Structural Systems

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

ISTANBUL KÜLTÜR UNIVERSITY, ENGINEERING FACULTY CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Dr. Erdal COSKUN

THE LECTURE NOTES OF CE012 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION

• Thirty thousand years ago, peopleroamed from place to place huntinganimals for food and looking forwild plants to eat. As they werealways moving, they did not buildhouses.

• Much later on, they began to putup shelters, tents made of animalskins, and tried to protectthemselves from the weatherconditions.

• They might find caves where theycook and sleep. Caves were betterplaces to live in, but tents had theadvantege of being easily moved.

Capodocia-Türkiye

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BRIEF HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL

ENGINEERING

• Structural engineering has been in use since ages, and one of the greatest ancientstructures was the Pyramid of Giza that was constructed in the 26th century BC. Themajor structures during the medieval period were the pyramids since the shape of thepyramids is basically stable.

• Theoretical knowledge about the structures was limited, and construction techniqueswere based on experience only. The real advancement in the structural engineering wasachieved in the 19th century during the industrial revolution when significant progresswas achieved in the sciences of structural analysis and materials science.

• No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or thebehavior of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only reallytook shape with the industrial revolution and the re-invention of concrete. The physicalsciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissanceand have been developing ever since.

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PYRAMID OF GIZA

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Hanging Gardens of BabylonBabylon’s hanging gardens were constructed by King

Nebuchadnezzar II in modern-day Iraq in about 600 BCE. These

gardens may have been named after the lush vines trailing

down the tiered structure, which looked to be suspended in the

desert sky.

Temple of ArtemisOne of the ancient world’s largest temples, the Temple

of Artemis in Turkey was completed in 550 BCE.

Soaring 18 m high, the temple consisted of a

colonnade of about 106 columns encircling a marble

sanctuary covered by a tiled roof.

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The building is circular with a portico of three ranks of huge granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two

groups of four behind) under a pediment opening into the rotunda, under a coffered, concrete dome, with a central

opening (oculus) open to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheon's dome is still the world's

largest unreinforced concrete dome. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same,

43.3 meters. It is one of the best preserved of all Roman buildings.

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The ColosseumCompleted in 80 CE, the Colosseum was Ancient

Rome’s premier entertainment venue. Reigning

emperors hosted epic contests inside the huge

amphitheater, with gladiators (trained fighters)

battling in front of up to 50,000 people.

Chichen ItzaBuilt by the Mayan civilization between 1000 and 1200

CE, El Castillo is part of Mexico’s ancient Chichen Itza

site. With a temple at the top, the 24 m step-pyramid is

dedicated to the feathered-serpent god Kukulcan.

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Taj MahalAfter 12 years of construction, the Taj Mahal

complex in Agra, India, was completed in 1648. Its

centerpiece is the white marble-tiled mausoleum

dedicated to the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan’s

wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

The Great Wall of ChinaChina’s first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi began

construction on the Great Wall in about 200 BC. With

fortified walls made of packed-dirt, stonework, and

rocks, succeeding dynasties added to the structure over

many centuries. Today, it stretches 6,508 km east to

west.

HAGIA SOPHIA-ISTANBUL

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Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the typical example ofByzantine architecture and to have "changed the history of architecture.”It was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years, until thecompletion of the Seville Cathedral in 1520.It was designed by two architects, Isidoreof Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles.

THE GREAT ARCHITECT SINAN

(MIMAR SINAN)• Mimar Sinan (born 1490, Turkey-

died July 17, 1588,

Constantinople [now Istanbul])

was the chief Ottoman Architect

and Civil Engineer for Sultans

Suleyman I, Selim II, and Murad

III.

• By mid-life Sinan acquires a

reputation as a valued military

engineer and is brought to the

attention of Sultan Suleyman

(1520-66) who in 1537 appoints

Sinan (aged fifty) as head of the

office of royal architects.

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THE GREAT ARCHITECT SINAN

(MIMAR SINAN)

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The diameter of the dome, which exceeds the 31 m of theSelimiye Mosque (Edirne) which Sinan completed when hewas 80, is the most outstanding example of the level ofachievement reached by Sinan.

