Post on 28-May-2020
TOPICS for Music Education Praxis
2017:02 http://topics.maydaygroup.org
ISSN: 2469-4681
Article URL: http://topics.maydaygroup.org/2017/Regelski17.pdf © 2016, Thomas A. Regelski
Socialobservationsforwhyteachmusic?
ThomasA.Regelski
HelsinkiUniversity
Abstract:Thisaccountfocusesonthevalueofmusicandmusiceducationasasocialpraxis.Withthatinmind,itexploresfiveinterrelatedtopicsandthecriteriafortheirpraxies.First,whatmusic“is”;thenananalysisofindividualmusiclessons;next,thechallengesofgeneralandclassroommusic;fourthly,issuesinvolvingensembles;andfinally,thereasonsforchoosingacareerinmusiceducation.Frequentreferencestonewpraxialtheoriesofmusicareassumedtobefamiliarinrecentscholarship,andthevalueofmusicandmusiceducationisofferedasareminderoftheimportance,ineachcase,ofmusiceducationasfocusedonmusicing,notonaestheticabstractionsandpremises.Thisisasurveyoftheimpactoftheory,ofwhatevervintage,anditsrelevancetopraxis,notanexaminationofnewresearchwhichisbestexploredinthesisterjournalACT.Andthetheoryaddressediswellpositionedtoimpactpraxis,forthosewholookbeyondstatusquopractices.
Keywords:Praxis,musiceducation,curriculumtheory,musiclessons,generalmusic,musicensembles,andmusiceducationcareers.
Introduction1
Theoverallissueaddressedhereisthesociallyrelevantaspectsastowhyitisimportantto
teachmusicinschools.Andofthereasonstocommittoadvancingmusicinsocietyviapublic
schoolmusiceducation.Itmayseemunusualtoaskreaderswhoarein-serviceand
prospectivemusicteachersaboutWhyTeachMusic?However,itseekstoidentifysomeofthe
importantissuesthatareatstakenotalwaysthoroughlyexaminedenoughintermsofsocial,
pedagogicalandcurricularproblems,notthattheycaneasilybeseparated.
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ThisanalysisisofferedinbehalfofseveralofthefocalpointsoftheTOPICSagenda:not
asnewfindings:thatisnotwhatthisjournalisabout.Infact,instead,keepingwiththe
TOPICSagenda,whattheoryhascontributedtothebestofcontemporarypraxis—muchof
whichhasnotprofitedfromexistingtheory—shallbeshown.However,thosewhoassume
thatwhatisexplainediswhattheythinktheyareteaching,shallbequestionedbyexamplesof
alternatives.Thefocusis,then,therelationoftheoryandpraxis,andthecontributionof
praxistotheory.Ifsomepointsseemnottobe“new”tosomereaders,theyhopefullywillbe
toothers.Itseemslikelythatmanyreaders,especiallypre-serviceteachers,willnothave
consideredmanyoftheseobservationsaboutthestatusofmusiceducation.These
“observations”areoneofthefocalpointsofTOPICS,correspondingatleasttothe“O”inthe
TOPICSagenda.But,intruth,allofthefocalpointsareinplay:
T=varioustopicsofinteresttopractitioners0=observationsarguedtowards“actionforchange”inpraxisP=policies,principles,andproceduresrelevanttoimplementingchange.I=innovationsthatpromisetomakeanotable,positivedifferenceintheeverydaypraxisofmusicteachersinallfields,atalllevelsC=curriculumtheoryandstudiesnowtypicallymissinginthescholarlyliterature S = strategies from current praxis for improving instruction, evaluation, teacher accountability, student assessment, and the like (but not methodolatry and related ‘how to’ rhetoric)
Musicteacherstoooftentakeforgrantedwhattheyteachandwhytheyareteaching
it—whyschoolmusiceducationisimportanttopeopleandsociety.Theytakeastheir
unexaminedcontextthatmusic’svalueinlifeandschoolisaesthetic.Itisdifficultforthemnot
toassumethis,sincethishasbeentheprevailingpremiseoftheirundergraduate(andoften
in-servicegraduatestudies)and,oftenbasedonpersonalhistory,thereasonstheybecame
teachers.Muchofwhatisofferedhere,forpre-andin-serviceteachers,areobservationsand
applicationsofwhatwealreadyknowandhavelearnedfromprevioustheorizing—especially
praxialtheorywithitspragmaticemphasisonlife-longresultsforstudents.Theproblemis,
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howeverwellrespectedthesepraxialtheoriesmaybeintheabstract,theyarenotoften
observedinpraxisacrosstheprofession.
Unfortunately,students,administrators,andtaxpayersdonotnecessarilyacceptmusic
teachers'assumptionsforthebenefitsofmusicas“aesthetically”beneficial.Thistopichas
beenexaminedagainandagainintheliterature,andanotableresult,inmanyplaces,isthe
lackoftaxpayerorgovernmentrecognitionandsupportformusiceducation.Thisarticlewill
surveyandanalyzefivekeyissuesthatpraxialtheorysuggestsneedstobeconstantly
examinedandarticulated,especiallyovertimeasschoolsandmusicschange:whatmusicis,
teachingitinindividuallessons,ingeneral(classroom)musicclassesandensembles,and
optionsconcerningtheattractionofmusiceducationasacareer.Thepraxialtheoryinvolved
isseenintheanalysisofeachofthesituationsofmusiceducation:theirneedsandtheir
presumedbenefits.
Music
Tobeginwith,andaguidingfeatureofthediscussiontofollow,istheverybasicquestionof
whatmusicis.Thisquestionisnotlookingforaformaldefinitionbutforathoughtful
clarificationastowhatistobetaughtand,mostimportantly,towhatpragmaticends.A
typicalanswerintheassumptionsofmanyteachers—basedontheircollegiateexperience—
leanstowardsmusicasafineartthatissaidtoexisttosupposedlypromoteaesthetic
experienceandconsistsofamuseum-likerepositoryof“GreatWorks”(orworse,
contemporaryimitations2)thatareperformedto‘transmitourculturalheritage’andthatare
enjoyedmainlyinraremomentsofleisure.
However,whatistaught,why,andhowitistaughtwillbeconsiderablydifferentif
musicisseenmorebroadlyasalivingsocialpracticethatisdown-to-earth;thatisacentral
ingredientinthesocialfabricofanysocietyandinthelivesofindividualsactivelyengagedin
themanyformsofmusicing(Elliot1995;Small1998spellsitmusicking).3Andwheremusic
appreciationisthusseenempiricallyinthewayspeopleactuallyusemusicintheirdailylives,
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therebybothtransmittingculture(thepast)andtransformingsociety(thefuture).As
ChristopherSmallnotes,“musicisfirstandforemostaction[i.e.,praxis]...inwhichallthose
presentareinvolvedandforwhosenatureandquality,successorfailure,everyonepresent
bearssomeresponsibility(Small1998,9–10).”Inotherwords,musicisdeeplysocialinits
genesis,impacts,andmeaningsandvariablesaccordingtotheneedsitserves!
Turningtoscholarshipinthesocialsciencesinsteadofthespeculationsofaesthetics,
therecanbenodoubtthat“musicinhumanlife”(Kaemmer1993),“musicineverydaylife”
(DeNora2000),“musicassocialtext”(Shepherd1991),“musicallifeinachangingsociety”
(Blaukopf1992),and“ethnicity,identityandmusic”(Stokes1997)areamongthemanysocial
valuesthatfarexceedtheusualunderstandingofmusicasfineartandhighculture4—that
music’sprofundityisitsimportanceandrichnessfordailyliving—andisseenexactlyinits
ever-presentimportancetothelifewell-livedeverydaybyordinarypeople.Musicisso
omnipresentthatsometimeswecan’tavoidit(e.g.,Christmasseason)andmoreandmoreitis
heard‘onthego’withmobiledevices.Thustherecanbenoquestionthatmusicisfarmore
importantthanjustanoccasionalleisure-timepursuit.Consider,forexample,itsrolein
religion,ceremony,socializing,nationhood,ethnicity,identity,self-actualization,andthelike
(see,e.g.,Kaemmer1993).
Yetmusicteachersofteneitherfailtonoticethispervasiveimportance,orseemintent
oncounteringmassandpopularmusicswithwhattheyinsteadconsidertobe“goodmusic”
(see,incontrast,Strinati1995,1-50;Carroll1998;Gramit2002,63-92insupportofthe
valuesofpopularandvernacularmusics).Thefocuson“goodmusic”—thoughoften“school
music”literature—toooften,toooftenhastheeffectofisolatingmusicalstudytotheschool
yearsortheindividuallessonornextconcertwithcarryovertoadultlifebeingminimal,ifany
atall.Incontrast,then,thepraxial“goodness”ofmusicisproperlymeasuredbythepragmatic
criterionofwhatitis“goodfor”inpeople’slivesandhowwellitservesgoodendsthatare
alwayssocial.
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Individual(studio)lessons
Studentsofallagesusuallyhavevariedreasonsforstudyinganinstrument,somenotas
advantageousasothers.Forinstance,sincetheriseofthebourgeoisclassinthe18th–19th
centuries,beingabletoperform(usuallyonpianoorvoice)hasbeenseenasasocialgrace—
oratleast,alongwithliteratureandtheotherarts,asignofgoodbreedingandclassystatus.
