Post on 18-Jul-2020
Review of
Literature
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A brief resume of past researches related to the present study has been
incorporated in this chapter. The literature have been reviewed under the
following sub-heads :-
3.1 PREFERENCE OF WOMEN FOR INCOME SUPPLEMENTING
PRACTICES
3.1.1 Kumar and Mago (1974) reported that farm women gave their
preference for animal husbandry, farming, clothing, arts and crafts for
income generation.
3.1.2 Bhatnagar et al. (1981) while studying the preferences of graduates
reported that interior decoration, college teacher and nursery teacher
were preferred by most of the girls.
3.1.3 Jain et al. (1981) in study on the distribution of beneficiaries according
to their interest reported that tailoring and garment making was
preferred by majority i.e. 61per cent. Although in all 18 areas had been
suggested by beneficiaries but the number of those recommending
them was however limited. The different areas and number of
beneficiaries suggested were : basket making (12 percent), match
making (3.4 percent), fish net making (2.6 percent), rope making (2.6
percent) and dairy (2.4 percent). Some of the beneficiaries had also
given option for khadi spinning, sericulture, coir yarn and poultry.
3.1.4 Kaur (1982) reported that nearly 55 per cent of the women from
Haryana expressed that training related to animal husbandry should
be given to them.
3.1.5 Anonymous (1982), National Institute of Rural Development after
conducting a survey on preferences of women reported that most
preferred areas were basket making, safety match making, doll making
and match thatches making.
3.1.6 Harris (1986) and Kashyap (1988) reported that soap making, straw
products, manufacturing of garments and household articles, bedding,
dye work and baking skill were the preferred area of women for
income generation.
3.1.7 Pandit (1993) reported that most of the women under TRYSEM
(Training of Rural Youth in Self-Employment) programme preferred
knitting and tailoring for income generation. So, stitching and knitting
appeared to be the major entrepreneurial activities.
3.1.8 Mohanty and Jena (1996) concluded that fish farming was preferred by
most of the women because it did not affect their domestic work.
3.1.9 Lal et. al. (2005) reported that majority of beneficiaries of Krishi Vigyan
Kendra of National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal (Haryana)
preferred dairy for income generation.
3.1.10 Mustafa et al. (2005) reported that majority of beneficiaries of Rudrapur
block of district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand preferred dairy as
income generating activity. Among dairy the preferred areas were:
management of sick animal’s, preparation of balanced ration for
animals, management of breeding animals and production of clean
milk.
3.1.11 Sharma et al. (2005) reported that majority of the beneficiaries (80-90
per cent) preferred ‘stitching boutiques/quilting,’ ‘Pickle/chutney/
murabas making,’ ‘dairy farming’, ‘beauty parlours’,
‘embroidery/crocheting,’ ‘soap/detergent making’, ‘making of
decorative utility articles’, ‘papad/wadi making’ and ‘poultry farming’
because of the economic needs.
So, the above presented researches show that the major preferred areas by
women for income generation were: Dairy, poultry farming, tailoring,
knitting, weaving, embroidery, soap/detergent making and making of
various things like baskets, safety matches, dolls, mats, ropes etc. Majority of
women preferred those projects which can be started at home or outside the
home as small scale units with small amount of money.
3.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADOPTION OF INCOME
GENERATING ACTIVITIES FOR SUPPLEMENTING THE
HOUSEHOLD INCOME.
Some studies which show the effect of different personal, psychological and
situational variables on the adoption of income generating activities for
supplementing the household income are cited here;
3.2.1 AGE Hussain (1968), Kakoty (1975), Sanoriya (1983), Yadav and Jain (1984),
Sheoran and Kumar (1988) and Yadav and Deshpande (1988) reported that
age was significantly associated with the adoption of economic activity.
Similarly, Wasnik (1988), Talwar and Hirevenkanagoudar (1989), Kher (1991),
Bhople (2001), Bonde (2002), Deshmukh (2002) and More (2002) reported that
age was found to be significantly correlated with the adoption of economic
activities.
However, Hundal (1976), Joshi (1985), Singh and Patel (1988), Gogoi and
Gogoi (1989), Katarya (1989), Bhoite and Girose (1991), Kadam and Jagtap
(1991), Khandare (2002) and Chaitanya Kumari (2003) found that Chi-square
value of age was found to be non-significant with the adoption. So age and
adoption were found to be independent of each other. Thus, from above
studies it is found that age affects differently to the adoption of economic
activity.
3.2.2 EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION Halyal (1968), Hussain (1968), Kakoty (1975), Hundal (1976), Singh and Dubey
(1978), Swamy (1978), Najafi (1979), Sanoriya(1983), Yadav and Jain (1984),
Joshi (1985), Sheoran and Kumar (1988), Singh and Patel (1988), Yadav and
Deshpande (1988), Bhoite and Girose (1991), Kadam and Jagtap (1991), Kher
(1991), Dube and Sawarkar (1992), Bhople (2001), Kumar (2002), Mahajan
(2002), More (2002), Parhad (2002), Chaitanya Kumari (2003) and Kumar et al.
(2005) reported that educational qualification of the beneficiaries was found to
be positively associated with the adoption of income generating activities for
supplementing the household income. It means as the level of education
increases it leads to higher adoption.