When Sinan reached the age of 70, he had completed theSüleymaniye Mosque (Istanbul) complex.This building, situated on one of the hills of Istanbul facing theGolden Horn, and built in the name of Süleyman theMagnificent, is one of the symbolic monuments of the period.

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MASONRY STRUCTURES

Yedikule Walls,Istanbul

Galata Tower, Istanbul

SHORT REVIEW OF STRUCTURAL

MECHANICS AND HISTORICAL

DEVELOPMENT

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ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Mechanics, is the branch of physics concerned with thebehaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces ordisplacements, and the subsequent effect of the bodies ontheir environment.

� Statics - bodies at rest or moving with uniform velocity

� Dynamics - bodies accelerating

– Strength of Materials - deformation of bodies under forces.

– Structural Mechanics - focus on behavior of structuresunder loads.

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ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Rigid Body Mechanics

Deformable Body Mechanics

Strength of Materials

Statics

Dynamics

Fluid Mechanics

STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

• Structural mechanics deals with forces and motions of

structural systems, it is necessary to study the forces, the

motions, and the relation between them.

• It is an extension in application of mechanics of rigid and

deformable bodies.

• Rigid body is a body that ideally does not deform under a

force.

BUT !

– All material deforms.

– When deformations are small assume the body is rigid.

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THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

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• The historical development of mechanics of materials is a fascinating blend of boththeory and experiment Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) performed experiments to determine the strength of wires, bars, and beams.

• Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) developed the mathematical theory of columns andcalculated the theoretical critical load of a column in 1744, long before anyexperimental evidence existed to show the significance of his results.

GALILEO'S (NOT QUITE RIGHT) THEORY

OF BENDING STRESS

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Galileo developed ahypothesis concerningbending stress thatwas sensible but notcorrect.

A better theory wasnot widely understooduntil more than 60years later.

SIR ISAAC NEWTON

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• Sir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 – 31March 1727) was an English physicist,mathematician, astronomer, naturalphilosopher, alchemist, and theologianand one of the most influential men inhuman history. His PhilosophiæNaturalis Principia Mathematica,published in 1687, is considered to bethe most influential book in the historyof science, laying the groundwork formost of classical mechanics. In thiswork, Newton described universalgravitation and the three laws ofmotion which dominated the scientificview of the physical universe for thenext three centuries.

“If I have seen further than others, it is because

I have stood on the shoulders of giants.”

TIME-LINE

• 384: Aristoteles• 1452: Leonardo da Vinci made many contributions.• 1638: Galileo Galilei published the book "Two New Sciences" in which he examined the failure of simple

structures.• 1660: Hooke's law by Robert Hooke. σ=E.ε , ∆l=F.l/(E.A)• 1687: Issac Newton published "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" which contains the

Newton's laws of motion. F=m.a (force=mass x acceleration)• 1750: Euler-Bernoulli beam equation.• 1700: Daniel Bernoulli introduced the principle of virtual work.• 1707: Leonhard Euler developed the theory of buckling of columns.• 1826: Claude-Louis Navier published a treatise on the elastic bahaviors of structures.• 1835: Mohr deformations of structures graphical methods.• 1873: Carlo Alberto Castigliano presented his dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici", which contains his

theorem for computing displacement as partial derivative of the strain energy. This theorem includes themethod of least work as a special case.

• 1936: Hardy Cross' publication of the moment distribution method which was later recognized as a form ofthe relaxation method applicable to the problem of flow in pipe-network.

• 1941: Alexander Hrennikoff submitted his PhD thesis in MIT on the discretization of plane elasticityproblems using a lattice framework.

• 1942: R. Courant divided a domain into finite subregions.• 1956: J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp's paper on the "Stiffness and Deflection of

Complex Structures". This paper introduces the name "finite-element method" and is widely recognized asthe first comprehensive treatment of the method as it is known today.

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SUPPORTSA support contributes to keeping

a structure in place by restraining

one or more degrees of freedom.

1-ROLLER SUPPORT

Free in X-direction

Fixed in Y-direction

Free in rotation

2-PIN SUPPORT

Fixed in X-direction


Free in rotation

3-FIXED SUPPORT

Fixed in X-direction


Fixed in rotation

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SUPPORT DETAILS

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Steel Bridge in Budapest (Hungary)

Steel Bridge in Baja (Hungary)

PIN

ROLLER

LOADS

Load is an external force.

