1941: Alexander Hrennikoff submitted his PhD thesis in MIT on the discretization of plane elasticityproblems using a lattice framework.
• 1942: R. Courant divided a domain into finite subregions.• 1956: J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp's paper on the "Stiffness and Deflection of
Complex Structures". This paper introduces the name "finite-element method" and is widely recognized asthe first comprehensive treatment of the method as it is known today.
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SUPPORTSA support contributes to keeping
a structure in place by restraining
one or more degrees of freedom.
1-ROLLER SUPPORT
Free in X-direction
Fixed in Y-direction
Free in rotation
2-PIN SUPPORT
Fixed in X-direction
Fixed in Y-direction
Free in rotation
3-FIXED SUPPORT
Fixed in X-direction
Fixed in Y-direction
Fixed in rotation
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SUPPORT DETAILS
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Steel Bridge in Budapest (Hungary)
Steel Bridge in Baja (Hungary)
PIN
ROLLER
LOADS
Load is an external force.
Gravity Loads
� Dead loads (Static)
� Live loads (Static)
� Snow loads (Static)
Lateral Loads
� Wind loads (Dynamic)
� Earthquake loads (Dynamic)
Special Load Cases
� Thermal loads
� Blast loads
� Impact loads
� Settlement loads
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STATIC LOAD VS.DYNAMIC LOAD
� A static load is a mechanical force applied slowly to an assembly or object.
� A dynamic load, on the other hand, results when loading conditions are changing with time.
-Example of a dynamic load:
Earthquake (Seismic) loads.
-Example of a static load:
Weight of a bridge.
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UNCERTAINTY
• Dead loads can be predicted with some confidence.
• Live load, environmental load, earthquake load predictions are much
more uncertain.
– E.g., it is nearly impossible to say what will be the exact maximum
occupancy live load in the classroom.
– It is also difficult to say how that load will be distributed in the
room.
• Structural codes account for this uncertainty two ways:
– We chose a conservative estimate for the load:
• E.g., a “50-year” snow load, which is a snow load that occurs,
on average, only once in 50 years.
– We factor that estimate upwards just to be sure.
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LATERAL LOAD-GRAVITY LOAD
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Lateral LoadVertical Load
Deformation
Shear Force
Bending Moment
DYNAMIC LOADS
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WIND LOADS
Pressure on wind side
• Suction on lee side
• Uplift on roof leeside
1- Wind load on gabled building
2- Wind load on dome or vault
3- Protected city building
4- Exposed tall building
5- Exposed wide façade
6- Building forms can increase
wind speed
EARTHQUAKE LOADS
• Earthquake (Seismic) forcesare inertia forces. When anyobject, such as a building,experiences acceleration,inertia force is generatedwhen its mass resists theacceleration. We experienceinertia forces while travelling.
• Especially when standing in abus or train, an changes inspeed (accelerations) cause usto lose our balance and eitherforce us to change our positionor to hold on more firmly.
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EARTHQUAKE LOADS
• Motion originates
outside of a building.
• Effect is internal.
• Forces generated by
inertia of building.
• Mass as ground moves
below the structure.
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SEISMICITY OF EUROPA AND TURKIYE
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BIGGEST CHALLENGE…
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In Türkiye, the biggest challenge of engineering is dealing with the threat of major
earthquakes.
Marmara EQ, 1999
EARTHQUAKE LOAD EFFECTS
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Taiwan-1999
Türkiye-1999
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EARTHQUAKE LOAD EFFECTS
Hansin, Japan 1995
SETTLEMENT LOADS
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Pissa Tower, Italy. Soil Profile of Pissa Tower
LOAD PATH
• Load Path is the term used to describe thepath by which loads are transmitted to thefoundations.
• Different structures have different load paths.
• Some structures have only one path.
• Some have several (redundancy good).
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LOAD PATH IN AN ARCH
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Arch
Continuity Principle
LOAD PATH OF EIFFEL TOWER
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Free Body Diagrams (FBD) a sketch of all or part of a structure, detached from its support.
LOAD PATH OF JOHN HANCOCK
BUILDING
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Chicago, USA
CABLE- STAYED, SUSPENSION BRIDGE
LOAD PATH
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WHAT IS STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING?� Structural engineering, being considered a field of specialty
within the realm of civil engineering, is the application of mathand science to the design of structures, including buildings,bridges, storage tanks, transmission towers, roller coasters,aircraft, space vehicles, and much more, in such a way that theresulting product will safely resist all loads imposed upon it.