But Wasnik (1988), Gogoi and Gogoi (1989), Ingle et al. (1991), Bimlesh (1996),
Bonde (2002) and Khandare (2002) found that education was not significantly
associated with the adoption of income generating activities. It means
education has no effect on the adoption of income generating activities for
supplementing the family income.
From the above cited researches, it was found that although in most of the
cases, education affects the adoption significantly in positive direction but on
the whole education affects differently to the adoption of income generating
activities for supplementing the family income.
3.2.3 FAMILY’S TOTAL MONTHLY INCOME
Shukla (1980), Sohi and Kherde (1980), Sanoriya (1983), Yadav and Jain (1984),
Joshi (1985), Singh and Patel (1988), Yadav and Deshpande (1988), Kadam and
Jagtap (1991). Bimlesh (1996), Bhople (2001), Khandare (2002), Kumar (2002),
Mahajan (2002) and Parhad (2002) reported that family’s total monthly
income affects the adoption in positive direction that means more the family’s
income, more will be the adoption because family’s total monthly income
shows significant association with the adoption of income generating
activities.
But Julian et al. (1991), Kher (1991), Shehrawat (1998), Bonde (2002) and
Deshmukh (2002) found that family’s total monthly income was non
significantly correlated with adoption. Hence, family’s total monthly income
does not have any effect on the adoption of income generating activities for
supplementing the family income.
Above studies depict that family’s total monthly income affects differently to
the adoption of income generating activities for supplementing the family
income.
3.2.4 INFORMATION SEEKING
Halyal (1968), Singh and Patel (1988), Bimlesh (1996), Bhople (2001), Parhad
(2002) and Kumar et al. (2005) reported that social participation is positively
and significantly associated with the adoption of income generating activities
so, more the social participation, more will be the adoption.
Hundal (1976), Talwar and Hirevenkanagoundar (1989), Kumar (2002),
Mahajan (2002) and More (2002) found that contacts with extension agencies
were found to be positively correlated with adoption.
Swamy (1978), Talwar and Hirevenkanagoundar (1989), Julian et al. (1991),
Kadam and Jagtap (1991), Kumar (2002) and Kumar et al. (2005) reported that
use of mass media was significantly associated with adoption. It means if the
beneficiaries use the mass media frequently they will adopt more new
practices.
But Sohi and Kherde (1980), Kher et al. (1991), Julian et al. (1991), Shehrawat
(1998), Bonde (2002), Deshmukh (2002), Khandare (2002) and Chaitanya
Kumari et al. (2003) reported that social participation was not significantly
associated with the adoption of income generating activities.
So, the above-cited researches reveal that information seeking affects the
adoption of income generating activities differently.
3.2.5 ATTITUDE OF BENEFICIARIES TOWARDS THE TRAINING
PROGRAMMES RELATED TO INCOME GENERATION
Mahipal (1983), Katarya (1989), Kadam and Jagtap (1991), Pandya (1992),
Lalitha (2002) and More (2002) reported that attitude of beneficiaries towards
the training was positively and significantly correlated with the adoption.
However, in contrary to these researches, Sinha and Sinha (1980), Gogoi and
Gogoi (1989) and Khandare (2002) studied the effect of attitude on the
adoption and reported that attitude was not significantly associated with
adoption of economic activities which infers that adoption is independent of
attitude.
So the above studies reveal that attitude towards training affects the adoption
of economic activities differently.
3.2.6 ECONOMIC MOTIVATION
Singh (1969), Supe (1969), Singh and Sohal (1970), Chandra (1979), Singh
(1980), Mahipal (1983), Joshi (1985), Julian et al. (1991), Pandya (1992), Bhople
(2001), Netake (2002) and Kumar et al. (2005) found that economic motivation
was significantly associated with the adoption of income generating activities
for supplementing the family income. It means high level of economic
motivation leads to high adoption, so adoption is not independent of
economic motivation. But Gogoi and Gogoi (1989), Ingle et al. (1991),
Shehrawat (1998), Bonde (2002), Khandare (2002), Parhad (2002) and
Chaitanya Kumari et al. (2003) reported that economic motivation was not
significantly associated with adoption of income generating activities. This
leads to the conclusion that adoption of income generating activities is
independent of economic motivation.
So, the above-cited researches show that economic motivation affects the
adoption of income generating activities differently.
3.2.7 RISK PREFERENCE
Subramanium (1982), Sanoryia (1983), Katarya (1989), Julian et al. (1991),
Kadam and Jagtap (1991), Shehrawat (1998), Kumar (2002) and Kumar et al.
(2005) studied the effect of risk preference on adoption of income generating
activities and found that there was positive and significant association
between the risk preference and adoption of income generating activities. This
leads to the inference that high level of risk preference leads to more adoption
of income generating activities.
However, Chauhan (1979), Bimlesh (1996) and Bonde (2002) reported that risk
preference and adoption of income generating activities were not significantly
associated. Hence, adoption of income generating activities is independent of
risk preference.
Above presented studies reveal that risk preference affects the adoption of
income generating activities differently.