Gravity Loads

� Dead loads (Static)

� Live loads (Static)

� Snow loads (Static)

Lateral Loads

� Wind loads (Dynamic)

� Earthquake loads (Dynamic)

Special Load Cases

� Thermal loads

� Blast loads

� Impact loads

� Settlement loads

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STATIC LOAD VS.DYNAMIC LOAD

� A static load is a mechanical force applied slowly to an assembly or object.

� A dynamic load, on the other hand, results when loading conditions are changing with time.

-Example of a dynamic load:

Earthquake (Seismic) loads.

-Example of a static load:

Weight of a bridge.

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UNCERTAINTY

• Dead loads can be predicted with some confidence.

• Live load, environmental load, earthquake load predictions are much

more uncertain.

– E.g., it is nearly impossible to say what will be the exact maximum

occupancy live load in the classroom.

– It is also difficult to say how that load will be distributed in the

room.

• Structural codes account for this uncertainty two ways:

– We chose a conservative estimate for the load:

• E.g., a “50-year” snow load, which is a snow load that occurs,

on average, only once in 50 years.

– We factor that estimate upwards just to be sure.

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LATERAL LOAD-GRAVITY LOAD

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Lateral LoadVertical Load

Deformation

Shear Force

Bending Moment

DYNAMIC LOADS

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WIND LOADS

Pressure on wind side

• Suction on lee side

• Uplift on roof leeside

1- Wind load on gabled building

2- Wind load on dome or vault

3- Protected city building

4- Exposed tall building

5- Exposed wide façade

6- Building forms can increase

wind speed

EARTHQUAKE LOADS

• Earthquake (Seismic) forcesare inertia forces. When anyobject, such as a building,experiences acceleration,inertia force is generatedwhen its mass resists theacceleration. We experienceinertia forces while travelling.

• Especially when standing in abus or train, an changes inspeed (accelerations) cause usto lose our balance and eitherforce us to change our positionor to hold on more firmly.

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EARTHQUAKE LOADS

• Motion originates

outside of a building.

• Effect is internal.

• Forces generated by

inertia of building.

• Mass as ground moves

below the structure.

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SEISMICITY OF EUROPA AND TURKIYE

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BIGGEST CHALLENGE…

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In Türkiye, the biggest challenge of engineering is dealing with the threat of major

earthquakes.

Marmara EQ, 1999

EARTHQUAKE LOAD EFFECTS

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Taiwan-1999

Türkiye-1999

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EARTHQUAKE LOAD EFFECTS

Hansin, Japan 1995

SETTLEMENT LOADS

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Pissa Tower, Italy. Soil Profile of Pissa Tower

LOAD PATH

• Load Path is the term used to describe thepath by which loads are transmitted to thefoundations.

• Different structures have different load paths.

• Some structures have only one path.

• Some have several (redundancy good).

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LOAD PATH IN AN ARCH

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Arch

Continuity Principle

LOAD PATH OF EIFFEL TOWER

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Free Body Diagrams (FBD) a sketch of all or part of a structure, detached from its support.

LOAD PATH OF JOHN HANCOCK

BUILDING

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Chicago, USA

CABLE- STAYED, SUSPENSION BRIDGE

LOAD PATH

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WHAT IS STRUCTURAL

ENGINEERING?� Structural engineering, being considered a field of specialty

within the realm of civil engineering, is the application of mathand science to the design of structures, including buildings,bridges, storage tanks, transmission towers, roller coasters,aircraft, space vehicles, and much more, in such a way that theresulting product will safely resist all loads imposed upon it.

� In order to develop an adequate understanding of structuresthat are designed, an engineer must make justifiableapproximations and assumptions in regards to materials usedand loading imposed and must also simplify the problem inorder to develop a workable mathematical model.

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EXAMPLES

Possibly the most enjoyable application of structural engineering! (Photo by Gustavo Vanderput)

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EXAMPLES

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New YorkEiffel Tower, Paris

DESIGN PROCESS IN STRUCTURAL

ENGINEERING• Select material for construction (RC, Steel, Wood).