� In order to develop an adequate understanding of structuresthat are designed, an engineer must make justifiableapproximations and assumptions in regards to materials usedand loading imposed and must also simplify the problem inorder to develop a workable mathematical model.
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EXAMPLES
Possibly the most enjoyable application of structural engineering! (Photo by Gustavo Vanderput)
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EXAMPLES
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New YorkEiffel Tower, Paris
DESIGN PROCESS IN STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING• Select material for construction (RC, Steel, Wood).
• Determine appropriate structural system for a particular case.
• Determine forces acting on a structure and determine internal forces (Structural Analysis).
• Calculate size of members and connections to avoid failure or excessive deformations (Structural Design, RC, Steel, Wood).
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STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
• The parameters of equilibrium, strength andrigidity and geometric stability are clearly crucialfor any discussion involving structural mechanics.
• It must be capable of achieving a state ofequilibrium, it must be stable, it must haveadequate strength and it must have adequaterigidity.
• They are all, however, sufficiently distinct, and each has its own particular explanatory power.
(See Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials Lecture notes)
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MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR VARIOUS
FORMS OF STRUCTURE
• All reinforced concrete including precast
• All metal (e.g. mild-steel, structural steel,stainless steel or alloyed aluminum,
• All timber
• Laminated timber
• Metal/RC combined
• Plastic-coated textile material
• Fiber reinforced plastic
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RECOGNITION OF STRUCTURAL
PROBLEMS
• Very heavy and unusual loads.
• Very long spans and high-rise systems.
• Very long, or thin, or tall walls, columns, or struts.
• Long members that meet in small joints.
• Unanticipated loads or stresses.
• Probability of the building changing occupancy or
functional use.
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FUNCTION AND FORM
• The architectural design and form of buildings isinfluenced by the type of the building and by itsfunction.
• Buildings such as residential, commercial, industrial,transport, educational, health-care, leisure andagricultural buildings are designed with featurescharacteristic for the individual building type.
• Structural systems also have an interrelation with thetype and function of the buildings. As a consequencethere exist school-building, residential building andother systems.
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FUNCTION AND FORM
• Technical progress (prefabrication, mechanization, etc.)resulted in the industrialization of building and, as aspecific form of this, ‘system building’.
• Basically we can differentiate two types of systems. Thefirst of these is the technical system of buildings(Ahuja, 1997), which consists of:
• the structural system
• the architectural system
•the services and equipment (lighting, HVAC, powersecurity, elevators, telecommunications, functionalequipment, etc.).
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FUNCTION AND FORM
• The second system is composed of:
• the process of architectural, structural andengineering design and their documents
• economic analysis, data and results includingquantity surveying, feasibility studies, riskanalysis
• management of design, construction and use ofbuildings and structures (facility management)including cooperation of various organizationsand persons involved in the construction process.
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ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL
FORM EXAMPLES
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SELECTION OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMCRITERIA
- Safety
- Aesthetics
- Serviceability
- Reuse-Sustainability
- Constructability
- Economy-Cost
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STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS
DEFINITION OF STRUCTURE
• Structural system is one of the life-supportsystems in a building.
• People die from errors in structural design. It haslife and death consequences.
• Building structure is the controlled flow of forcethrough routes formed by resistive materials inorder to shelter three dimensional space.
• The layout of the routes along which the forcesflow is the basis used to name alternativestructural systems, and from which a designerwill normally choose.
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COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING STRUCTURE
1) Loads are the forces acting on a
building.
2) The superstructure is the part ofthe resistive building frame above theground.
3) The lateral support system resisthorizontal loads such as wind orearthquake.
4) The foundation is the part of theforce resistive frame below theground line.
5) Soil and Geology are the materialinto which all the loads mustultimately dissipated. (GeotechnicalIssues)
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STRUCTURES ARE NEEDED FOR THE
FOLLOWING PURPOSES
• To enclose space for enviromental control;
• To support people, equipment, materials etc
at requried locations in space;
• To contain and retain materials;
• To span gaps for the transport of people,
equipment, materials etc.
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STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS
There are three basic structural arrangements: (Heinrich Engel
Classification)
• Post-and-beam structures are assemblies of vertical and horizontal
elements. Post-and-beam structures are either load bearing wall
structures or frame structures.
