Review of

Literature

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A brief resume of past researches related to the present study has been

incorporated in this chapter. The literature have been reviewed under the

following sub-heads :-

3.1 PREFERENCE OF WOMEN FOR INCOME SUPPLEMENTING

PRACTICES

3.1.1 Kumar and Mago (1974) reported that farm women gave their

preference for animal husbandry, farming, clothing, arts and crafts for

income generation.

3.1.2 Bhatnagar et al. (1981) while studying the preferences of graduates

reported that interior decoration, college teacher and nursery teacher

were preferred by most of the girls.

3.1.3 Jain et al. (1981) in study on the distribution of beneficiaries according

to their interest reported that tailoring and garment making was

preferred by majority i.e. 61per cent. Although in all 18 areas had been

suggested by beneficiaries but the number of those recommending

them was however limited. The different areas and number of

beneficiaries suggested were : basket making (12 percent), match

making (3.4 percent), fish net making (2.6 percent), rope making (2.6

percent) and dairy (2.4 percent). Some of the beneficiaries had also

given option for khadi spinning, sericulture, coir yarn and poultry.

3.1.4 Kaur (1982) reported that nearly 55 per cent of the women from

Haryana expressed that training related to animal husbandry should

be given to them.

3.1.5 Anonymous (1982), National Institute of Rural Development after

conducting a survey on preferences of women reported that most

preferred areas were basket making, safety match making, doll making

and match thatches making.

3.1.6 Harris (1986) and Kashyap (1988) reported that soap making, straw

products, manufacturing of garments and household articles, bedding,

dye work and baking skill were the preferred area of women for

income generation.

3.1.7 Pandit (1993) reported that most of the women under TRYSEM

(Training of Rural Youth in Self-Employment) programme preferred

knitting and tailoring for income generation. So, stitching and knitting

appeared to be the major entrepreneurial activities.

3.1.8 Mohanty and Jena (1996) concluded that fish farming was preferred by

most of the women because it did not affect their domestic work.

3.1.9 Lal et. al. (2005) reported that majority of beneficiaries of Krishi Vigyan

Kendra of National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal (Haryana)

preferred dairy for income generation.

3.1.10 Mustafa et al. (2005) reported that majority of beneficiaries of Rudrapur

block of district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand preferred dairy as

income generating activity. Among dairy the preferred areas were:

management of sick animal’s, preparation of balanced ration for

animals, management of breeding animals and production of clean

milk.

3.1.11 Sharma et al. (2005) reported that majority of the beneficiaries (80-90

per cent) preferred ‘stitching boutiques/quilting,’ ‘Pickle/chutney/

murabas making,’ ‘dairy farming’, ‘beauty parlours’,

‘embroidery/crocheting,’ ‘soap/detergent making’, ‘making of

decorative utility articles’, ‘papad/wadi making’ and ‘poultry farming’

because of the economic needs.

So, the above presented researches show that the major preferred areas by

women for income generation were: Dairy, poultry farming, tailoring,

knitting, weaving, embroidery, soap/detergent making and making of

various things like baskets, safety matches, dolls, mats, ropes etc. Majority of

women preferred those projects which can be started at home or outside the

home as small scale units with small amount of money.

3.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADOPTION OF INCOME

GENERATING ACTIVITIES FOR SUPPLEMENTING THE

HOUSEHOLD INCOME.

Some studies which show the effect of different personal, psychological and

situational variables on the adoption of income generating activities for

supplementing the household income are cited here;

3.2.1 AGE Hussain (1968), Kakoty (1975), Sanoriya (1983), Yadav and Jain (1984),

Sheoran and Kumar (1988) and Yadav and Deshpande (1988) reported that

age was significantly associated with the adoption of economic activity.

Similarly, Wasnik (1988), Talwar and Hirevenkanagoudar (1989), Kher (1991),

Bhople (2001), Bonde (2002), Deshmukh (2002) and More (2002) reported that

age was found to be significantly correlated with the adoption of economic

activities.