• Determine appropriate structural system for a particular case.

• Determine forces acting on a structure and determine internal forces (Structural Analysis).

• Calculate size of members and connections to avoid failure or excessive deformations (Structural Design, RC, Steel, Wood).

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STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS

• The parameters of equilibrium, strength andrigidity and geometric stability are clearly crucialfor any discussion involving structural mechanics.

• It must be capable of achieving a state ofequilibrium, it must be stable, it must haveadequate strength and it must have adequaterigidity.

• They are all, however, sufficiently distinct, and each has its own particular explanatory power.

(See Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials Lecture notes)

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MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR VARIOUS

FORMS OF STRUCTURE

• All reinforced concrete including precast

• All metal (e.g. mild-steel, structural steel,stainless steel or alloyed aluminum,

• All timber

• Laminated timber

• Metal/RC combined

• Plastic-coated textile material

• Fiber reinforced plastic

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RECOGNITION OF STRUCTURAL

PROBLEMS

• Very heavy and unusual loads.

• Very long spans and high-rise systems.

• Very long, or thin, or tall walls, columns, or struts.

• Long members that meet in small joints.

• Unanticipated loads or stresses.

• Probability of the building changing occupancy or

functional use.

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FUNCTION AND FORM

• The architectural design and form of buildings isinfluenced by the type of the building and by itsfunction.

• Buildings such as residential, commercial, industrial,transport, educational, health-care, leisure andagricultural buildings are designed with featurescharacteristic for the individual building type.

• Structural systems also have an interrelation with thetype and function of the buildings. As a consequencethere exist school-building, residential building andother systems.

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FUNCTION AND FORM

• Technical progress (prefabrication, mechanization, etc.)resulted in the industrialization of building and, as aspecific form of this, ‘system building’.

• Basically we can differentiate two types of systems. Thefirst of these is the technical system of buildings(Ahuja, 1997), which consists of:

• the structural system

• the architectural system

•the services and equipment (lighting, HVAC, powersecurity, elevators, telecommunications, functionalequipment, etc.).

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FUNCTION AND FORM

• The second system is composed of:

• the process of architectural, structural andengineering design and their documents

• economic analysis, data and results includingquantity surveying, feasibility studies, riskanalysis

• management of design, construction and use ofbuildings and structures (facility management)including cooperation of various organizationsand persons involved in the construction process.

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ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL

FORM EXAMPLES

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SELECTION OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMCRITERIA

- Safety

- Aesthetics

- Serviceability

- Reuse-Sustainability

- Constructability

- Economy-Cost

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STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS

DEFINITION OF STRUCTURE

• Structural system is one of the life-supportsystems in a building.

• People die from errors in structural design. It haslife and death consequences.

• Building structure is the controlled flow of forcethrough routes formed by resistive materials inorder to shelter three dimensional space.

• The layout of the routes along which the forcesflow is the basis used to name alternativestructural systems, and from which a designerwill normally choose.

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COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING STRUCTURE

1) Loads are the forces acting on a

building.

2) The superstructure is the part ofthe resistive building frame above theground.

3) The lateral support system resisthorizontal loads such as wind orearthquake.

4) The foundation is the part of theforce resistive frame below theground line.

5) Soil and Geology are the materialinto which all the loads mustultimately dissipated. (GeotechnicalIssues)

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STRUCTURES ARE NEEDED FOR THE

FOLLOWING PURPOSES

• To enclose space for enviromental control;

• To support people, equipment, materials etc

at requried locations in space;

• To contain and retain materials;

• To span gaps for the transport of people,

equipment, materials etc.

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There are three basic structural arrangements: (Heinrich Engel

Classification)

• Post-and-beam structures are assemblies of vertical and horizontal

elements. Post-and-beam structures are either load bearing wall

structures or frame structures.

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• Semi-form-active structures have forms whose geometry is neither post-

and- beam nor form-active. The elements therefore contain the full range

of internal force types (i.e. axial, bending moment and shear force).

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A TRADITIONAL EXAMPLE FOR SEMI-

FORM-ACTIVE STRUCTURES

The yurt (Turkish word) is the traditional house of the nomadic peoples (Turk, Mongolian) of

Middle Asia.