3.2.8 DURATION OF TRAINING AND INFRASTRUCTURE/ALLIED
FACILITIES AVAILABLE DURING THE TRAINING OF INCOME
GENERATING ACTIVITIES
A. DURATION OF TRAINING
Sanoriya (1983) reported that most preferred duration of training by the
trainees was of one week. Bhoite and Dhane (1985) reported that duration of
training should be of two or more than two months.
Kashyap and Singh (1988) reported that majority of trainees felt that the
number of trainees should be less than thirty in one batch and duration of
training should be increased. Bansal and Chamola (1986), Grewal et al. (1985),
Krishnaiah (1990) and Satyasundaram (1991) reported that the duration of
training for income generation was defective and it did not help the trainees
in proper skill acquisition. Sharma (1993) and Bhople (2001) reported that
duration of training was found to be significantly associated with adoption of
income generating activities. It means adoption is not independent of
duration of training.
B. INFRASTRUCTURE /ALLIED FACILITIES AVAILABLE
DURING THE TRAINING
Lack of staff to provide proper skill for self-employment and lack of local
institutions was reported by Smucker (1981) and Jain et al. (1981). However,
insufficient trainer’s knowledge to provide proper skill for self employment,
no provision of literature and lack of physical facilities were reported by
Singh and Gill (1981), Rajula Devi (1983), Pande (1986) and Rajana Kumari
et al. (1984). Whereas, Gupta (1983) observed lack of adequate facilities for
practical training in agricultural training programme of Punjab, Haryana and
Himachal Pradesh. Sharma (1988) observed lack of recreational facilities and
unsatisfactory medical facilities during the training.
Further, Sharma (1993), Bhople (2001) and Khandare (2002) reported that
infrastructure facilities available during the training had significant
correlation with adoption of income generating activities. This leads to the
conclusion that adoption is not independent of infrastructure facilities
provided during the training. If proper facilities are provided during the
training then beneficiaries will be able to learn the contents of training easily.
Hence, they can easily adopt it.
But Bonde (2002) reported that infrastructure facilities available during the
training were not significantly associated with adoption, which infers that
adoption is independent of infrastructure facilities provided during the
training.
So, the above studies reveal that infrastructure facilities available during the
training affect the adoption differently.
3.3 REASONS FOR JOINING THE TRAINING COURSES
3.3.1. Shehrawat (1998) reported that most of the respondents had joined the
training of income generation to upgrade the skill, to learn new
operational techniques and to learn better marketing techniques.
3.3.2. Anuradha (2004) reported that main reasons for joining the training
were income generation, to supplement the family income, easy
availability of loan after the training and motivation by family
members.
3.4 CONSTRAINTS FACED BY WOMEN IN ADOPTION OF INCOME
GENERATING PROJECTS
3.4.1. Burkhalter (1979) reported that Asha Handicraft faced the serious
problem of marketing because it was difficult for the women to
produce according to the specification.
3.4.2. Lal (1979) reported that women earn only Rs.40 to 50 per month from
mirror work due to marketing problem.
3.4.3. Anonymous (1979), World Conference on Agrarian Reforms and Rural
Development (WCARRD) reported that lack of technical knowledge
and skill limited the participation of women in income generating
projects. Other serious problems faced by rural women were lack of
marketing skills and lack of vital information.
3.4.4. A project was conducted by Tulsi (1980) on “Incentives for Small-Scale
Industries : An Evaluation”. He found that there is a great need of new
technology, stimulation of innovative research activities and
counseling services in the field of small-scale sector. Small
entrepreneurs suffer not merely because of weak infrastructure but
also to a considerable extent by information gaps in respect of the
availability of different forms of financial incentives available and
techniques of investment appraisal.
3.4.5. Solanki (1981) reported that economic conditions of rural craftsmen
had been deteriorating due to serious problem of marketing.
3.4.6. Smucker (1981) found that a major constraint on employment options
of women was the lack of system to teach them the skill needed for
economic development.
3.4.7. Singh and Gill (1981) reported that problems faced by trainees during
training were short duration of general motivational course, teachers
lacking knowledge of regional language, less involvement of teachers
in practical classes, lack of follow up and physical facilities.
3.4.8. Bharadwaj (1982) concluded that major constraints felt by the trainees
were: unsuitable time schedule and inadequate marketing facilities.
3.4.9. Gangrade and Gathia (1983) studied on “Women and Child Workers in
the Unorganised Sector”. They reported that the women in
unorganised sector face a lot of problems such as low wages, long
hours of work, insecurity regarding job and sexual harassment. Inspite
of the law prescribing equal wages for equal work, women are seldom
paid wages at par with men workers. The employers give two reasons
for this : (i) that women are less productive; and (ii) that they are less
skilled. Infact, these reasons are not so convincing.
3.4.10. Janardhan Swaroop (1983) observed that lack of technical knowledge
and skill limited the participation of women in self-employment.
3.4.11. Srivastava (1983) reported that in TRYSEM, the period of training was
generally short and training was incomplete in most of the cases so,
beneficiaries were not able to generate employment. Stipend paid by
District Rural Development Agency was not regular and no tool kit
was provided to trainees during the training. The Industrial Training
Institutes impart trainings which are appropriate for organised urban
industrial sectors and not for self-employment in rural sectors. Also,
the post training guidance in the project related to problems continues
to be poor.