However, Hundal (1976), Joshi (1985), Singh and Patel (1988), Gogoi and

Gogoi (1989), Katarya (1989), Bhoite and Girose (1991), Kadam and Jagtap

(1991), Khandare (2002) and Chaitanya Kumari (2003) found that Chi-square

value of age was found to be non-significant with the adoption. So age and

adoption were found to be independent of each other. Thus, from above

studies it is found that age affects differently to the adoption of economic

activity.

3.2.2 EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION Halyal (1968), Hussain (1968), Kakoty (1975), Hundal (1976), Singh and Dubey

(1978), Swamy (1978), Najafi (1979), Sanoriya(1983), Yadav and Jain (1984),

Joshi (1985), Sheoran and Kumar (1988), Singh and Patel (1988), Yadav and

Deshpande (1988), Bhoite and Girose (1991), Kadam and Jagtap (1991), Kher

(1991), Dube and Sawarkar (1992), Bhople (2001), Kumar (2002), Mahajan

(2002), More (2002), Parhad (2002), Chaitanya Kumari (2003) and Kumar et al.

(2005) reported that educational qualification of the beneficiaries was found to

be positively associated with the adoption of income generating activities for

supplementing the household income. It means as the level of education

increases it leads to higher adoption.

But Wasnik (1988), Gogoi and Gogoi (1989), Ingle et al. (1991), Bimlesh (1996),

Bonde (2002) and Khandare (2002) found that education was not significantly

associated with the adoption of income generating activities. It means

education has no effect on the adoption of income generating activities for

supplementing the family income.

From the above cited researches, it was found that although in most of the

cases, education affects the adoption significantly in positive direction but on

the whole education affects differently to the adoption of income generating

activities for supplementing the family income.

3.2.3 FAMILY’S TOTAL MONTHLY INCOME

Shukla (1980), Sohi and Kherde (1980), Sanoriya (1983), Yadav and Jain (1984),

Joshi (1985), Singh and Patel (1988), Yadav and Deshpande (1988), Kadam and

Jagtap (1991). Bimlesh (1996), Bhople (2001), Khandare (2002), Kumar (2002),

Mahajan (2002) and Parhad (2002) reported that family’s total monthly

income affects the adoption in positive direction that means more the family’s

income, more will be the adoption because family’s total monthly income

shows significant association with the adoption of income generating

activities.

But Julian et al. (1991), Kher (1991), Shehrawat (1998), Bonde (2002) and

Deshmukh (2002) found that family’s total monthly income was non

significantly correlated with adoption. Hence, family’s total monthly income

does not have any effect on the adoption of income generating activities for

supplementing the family income.

Above studies depict that family’s total monthly income affects differently to

the adoption of income generating activities for supplementing the family

income.

3.2.4 INFORMATION SEEKING

Halyal (1968), Singh and Patel (1988), Bimlesh (1996), Bhople (2001), Parhad

(2002) and Kumar et al. (2005) reported that social participation is positively

and significantly associated with the adoption of income generating activities

so, more the social participation, more will be the adoption.

Hundal (1976), Talwar and Hirevenkanagoundar (1989), Kumar (2002),

Mahajan (2002) and More (2002) found that contacts with extension agencies

were found to be positively correlated with adoption.

Swamy (1978), Talwar and Hirevenkanagoundar (1989), Julian et al. (1991),

Kadam and Jagtap (1991), Kumar (2002) and Kumar et al. (2005) reported that

use of mass media was significantly associated with adoption. It means if the

beneficiaries use the mass media frequently they will adopt more new

practices.

But Sohi and Kherde (1980), Kher et al. (1991), Julian et al. (1991), Shehrawat

(1998), Bonde (2002), Deshmukh (2002), Khandare (2002) and Chaitanya

Kumari et al. (2003) reported that social participation was not significantly

associated with the adoption of income generating activities.

So, the above-cited researches reveal that information seeking affects the

adoption of income generating activities differently.

3.2.5 ATTITUDE OF BENEFICIARIES TOWARDS THE TRAINING

PROGRAMMES RELATED TO INCOME GENERATION

Mahipal (1983), Katarya (1989), Kadam and Jagtap (1991), Pandya (1992),

Lalitha (2002) and More (2002) reported that attitude of beneficiaries towards

the training was positively and significantly correlated with the adoption.