It consists of a highly sophisticated arrangement of self-bracing semi-form-active timber

structural elements which support a non-structural felt skin. It is light and its domed shape,

which combines maximum internal volume with minimum surface area, is ideal for heat

conservation and also minimizes wind resistance.

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• Fully form-active structures are systems of flexible or rigid

planes able to resist tension, compression or shear, in which

the redirection of forces is effected by mobilization of

sectional forces

• Included in this group are compressive shells, tensile cable

networks and air supported tensile-membrane structures.

• Form-active structures are almost invariably statically

indeterminate and this, together with the fact that they are

difficult to construct, makes them very expensive in the

present age, despite the fact that they make an efficient use

of structural material.

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FULLY FORM-ACTIVE STRUCTURES

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Cable nets, grid-shells, tensile membranes, hyperbolic parapoloids--these things offer the promise of significant material efficiency and dramatic forms by leveraging the intrinsic stability of doubly curved geometries.

NETS AND MEMBRANES

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Frei Otto: German Pavilion @ Expo 67 in Montreal Frei Otto: Detail of Munich Olympic Complex, 1972

HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES

Istanbul

“A building whose height creates different conditions in

the design, construction, and use than those that

exist in common buildings of a certain region and

period.”

The Council of Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

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Emporis Corporation April 2004

Tall Buildings in Regions ( 1982).

Tall Buildings in Regions (2006).


• The present time the tallest building is not in the USA or another

industrialized country but in a developing country.

• From the ten tallest buildings in the world four only are in New York

and Chicago with the others being located in cities in developing

countries (Kuala Lumpur, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Hong Kong).

• To construct that high, a number of technical problems had and

have to be solved. In the forefront of these stands structural safety.

This includes not only sufficient compressive strength of the

superstructure and foundation but also safety against earthquake,

strong wind, impact action (aircraft crash, explosion, etc.), human

discomfort from vibration and horizontal movement.

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• Structural design development has resulted in new types of structure. Thenew potentials in structural design were, on the one hand, results inscience and engineering knowledge and, on the other hand, new demandsof clients.

• This was the case, for example, with building higher buildings and withlonger spans. The overall pattern of architectural and structural design hasbeen the interrelation of techniques, construction technology, artisticambition and functions.

• The ability to form and shape a high-rise building is strongly influenced the structural system.

• Building weight and cost increase nonlinearly with increasing height due to lateral loads.

• Efficient structural and material systems are needed to reduce weight and

cost.

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STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS OF

HIGH-RISE BUILDINGSA rough classification can be made with respect to effectiveness in resisting lateral

loads.

• Moment resisting frame systems (Resists lateral deformation by joint rotation)

• Braced frame, shear wall systems (Lateral forces are resisted by axial actions of

bracing and columns )

• Core and outrigger systems (Lateral and gravity loads supported by central core)

• Tubular systems

– Framed tubes

– Trussed tubes

– Bundled tubes

• Hybrid systems (Combine advantages of different structural and material systems)

Structural system development of tall buildings has been a continuously evolving

process.

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COMPARISON OF STRUCTURAL

SYSTEMS

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EARLY SKYSCRAPERS

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Flatiron Building

Structure: Steel Frame

Height: 285 ft

Year: 1903

Façade: Non-structural limestone

EARLY SKYSCRAPERS

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Empire State Building

Structure: Steel Frame, Vertical

Truss

Height: 1,250 ft (1453 ft to top of

spire)

Year: 1931

TUBULAR SYSTEMS

• Majority of structural elements around

the perimeter.

• Sides normal to lateral load resist bending.

• Sides parallel to lateral load resist shear.

• Closely spaced exterior columns.

• Minimize number of interior columns.

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Various Plan Types of Tubular Systems

13- Load-bearing external wall - Perimeter frame

17- Core box column 450 mm square

20- Floor slab

WTC

SEARS TOWER, CHICAGO, USA

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HANCOCK AND ONTERIE BUILDINGS USA

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Steel, 344 m RC, 174 m

The strength of the building’s structural system is expressed in its facade.Fazlur Rahman Khan,The Einstein of Structural Engineering

BURJ KHALIFA (BURJ DUBAI)

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BURJ KHALIFA TOWER MODELS

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Source: Irwin, P.A. and Baker, W.F. “The Burj Dubai Tower Wind

Engineering, Structure magazine, NCSEA/CASE/SEI, June 2006, pp. 28-31.