Homestoday(manyfewerthanyearsagowheneverymiddleclasshomehadapianowhere
familydivertissementwascentered—thus“divertimento”)havereplacedhausmusickwithTV
andcomputergames.Nonetheless,keepingwiththebourgeois(middleclass)ethosofthe18th
centuryandlaterchildrenarethusoftenpromptedbytheirparentstotakemusiclessonson
thatbasisalone,eventhoughthisparentalmotivationistoooftenineffective.Teachers
should,therefore,worktopromotethepersonalmusicalrewardstobegainedthroughstudy.
Advocatesof“nopain-nogain”pedagogywillfindstudentsfailingtoexperiencemostofthe
benefitsandpleasuresthatstudyingmusichastooffer.Thisisnotnewadvice,butitisrarely
observedinpraxis.Theresultisanenormousnumberofstudentswhoquitlessonsduetothe
lackofmusicalpleasuresofpracticingandinterestsintheliteratureassigned.
Musicteachersalsocanrunafoulofotherpedagogicalpracticesthatoftenwork
againstpromotingthedispositions,attitudes,andskillsneededtosupportlifelong
involvement(andmotivatedpracticing).Forexample,someteacherstreatlessonsasthough
eachstudentwillormightseekconservatorytraining—thisdespitethefactthatprofessional
careersarelimitedtoaveryfewhighachieversandareverycompetitive.Arelatedproblem
assumesthatstudentswill(orwantto)engagein“presentational”solorecitalsratherthanin
variouskindsof“participatory”performancesthatpromotesocialmusic-making(Turino
2008,23–65);orthemanyformsofchambermusicavailableinsociety(e.g.,garagebands,
“barbershop”singing).Alessonpredicatedonnurturingapresentationalrecitalistisalltoo
likelytobypassmanyofthemusicalpleasuresthatkeepmoststudentsactivelyperformingas
adultsandthatcontributetothemusicallifeofsociety.Forexample,thepedagogyofRobert
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Pace(e.g.,1988)demonstratesausefuldistinctionbetween,forexample,amusiclessonanda
pianolesson.Thepurposeofthelatteristopromotetheformer,notanend-in-itself.Thus,in
additiontoclassics,studentslearntoimprovise,uselead-sheets,accompany,compose,sight-
read,listen,andplaybyear.Theybecomebroadlyeducated“musicians”withmusicianship
skillsthatenableanddisposethemtocontinuetopracticeandtoplayasamateursfortheir
ownmusicalpleasuresandwithothers.Andanywhoaspiretoprofessionalcareerseasily
gainacceptancetoadvancedstudy—ofteninadvanceofotherswhohavehadlessear
training.
Anotherdifficultyariseswhentechniqueisdrilledasanend-in-itselfviascalesand
exercisesintendedtopromotetechnicalfacility,butthatlackmusicalvalueandthusinterest
tostudents.The“discipline”ofsuchstudyisoftenoff-puttingformanystudentswhoare
mainlymotivatedbymakingmusicperse.Whentheycannotconnectthegainsfromsuch
purporteddisciplinetotheincreasedmusicalrewardsoftheirperforming,theirpracticing
andprogresssuffers.AsnolessanartistthanpianistandconductorDanielBarenboimpoints
out:
IstudiedwithmyfathertillIwasaboutseventeen....Myfatherhadanobsessionaboutwantingthingstobenatural.Iwasbroughtuponthefundamentalprinciplethatthereisnodivisionbetweenmusicalandtechnicalproblems.Thiswasanintegralpartofhisphilosophy.Iwasnevermadetopracticescalesorarpeggios...[only]thepiecesthemselves.Aprinciplethatwashammeredintomeearly,andwhichIstilladhereto,isnevertoplayanynotemechanically.Myfather’steachingwasbasedonthebeliefthatthereareenoughscalesinMozart’sconcertos.(QuotedinBooth1999,88).
Thus,theissueisnotwhethertechniqueisimportant:itcertainlyis!Theproblemisfocusing
ontechniquemechanically,asanend-in-itself,whichiscounterproductiveformoststudents.
Whenwell-chosenliterature“practices”techniqueinauthenticmusicalcontexts,then
studentsdirectlyunderstandtheconnectionoftechniquetotheirincreasedmusical
pleasures.Theconnectionbetweentechnicalskillandimprovedrewardsisperfectlyclearto
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studentathleteswhowillinglyfocusonskillsintheirpracticesessions;butittoooftenisnot
cleartostudentmusicians.
Ateacher’sinsistenceonisolatedskilldrillsfallsondeafearsifstudentsdonot
experiencethemusicalrewardsofthepromisedprogressfromtechnicalstudy;andthus
negativelysuffertheteacher’sclaimsofvalueforsuchpracticing,orignoreitintheirdaily
practicing—or(moreoften)quit!Conservatoriesanduniversityschoolsofmusicarefilled
withtheveryfewstudentswhohavesubmittedtosuchrigor;theremainderofthosewho
havestudiedhaveeschewedanyfurtherengagementwithpracticingorperforming.Their
teachers(afatemanygravitatedtoratherthanengageinthecompetitionofmusic
performanceasacareer),oftenvisitonstudentsthesameregimethathelpedthemtoelite
levels,withlittlethoughttowhatislostinthenameofdisciplineandtechniqueover
performancethatisatlevelsthatsuitandrewardlifelongamateuring(Regelski2007).
Ironically,seekingthepleasuresofmusicalsooftengovernbadpracticinghabits:
studentsthusplaytooquicklyinordertoenjoythemusicattempo.Theyarenotparticularly
botheredbyerrorsorsloppytechniqueandjuststopandbeginagain(overandoverateach
problemarea),withoutreallycorrecting(orevenidentifying)thetechnicalormusical
problematstake.Ofcoursetheselectionofrepertoryisimportantinthisregard,too.
Techniqueshouldbederivedfromanaptselectionofrepertoryandstudentsmustenjoythe
musictheyarepracticingandthusappreciatethatthetechniqueatstakehasdirect,positive
consequencesfortheirmusicalpleasures.Thentheyunderstandtheneedforpracticingwith
amusicalgoalinmind,notjustrepeatingpassagesorfillingassignedpracticetime.
Qualityofpracticeismoreimportantthanquantity.Andgiventhebusylivesof
students(andadultstudents),efficientandeffectivepracticingisanimportantkeyto
practicingatall!Practicingisitselfaskillthatneedstobetaughtandimproved,notjust
assigned.Forexample,considerthepedagogicalpraxisofteacherswho,duringeachlesson,
havethestudentidentifyashortpassagethatneedsattention.Thestudentthenpracticesit
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for2-3minuteswhiletheteacherobservesthestudent’sstrategy(orlackthereof)andthen
givesadviceformakingthepracticingmoreeffective.
Themusicchosenforstudybecomescriticalifastudent’smotivationforstudyand
practicingisinner-directedbythemusic’sintereststothemratherthanother-directedby
parents,teachers,orcompetition.Innerdirectedstudentsdon’tpracticejusttofillassigned
minutes,orsotheydon’tembarrassthemselvesinthenextlesson,orsimplytoavoidbeing
scoldedbytheteacher:theypracticetoactivelyseektoenjoytheir“work”andthustheir
musicalpleasures.Teacherswhounderstandthisatleastgivestudentssomechoiceof
repertory—oftenbydemonstratingitforthemwiththeintentofinfluencingtheirchoices,but
alsoofaurallymodelingthedesiredmusicaloutcome.Suchanauralintentionandimageisa
basisforhelpingstudentsidentifyproblemsinthefirstplaceandforwantingtoovercome
them.Thisisanadvantageofpedagogieswherestudentspracticewithexcellentauralmodels
inmind(i.e.,intheirear).Multiplemodelscanalsobeprovidedviarecordings;where
studentslistentorangeofinterestingoptionsandchoosenewliteratureonthatbasis;while
themodelsalsoinformtheirindependentmusicianshipandartistry.Suchlistening,ofcourse,
isitselfamodelforlifelongpleasures,evenforthosewhodonotcontinuetoperformas
adults.Teacherswhoofferachoice(fromarangeofstyles,genres)shouldnotbesurprised
whenstudentsaremoreaccomplishedwiththemusictheychosethanwhattheteacherchose
forthem!
Differencesinthemusicalsatisfactionsaffordedbycertainperformancemediahave
notalwaysbeenwell-thoughtoutbybeginningstudentsortheirparents,ortakeninto
considerationbyteachers.Firstofall,unlikestandardorchestralinstruments(orvoicestudy),
othermedia(e.g.,piano,accordion,guitar,banjo)aremusicallyself-sufficient,requiringno
accompaniment;thuspracticingismoremusicallysatisfyingthanpracticinganisolatedpart.
Secondly,practicingcertaininstrumentscanannoyneighborsandthusmustbescheduledat
certainhoursratherthandonewhenmotivatedorconvenient.Thirdly,studentswhodonot
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gettoperformtheirsoloswithpianoorotheraccompanimentaresimplymissingmuchof
whatthemusichastoofferholistically.Teachersthusbenefitstudentswhentheydevelop
theirpianoskillssothattheycanaccompanystudentsintheirlessons.Thiscanimportantly
affectstudentmotivation.