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STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS
• Semi-form-active structures have forms whose geometry is neither post-
and- beam nor form-active. The elements therefore contain the full range
of internal force types (i.e. axial, bending moment and shear force).
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A TRADITIONAL EXAMPLE FOR SEMI-
FORM-ACTIVE STRUCTURES
The yurt (Turkish word) is the traditional house of the nomadic peoples (Turk, Mongolian) of
Middle Asia.
It consists of a highly sophisticated arrangement of self-bracing semi-form-active timber
structural elements which support a non-structural felt skin. It is light and its domed shape,
which combines maximum internal volume with minimum surface area, is ideal for heat
conservation and also minimizes wind resistance.
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STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS
• Fully form-active structures are systems of flexible or rigid
planes able to resist tension, compression or shear, in which
the redirection of forces is effected by mobilization of
sectional forces
• Included in this group are compressive shells, tensile cable
networks and air supported tensile-membrane structures.
• Form-active structures are almost invariably statically
indeterminate and this, together with the fact that they are
difficult to construct, makes them very expensive in the
present age, despite the fact that they make an efficient use
of structural material.
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FULLY FORM-ACTIVE STRUCTURES
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Cable nets, grid-shells, tensile membranes, hyperbolic parapoloids--these things offer the promise of significant material efficiency and dramatic forms by leveraging the intrinsic stability of doubly curved geometries.
NETS AND MEMBRANES
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Frei Otto: German Pavilion @ Expo 67 in Montreal Frei Otto: Detail of Munich Olympic Complex, 1972
HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES
Istanbul
“A building whose height creates different conditions in
the design, construction, and use than those that
exist in common buildings of a certain region and
period.”
The Council of Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
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Emporis Corporation April 2004
Tall Buildings in Regions ( 1982).
Tall Buildings in Regions (2006).
HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES
• The present time the tallest building is not in the USA or another
industrialized country but in a developing country.
• From the ten tallest buildings in the world four only are in New York
and Chicago with the others being located in cities in developing
countries (Kuala Lumpur, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Hong Kong).
• To construct that high, a number of technical problems had and
have to be solved. In the forefront of these stands structural safety.
This includes not only sufficient compressive strength of the
superstructure and foundation but also safety against earthquake,
strong wind, impact action (aircraft crash, explosion, etc.), human
discomfort from vibration and horizontal movement.
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HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES
• Structural design development has resulted in new types of structure. Thenew potentials in structural design were, on the one hand, results inscience and engineering knowledge and, on the other hand, new demandsof clients.
• This was the case, for example, with building higher buildings and withlonger spans. The overall pattern of architectural and structural design hasbeen the interrelation of techniques, construction technology, artisticambition and functions.
• The ability to form and shape a high-rise building is strongly influenced the structural system.
• Building weight and cost increase nonlinearly with increasing height due to lateral loads.
• Efficient structural and material systems are needed to reduce weight and
cost.
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STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS OF
HIGH-RISE BUILDINGSA rough classification can be made with respect to effectiveness in resisting lateral
loads.
• Moment resisting frame systems (Resists lateral deformation by joint rotation)
• Braced frame, shear wall systems (Lateral forces are resisted by axial actions of
bracing and columns )
• Core and outrigger systems (Lateral and gravity loads supported by central core)
• Tubular systems
– Framed tubes
– Trussed tubes
– Bundled tubes
• Hybrid systems (Combine advantages of different structural and material systems)
Structural system development of tall buildings has been a continuously evolving
process.
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COMPARISON OF STRUCTURAL
SYSTEMS
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EARLY SKYSCRAPERS
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Flatiron Building
Structure: Steel Frame
Height: 285 ft
Year: 1903
Façade: Non-structural limestone
EARLY SKYSCRAPERS
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Empire State Building
Structure: Steel Frame, Vertical
Truss
Height: 1,250 ft (1453 ft to top of
spire)
Year: 1931
TUBULAR SYSTEMS
• Majority of structural elements around
the perimeter.
• Sides normal to lateral load resist bending.
• Sides parallel to lateral load resist shear.
• Closely spaced exterior columns.
• Minimize number of interior columns.
