Saussurean Paradox

“How can a language continue to be used effectively as a vehicle for expression and communication while it is in the middle of a change, or rather in the middle of a large number of changes?”

Trask, R. L. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, 1996, 267.

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Variation in Speech

“No two people speak exactly the same”

And no individual speaks exactly the same every time he/she speaks.

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Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 131.

Speaker Innovation—Not Language Change

“In reality, it is not so much that language itself changes as that speakers and writers change the way they use the language. Speaker innovation is a more accurate description than language change.”

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Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 206.

Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 1)

Page Location Trend Source of Change

Example or Comment

207 New Zealand new/ nuclear /nju/ /nu/ American influence

208 Isle of Wight (UK) Vr Vr V London influence (3 gen)210 Martha’s Vineyard (US)

light /ai// i/ Attitude: solidarity/identify house au/ / u with island culture

4/18Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp. 207-210.

Page Location Trend Source of Change

Example or Comment

213 Sydney (Aus) High-Rise Terminal NZ? (more young people)

2nd French (France) 204 Nasalization /n/ nasal V

2nd New Zealand 207 milk, fill, feel, silk Vl V England?? child

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Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 2)

Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 213.

Page Location Trend Source of Change Example or Comment

208 English

Scouse accent increased use Liverpool boys: peers

209 Charmey, Switz. (French?)

pronun innovations the young and women

210 Ucieda (Spain)

standard Castilian women

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Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 208-210.

Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 3)

Page Location Trend Source of Change

Example or Comment

210 Ucieda (Spain)

standard Castilian women

213 Norwich (Britain)

Cockney slang; London influence on

glottal stops; commuter Sam

h-dropping

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Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 210-213.

Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 4)

Page Location Trend Source of Change

Example or Comment

205 David (England?) wireless / radio familiarity for 3 gen

213 New Zealand far out one American boy

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Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 205, 213.

Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Vocabulary)

Wave Metaphor of Variation Spread

9/18Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 215.

Progress of Linguistic Change

Holmes, Janet. 1992. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman, p. 222. 10/18

Does TV spread new forms?

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“A popular compromise is the view that the media can soften listeners up by exposing them to new forms in the speech of admired pop stars or TV personalities. When people are subsequently exposed to a particular form in the speech of a real person, they are then more likely to adopt it.”

Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 227.

Spreading—Traditional Model

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Spreading—TV Model?

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Early Modern English Pronunciation Change

mate meat meet

Middle English /a:/ /ε:/ /e:/

Vowel Shift /e/ /i/

16th century /met/ /met/ /mit/

17th century /met/ /mit/ /mit/

Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold; based on descriptions on pp. 281-284. 14/18

Morris Halle’s Explanation for mate, meat, and meet

“In 1962, the distinguished Chomskyan linguist Morris

Halle, in apparent desperation, put forward an

astounding explanation: taking advantage of the

abstract underlying forms permitted by Chomskyan

linguistics, he suggested that several generations of

speakers must have manage to keep the mate and meat

vowels distinct in their heads, even though they always

pronounced these vowels identically, and even though

they never heard anybody else making the distinction.”

Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 283. 15/18

Evolution of “do” Support in English Questions

1388: NONE Wycliffe 1526/1611: Some Tyndale / AV Today: ALWAYS 1

1 Except when there are modals and BE and maybe HAVE

Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 283. 16/18

Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox

“Changes can proceed without disrupting the system of a language because the vehicle of change is variation, and variation is always present—indeed, it is a central characteristic of speech.”

Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 281. 17/18

Saussurean Paradox“How can a language continue to be used

effectively as a vehicle for expression and communication while it is in the middle of a change, or rather in the middle of a large number of changes?” (p. 267)

Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox“Changes can proceed without disrupting the

system of a language because the vehicle of change is variation, and variation is always present—indeed, it is a central characteristic of speech.” (p. 281)

Trask, R.L. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, pp. 267, 281. 18/18