CN TOWER TORONTO,CANADAStanding 553.3 meters tall, it was completed in 1976, becoming the world's tallest free-standing

structure and world's tallest tower. It held both records for 34 years until the completion of the Burj

Dubai in Dubai and Canton Tower in Guangzhou.

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TRANSAMERICA BUILDING, SAN

FRANCISCO, USA

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The Vierendeel Truss

WEST COAST TRANSMISSION

BUILDING, VANCOUVER,CANADA

Multi-story building with suspended

floors. In this 12-story building, the

floors are hung from the top of the

central 270-ft. high concrete core by

six sets of continuous steel bridge

cables.

The arrangement of the cables can be

seen at the top of the building. Floors

were erected from the top down. The

core is 36 ft. X 36 ft. in section, and

can be seen at both top and bottom

of the building.

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BMW BUILDING, GERMANY

• The main tower consists of four vertical

cylinders standing next to and across from each

other. Each cylinder is divided horizontally in its

center by a mold in the façade. Notably, these

cylinders do not stand on the ground, they are

suspended on a central support tower.

• During the construction, individual floors were

assembled on the ground and then elevated.

The tower has a diameter of 52.30 meters. The

building has 22 occupied floors, two of which

are basements and 18 serve as office space.

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TAIPEI 101, TAIWAN

The Taipei 101 tower has 101 stories above ground and five underground.

Upon its completion Taipei 101 claimed the official records for:

Ground to highest architectural structure : 508 m Previously held by the Petronas Towers 451.9 m

Ground to roof: 449.2 m. Formerly held by the Willis Tower 442 m.

Ground to highest occupied floor: 438 m

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TAIPEI 101, TAIWAN

Taipei 101 is designed to withstand the typhoon winds and earthquake tremors common in its area of the Asia-Pacific. Planners aimed for a structure that could withstand gale winds of 60 m/s and the strongest earthquakes likely to occur in a 2,500 year cycle.

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COMPARISON OF SKYSCRAPERS

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LONG SPAN STRUCTURES

LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES

• Spaces with a large

surface with or without

internal columns and

bridges with long spans

have been constructed

since ancient times.

• Domes, up to the

nineteenth century, had

a maximum span of 50

meters and it is only

relatively recently that

the progress in

technology has allowed

this restriction to be

exceeded to the extent

that in the twentieth

century space coverings

with spans of 300 meters

and suspension bridges

with a span of 2000–

3000 meters were being

constructed.

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• The last 150 years have not only

brought with them a gradual

increase in span (and height) but

also a considerable number of new

structural schemes and

architectural forms for covering

spaces: shells, vaults, domes,

trusses, space grids and

membranes (Chilton, 2000).

• A great variety of domes have been

developed: Schwedler, geodesic,

and lamella folded plate domes.

• Shells may be not only domes but

also cylindrical and prestressed

tensile membrane structures. Then

up to the present time, a great

variety of new structures were

added to the list of wide-span

structures: steel, aluminium,

timber, membranes, space trusses

(with one, two or three layers) and

tensile structures (Karni, 2000).

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Following the Pantheon dome in

Rome, in the early second

century AD, it was not until 1700

years later that domes of similar

size were built and it was only in

the twentieth century that the

span of the Pantheon was

surpassed.

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SOLID BEAM

• The weight of a beam is proportional to its depth, which must increase as

span increases. Thus, the ratio of self-weight (dead loads) to live loads

carried becomes less favorable as span is increased.

• The relationship between structural efficiency and intensity of applied

load, which is the other significant factor affecting ‘economy of means’,

can also be fairly easily demonstrated.

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SOLID BEAM VS. TRUSS

As the span of beam increasesit becomes moreuneconomical to use solidbeam (heavy).

An open beam or truss similarto is used.

Just as for a simple beamunder vertical loading, theforces in the upper chordmembers are compressive andthose in the lower chordtensile. Shear forces areresisted by the web membersand the forces in these may beeither tensile or compressive.