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Various Plan Types of Tubular Systems
13- Load-bearing external wall - Perimeter frame
17- Core box column 450 mm square
20- Floor slab
WTC
SEARS TOWER, CHICAGO, USA
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HANCOCK AND ONTERIE BUILDINGS USA
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Steel, 344 m RC, 174 m
The strength of the building’s structural system is expressed in its facade.Fazlur Rahman Khan,The Einstein of Structural Engineering
BURJ KHALIFA (BURJ DUBAI)
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BURJ KHALIFA TOWER MODELS
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Source: Irwin, P.A. and Baker, W.F. “The Burj Dubai Tower Wind
Engineering, Structure magazine, NCSEA/CASE/SEI, June 2006, pp. 28-31.
CN TOWER TORONTO,CANADAStanding 553.3 meters tall, it was completed in 1976, becoming the world's tallest free-standing
structure and world's tallest tower. It held both records for 34 years until the completion of the Burj
Dubai in Dubai and Canton Tower in Guangzhou.
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TRANSAMERICA BUILDING, SAN
FRANCISCO, USA
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The Vierendeel Truss
WEST COAST TRANSMISSION
BUILDING, VANCOUVER,CANADA
Multi-story building with suspended
floors. In this 12-story building, the
floors are hung from the top of the
central 270-ft. high concrete core by
six sets of continuous steel bridge
cables.
The arrangement of the cables can be
seen at the top of the building. Floors
were erected from the top down. The
core is 36 ft. X 36 ft. in section, and
can be seen at both top and bottom
of the building.
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BMW BUILDING, GERMANY
• The main tower consists of four vertical
cylinders standing next to and across from each
other. Each cylinder is divided horizontally in its
center by a mold in the façade. Notably, these
cylinders do not stand on the ground, they are
suspended on a central support tower.
• During the construction, individual floors were
assembled on the ground and then elevated.
The tower has a diameter of 52.30 meters. The
building has 22 occupied floors, two of which
are basements and 18 serve as office space.
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TAIPEI 101, TAIWAN
The Taipei 101 tower has 101 stories above ground and five underground.
Upon its completion Taipei 101 claimed the official records for:
Ground to highest architectural structure : 508 m Previously held by the Petronas Towers 451.9 m
Ground to roof: 449.2 m. Formerly held by the Willis Tower 442 m.
Ground to highest occupied floor: 438 m
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TAIPEI 101, TAIWAN
Taipei 101 is designed to withstand the typhoon winds and earthquake tremors common in its area of the Asia-Pacific. Planners aimed for a structure that could withstand gale winds of 60 m/s and the strongest earthquakes likely to occur in a 2,500 year cycle.
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COMPARISON OF SKYSCRAPERS
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LONG SPAN STRUCTURES
LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES
• Spaces with a large
surface with or without
internal columns and
bridges with long spans
have been constructed
since ancient times.
• Domes, up to the
nineteenth century, had
a maximum span of 50
meters and it is only
relatively recently that
the progress in
technology has allowed
this restriction to be
exceeded to the extent
that in the twentieth
century space coverings
with spans of 300 meters
and suspension bridges
with a span of 2000–
3000 meters were being
constructed.
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LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES
• The last 150 years have not only
brought with them a gradual
increase in span (and height) but
also a considerable number of new
structural schemes and
architectural forms for covering
spaces: shells, vaults, domes,
trusses, space grids and
membranes (Chilton, 2000).
• A great variety of domes have been
developed: Schwedler, geodesic,
and lamella folded plate domes.
• Shells may be not only domes but
also cylindrical and prestressed
tensile membrane structures. Then
up to the present time, a great
variety of new structures were
added to the list of wide-span
structures: steel, aluminium,
timber, membranes, space trusses
(with one, two or three layers) and
tensile structures (Karni, 2000).
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LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES
Following the Pantheon dome in
Rome, in the early second
century AD, it was not until 1700
years later that domes of similar
size were built and it was only in
the twentieth century that the
span of the Pantheon was
surpassed.
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SOLID BEAM
• The weight of a beam is proportional to its depth, which must increase as
span increases. Thus, the ratio of self-weight (dead loads) to live loads
carried becomes less favorable as span is increased.
• The relationship between structural efficiency and intensity of applied
load, which is the other significant factor affecting ‘economy of means’,
can also be fairly easily demonstrated.