3.4.12. Balakrishnan (1984) reported that main problems felt by women for
income generation are using banking service, keeping simple accounts
and maintaining the stock inventories.
3.4.13. Government of India (1984) while conducting a study revealed that
females had undergone the training not for self-employment but for an
art to learn.
3.4.14. Kaur (1984) found that complicated loaning procedure and short
duration of training were found to be major constraints for flat
knitting, chalk making and circular knitting.
3.4.15. Anuradha and Sinha (1985) reported that in TRYSEM, no attempt was
made by trainers to identify the special needs of trainees and no
outside expert was involved in the training. As a result, no input for
developing entrepreneurial qualities was provided in the training
programme. The statement, "The activities of TRYSEM are not clear to
me" made by head of training institute speaks for itself. Sewing
machines were also indiscriminately distributed to the girls with no
thought given to income generating projects of the trade.
3.4.16. Singh (1985) found that women workers face lots of constraints and
difficulties. First, the agents who recruit them for job receive more
commission and exploit them. Secondly, there is no definite hours of
work, they work day and night for getting small amount of money.
3.4.17. Verma and Kaur (1985) reported that majority of women expressed
procedure of loan/subsidy procurement to be very complicated.
Further, it was reported that lack of raw material and marketing
problems were acting as hindrance in income generation.
3.4.18. Yadav (1985) concluded that lack of awareness regarding the credit
facilities and lack of skill were the major problems for rural women to
generate the income.
3.4.19. Banarjee (1986) reported that women are unable to generate income
due to lack of skill, lack of technical know how, marketing and
financial problems.
3.4.20. Gupta (1986) reported lack of finance and technical know how as main
constraints for income generation.
3.4.21. Kumar (1987) found that women workers lack technical guidance and
marketing ability so they are not able to compete with advanced urban
market.
3.4.22. Sarkar (1987) reported that rural women face many constraints such as
some time they are not able to identify any bankable scheme that
would suit them. Women in most of the cases find it difficult to get
loan from bank because the land records in most cases stand in the
name of male members of the family.
3.4.23. Kumar (1988) reported that the beneficiaries of DWCRA faced the
problem of marketing in selling their products.
3.4.24. Singharoy and Agarwal (1989) reported that in Khanpur village of
Dinojpur district of West Bengal, jute mats have higher demand in
urban area but even then, the rural women are not able to generate
income through this project as they were not given proper training for
improved quality and for marketing facilities so they have to depend
on middle men.
3.4.25. Vidyu Lata (1989) reported that main problems faced by women were
low sale of products, inadequate skill, non-remunerative job, tiring job,
inadequate finance and non- availability of raw material.
3.4.26. Iyenger (1990) reported that in Khadi Gramodyog training, the trail
and error method adopted in training in beginning could not bring
fruitful results of the training. The training centre was not need based.
Few centres were abruptly closed and no new organisation came up for
filling their places.
3.4.27. Reddy et al. (1990) reported that in Chittore district of Andhra Pradesh
in training of income generation, too much emphasis is given on the
theoretical training rather than imparting technical training to the
beneficiaries. At various stages beneficiaries require suggestions,
guidance and support which is totally absent.
3.4.28. Satyasundaram (1991) reported that under TRYSEM the period of
training was short and in most of the cases, training was incomplete
and the payment of stipends was also irregular.
3.4.29. Kamalun Nabi and Kumar (1992) reported that in Orissa, the slow
growth of entrepreneurs is due to lack of infrastructure facilities, non-
availability of raw material, transport and communication facilities and
lack of market.
3.4.30. Kaushik and Singhal (1992) found that constraints faced by Dairy
Cooperatives in Karnal were : lack of knowledge about Government
help and subsidies, lack of knowledge about cooperative society, lack
of finance, lack of credit facilities, lack of timely instructions.
Personal/familial problems tended to be ranked low than educational,
communicational and economic problems.
3.4.31. Nikhade et al. (1992) reported that serious constraints felt by the rural
youth were problem of marketing and transportation, lack of technical
know-how and lack of finance.
3.4.32. Singh and Sharma (1992) reported that serious economic problems
encountered by educated unemployed rural youth were : lack of
finance for generating self employment, difficulty in getting loan from
banks and other concerned agencies. Other problems were : lack of
vocational training centres at village level, lack of guidance for self
employment and lack of initiative from family members and peers in
opting for self employment.
3.4.33. Shehrawat and Sharma (1992) Observed that educated
unemployed rural youth has to encounter a lot of problems after
acquiring education for setting up of their self employment
projects. The facilities for counselling and guidance at village
level are completely lacking.
3.4.34. Deputy Director, SISI, Solan (1993) reported lack of economic
motivation on the part of individuals, lack of managerial skills to
start and manage the enterprise, lack of finance for initial
investment and lack of financial support as the major constraints
in adoption of income generating activities.
3.4.35. Yadav (1993) reported that over burden, negligence of duties
(Children, household, family members) and family were the three
important constraints faced by self employed women in tailoring,
embroidery, durri making and cotton spinning activities. Other
constraints were lack of cooperation from husband and family
members and no time for leisure, sleep, personal care and
entertainment.