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Truss

COMMON PLANE TRUSSES

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Detail of pin-jointed truss connection.

APPLICATIONS OF PLANE TRUSSES

• Light weight trusses still dominate the residentialand small commercial building market.

• Heavy steel trusses are widely used for small tomedium size bridges, large warehouse roofs,aircraft hangers, factories, train stations, andsport facilities such as basketball arenas andgyms.

• Bridges are the most nonarchitectural applicationfor truss systems. Wheter for rail road, trussesare used worldwide as soon as normal beamspans are exceed.

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APPLICATIONS OF TRUSSES

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Puhket-Thailand

APPLICATIONS OF TRUSSES

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Bayonne Bridge, New York, USA Span 510 m.

THE VIERENDEEL TRUSS

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• The Vierendeel truss is a truss where the members arenot triangulated but form rectangular openings, and isa frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferringand resisting bending moments.

• Regular trusses comprise members that are commonlyassumed to have pinned joints, with the implication that nomoments exist at the jointed ends.

• This style of truss was named afterthe Belgian engineer Arthur Vierendeel, who developed thedesign in 1896. Its use for bridges is rare due to highercosts compared to a triangulated truss.

• This is preferable to a braced-frame system, which wouldleave some areas obstructed by the diagonal braces.

VIERENDEEL TRUSS APPLICATION

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Konsol Uygulaması

Seattle, Washington, USA

SPACE TRUSSES

• Generally square inverted pyramid

modules connected at the top and bottom

layers provide the most commonly used

Space Frame structures. Pipes, spherical

node, cone, bolt and sleeve are the

common components.

• There are various types of connection

nodes patented by various companies in

the world.

• Two popular nodes are solid spherical

nodes per Mero system Germany and

hollow spherical node per Unibat.

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GALATASARAY STADIUM,ISTANBUL

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Steel, span 228 m

SABIHA GOKCEN AIRPORT, ISTANBUL

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Arch form steel truss system, span 272m

BOX GIRDER

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Bridge box girder

DOUBLE TEE FLOOR SLABS

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Precast Structure,Span 39.00 m

RESTAURANT AT XOCHIMILCO

MEXICO CITY

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• The intersecting hyperparabaloids of

Felix Candela's restaurant at

Xochimilco, Mexico City.

• You can see from the diagram above

how the structure is formed from the

'saddle' shape of the 'hypars.' The

'hypar' structure means the seemingly

complex curves can all be constructed

using straight lines, as the diagram

above also helps to demonstrate.

• Candela's ingenuity here means the

visible 'free edges' of the concrete

shell are as thin as just forty

millimeters.

SHELL STRUCTURES

Hypar shells, near San Francisco,

USA.

Hypar roof, Court House Square.

Designed to house a shop, Denver,

USA.

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SHELL STRUCTURES

103

Olimpic Stadium, Rome, ItalyLuigi Nervi

SHELL STRUCTURES

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Australia, Sydney Opera House

DOMES

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A type of a Schwedler dome.

PURE ENGINEERED STRUCTURES

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THE SUPER DOME LOUISIANA, USA

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TGC STATION AT THE AIRPORT OF LYON,

FRANCE

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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO

SPAN

• Small Span Bridges (up to 15m)

• Medium Span Bridges (up to 50m)

• Large Span Bridges (50-150m)

• Extra Large ( Long ) Span Bridges (over

150m)

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COALBROOKDALE BRIDGE, UK

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LUPU BRIDGE, SHANGHAI,CHINA

• The Lupu Bridge of Shanghai is the longest

steel arch bridge in the world. Its 550-

meter-long arch span is 32 meters longer

than that of the New River Gorge Bridge in

the US state of West Virginia.

• With 2.2 billion yuan (US$266 million) of

investment. A six lane bridge Construction

began in October 2000 and it was

completed in June 2002.

• Similar to the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the

Lupu Bridge also functions as a sightseeing

attraction.

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FATIH SULTAN MEHMET BRIDGE, ISTANBUL,

TURKIYE

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Suspension Bridge, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, 1510 m span, 64 m

height, finished 1988.