Thisproblemalsoraisesquestionsaboutsoloversussocial(i.e.,participatory)
performancewherecentralpleasuresareprovidedsimplybymakingmusicwithothers—
whetherornotpubliclyperformed.Take,forexample,thethreemotherswhogottogether
twiceaweekforseveralhourstoplayallthemusictheycouldfindforpiano,flute,andoboe—
whiletheirbabiesrestedinthebedroom.Studentswhoareorientedtothevaluesandvirtues
ofchambermusic(ofallkinds)learnfromthefirstabout“musicassociallife”(Turino2008;
alsoseeBooth1999)inwaysthataremotivatingandrewarding.Modelsforengagingyoung
studentsinchambermusicsexist(Eskelinen&Jääskeläinen2000;2008)anddeservefar
moreattentionfromteachers.Arrangementsareeasilymade.Firstofall,theprospectof
rehearsingandplayingwithothersmotivatesstudentstobemoreresponsiblewiththeirown
practicing.And,ofcourse,thepleasuresofchambercombinations(invariousgenres,duets,
trios)arereadilyaccessibleoutsideofschoolandthroughoutlifewithoutthescheduling
problemsforadultscreatedbylargeensembles.
Finally,notasatechnologicaloruniversalcurricularsolution,teacherswhohavenot
exploredever-evolvingmusictechnologyaspartoftheirgeneralofferingmissoutwiththeir
studentsonthemanyattractionssuchmusicingholdsforstudents.MIDI-instruments,for
example,canbepracticedanytimeandholdforthcreativepossibilitiesnotreadilyavailable
withacousticinstruments.Accompanyingsoftwarethat“follows”thesoloistaddsan
importantdimensiontostudents’musicalpleasuresandmakespossiblealifeofperformingat
home.Composingsoftwareeducatesstudents’musicalthinkingandinner-ear,and
familiarizesthemwiththekindsofdecisionsthatoccupycomposersandthatperformers
profitfromconsidering.Performingtheirowncompositionsforpeersandaudiencesalso
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motivatespractice.Play-listsofliteraturethatsamplesstyles,genres,performances(etc.),can
beofferedtothemforMP3andotherlisteningmodes.Theseeducatestudents’musicianship
andartistry—and,importantly,theymodellisteningasavaluableformoflifelongmusicingof
itsown.Producingeachstudent’spersonalCDofmusicwhen“mastered”(i.e.,beforemoving
ontonewliterature)inspirespracticeandimpressesparentsandgrandparents—amusical
equivalentofartprojectsthataredisplayedonrefrigeratordoors.Anditrepresentsashort-
termgoalforthestudent,nottomentionsomething‘tangible’aboutwhichtheycanfeela
senseofaccomplishment.Attentiontosuchbenefitsofmediainaclassdoesnotcommitthe
teachertoauniversaltechnologicalperspective(though,that’sexactlywhatistheproblem
withtheuniversalfocusontechniqueontraditionalinstruments),onlytousingwhat
resourcesexisttoadvancecurricularintentions.Recordingsofliterature(asperformedby
professionals,butalsobypreviousstudents)canbemajorfactorinrewardinginterest,ascan
creatingorperformingwindarrangementsof,say,Bach’sliterature.
The"goodlife”livedinkeywaysthroughmusicingisthusafirstmajoranswertothe
mainquestionof“Whymusicsshouldbetaughtinschoolsandwhyindividualsshouldchoose
toteachit?”The“goodlife”inquestionisalifeenlivenedthroughmusicing.Whenmusical
studyhasa“shelflife”ofonlytheschoolyearsandthusfallsshortofmotivatingthekindof
lifelonglearningandappreciationseenintheusestowhichmusicistypicallyputinlivingthe
“goodlife,”muchofwhatmusichastoofferhasbeenlost.Teachingthatfocusesonpromoting
favorabledispositionsandmusicalindependenceformeaningfully-chosenmusicinginadult
lifemakesacontributiontothestudentsandtothemusicworldatlarge,inallitsdiversity.
Teachingpredicatedonnarrowpremisesorlimitingtraditionsisbestre-thought,then,in
termsofjusthowimportant,justhowpervasivemusicalreadyisinpeople’slives.Thus,the
musicworldatlargewillgrowandwillprofoundlyinfluenceindividualsandsociety.Music
teachersarethusbestfocusedonavalueaddedcriterionofwhatthey,throughtheirteaching,
havecontributedtothatmusicworldandtoindividualstudents'musicallives.Teachingthat
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failstoadvancetheimportanceoflife-longmusical“amateuring”(Booth1999)isself-
defeatingandfutile.
SchoolMusicEducation
Toreview,earliermusicwasdescribedasasocialpractice,notasan“imaginarymuseumof
musicalworks”(Goehr1992),acollectioncontemplatedonlyonrareoccasionsofleisure
time.Itsimportancetomostpeoplethuscomesnotfromitsraritybutfromitsveryabundant
dailycontributionstothequalityoftheirlives.Musicingofallkindsis,then,acentralresource
“thatcanbeharnessedinandforimagination,awareness,consciousness,action,forall
mannerofsocialformation”(DeNora2000,24);ameansbywhichindividuals“producetheir
socialsituationsandthemselvesasselves"(6).Theresultisanabundanceof“musics,”eachof
whicharises,fromthefirst,inconnectionwithdifferentsocio-personalconditionsorneeds
thatbringitintobeing,tobeginwith.Anymusic,andthisorthatpraxis,remainstiedtothose
originatingsourcesandneeds,anditcontinuestoservecurrentpracticesandtopromoteits
ownevolution.
Regardlessofthesociety,musicissuchanaturalpartofhumanlifeandsocentralin
people’severydaylivesthatwemightwonderwhatpurposesareservedbyteachingitin
schools?Inthatregard,itisalotlikelanguage.Bythetimechildrenbeginschool,boththe
verballanguageandmusicallanguageoftheirenvironmenthaveprofoundlyeducatedthem
inductively.Musically,they“understand”thesystemoftonalityintowhichtheyhavebeen
born.Schoolingaspirestobuildonthispreviouslyinformal,inductivelearninginorderto
promoteevengreaterfacilityandtooffermoreoutletsforpersonalandsocialagency.
Theinclusionofformalmusicinstructioninschoolshasbeenrationalizedonmany
groundsandhasattemptedtoserveavarietyofoftennoble-soundingandoftennon-musical
ideologicalpurposes,5usuallyadvancedonthebasisofaesthetictheorizingabout18thand
19thcentury“classics.”Whilethehistoryofmusiceducationreadsdifferentlyineachcountry,
severalvariablesareconstant.Whatfollowsisahistoryofideas,notgiventotheappetitefor
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“recent”research.Historyisupdated,butwhatfollowsisaprecisofacceptedculturalhistory
todate(whichdoesn’tchangequickly)butisnowwellappreciatedamongmusic
educationalists.
First,the18thcenturyEnlightenmentresultedinthesystematicstudyofmusicthat
wouldleadto“amorehighlycultivatedsociety”(Gramit2002,94;seealso121–22).Secondly,
theEnlightenment’snewscientificidealwastoanalyzeanobjectofstudyintoitspartsand
labelthem:tonamewastoknow.Thuswasmusictransformedfromasocialpracticetoa
discipline—bothinthesenseofadisciplineofstudy,andadisciplineofthemindandbodyas
describedbyFoucault(see,e.g.,Gramit2002,106–07)thatbecamethe“musicappreciation”
movementinschools(McCarthy1997)andelsewhere(e.g.,musicjournalism);andthatwas
tiedtothe“sacralization”ofculturebyaesthetictheorizing(Levine1988,85-168;Shiner
2001,187–224)andtothecreationofahierarchyof“high”and“low”art(Gramit2002,27–
62;Levine1988).Teachingmusic“concepts,”data,andterminologyand“facts”frommusic
historyandtheoryasbackgroundknowledgeforthecultivationofgoodmusicaltaste(Gramit
2002,104)wastheconsequence,apracticethatcontinuesinclassroomstoday.Third,initial
effortsareoftenfocusedonteachingsinging(Gramit2002,96).Then,withgaininginterestin
instrumentalmusic—“pure’”musicwithoutwords,withitsideologiesofaestheticformalism
andabsolutemusic(i.e.,“foritself”)—gainedsupremacyinthemusicalhierarchyintheearly
19thcentury(Gramit2002,121–22).Beingeducatedmusically“requiredacultivationthat
inevitablyexcludedbyfarthegreaterportionofthepeople(124)”despitetheeffortsby
schoolsandconcertassociationsataudiencedevelopment(Levine1988,178–198).This,too,
remainsaprobleminmanysocieties,withaudiencesfortheclassicsgreyinganddwindling,
especiallywherenotsubsidizedbygovernments.(Asofthiswriting[2016]severalmajor
symphonyorchestrasintheUSAareonstrikeorotherwisestarvedoffundsfromthereduced
salesoftickets).Finally,schoolmusicisbutonemusicalpraxisinthewidermusic-world,butit
toooftenexistsasanislandofitsown,cutofffromthevibrantmusicinggoingonoutsidethe
schoolroomandday.
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Musicasasocialpraxisisconstrainedbyvariousaspectsofformalschooling,whichis
itselfasocialpractice.Traditional(functionalist)socialtheoryseesschoolsastransmitting
“approvedculture”andreproducingthesocioeconomicandpoliticalstatusquo.Incontrast,
transformationmodels(e.g.,criticaltheory,symbolicinteractionism)seeschoolsasplaces
wherelearningisconstructed(notreproduced)and,thus,asplaceswheremeaningismade
(notpassed-on,ready-made).Manyofthepracticesassociatedwithschoolingthusoftenhave
profoundsocialimplications.Forexample,studentsaretrained(ortamed)tofollow
authority—principals(headmasters)andteachers,ofcourse,butalsotheorganizationofthe
schooldayintosubjects,periods,movingfromclasstoclassaccordingtothedemandsofthe
clock,andsoon.Manysocialcriticsworrythatsuchresultsleadmoretoobedientworkers
andcompliantcitizensthantoeducatingmindsandpromotingsocialprogress.