3.4.36. Kaptan (1994) in his study “Towards a New Dawn” revealed that
all entrepreneurs have problems with their business during start-
up and current operations. Women entrepreneurs in developing
regions have to face many such problems, as they are the first of
their kind to enter this male dominated world. Sex stereotyping
and continuing discrimination against women in the work force
affect business women very significantly. Women with sufficient
managerial and business expertise have not been offered the
same opportunity. Major problems faced by women
entrepreneurs during start-up are: lack of business training, lack
of awareness, lack of foresight, lack of under standing as to
selection of right line of business, limited support from family
and relations, lack of guidance and counseling and weak
collateral position. Problems faced during current operations
such as lack of experience in financial matters and obtaining
credit, problem in selecting appropriate marketing strategy, poor
sales network, tough competition and problems of technology
automation and personnel.
3.4.37. Singh and Goel (1994) reported that major problems faced by the
women beneficiaries in Cinwa Panchayat Samiti of Udaipur district
were lack of finance, lack of space and lack of cooperative zeal among
the members. Other problems faced by the beneficiaries were non
availability of quality raw material, high cost of raw material, delayed
payment of goods produced, lack of knowledge of account keeping
and lack of technical knowledge.
3.4.38. Patel (1995) found that main problems encountered by
entrepreneurs in setting up of their economy units were lack of
full knowledge about available business particulars, lack of
managerial competence to run manufacturing units and lack of
information about various institution, requirements and source
of assistance.
3.4.39. Kataria (1995) and Kaushik (1996) concluded that the major constraints
felt by the beneficiaries in adopting the income generating projects
were lack of timely instructions/training, lack of encouragement,
inadequate credit, low rate of income generation, lack of appropriate
skill to run the project and low level of marketing ability.
3.4.40. Bhagania (1996) concluded that majority of beneficiaries reported
improper distribution of loan and lack of capital money as the major
economic barrier in adoption of economic projects. 75 percent
beneficiaries felt lack of guidance for availing credit facilities and
complicated procurement procedure as major input barrier. Some
beneficiaries reported parents and family objection to work in group
projects and interaction with male persons as socio cultural barrier.
Most of the women observed no provision of remunerative price in the
local market and difficulty outside the village as marketing barriers.
3.4.41. Bimlesh (1996) stated that under DWCRA scheme in Hisar and Sirsa
district most commonly constraints faced by the enterprises were delay
in supply of raw material, difficulty in maintenance of machinery, lack
of finance and delayed disposal of produce.
3.4.42. Jairath (1996) and Malliswari (1996) concluded that main
constraints encountered by entrepreneurs in agro processing
industries were inadequate marketing facilities, transport
facilities and inadequate finance to run the enterprise.
3.4.43. Lalitha Rani (1996) reported that major problems encountered by
entrepreneurs were non-availability of proper raw materials
locally and complicated credit facilities.
3.4.44. Rao et al. (1996) reported that the main constraints faced by
cooperative society of Hyderabad were as follows:-
1. Obtaining raw material is the foremost problem.
2. Lack of orders for producing handicrafts.
3. Delayed payments.
4. Lack of infrastructural facilities.
5. Unwillingness of regional rural banks and commercials banks to
lend loans to cooperative society.
3.4.45. Seema (1996) concluded that entrepreneurs faced the problem of
complicated credit procedures so, they obtained the money from
relatives. Other problems faced by the women enterprises were lack of
proper staff, difficulty in getting the money from buyer after sale, lack
of finance for purchase of raw material and lack of marketing ability.
3.4.46. Chidambaram and Themanzhi (1998) concluded that various
constraints encountered by women enterprises were excessive burden
of work and responsibilities (72 percent) followed by lack of leisure
time (62 percent), difficulty in handling technical, financial and
managerial activities (43 percent), lack of sufficient time to look after
the children and family (34 percent), complicated procedure in
maintenance and repairing of machines (44 percent) and lack of
technical knowledge (35 percent). Similarly, among marketing
constraints the most common constraint were lack of transport
facilities, lack of marketing experience and difficulty in getting money
from buyer after sale.
3.4.47. Shehrawat (1998) concluded that irregular supply of raw
material, high cost of quality raw material, non-availability of
raw material locally, lack of Government support, lack of
technical know how, long and complicated procedures to avail
institutional help, difficulty in maintenance and repair of
machinery, difficulty in getting money from buyer after sale, lack
of finance and lack of motivation as the major constraints faced
by enterprises.
3.4.48. Yadav et al. (1998) conducted a study in rural area of Hisar district of
Haryana to study the familial constraints of working women. Rural
women reported that excessive burden of work and responsibilities,
negligence of family and children, no cooperation from family
members were major constraints felt by them.
3.4.49. Cauvery and Sudha Nayak (2000) have studied both demand and
supply side issues related to women domestic workers of Salem
to analyze the gender-poverty nexus in the informal sector. They
revealed many hitherto unexplored aspects of this segment of
poor female labourers. Lack of skills, physical work of different
types, long hours of work with limited payment, lack of
guarantee of minimum facilities at the work spot are the
characteristics of the informal sector.