ALAMILLO BRIDGE SEVILLE, SPAIN

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Alamillo Bridge, 1987-92 Seville, Spain Calatrava

A CANTILEVER BRIDGE• A cantilever bridge is a bridge built using cantilevers, structures that project horizontally into

space, supported on only one end. For small footbridges, the cantilevers may be

simple beams; however, large cantilever bridges designed to handle road or rail traffic

use trusses built from structural steel, or box girders built from prestressed concrete. The

steel truss cantilever bridge was a major engineering breakthrough when first put into

practice, as it can span distances of 460 m, and can be more easily constructed at difficult

crossings by virtue of using little or no falsework.

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THE PIERRE PFLIMLIN BRIDGE,

FRANCE-GERMANY

The Pierre Pflimlin bridge being constructed over the river Rhine between Germany and

France. Photo of the eastern pylon, taken from the French side of the river (southwest,

Eschau), with the cantilever construction almost 2/3rds of the maximum length. Visible

behind the bridge is the approach viaduct and a cement works on the German side

(Altenheim).

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APPENDIX

HOW FAR CAN I SPAN ?

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HOW FAR CAN I SPAN ?

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STEEL BEAM AND COLUMN SECTIONS

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CONNECTION DETAILS

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STRUCTURAL ARRAGEMENTS FOR

MULTI-STOREY FRAME STRUCTURES

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COMPOSITE FLOOR DETAILS

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS• Units

– Length – need to know positionand geometry of objects

– Time – need to determinesuccession of events

– Mass – related to amount ofstuff in a body, found usinggravitational attraction

– Weight – force due to gravityacting on a mass, W=mg, whereg=9.8m/s2

• Basic Quantities– Force – push or pull on a body,

can be direct (contact) orindirect (no contact)

– Moment – turning effect causedby a force applied at somedistance away from the axis ofrotation

• Engineering Concepts

– Idealizations – all real problems aresimplified to some degree

– Particle – mass acting is if it wereconcentrated at a singe point

– Rigid Body – particle collection in ashape that doesn’t change with appliedforce

– Concentrated Force – force acting as if itwere at a single point

• Newton’s Laws

– Newton’s First Law – bodies in motion(or at rest) stay in motion (or at rest)unless acted on by an unbalance force

– Newton’s Second Law – F=ma

– Newton’s Third Law – every action hasan equal and opposite reaction

REFERENCES

� West, H., (1993) Fundamentals of Structural Analysis, John Wiley &Sons, Inc..

� Sebestyen, G., (2003 ) New Architecture and Technology, Architectural Press.

� Engel, H., (1968) Structure Systems, Iliffe Books, London.

� Eugenkurrer, K., (2010) The History of the Theory of Structures From Arch Analysis to Computational Mechanics, 2008 Ernst & Sohn

Verlag fur Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & .Co. KG, Berlin.

� Ahuja, A., (1997) Integrated M/E Design: Building Systems Engineering, Chapman & Hall.

� Chilton, J., (2000) Space Grid Structures, Architectural Press, Butterworth.

� Karni, E., (2000) Structural-Geometrical Performance of Wide-Span Space Structures, Architectural Science Review, 43.2, June.

� Beedle, L., (Ed.-in-Chief) and Armstrong, Paul J. (Ed.) (1995) Architecture of Tall Buildings, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

� Wahl, I., (2007) Building Anatomy, McGraw-Hill,Construction.

� Ali and Moon, K.S., (2007) Structural Developments in Tall Buildings: Current Trends and Future Prospects, Architectural Science

Review Volume 50.3, pp 205-223.

• Buyukozturk, O., (2004) High-Rise Buildings: Evolution and Innovations, Keynote Lecture, CIB2004 World Building Congress, Toronto,

Ontario Canada.

� http://www.structuremag.org

� http://en.structurae.de

� http://www.celebratingeqsafety.com/

� http://www.thefunctionality.com

� http://www.2doworld.com

� http://nisee.berkeley.edu/godden/

� Various websites from which images have been extracted.

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TÄNAN VÄGA

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR

ATTENTION

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ISTANBUL KÜLTÜR UNIVERSITY, ENGINEERING FACULTY

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

[email protected]

Structural Systems

Engineering

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