Inparticular,theorganizationofschoolingaccordingtoformalacademicdisciplines
hashadaprofoundimpact.Tobeginwith,whatisincludedinschoolinghastheimprimaturof
scholars,educationadministrations,andpoliticalleaders:itisthe“approved”knowledge
mentionedearlier.However,studentsnonethelessactuallylearnthatwhatisnotincludedis
notapproved!Thisso-calledhiddencurriculum6thusteachesinadvertentlywhatsocietydoes
notvalue(alongwithlearningthevariouscontrollingandsocializingroutines,mentioned
earlier,thatarenotthedirectfocusofinstructionbutthatstudentslearntoobey).
Furthermore,thesesubjectsaretaughtas“introductions”totheacademicdisciplinesas
thoughfortheirownsake,ratherthanfortheirpragmaticusefulnesstostudentsandsociety.
Thisleads,ofcourse,tothecomplaintsofmanystudentsthatschoolis“merelyacademic”and
pragmaticallyirrelevant.
ItisimportanttonoteinthisconnectionthattheAcademyinancientAthenswas
wherePlato’sIdealismtaughtthatideasorconcepts(Idealism)weremore“real”thantheir
physicalcounterpartsintheempiricalworld(i.e.,Realism).Complaintsbystudentstodaythat
schoolingis“merelyacademic”reflectthecontinuation—overthesehundredsofyears—of
thisIdealisttradition,aswellastheaccompanyingscholasticrationalethatstudyingthe
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varioussubjects“exercises”and“disciplines”themind,evenifwhatisstudiedisnot
otherwiseveryusefulinitselftomostgraduates.IntheUSA,student’srequirementsfor
“generaleducation”studiesincollegiatemusicdepartmentsareusuallyseenbymusic
studentsastakingtimeawayfrompracticingandrehearsing.Ultimately,withmandatory
universalschooling,arivalryarisesastowhichsubjectsgetincludedinschools.Giventhe
knowledgeexplosionassociatedwithcomputersandtechnology,thiscompetitionhas
resultedinsomeimportantchangesinschooling,oftenattheexpenseofcertaintraditions.
Thereisanincreasingdanger,then,thattheinclusionofschoolmusicinschoolsisatrisk
fromtherapidexpansionoftherangeofotherschoolstudies.Thisthreatisseenwhereschool
musicisreducedgreatly,wheremusicallyun-orunder-trainedteachersareassignedtoteach
music,andwheremusicstudiesareincreasinglyrelegatedtothesidelinesaselectiverather
thanrequiredstudy.
General(classroom)music
“General”music,asitiswidelyknown,stemsfromtheeducationaltheoryofbeing“generally
well-educated”—theimplicitgoalofuniversalschoolinginmostcountries.Thus,itis
predicatedonrequiredmusicstudyinthegeneraleducationofallstudents.Unfortunately,
thisconceptisnotwell-understoodbymusicteacherswhooftenmistakeitasmeaning“music
ingeneral”—alittleofthis,anintroductiontothat,asuperficialsamplingof“activities”for
“experiencing”conceptsaboutthetraditional“elementsofmusic”andothersuch
abstractions.
Thisisperhapsallthemoreaproblemwhereitisknownaselementaryschool
“classroom”music.Inthattradition,asmentionedearlier,elementaryschoolinstructionin
singingwaswidelyintroducedinthefirsttwodecadesofthenineteenthcentury.Inmany
placestodayitisstilltheprimaryfocusofgeneralmusicclasses.However,singinginvolves
threeinterdependentskills:vocalproduction,pitchmatching,andreadingnotation.Whenthe
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beginner(ofanyage)isconfrontedwithallthreeatonce,thelasttwofrequentlyconflictand
readingmusicvocallyisdifficultwhenthestudentcannotvocallymatchpitcheasily.Andeach
skillrequiresagooddealofindividualattentionthatisoftendifficulttoprovideinclassroom
instruction.InJapan,thetwoskill-setsgetsociallyseparated:beforeenteringschool,most
childrenlearntomatchpitchandarepertoryofactionsongsontheplaygroundsoftheir
apartmenthouses(called“mansions”).Thustheemphasisinschoolisonmusicreading,
which—inthebestsystems—istaughtbylearningtoplayrecordersandbylearningnew
songsfromnotation.
Varioussolfeggiopracticesareemployedwithvaryingdegreesofsuccessaroundthe
world,yetalldependonpitch-matchingasthefirststep.Wherethereisplentyofsingingin
thehome,church,andcommunity,theskilliseasilylearnedandreinforced(e.g.,Japan).
Whereitisnot(e.g.,theUSA),manyneitherlearntomatchpitchnortoreadmusic,despite
usually7+yearsofschoolsinging.Thisissad;wealwayshaveourvocalinstrumentwithus
allthetimeandsingingisoneofthemostrewardingofallperformancemedia,asisshownin
countrieswithstrongchoirtraditions(e.g.,Estonia)andwherekaraokeispopular(e.g.,Japan;
onsingingseeRegelski2004,190–212).
WiththeriseofthedisciplinesofmusicologyandmusictheoryaftertheEnlightenment
and,fromthefirst,theirorientationtoaestheticsandintellectualideas,camearevaluationof
instrumentalmusic“whichreversedthelong-standinghierarchythatfiguredvocalmusic,
bothinsacredgenresandinopera,assuperiortoinstrumental”(Gramit2002,121).While
singingcontinuedasaprimaryfocusingeneralmusicclasses—andprobablyremainsso
todayinmostplaces—listeningnewlybecameacurriculargoal,particularlywiththeriseof
thepublicconcert,theinventionofrecording,andthearrivalofrecordingtechnologiesin
schools.Thuscultivatinglistening“comprehension”and“goodtaste”servedasthebasisfor
themusicappreciationand“musiceducationasaestheticeducation”trendsinmany
countries.
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Itisnotunusual,then,toseesingingalongwithlistening,moving,and‘creative
activities’ingeneralmusicclasses.Theseactivitiesseemtobemoreorientedtoward
educatinglistening‘appreciation’thantopromotingmusicianshiporcreativity,however.Or
atleast,anycriteriaofmusicalskilldevelopment(musicianship)aredecidedlysecondary,if
involvedatall;andcomposingasapersonalmusicalpastimeoftenseemsnottobenota
focus.Anyandallmusical“activities”(asteacherstendtocallthem)areseenasautomatically
educativeontheassumptionthattheyareinevitablyaestheticandthus,somehow,someday,
willadvancestudents’aestheticresponsivenessaslisteners.Thereissimplynoevidencethat
thisisthecase.
So,thereisoftenadecidedsuperficialitytomuchthatgoesoninclassesunderthe
teacher’ssupervision,asanassumptionthatmusical“activities”havebeenautomatically
aestheticandthereforebeneficial.Andoftencurriculumrequirementsformusicarefulfilled
simplybyoccasionallyincludinganymusicalactivitiesintheschoolday.The“ArtsinGeneral
Education”banner,forexample,rationalizesthemainvalueofmusicandarteducationas
goodforteachingothersubjects,therebysacrificingwhatartandmusichavetoofferin
themselves.And,inmanycountries,musiceducatorstrytolegitimategeneralmusicactivities
asinfluencingthedevelopmentofthebrain’scognitivefunctioning—thedubious“Mozart
Effect”claimsthatmusicmakesstudentssmarter.And,supportersseemtohavelostsightof
thereasons—smarterbrainsornot—thatmusicexiststobeginwith:asavitalsocialpractice,
carriedoutviaanexpandingarrayofmedia,bypeoplefromallwalksoflife.Thatisone
importantanswerto“Whyismusictaughtinschools?”!
Ifschoolmusiceducationistoberelevanttothelifewell-lived,itneedstobuild
bridgestothemusic-worldoutsideofschool.Lessonsclaimingto“inform’”appreciative
‘aesthetic’listeningdonothavethisimpact;graduates’freemusicalchoicesremainlargely
unaffected.Thealternativeofteachingpopularmusicscomestomind.However,ifsuchmusic
isalreadypopularandappreciated,whatisgainedorimproved?—especiallyifteaching
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mainlyhasstudents“covering’”popularrockpieces;orifrockhistoryandtheoryaretaught
viathemusicappreciationparadigmasthough‘”background”toproperlyinformedlistening.
Yuck!Rockand“pop”musicsarealsosocialpracticesand,divorcedfromtheirpraxial
conditions(bytheclassroomcontext),superficialityloomslargewhentheybecomethemain
focusofschoolmusiccurriculums.
Studyingmusicalpracticescommoninasocietyornationisanoption.Despitetheir
ubiquity,understandingthepivotalroleofmusicincommonsocialpracticescanadvance
moremeaningfulparticipationandappreciation.Forexample,withoutgettingintothedetails
ofreligiouspraxis,religiousmusictakesmanyformsaccordingtodifferentreligions.
Religiouspracticescanbestudiedforthewaysinwhichmusicisapivotalfactor,notas
entertainmentduringtheservicebutasprayerthatappealstoparishionersandfocusesthen
onthereligiousmeaningsatstake.Worthnoticeandstudyarecommonpractices,suchas
musicforweddingsandotherevents,celebrations(holidays),ethnicidentification,socializing
(parties,dinners,sing-alongs),andmore.Whichmusicaltraitsaresuitableforcertainuses?