3.4.50. Bishnoi (2001) reported that major constraints felt by the beneficiaries
of developmental programmes for empowerment of mother and girl
child were lack of literature and timely guidance, lack of
encouragement and motivation, family responsibilities, excessive
burden of work at home and hindrance due to ill health.
3.4.51. Bhople (2001) found that the major constraints revealed by the
respondents of KVKs Jalgaon, Jamol and Karda in Vidarbha region
were non availability of raw material, high cost of quality of raw
material and non availability of loan in adoption of important
agricultural practices.
3.4.52. Srivastava (2001), Deshmanya et al. (2003) and Adhikaram and
Vasantha (2004) stated that irregular payment of labour cost and low
and discriminatory wages were the most commonly felt economic
constraints by the women workers.
3.4.53. Sudarshan (2001) reported that the economic constraints felt by the
beneficiaries of Krishi Vigyan Kendras and Training institutes of
training cum production centers were low and discriminatory wages,
unassured income from the projects and lack of risk taking ability.
3.4.54. Vyas and Patel (2001) reported that the constraints faced by milk
producers in adoption of dairy technology were non availability of
loan facility for purchase of milk animals and fodder, high construction
cost of byre, no proper rate of milk produced, non availability of milk
marketing and transport facility.
3.4.55. Waman and Rahane (2001) found that the major constraints in
adoption of economic activities as paid job were insufficient wage,
irregularity in payment of labour cost, negligence of children and
family members, hindrance due to ill health.
3.4.56. Joshi (2002) reported that the current income generation programmes
mainly include–Ringal products (Bamboo) i.e. basket, mats etc.,
handicrafts, carpet making, shawls, woolen sheets, warm coats, angora
production, banana chips making, embroidery etc. However, the
number of trainers is not adequate and this affects timing and
regularity of class adversely. Resources like raw material and
equipments are often unavailable or inadequate to suit the demands of
the villagers who come for training. Lack of systematic planning and
implementation of training camps leaves no room for follow up,
feedback, monitoring and supported activities after the training
programmes. Travel difficulties, large distances from accessible
markets and abysmally poor service delivering system in the region
have constrained marketing opportunities. In addition to this lack of
support from DRDA or Panchayat has resulted in restricted number of
training classes. These activities provide women with meager income
which do not allow them economic independence in an effective sense.
3.4.57. Kumar (2002) found that lack of technical know how, inadequate
facilities, high cost of quality raw material, inadequate availability of
raw material and poor credit facilities were perceived as major
constraints in adoption of rape seed production technology.
3.4.58. Sandhu (2002) revealed that excessive burden of work, family
problems and negligence of children were the major socio cultural
constraints felt by the women workers.
3.4.59. Sivanarayana et al. (2002) reported that lack of credit facilities, high
cost and non availability of quality inputs, inadequate knowledge, lack
of vital information, lack of skills, lack of practicals during the training
programmes and no provision of literature for retaining the knowledge
were the few constraints faced by most of the farmers in adoption of
improved agricultural technologies.
3.4.60. Adhikaram Vasantha (2004) stated that socio cultural constraints faced
by working women were excessive burden of work and
responsibilities, negligence of house and children and family problems.
3.4.61. Bhatia (2004) reported the socio cultural constraints reported by
women workers were excessive burden of work, negligence of
children, negligence of family members and hindrance due to ill health.
3.4.62. Gill et al. (2004) reported that the major constraints faced by farm
women in agriculture and allied practices were lack of latest technical
knowledge, financial problems and marketing problems.
3.4.63. Goyal (2004) reported that main problems felt by women enterprises
were shortage of finance, marketing problem, shortage of raw material,
high cost of quality raw material, negligence of family members,
inadequate infrastructure, lack of technical know how and other social
and economical constraints.
3.4.64. Ukkuru (2004) sought to study the impact of dual role played by
working women on their health and nutritional profile. Women
going out to work have increasingly to cope with the double
burden of work. The implications of outside work, in addition to
their domestic burden, on working women’s health and
nutritional profile they reported a sense of economic
independence emerging from employment and reported using
their economic resources to meet household expenses. They
prioritized their constraints as emerging from poor transport
facilities, low wages, and strenuous work conditions. Employed
women were spending less time on ‘personal care’ than full time
housewives, who reported greater time spent on entertainment
and relaxation. Employed women, despite their dual burden of
work, were found to enjoy better health status than their
unemployed counterparts. They were also stated to be health
conscious.
3.4.65. Vepa (2004) Summarized that lack of technical know-how, lack of
marketing ability, inadequate finance, inadequate credit facilities
through financial institutions were the major problems of rural
enterprises.
3.4.66. Bardhan et al. (2005) reported that major constraints perceived by dairy
farmers were non-remunerative price of milk, testing of milk only on
the basis of fat and high cost of feeds.
3.4.67. Sharma et al. (2005) reported that about 90 percent of respondents
reported that they were lacking technical information as well as
knowledge about the rules and regulation governing to start the
preferred enterprise. As large as 70-80 percent of the respondents did
not posses knowledge about various government/non-government
agencies promoting the enterprises.
3.4.68. Kaur (2006) in her study on “Female Participation in Unorganised
Sector in Reference to Small Scale Industries of Saharanpur – An
Industrial City of Uttar Pradesh” reported that constraints faced by the
female workers were : unsatisfactory working conditions, heavy
physical work, long hours of work, lack of minimum facilities at work
place and ill treatment by the employers.