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SOLID BEAM VS. TRUSS
As the span of beam increasesit becomes moreuneconomical to use solidbeam (heavy).
An open beam or truss similarto is used.
Just as for a simple beamunder vertical loading, theforces in the upper chordmembers are compressive andthose in the lower chordtensile. Shear forces areresisted by the web membersand the forces in these may beeither tensile or compressive.
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Truss
COMMON PLANE TRUSSES
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Detail of pin-jointed truss connection.
APPLICATIONS OF PLANE TRUSSES
• Light weight trusses still dominate the residentialand small commercial building market.
• Heavy steel trusses are widely used for small tomedium size bridges, large warehouse roofs,aircraft hangers, factories, train stations, andsport facilities such as basketball arenas andgyms.
• Bridges are the most nonarchitectural applicationfor truss systems. Wheter for rail road, trussesare used worldwide as soon as normal beamspans are exceed.
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APPLICATIONS OF TRUSSES
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Puhket-Thailand
APPLICATIONS OF TRUSSES
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Bayonne Bridge, New York, USA Span 510 m.
THE VIERENDEEL TRUSS
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• The Vierendeel truss is a truss where the members arenot triangulated but form rectangular openings, and isa frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferringand resisting bending moments.
• Regular trusses comprise members that are commonlyassumed to have pinned joints, with the implication that nomoments exist at the jointed ends.
• This style of truss was named afterthe Belgian engineer Arthur Vierendeel, who developed thedesign in 1896. Its use for bridges is rare due to highercosts compared to a triangulated truss.
• This is preferable to a braced-frame system, which wouldleave some areas obstructed by the diagonal braces.
VIERENDEEL TRUSS APPLICATION
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Konsol Uygulaması
Seattle, Washington, USA
SPACE TRUSSES
• Generally square inverted pyramid
modules connected at the top and bottom
layers provide the most commonly used
Space Frame structures. Pipes, spherical
node, cone, bolt and sleeve are the
common components.
• There are various types of connection
nodes patented by various companies in
the world.
• Two popular nodes are solid spherical
nodes per Mero system Germany and
hollow spherical node per Unibat.
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GALATASARAY STADIUM,ISTANBUL
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Steel, span 228 m
SABIHA GOKCEN AIRPORT, ISTANBUL
98
Arch form steel truss system, span 272m
BOX GIRDER
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Bridge box girder
DOUBLE TEE FLOOR SLABS
100
Precast Structure,Span 39.00 m
RESTAURANT AT XOCHIMILCO
MEXICO CITY
101
• The intersecting hyperparabaloids of
Felix Candela's restaurant at
Xochimilco, Mexico City.
• You can see from the diagram above
how the structure is formed from the
'saddle' shape of the 'hypars.' The
'hypar' structure means the seemingly
complex curves can all be constructed
using straight lines, as the diagram
above also helps to demonstrate.
• Candela's ingenuity here means the
visible 'free edges' of the concrete
shell are as thin as just forty
millimeters.
SHELL STRUCTURES
Hypar shells, near San Francisco,
USA.
Hypar roof, Court House Square.
Designed to house a shop, Denver,
USA.
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SHELL STRUCTURES
103
Olimpic Stadium, Rome, ItalyLuigi Nervi
SHELL STRUCTURES
104
Australia, Sydney Opera House
DOMES
105
A type of a Schwedler dome.
PURE ENGINEERED STRUCTURES
106
THE SUPER DOME LOUISIANA, USA
107
TGC STATION AT THE AIRPORT OF LYON,
FRANCE
108
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
SPAN
• Small Span Bridges (up to 15m)
• Medium Span Bridges (up to 50m)
• Large Span Bridges (50-150m)
• Extra Large ( Long ) Span Bridges (over
150m)
109
COALBROOKDALE BRIDGE, UK
110
LUPU BRIDGE, SHANGHAI,CHINA
• The Lupu Bridge of Shanghai is the longest
steel arch bridge in the world. Its 550-
meter-long arch span is 32 meters longer
than that of the New River Gorge Bridge in
the US state of West Virginia.
• With 2.2 billion yuan (US$266 million) of
investment. A six lane bridge Construction
began in October 2000 and it was
completed in June 2002.
• Similar to the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the
Lupu Bridge also functions as a sightseeing
attraction.
111
FATIH SULTAN MEHMET BRIDGE, ISTANBUL,
TURKIYE
112
Suspension Bridge, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, 1510 m span, 64 m
height, finished 1988.