Why?Whatdodifferencesbetweenmusicsthatservesimilarfunctions(e.g.,weddings,
funerals)tellusaboutculturaldifferencesinthosefunctionsandwhopracticesthem,and
why?Whateventsaretraditionallymarkedbycertainkindsofmusic?Whichkindsofmusics
aresuitabletotheirsocialuses,andwhyorhow-so?Answeringthesequestions,leading
thoughtfulstudycanleadstudentstoarealizationofakeyroleofmusicintheirlives.
Musicjournalism,collectingrecordings,dancing(of“practiced”kinds),creating
focusedplaylists(etc.),canalsoprofitfromcurricularattention.Forexample,liststhatfeature
theimportantroleofmusicinaerobics(DeNora2000,89-102)orthatenergizesports
performance(i.e.,“musicasaprosthetictechnologyofthebody...thatextendswhatthebody
cando”[DeNora2000,102–03])—foruseforuseduringjogging,cross-countryskiing,evento
enhancework(DeNora2000,103–08)andforsocialagency(e.g.,parties,dinners,caroling).
Performancethatholdsforthpossibilitiesforalifeofamateurmusicingcanbe
stressed(seeRegelski2007).“Recreational”andethnicinstrumentstypicalforaregionor
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countrycanbeintroducedatanentrylevel—everythingfromguitars,toelectronickeyboards,
tolocallypopularinstruments(e.g.,dulcimers,banjo,andguitar)andMIDI-instruments(see
Knappenberger2016).
However,perhapsthereisnogreatersourceofresourcesthanthemusicapplications
(apps)forsmartphones,pads,andnotebooks.Thesearealreadywidelyusedandofferan
unimaginablerangeofmusicingforperforming,listening,andcomposing.“Everyonecan
makemusic,”inventorandentrepreneurGeWangbelieves,“andeveryoneshould”(quotedin
Walker2011).Forexample(atpresent,2015),hisapp“Ocarina”convertstheiPhoneintoa
flutelikeinstrument.Italsohas“arepresentationoftheglobe,withdotsthatlightuptoshow
whereintheworldsomeonewasplayingtheappatthatmoment.Withatap,youcanlisten.It
isalsopossibletoarrangeaduetwithanOcarinauserthousandsofmilesaway”(Walker
2011).Otherappsletyoucomposemusic(inwhateverstyle),uploadittoanInternetsite
whereothersalso“work”withthematerial,withtheoriginalcomposertakinginspiration
fromthesecontributionsinfinalizingthecomposition.Stillothercompositionsoftwareexists
forcreating,say,soundtracksforvideos,orforfree-standingcompositions.Othersprovidea
multi-mediaexperiencewheretheusercreatesandorganizessounds,andaccompanying
abstractvisualsreactdelightfullywiththemusic.Andyoucannowplaytheguitaronyour
cellphone.Thepossibilitiesarelimitlessandgrowingexponentiallybytheday.However,
thesearenotauniversalcure,assomanyteachersgiveinto,becausethemusicsinvolveddo
notusuallyleadtoeithercontinuedapplications(asmart-phoneensemble:doanyexist
outsideofschool?)oragrowthinmusicianshipthatserveslong-lastingenthusiasmfor
musicing.
Studentsofcourse,arealreadyinvolvedwiththistechnology,butcanbeturnedonto
newappsinclass,perhapswithcross-peercoaching,asinterestandabilityinanappspreads
throughaclass.Andmanystudentsalreadyownthese“instruments”and,afterexperiencing
theirpleasures,otherswillwanttoacquirethem.Asourunderstandingof“music”expands
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fromtheimaginarymuseumof“works”toalivingartthatenhanceseverydaylife,sodothe
countlesspossibilitiesformeaningfulmusicing.Thetechnologiesofthepast(instrumentsand
recordings)certainlyremainrelevant,butthemusicalfutureishappeningtodayandgeneral
musicclassesareideallysuitedtotappingintothisfuture.Failuretodosomaywellriskthe
continuedexistenceofgeneralmusicinschools(seeGouzouasis&Bakan2011).
Ensembles
Thequestionatstakeofwhymusicshouldbetaughtinschoolsandforwhatreasonisnot
raisedheretoanswertheever-growingurgencytoengageinmoreadvocacyofmusic
educationinschools.Theneedistoreconsidersomeofthetakenforgrantedassumptions
thatoftenleadtounsuccessfulteaching;tostudentswhodon’tpracticeorquitlessonsor
ensembles;and,perhapsworstofall,tomusicteachingthatdoesnotresultinmakinga
musicaldifferenceintheactionsandchoicesofstudentsoutsideofandaftergraduationfrom
school.Inotherwords,thequestiongoesdirectlytohowtoavoidtheneedforadvocacy!
Wehavealreadyseenthatmusicingisamongthemostimportantofallthesocial
practicesthatsustainanysocietyandculture—andnotjusthighculture.Aspraxis,then,
musicfillseverydaylifewithmeaning:or,moreprecisely,variousmusicsareputto“use”in
thelivingoflife,andsuchuses—i.e.,thechoicesmadeforengaginginvariousmusical
practices—areempiricalevidenceof“musicappreciation.”Evenattendingconcertsofclassical
musicisimbuedwithawealthofsocialelementsthatarecentraltotheexperience—
everythingfromthesemioticsofthespace(e.g.,hearingjazzinachurch,orreligioustextsina
secularconcerthall),toaudiencebehavior(e.g.,clapping,intermissiondiscussions,dress
codes)andthe“interactionalsynchrony”(Benzon2001,42)throughwhichemotionsand
meaningsarecoordinatedandattunedtobyaudiences.Suchaffectivesynergyexistseven
whenwearelisteningarhometothemusicthatwelikeincommonwithothers—i.e.,the
musical“tastepublics”towhichwebelong.
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Understoodinsuchterms,musicisaprimarysourceofsociality—ofallkinds—and,
thus,isakeycontributiontothehealthandwell-beingofsociety.Itisamongthesocial
practicesthatbringpeopletogether,anditsvariousstylescreatesub-culturesthatevenmore
particularlyfocusonsocialitythroughmusic.Musicisbasictothelifewell-livedatall
socioeconomiclevelsofsociety,whetheritisconcertmusicforjustlistening,ordancemusic,
ormusicforethniccelebration,orworship,orahostofothercentralhumanpracticesin
whichmusiciscentral.Itisagravecurricularmistake,then,tonarrowtheimpactofmusic
educationonlytotheschoolyearswhen,amongthemostimportantneedsistoextend
music’ssocialroleandvaluethroughouttheweboflife.
Sadly,thetrendisoftenintheoppositedirection.Moreandmoreadvocacyisneeded
tolegitimatemusiceducationinschoolsandinmanycountries.Furthermore,forexample,a
surveyinGermany(TheLocal,Dec.7,2012)showsadeclineofhomemusicmakingof30%in
4years,downtoonly17.7%—thisinacountryotherwiserenownedforitsactivemusicallife.
Somereasonsforthishavebeenexploredearlier.Elsewhere,butparticularlyintheUSA,the
focusisonensembles,perhapsthemajorconcernofmusicteachersinpresentingtheirefforts
tothepublicandtoothermusicteachers—animportantsocialvariable.Ofconcern,then,is
curriculumandpedagogythatcanfailtoprepareorinclineensemblememberstocontinue
makingmusicthroughoutlife—anactionidealthatisworthadvancing.Aswithanyaction
ideal(e.g.,goodhealth,goodfriend),thereisnoutopiangoalthatcaneverbereachedonce
andforall.Butitservesasadirectionforimprovementofmusiceducationcurriculumand
pedagogyand,thus,ofmusic’sroleinsociety,thatshouldbeclearlytiedtohowandhowoften
peopleusemusictoenhancetheirdailylives.
Largeensembles
Largeensembleshavetypicallybeenthemajorfeatureofschool-basedmusiceducation.They
certainlyfulfillthesocialityforstudentsthatmusicaffords—althoughsometimesnon-musical
socializing(talking)cangetinthewayofrehearsing!Suchensemblesalsoacquaintstudents
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withaliteraturetheywouldn’totherwiseencounterthatisexperiencedpowerfullyas
personalandembodied:they“feel”it.Collectiveintentionalityisatalsoatworkthat,underthe
bestofcircumstances,haseachmemberfocusedonasharedmusicalgoalorresult.Such
intentionalityisthe“about-ness”ofanaction,what(individuallyorcollectively)itisfocused
onbringingabout,oris“goodfor.”Whenstudents’intentionalityisnotfocusedonmusical
resultsandlearning,thegrowthofmusicianshipisnegativelyaffected.Whenthe
intentionalityisonlyfocusedonpresentingthenextconcert,skillsanddispositionsarenot
learnedthatareconducivetoparticipationaftergraduationorincircumstanceswherethere
arenoconcerts—recreationalperformanceathome(see,e.g,TheLocal,Dec.20,2012),orin
communityandsocialgroups(chambermusicsofvariouskinds).
Typically,however,schoolensemblesareengagedin“presentationalmusic”(see
Turino2008)—thatis,musictobeperformedforaudiencesthat,asidefrombeinglisteners,
arenototherwiseinvolved.Thisneedto“present”musictoanaudiencethusrequires
considerablerehearsaltimeandfocusedpractice,evenunfortunately,drill:criteriathatcan
leadsomestudentstooptoutofparticipation.“Participatorymusic”(Turino2008),in
contrast,hasasitsgoaltheparticipation(insomeform,ifonlyclappingorplaying/singing
along/dancing)ofthosepresent.Thereare,ofcourse,someparticipatorybenefitsforstudents
developmentallythatareassociatedwithpresentationalpractices,buttheaudience/ensemble
distinctioniscentral:Themusicneedstoberehearsedtoastandardthattheaudiencefinds
interesting,competent,andrewarding.Thefocus,then,isontheperformanceandoneach
member’scontributiontotheend-result—theconcert—notonthesocialvaluesofparticipation
leadingtoit.