The above studies reveal that the major constraints faced by the adopters and
non adopters are input constraints like non availability of credit, raw material
etc., economic constraints, like low wages, lack of finance for generating self
employment etc., educational and communicational constraints like lack of
knowledge for availing inputs and credit, lack of vital information and short
duration of trainings. The other constraints faced by women are technological
constraints, marketing constraints and lack of follow up action.
3.5 PATTERNS OF INCOME SUPPLEMENTING PRACTICES:-
3.5.1. Johns (1979) reported that most of the women had adopted the rope
making and knitting project for household purpose only due to the
problem of marketing.
3.5.2. Almelu (1983) in his survey conducted in Delhi found that more or
less, all the trainees from dress making training course were
unemployed.
3.5.3. Rujula Devi (1983) in her study on TRYSEM in Andhra Pradesh in
Visakhapatnam district reported that as far as post training activities
were concerned, a sizeable number of candidates had gone for job
rather than establishing their own units because there was no agency to
take care of infrastructural needs for the units to be set up under
TRYSEM.
3.5.4. Grewal et al. (1985) observed that after receiving the training only 20
percent of the women adopted tailoring as a profession and the rest
used the art at home and saved approximately Rs. 200/ year.
3.5.5. Bansal and Chamola (1986) found that women after getting the training
in tailoring and embroidery adopted it for household purpose only
because it was difficult for them to generate income by manufacturing
the articles due to their high cost and low demand.
3.5.6. Grewal et al. (1986) found that most of the ladies had not adopted
tailoring as profession because they were not properly trained and
lacked confidence to adopt tailoring as profession.
3.5.7. Mohiuddin (1986) reported that in Andhra Pradesh, women have taken
up tailoring, embroidery, candle making and paper making as
economic activity, but in general profit obtained by them was on lower
side.
3.5.8. Gaur (1987) observed that most of the women had established their
own tailoring and knitting units with the help of District Industries
Centre after receiving the training in the same fields.
3.5.9. Rajasekharan (1987) studied that not even a single woman had adopted
tailoring as a profession after receiving the training under TRYSEM
because too many tailors can not be absorbed by one village.
3.5.10. Rao (1987) in Tamil Nadu, revealed the fact that majority of the
trainees of income generating projects were unemployed or
underemployed and after receiving the training hardly 1/5th of them
started their own enterprise.
3.5.11. Dogra (1988) reported that 21 per cent followed by 6 per cent and 4 per
cent of respondents from TRYSEM had adopted weaving, tailoring and
knitting as profession after getting the training in the same fields.
3.5.12. Longanathan (1988) reported that 50 per cent and 46 per cent of
beneficiaries trained under TRYSEM were employed and self -
employed respectively.
3.5.13. Ghosh (1989) reported that in Nadia, women who got training through
TRYSEM failed to establish their self-employment projects. Out of 7092
women who had received the training in different trades, only 2352
ventured for setting their own projects i.e. only 33 per cent actually
utilised the training. If number of women set up self-employment and
enterprise be added up with women who had taken up wage
employment, it was found that 60 per cent adopted some form of
engagements for earning.
3.5.14. Reddy (1989) reported that in Kurnool district, 9.53 per cent of
backward class women were employed in tailoring after getting
training through TRYSEM. The percentage of scheduled caste and
scheduled tribe women depending on tailoring was found to be 10.48
per cent and 10.00 per cent respectively.
3.5.15. Vidyu Lata (1989) reported that under TRYSEM, training was imparted
in eight trades namely durri making, sewing, embroidery, knitting,
hosiery, dyeing, printing, handloom, typing , canning and bra making
but less than 50 per cent of the beneficiaries could find opportunities
for income generation in the trade of training . Only 18 per cent
beneficiaries were self employed.
3.5.16. Kumar and Kumar (1992) reported that in Gulbarga district of
Karnataka, 40 percent of women under DWCRA were found to be
practically unemployed with a meager income and the remaining were
wage earners. 30 percent of the wage earners were earning Rs. 400-
600/- per month. Considering the employment status of women under
tailoring trade, nearly 75 percent of them were able to get employment
for more than 13 days in a month.
3.5.17. Pande (1993) found that in Almora district of U.P., women were
trained only in weaving and tailoring under the TRYSEM programme
so, stitching appeared to be the major entrepreneurial activity and
carpet making enterprise was the next major women enterprise. It was
found that low level of employment had been generated in these
activities due to lack of experience, lack of technical know how, lack of
marketing skill and social barriers; so enterprises had remained limited
upto manufacturing items for domestic use covering a limited demand
of neighbouring consumers.
3.5.18. Sharma (1993) revealed that fruit and vegetable preservation was
adopted by most of the beneficiaries of Krishi Vigyan Kendra in Karnal
district of Haryana State for household purpose and self-employment.
Tailoring was adopted as self-employment by most of the beneficiaries
of Industrial Training Institute. Durri and Galicha making was adopted
as paid job by most of the beneficiaries of TRYSEM.