ALAMILLO BRIDGE SEVILLE, SPAIN
113
Alamillo Bridge, 1987-92 Seville, Spain Calatrava
A CANTILEVER BRIDGE• A cantilever bridge is a bridge built using cantilevers, structures that project horizontally into
space, supported on only one end. For small footbridges, the cantilevers may be
simple beams; however, large cantilever bridges designed to handle road or rail traffic
use trusses built from structural steel, or box girders built from prestressed concrete. The
steel truss cantilever bridge was a major engineering breakthrough when first put into
practice, as it can span distances of 460 m, and can be more easily constructed at difficult
crossings by virtue of using little or no falsework.
115
THE PIERRE PFLIMLIN BRIDGE,
FRANCE-GERMANY
The Pierre Pflimlin bridge being constructed over the river Rhine between Germany and
France. Photo of the eastern pylon, taken from the French side of the river (southwest,
Eschau), with the cantilever construction almost 2/3rds of the maximum length. Visible
behind the bridge is the approach viaduct and a cement works on the German side
(Altenheim).
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117
APPENDIX
HOW FAR CAN I SPAN ?
119
HOW FAR CAN I SPAN ?
120
STEEL BEAM AND COLUMN SECTIONS
121
CONNECTION DETAILS
122
STRUCTURAL ARRAGEMENTS FOR
MULTI-STOREY FRAME STRUCTURES
123
COMPOSITE FLOOR DETAILS
124
125
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS• Units
– Length – need to know positionand geometry of objects
– Time – need to determinesuccession of events
– Mass – related to amount ofstuff in a body, found usinggravitational attraction
– Weight – force due to gravityacting on a mass, W=mg, whereg=9.8m/s2
• Basic Quantities– Force – push or pull on a body,
can be direct (contact) orindirect (no contact)
– Moment – turning effect causedby a force applied at somedistance away from the axis ofrotation
• Engineering Concepts
– Idealizations – all real problems aresimplified to some degree
– Particle – mass acting is if it wereconcentrated at a singe point
– Rigid Body – particle collection in ashape that doesn’t change with appliedforce
– Concentrated Force – force acting as if itwere at a single point
• Newton’s Laws
– Newton’s First Law – bodies in motion(or at rest) stay in motion (or at rest)unless acted on by an unbalance force
– Newton’s Second Law – F=ma
– Newton’s Third Law – every action hasan equal and opposite reaction
REFERENCES
� West, H., (1993) Fundamentals of Structural Analysis, John Wiley &Sons, Inc..
� Sebestyen, G., (2003 ) New Architecture and Technology, Architectural Press.
� Engel, H., (1968) Structure Systems, Iliffe Books, London.
� Eugenkurrer, K., (2010) The History of the Theory of Structures From Arch Analysis to Computational Mechanics, 2008 Ernst & Sohn
Verlag fur Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & .Co. KG, Berlin.
� Ahuja, A., (1997) Integrated M/E Design: Building Systems Engineering, Chapman & Hall.
� Chilton, J., (2000) Space Grid Structures, Architectural Press, Butterworth.
� Karni, E., (2000) Structural-Geometrical Performance of Wide-Span Space Structures, Architectural Science Review, 43.2, June.
� Beedle, L., (Ed.-in-Chief) and Armstrong, Paul J. (Ed.) (1995) Architecture of Tall Buildings, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
� Wahl, I., (2007) Building Anatomy, McGraw-Hill,Construction.
� Ali and Moon, K.S., (2007) Structural Developments in Tall Buildings: Current Trends and Future Prospects, Architectural Science
Review Volume 50.3, pp 205-223.
• Buyukozturk, O., (2004) High-Rise Buildings: Evolution and Innovations, Keynote Lecture, CIB2004 World Building Congress, Toronto,
Ontario Canada.
� http://www.structuremag.org
� http://en.structurae.de
� http://www.celebratingeqsafety.com/
� http://www.thefunctionality.com
� http://www.2doworld.com
� http://nisee.berkeley.edu/godden/
� Various websites from which images have been extracted.
126
TÄNAN VÄGA
THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR
ATTENTION
127
ISTANBUL KÜLTÜR UNIVERSITY, ENGINEERING FACULTY
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
e.coskun@iku.edu.tr