Thisisnotthemostfruitfuleducationalenvironmentforindividualstudentsto
developtheskillsanddispositionsneededtosustainafulfillinglifeofpersonalmusicmaking.
Oneproblem,ofcourse,isthatitispedagogicallydifficulttoattendtothedevelopmentof
individualskills(musicreading,technique,dispositionsforthefuture,etc.)inlargegroups.As
result,performingX-yearsofconcertliteratureoftendoesnottypicallyresultinadvancingthe
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musicianshipandmusicalindependenceneededtomakemusicinothercontextsoratother
timesinthefuture.There’salsotheproblemthat,whileensembleparticipantsexperiencethe
“whole’”aurally,theyareengagedonlywithonepartofthatwhole.Dependingonthetypeof
ensembleandthepartinquestion(3rdtrombone,2ndsoprano,etc.)thisobviouslyhasseveral
potentialliabilitiesforpromotingstudent’sskillsandmusicalmotivations.
First,practicingone’spartaloneathome(oreveninasectionalrehearsal)lacks
holisticcontextandisoftennotfullymusicallysatisfyingandthuscanleadtolessthan
effectivemusicalresults.Consequently,thegrowthofthestudents’musicianshipis
jeopardized,asistheirindividualcontributiontothemusicalwhole.Secondly,thevarious
partsoftenhavedifferentmusicalbenefitsandinterests:Somepartsareclearlylessmusically
rewardingorchallengingthanothers.Thus,whenasectionisinactiveformanymeasures,
students’attentionoftenstraystosocializing.Thirdly,andperhapsmostworrisome,
individualscan“hide”behind“leaders”orwithintheirsections.Theymayenjoytheoverall
musicalresult,butas“followers”theydon’tacquiretheskillspossessedbysectionleaders.
Thisassumes,ofcourse,thattheleadersreallyaremusicallycompetenttolead.
Unfortunately,thisisnotalwaysthecase,andsome‘leaders’areover-confidentintheirskills
andendupleadingtheirsectionsastray(Zadig,2011).
Thisiswhy,withlargeensembles,theaveragingeffectsoflargenumbersusually
producesanoverallmusicalresultthatisbetterthantheabilitiesofmostindividualsinit.This
leadstotheeducationalmisappraisalbyteachers,evenaudiences,thattheabilityof
individualperformersisasgoodasthecollectiveresult—whichisrarelythecase.(In
contrast,asdiscussedbelow,chamberensembleswithoneortwopersonsperparthavelittle
placeto“hide,”andeachperformermustmakeacompetentcontributiontotheresult.)And,
finally,studentsaredeprivedoftheopportunitytomake—andthuslearntomake—decisions
andmusicalchoicesontheirowniftheteacher/directorismakingallthemusicaldecisions.
Thisalsohasnegativeconsequencesformusicalindependencethat,ifstudentsaretobe
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musicallyactiveelsewhereandatothertimesinlife,shouldbeamajorpraxialgoalof
teacher/directors.
Thesedisadvantagescanbeminimizedbycarefulselectionoftheliteraturetobe
performed.Firstly,doesitpromotemusicianshipskillsthatcanbeusedinfuture
circumstances(including,butnotrestrictedto,futureperformancesoftheensemblein
question)?Doallpartspresentsignificantmusicalchallengesofthetypethatcontributeto
eachstudent’smusicianship,oraresomepartsrewardinginthissensewhileothersareless
interesting?Doestheliteratureacquaintstudentswithmusicsthatwillinformtheirfuture
performingandlisteningchoices?Howmuchrehearsingwillittakebeforethestudentscan
begintoenjoythemusicratherthanstruggle,collectivelyorindividually,withtheirparts?If
theresultsbecomemusicalandmusicallysatisfyingonlyastheconcertapproaches,thelong-
termbenefitsarelikelytobesmall.Musicwell-chosenintermsofthepresentabilitiesofthe
ensemblecanbemoremusicallysatisfying.Andeducationallyproductive.
I’veusedtheterm“teacher/director”tostressthat,inschoolsatleast,arehearsal
shoulddomorethanjustfocusonnotationandinterpretation.Theteacher/directorneedsto
planforrehearsaltechniquesandlearningexperiencesthatadvancethemusicianshipofeach
individualintheensemble—notjustforthenextconcert.Thechosenliteraturefacilitates
suchacurriculumofpromotingmusicianship,butitisnotmusicallyoreducationally
sufficienttowarrantbeingthecurriculumonitsown—especiallygivencomplaintsaboutits
musicalqualityfrommusicians.So,thenumberofconcertsayearisnotacurriculumforlife-
longengagementwithmusicbygraduates!Furthermore,arangeofliteratureneedstobe
sampledifstudentsaretobeacquaintedwithabreadthofmusicalstylesandchallenges.
Chamberensemblesfromwithinlargeensembles
Inadditiontoofferingvariouschambergroupsthatexistontheirownmerits(i.e.,duets,trios,
andthelike,especiallywhereaschoolcannotofferafullrangeoflargeensembles),suchas
forthefewstringstudentsfewwhocanbebenefitedbysmallstringensembles—duets,
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trios—thataretypicallyoverlooked,oneusefulteachingpracticeistoform(orencourageto
form)chambergroupsfromamongthemembersofthelargeensemble.Thesegroups(with
oneortwostudentsperpart)canselecttheirownliteratureandrehearselargelyontheir
own.Theteacherthenactsasanoccasional“coach,”butthestudentsmakemostmusical
decisionsandapplymusicalcriteriawithonlyoccasionalinput(andcorrection)fromthe
teacher.Intermittingly,therehearsalperiodofthelargegroupcanreservesometimefor
shortrecitalsbysuchgroupswheretherestofthelargeensembleisthentheaudience,thus
promotinglisteningskillsandmotivatingtheirowninterestsalongsimilarlines.Concertscan
featureperformancesbythesechambergroups,therebyprovidingvarietyandreducingthe
totalnumberoflargegroupworksneededtopresentafullconcertprogram.7
Consideredinreverse,wereitnotfortheemphasisontraditionallargeensembles,
mountinganensembleprogramwouldbestbebasedonrangeofbountifulsmall,chamber
ensemblesofvariouskinds,coachedbytheteacher(orthemostadvancedstudents)sampling
awidearrayofliterature.Thesegroups,then,areassembledseveraltimesaweekfor
performanceoflargeensembleliteraturewheretheybringalltheskillsofreading,and
musicianship,tobear,withfewerrehearsalsneeded,toproduceexcellentmusicalresults—
withthebenefitsforthefuturestudentsasadultsofthepleasuresofthechamberensembles!
Whenthiskindofpedagogyisemployed,theteacher/directorwillsurelyfindthatthe
competenciesthatstudentshavedevelopedintheirchamberpraxiswillimprovetheir
contributionstothelargeensemble,thusmakingitsprogressmoreefficientandeffective.For
example,oneteachergaveuphisscheduled5dayaweekchoirrehearsalto3timesaweek
voice/classgroupsof12singersinavarietyofsoloandchamberliteratureandmusicreading
ofthatliterature;andinonlytwooftheremainingweeklyrehearsals,asexpected,thechorus
wasimmeasurablymoreefficientandeffectiveinlearningnewmusic.Theydidn’tneedthe
lostrehearsaltimebecausetheyhadprogressedasindividualmusicians.
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Mostimportantly,suchexperience,aspartofpraxialtheory,willhavemodeledakind
ofmusicingtheycanenjoyasadults.(Busyadultsarefarmorelikelytobeabletofindor
maketimeforsuchsmallgroups:Problemsofagreeingonrehearsaltimesforlarge
ensemblesoftenexcludemanyprospectiveparticipants.)Thusthepleasuresofsuchsmall
groupmusicingcancontributetothedispositionsofmemberstocontinuewithsuchmusics.
Whenthesegroupssampleanarrayofdifferentmusics,membersarealsobecomingeducated
aslisteners.Becausetheirindividualpartsaremoreexposedthaninthelargeensemble,they
aremoreinclinedtoimprovetheircompetenceandaremorelikelytobemusicallyrewarded
bytheirinputtothemusicalwhole.Thus,theirmusicianshipanddispositionsforperforming
arebothadvanced.
Ensembles,largeorsmall,acquaintstudentswithmusicstheywouldotherwisemiss.
Buttheworrisometendencyisfortheirmusicingparticipationtoceaseuponleavingschool.
Benefitthatisonlyexperiencedduringtheschoolyearsistotallymissinginsuchaprogramof
presentingconcertsandclaimingthatalastingmusiceducationishappening.Ifensemble
teachers/directorsaretocontributetoagoodlifethroughmusic,ensemblesmustbemore
thanmerelyschool-basedsocialactivities.Theyneedtofacilitateandmotivatethe
intentionalitythatshowsappreciationthroughthelifelongincorporationofmusicinthelives
oftheirmembers.
MusicTeachingasaProfession
Asanimportantreminder,earliermusichasbeenadvancedaspraxis—asacentralandvital
socialpractice.Thus,importantly,itismuchmorethansimplyacollectionof‘works’for
passivecontemplation.Instead,inallitsdiversegenresandtypes,itisamajorsourceofactive
sociality.Thus,itsimportancetoteachersandstudentsgoeswellbeyondsoundingformsof
anymoment,toincludethemanysocialpracticesinwhichtheroleofmusicisakey
ingredient:Takeawaythemusicandthepracticeeitherceasestoexistorischangedradically.