3.5.19. Yadav (1993) reported that 15.50 percent of rural women were self-
employed in Mirzapur and Raipur of Hisar District. Most of the
women were involved in tailoring (48.38 percent) followed by
embroidery (19.36 percent), Durri making and Cotton spinning (19.35
percent), earthenware and pottery (12.91 percent). Main reasons to opt
for self-employment were to increase the income of the family, to grow
personally and professionally and inadequacy of husband's income.
3.5.20. Srivastava (1994) reported that majority of the women had
supplemented their income through business. They entered into
business to improve the economic conditions and to satisfy their innate
desire to do something in life.
3.5.21. Patel (1995) reported that most of the educated women had
supplemented their income through enterprises. Most of them had
strongest motivation for their own business because they wanted to
achieve economic independence and satisfaction by earning.
3.5.22. Suhasini and Renuka (1995) reported that most of the women had
supplemented their income through enterprises. They had started their
own enterprises because of economic necessity, their need for
economic independence and provision of incentives and support by
government.
3.5.23. Bimlesh (1996) stated that commonly adopted practices under DWCRA
scheme in both Hisar and Sirsa were Panjeri making, masala grinding,
bakery, embroidery, bangle work, flour making and vegetable
growing. The units like handloom, tailoring, bead making, lakh churra
making, bookbinding and papad wadi making were found only in
Hisar district. While, dairy, rope making, oil expeller, mushroom
cultivation, rabbit rearing and nursery raising were found only in Sirsa
district.
3.5.24. Seema (1996) found that Soap and Papad wadi making units were
started by most of the women for income generation as, they require
low cost and use of local inputs.
3.5.25. Sharma (1996) reported that embroidery, Jutti making and boutique
units were started by most of the women and large units were better
managed. Income generating capacity per rupee of investment of
larger units was found to be more as compared to smaller and medium
units.
3.5.26. Hanamashetti (1998) reported that after receiving the training through
Khadi and Village Industries Corporation lots of women have
supplemented their income by processing of cereals and pulses, papad
and masala making, cottage match and agarbattis making, fruit
processing and fruit preservation, bamboo and cane work, pottery,
palmgur and handmade paper.
3.5.27. Rao and Padmaja (1998) concluded that most of the women under
Swran Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana started Self employment
ventures life petty shops, canteens, tailoring units , milk business etc.
3.5.28. Shehrawat (1998) reported that most of the respondents had opted for
Agro processing industries. They adopted the project because they had
sufficient knowledge and skill to run the project and loan was easily
available.
3.5.29. Tripta and Kaushik (2003) reported that Garments making, knitting,
embroidery, beauty parlour, furniture making, tea Shop, vegetable
shop, agarbatti making, kiryana shop, bangle shop, general store and
papad making were the few areas which were adopted for income
generation by the beneficiaries of Nehru Rozgar Yojana.
3.5.30. Anuradha (2004) reported that most the respondents under Swa-shakti
Self Help Groups had adopted dairy, sheep rearing, goat rearing,
poultry and agriculture for income generation.
3.5.31. Bhatia (2004) reported that majority (68.89 percent) of the women had
supplemented their income through paid job. They had opted for job
due to family pressure and economic necessity.
3.5.32. Sharma et al. (2005) reported that majority of the respondents (about 75
percent) had supplemented their income through knitting enterprises
for better utilization of skill, for income generation and boosting up of
their social status. A small percentage of respondents had preferred
pickle/chutney/murabba making, dairy, beauty parlour and poultry
farming because of their profitability, involving less resources,
approval of family members and high demand of these products.
3.5.33. Jha (2006) reported that in Ramgarh of Boudh District, Orissa about 65
women received the training to process Arhar dal under Swarnjayanti
Gram Swarozgar Yojana. After receiving the training the women have
supplemented their income through micro enterprises. Apart from the
processing of Arhar Dal women are also supplementing their income
by cultivating watermelons.
3.5.34. Kaur (2006) in her study on “Female Participation in Unorganised
Sector in Reference to Small Scale Industries of Saharanpur – An
Industrial City of Uttar Pradesh” reported that female workers were
supplementing their family income through paid job because they
were not aware of the beneficial provisions enforced by government
through various acts and schemes.
3.5.35. Rawat (2007) reported that in Uttarakhand, women were given training
in bamboo dustbin making, biscuit and sevaeen making and squash
making under Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana. After receiving
the training women are making these products at home and selling
them to the Gramya Udyog outlets which are started by Khadi Gram
Udhyog. The Gramya Udyog outlets get these products from Self Help
Groups from all parts of Uttarakhand and sell them. The main sale is
through trade fairs and exhibitions.
3.5.36. Sood (2007) reported that in Kohima, women formed the Self Help
Group (SHG) under Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana. These
women were trained in making woolen shoes. The group not only
started making woolen shoes on cooperative basis and earned steady
income but also went beyond. The other achievements of this SHG
(Self Help Group) is in making of banana chips, potato chips,
preparing papads/rotis from sticky rice and making pickles, stitching
jute bags and other handicrafts besides producing their traditional
handloom items.
This SHG now has a steady income of their own. Their total savings
have accumulated to over Rs. 40,000/-, not a mean feat considering
that these very women at one time were in awe of talking to an official
for help. Products made by their SHG get sold as hot cakes.