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Forexample,allthat’sneededfordancingisadrumbeat,butwithouttherestofthemusicthe
experienceisvastlydifferent.
Oneresultofthisthispraxialviewhasbeentofocusonmusicasa“doing”and,thus,to
thecoiningoftheterm“musicing”(or“musicking”thatemphasizesthesocialdimension)to
stressitsactiveroleincreatingidentity,community,andsociality.Thus,onceagain,
appreciationisnotastateofminddependentonacquiringorunderstandingbackground
knowledge:itisanempiricalmatterofhow,when,where,why,andhowoftenindividuals
engageinmusicinginordertoenrichtheirlives.Appreciation,then,isproperlyseeninthe
musicalchoicespeoplemakeformusicintheirlives(Regelski2006a).Acorollaryofthis
principleistheneedformusiceducationtomakealastingdifferenceinthelivesofstudents
outsideofschoolandasadults(Regelski2005).Thispragmaticcriterionrejectsclaimsthat
experiencesofmusicalschoolingautomaticallyresultinan“aestheticeducation”—whatever
thatmeansintermsofpracticalresults—thatsomehow,sometimehaslastingvaluefor
students.
Regardingmusicasavitalhumanpraxisnaturallyleads,aswell,toregardingmusic
teachingasanimportantsocialpraxis.Aspraxis,teachingmusicinvolves,therefore,much
morethanjustroutinecompetencewith“whatworks”methods.Instead,teachingtakesona
socialandthusethicalresponsibility(Regelski2012a).Aspraxis,then,teachingexiststoserve
theneedsofstudentsand,byextension,musicalsociety.Failuretohavesuchanimpactor,
worse,bringingaboutnegativeresults,amountstomal-praxis(i.e.,professionalmalpractice).
Thisethicalresponsibilitymakesadecisiontobecomeateacher—inourcase,ofmusic—
particularlyconsequential.Docandidatesaspiretoagoodlifeofteachingmusic(Regelski
2012b),toadvancethecauseof“goodmusic,”topromotewhatever“appreciation”meansto
them,orsimplyasapleasantwayofmakingalivingviamusic?
Considerableexperienceovermanyyearsofteacherpreparationhasrevealedarange
ofmotivesstudentsoftengivefor“Whyteachmusic“andforseekingcareersinmusic
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education.Mostappearreasonableatfirst.However,predictablepit-fallsthatbearserious
examinationoftengetoverlookedbyprospectiveteachersofmusic.Thiscanleadtoproblems
thatcompromisegoodteachinganditspersonalandprofessionalrewards.
Whenaskedtheirreasonsforenteringthemusicteachingprofession,afrequent
answeroffirst-yearstudentstoldmewhenaskedis“tosharemusicwithstudents.”That
soundssimpleandpositive.Butwhatifthesupposed“sharing”doesn’teasilytakeplace—for
example,whenstudentsdon’tpracticeormisbehave?Italsooftenassumesthatthemusicin
questionisthenotesonthepage.Suchteachingeasilyresultsinteachingstudentstomerely
translatenotationintosound.Oragain,toapianolessonforexample,thatbecomesskill-drill
ratherthanamusiclessonviathepiano.Anddoes“sharing”simplymeanthatsimplyengaging
studentsinmusicalactivitiesnecessarilyamountstoaneffectivemusiceducation?What,
beyondthefunandinterestofsuchmomentsofmusicalsharing,wouldconstitutea
pragmaticvalueadded(Regelski2006b)toeachstudent’smusicallives?Routinizedsharing
canamounttomechanicalteaching,goingthroughthemotions,amusical“recessperiod”that
focusesmoreonwhattheteacherdoesratherthanonwhatthestudentsareabletodo
musically—atall(newly),better,morefrequently,orwithgreaterreward—asaresultof
teaching!Ifwecomparesharingmusictosharinglove,thentheactionidealimpliesmuch
morethanistypicallyconsideredbymusicteacherswhoseloveofmusicisnotautomatically
sharedwithstudentsbythelessonstheyoffer!
Anothercommonansweraboutchoosingacareeris“becauseI’mgoodatmusicand
havealottooffer.”Withoutdoubt,musicteachersmustbemusicallyaccomplished;butthey
mustalsohaveothercompetenciescentraltoteachingeffectiveness,suchasknowledgeof
howstudentslearnanddevelop.And,infact,somemusicteachers,especiallythosewhowere
“naturals,”don’tknowhowtocopewhenstudentsdonotlearnaseasilyastheydid—whichis
alltoocommon.Thismotiveforteachingcanalsorunafoulofeitheranegativeoutlookabout,
orgivinguponstudentswhoarenotasmusicallymotivatedastheteacherwasatthatsame
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age.Anditisarealitythatallteacherslovetheirsubjectsmorethanstudentsnaturallydo.
Thus,someteachersmaketheirsubjectsinto“work”forstudents.Remember?Andthatisa
challengeformusicteachersaswell.
Someteachingcandidateshaveenjoyedtheirownschoolmusicexperiences—often
unrelatedtomusicingoutsideoftheschool—andsimplywanttocontinuewithsuchmusical
pursuitsasteachers.Suchteachersview,“schoolmusic”asitsownself-sufficientmusical
praxis,amusicalendinitselftheywanttocontinuetoenjoy.Theydon’trealize—orwishto
consider—thatmostoftheirpeerswhentheywereinschooldidnotrespondinthesame
positivewaytothesameteaching.Orthattheincreasinglyjeopardizedstatusofschoolmusic
revealsanadvocacycrisisthathasthepublic,schoolofficials,andotherscallingintoquestion
itsvalueandcontinuedexistence.
Similarly,theexpressedgoalofsomeprospectiveteacherstowanttobe“justlike”a
favoritemusicteachercanfailtonotethatnotalloftheirfavoredteacher’sstudentsthrived;
thatallstudentsdidnotfavororprofitfromthatteacher.Thismotivationcanthusoverlook
thecriteriaforhavingfavoredamusicteacher.Beinga“goodteacher”isnotunlikebeinga
“goodperson”:itisacomplicatedmatterandnotonethateasilysubmitstoimitation.Yetthe
observationiscommonthat“teachersteachthewaytheyweretaught”and,asaresult,
teachingisaveryconservativeprofession:changeisoftenglacial.Combinethattendencywith
“conservatory”influencesonmusicteachers(passedonbytheirmusicaltraining),anditisall
tooeasyforsometeacherstogravitatetothemostmotivatedorbeststudents.Suchmusic
teachersarelikethedoctorwhocomplainsthatthepatientsaresick,orthepilotwho
anticipatesonlygoodweather.
Musicteachersoften“do”theirsubjectssemi-professionallyoutsideofschool,unlike
mostotherteachers.Infact,thepreponderanceoftheirtrainingisfocusedonbecominga
musician(i,e,performer).However,themistakenassumption(learnedfromtheirmusic
professors)isthatagoodmusicianisautomaticallyagoodteacher(thusjustifiedbytheir
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pretenseaspedagogues).Thiscanleadtotheproblemwheremusicteachers“perform”their
ensembleslikeanorganistperformstheorganpipes.Theirfocus,then,ismoreonthemusical
resultsforthemselves,ratherthantheeducationalbenefitsforensemblemembers.Theytake
forgrantedthattheexperienceofperformingmusicisautomaticallyaestheticandtherefore
educative.However,formanystudentssuchexperiencesareregardedasschool-basedsocial
activities,andanycarry-overtolifeoutsideofschoolandasadultsisthustypicallymissing.
Anothervariableistheso-calledpsychological“needforachievement”(nAch)—the
needtoberecognizedasbeinggoodatsomething.Thisoftenexplainswhyyouthgetinvolved
invariousactivities—music,sports,hobbies—duringtheschoolyears.Butasamotivationfor
alifeofmusicing,itfadesinimportancewiththearrivalofadultlifeandresponsibilitiestobe
agoodproviderorgoodparent.
Astrainedmusicians,somemusicteachersaretemptedtoprotectmusicfrom
students!Theyarethusquicktoberidofthosestudentswhosecontributiontotheoptimum
musicalresultisproblematic—insteadofredoublingtheireffortswithsuchstudents.They
cantendtotreattheirstudentsasproto-musiciansinthesamewaytheywereduringtheir
universitymusicaltraininganddemandthesamekindofdedicationtomusicalexcellence.
Competition(forseating,withotherensembles,forsolos,withotherschools)oftenbecomes
anend-in-itself,madeallthemorenotablebythefactthatmusicteachers’effortsareoften
publicinawaythatmostotherteachingisnot.Thiscanbeareasonwhychambergroupsthat
arenotconductedinpublicbytheteachertypicallyhaveanegligibleroleinmostschool
musicprograms,eventhoughtheirmusicalandeducationalbenefitsaremany.Thatis
unfortunate;suchgroupspromoteadispositionfortheperformingthatismucheasiertofind
ormaketimeforinadultlifethanisthecasewithlargeensembles.
Manyteachersrelyoncompetitiontomotivatepracticing.Yettheeffectsof
competitioncanbenegativeforindividualstudents,especiallythosewithtentativeorweak
self-concepts.Nonetheless,oncetheconditionsofcompetitionaremissing—notably,after
graduationfromschool—motivationtocontinuepracticingandperformingdisappears.Such
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teachersarealsomorelikelytoresorttovariousquestionablemeans,suchasembarrassment,
tomotivatestudents.This,ofcourse,isaproblemowingtothepredictablyunstablenatureof
manystudents’duringtheyouthandadolescentyears.
Someteachersentermusicteachingsimplybecausetheyexcelmusically.Onthisbasis
they“settle”intoamusicalcareerasteachers.However,whilethiscansometimesbe
reasonable,thequestionthathasbeenraisedovertheyearsremainsoneof,“Doweteach
musicorstudents?”There’snoreasonthattheanswerneedstobeeither/or;clearlybothcan
andshouldbeserved.Butifthemainfocusisonthebenefitsfortheteacher’smusical
interests,itbecomestooeasytoignorethestudents’musicalneedsandbenefits.
Thereareseveralmorepotentialproblemswiththisdisposition,asidefromtheethical
implications.Thefirstariseswhenstudentsentermusicinordertopursueamusicalcareer,
butdon’twanttosubjectthemselvestothefiercecompetitionandrisksmusiciansfaceinthe
marketplaceforjobs.Thesecondinvolvesparentswho,similarly,realizethatmusicalcareers
arerisky,agreetosupporttheirchildtostudymusiconlyontheconditionofbecominga
musicteacher.Inbothinstancesofenteringtheprofession,itisalltooeasyforsuchgraduates
toregardteachingmerelyastheirjob—ameansofmakingaliving—ratherthanasamission
to which they are called as teachers.Thiscanalsoleadtothenotuncommonsituationof
musicianswhohavenotthrivedasprofessionalsandwho“fallback”onmusicteachingasa
wayofmakingtheirliving.Despitetheirmusicalskills,thisoftendoesnotresultinadvancing
students’musicalgrowth.
Arelatedproblemcanbetheattractiontoteachingasalifestyle.Itisstable,generatesa
decentstandardoflivingandusuallyallowsteacherstospendmoretimewiththeirfamilies.
However,andagain,whilethiskindofvisioncanseemreasonable,itcanleadteachersto
ignorestudents’needsratherthantheirown.Then,suchteachers(ofanysubject—everyone
hasexperiencedatleastone)operateonauto-pilot,orasthoughworkingonassemblyline.
Thequalityoftheirownlivesistheirfocusandgettingthrougheachdayandschoolyearwith
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thefewestproblemsistheirimmediategoal—notthefuturewell-beingoftheirstudents,
musicalandotherwise.Manyburnoutandtoomanystayinteaching.
Perhapstheantithesisofsuchadispositionis,inmyexperience,therareprospective
musicteacherwhosimplyenjoysworkingwithyoungpeopleandalsoenjoysmusicandhas
musicalandpeopleskills.Theirdispositionisfarlesslikelytoresultintheproblems
mentionedearlierbecauseitfocusesonthestudentswhilenotignoringtheself-interestsof
theteacher.Asimilarmotivationforenteringmusicteaching—althoughaltogetherveryrare
inmyexperience—isthedesireexpressedtobebetterthanthosemusicteachersthe
candidatehadinschool.Theseindividualsoftenrealizethattheysucceededmusicallydespite
poorteachingbutthattheirpeerswerenotsolucky.Theyaspiretobecometeachersbecause
ofacommitmenttoteachingexcellence—notjustofofferinginstruction,butofpromoting
notableandrewardingmusicallearning.Unfortunately,bothdispositionscanbeconfronted
andconfoundedbythemanyeverydayproblemsofschoolingasaninstitution.Butsuch
teachersoftenfindthatmeetingandovercomingsuchchallengesisitselfoneoftherewards
ofgoodteaching.
SummaryandProvocation
Nodoubt,thetypicalprospectivemusicteacherhasmultiplemotivations.However,
failuretoconsiderthekindsofpossibilitiesraisedhereisalikelyreasonforburn-outorfor
ineffectiveteaching—orboth!Prospectiveteacherscanbebenefited,then,frombeing
forewarnedofthevariousproblemsthatcanariseaftertheybegintheircareers,andthenare
preparedfortheshockofdisappointmentofunpleasantrealitiestheyhadnotpreviously
considered.Itistothebenefitofbothteachersandstudentsthattheimportantpraxisof
musicisadvancedbyteachingpraxisthatiseffectiveandmusicallyrewardingforboth
studentsandteachers.
Theanswertothequestionofwhyanyoneshouldbeinterestedinteachingmusicin
schoolsisthusprofoundlyloadedwithvalues,thepotentialofwhichtoooftengoesunnoticed
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bymusicteachers.Someprospectiveteachersmayhaveinitialimpressions.Butmostothers
whohaveparticipatedinschoolensemblesasasocialactivitydon’tnoticethelackofmusical
differencemadeintheirlivesgoingforward.Upongraduationtheirinterestceases.The
answertothisimportantquestioncan’tbeprovidedinthissurvey,butitresidesinbeliefthat
musicissociallyimportant,thatitisamajorfactorinthelifewell-lived,andthatmusic
teachershaveanobligationtobringmusicintothelivesofstudentsinawaythatwouldn’tbe
thecasewithouttheirefforts.Anythinglessrisksethicalproblemsof“using”studentstothe
teacher’sownmusicalinterests.
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1 This study is an elaboration of 4 short articles on the topic of “Why Teach Music?” originally published in the Finnish Journal of Music Education (2012–2013), here extended for international readers, especially in- and pre-service teachers. . 2 Imitations, since school-based literature usually falls far short of artistic and aesthetic merit. Aesthetes are the first to denounce that the literature of school music performance ensembles falls short of the aesthetic merit they extol. 3 Some critics want to debate the primacy of Elliott versus Small. They can do so in their own research. The point here is that both agree that music is a verb form: something done for a musico-social purpose. Small’s spelling stresses “musick” as understood as praxis in ages long ago, and Elliott’s stresses “music” as a collective noun, emphasizing multiple praxies. The differences beyond spelling can be entertained (Small, emphasizing somewhat more the social dimensions of practice, and Elliott a bit more concerned with this or that praxis as a community of musicians may understand the differences of musical praxis). However, the important variable for both is that “music” is newly considered as a verb form—a “doing.” Thus the emphasis is not on what music “means” but what it “does” personally and socially. I leave it to others than in this TOPICS framework to debate the differences; or, frankly, what difference it makes theoretically or practically. It seems to me that, by definition, this or that musical praxis—say of jazz or heavy metal—is always a result of the social variables of a community of practitioners that brought it into being to begin with and sustain its development. I prefer to accentuate those social variables, as against any claim against pure, absolute, music.
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4 These and other references are not just “old” but “classical” in establishing the theoretical and praxial historical framework of what is to be described. They come from music history, the history of ideas, the philosophy of music, and are backed by important publications in cultural history and cultural studies. They, in fact, exceed the taken for granted assumptions usually marshalled to qualify music and music education—usually according to aesthetic ideology—as a product of the 18 th century Enlightenment and its flowering in the 19th century. The history of ideas in philosophy goes back to the early Greeks and remains current it its relevance, despite the expectations of those who expect research to provide “the latest” findings. TOPICS is not, according to its stated criteria, devoted to the “latest” research to thinking that is currently relevant. Posed another way, praxis as informing theory is a source of confirmation or critique and advances theory for those who follow. This article attempts to show the bases of good praxis in theory and to contribute those findings to others. It fits all of the T.O.P.I C.S criteria covered in this journal. 5 Discipline, cooperation, team-work, aesthetic this and that, and, of course, as a social activity to be “good at” in school. The list goes on and on. 6 This term seems to be a problem for some. It is a standard term for learning that is not intended in what is taught but learned despite other aims. In music, students learn that their favored musics are not approved by the virtue of not being in the accepted curriculum. But much more is involved: response to bells for the change of classes and much more of the routines of schooling are argued to be in effect of more lasting impression than the overt curriculum. Students learn to be manipulated by school protocols as preparation for their lives as workers. It was amazing to me that some reviewers had no idea what this this term refers to. All the more I worry that teachers (and preservice teachers) they teach don’t have a clue. For details of what some music education readers and reviewers don’t seem to know about this very important theory for teaching praxis see Kathleen Bennett de Marrais and Margaret D. LeCompte (1998: 13–14, 244–247) The theory points out a major problem in schooling, the long-term effects of effect or impressions students get from the content—what is offered or not—and the ‘training’ involved in the routines or regimen of their schooling. 7Beware: a former student, obviously new to her position who followed this advice of having chamber groups in her first Christmas Concert was criticized by her male colleagues in a city school system for being unable to “put on a full band concert” without out the “padding” of the chamber groups. Change comes hard. ThomasA.Regelskiis“DistinguishedProfessor”(Emeritus),SUNY,FredoniaNY.HehasaMaster’sdegreein
choralconductingandaPhDinComparativeArts/Aesthetics.Hehastaughtchoralconducting,andmusic
educationmethodsandfoundationscourses.HehasbeenavisitingprofessoratAichiUniversityinNagoya,
Japan,theSibeliusAcademyinHelsinki,Finland(onaFulbrightAward),HelsinkiUniversity,andwasa
researchfellowatthePhilosophyofEducationResearchCenteratHarvardUniversity.Heistheco-founder
oftheMayDayGroup,andfromitsinceptionuntil2007,waseditorofitse-journal,Action,Criticism,and
TheoryforMusicEducation.Inadditionto105journalarticlesandchapters,heisauthorof6books,most
recentlyABriefIntroductiontoAPhilosophyofMusicandMusicEducationasSocialPraxis(Routledge,
2016).HelecturesoccasionallyattheSibeliusAcademyinHelsinkiandisadocentatHelsinkiUniversity.