However, in contrary to these researches, Sinha and Sinha (1980), Gogoi and

Gogoi (1989) and Khandare (2002) studied the effect of attitude on the

adoption and reported that attitude was not significantly associated with

adoption of economic activities which infers that adoption is independent of

attitude.

So the above studies reveal that attitude towards training affects the adoption

of economic activities differently.

3.2.6 ECONOMIC MOTIVATION

Singh (1969), Supe (1969), Singh and Sohal (1970), Chandra (1979), Singh

(1980), Mahipal (1983), Joshi (1985), Julian et al. (1991), Pandya (1992), Bhople

(2001), Netake (2002) and Kumar et al. (2005) found that economic motivation

was significantly associated with the adoption of income generating activities

for supplementing the family income. It means high level of economic

motivation leads to high adoption, so adoption is not independent of

economic motivation. But Gogoi and Gogoi (1989), Ingle et al. (1991),

Shehrawat (1998), Bonde (2002), Khandare (2002), Parhad (2002) and

Chaitanya Kumari et al. (2003) reported that economic motivation was not

significantly associated with adoption of income generating activities. This

leads to the conclusion that adoption of income generating activities is

independent of economic motivation.

So, the above-cited researches show that economic motivation affects the

adoption of income generating activities differently.

3.2.7 RISK PREFERENCE

Subramanium (1982), Sanoryia (1983), Katarya (1989), Julian et al. (1991),

Kadam and Jagtap (1991), Shehrawat (1998), Kumar (2002) and Kumar et al.

(2005) studied the effect of risk preference on adoption of income generating

activities and found that there was positive and significant association

between the risk preference and adoption of income generating activities. This

leads to the inference that high level of risk preference leads to more adoption

of income generating activities.

However, Chauhan (1979), Bimlesh (1996) and Bonde (2002) reported that risk

preference and adoption of income generating activities were not significantly

associated. Hence, adoption of income generating activities is independent of

risk preference.

Above presented studies reveal that risk preference affects the adoption of

income generating activities differently.

3.2.8 DURATION OF TRAINING AND INFRASTRUCTURE/ALLIED

FACILITIES AVAILABLE DURING THE TRAINING OF INCOME

GENERATING ACTIVITIES

A. DURATION OF TRAINING

Sanoriya (1983) reported that most preferred duration of training by the

trainees was of one week. Bhoite and Dhane (1985) reported that duration of

training should be of two or more than two months.

Kashyap and Singh (1988) reported that majority of trainees felt that the

number of trainees should be less than thirty in one batch and duration of

training should be increased. Bansal and Chamola (1986), Grewal et al. (1985),

Krishnaiah (1990) and Satyasundaram (1991) reported that the duration of

training for income generation was defective and it did not help the trainees

in proper skill acquisition. Sharma (1993) and Bhople (2001) reported that

duration of training was found to be significantly associated with adoption of

income generating activities. It means adoption is not independent of

duration of training.

B. INFRASTRUCTURE /ALLIED FACILITIES AVAILABLE

DURING THE TRAINING

Lack of staff to provide proper skill for self-employment and lack of local

institutions was reported by Smucker (1981) and Jain et al. (1981). However,

insufficient trainer’s knowledge to provide proper skill for self employment,

no provision of literature and lack of physical facilities were reported by

Singh and Gill (1981), Rajula Devi (1983), Pande (1986) and Rajana Kumari

et al. (1984). Whereas, Gupta (1983) observed lack of adequate facilities for

practical training in agricultural training programme of Punjab, Haryana and

Himachal Pradesh. Sharma (1988) observed lack of recreational facilities and

unsatisfactory medical facilities during the training.

Further, Sharma (1993), Bhople (2001) and Khandare (2002) reported that

infrastructure facilities available during the training had significant

correlation with adoption of income generating activities. This leads to the

conclusion that adoption is not independent of infrastructure facilities

provided during the training. If proper facilities are provided during the

training then beneficiaries will be able to learn the contents of training easily.

Hence, they can easily adopt it.

But Bonde (2002) reported that infrastructure facilities available during the

training were not significantly associated with adoption, which infers that

adoption is independent of infrastructure facilities provided during the

training.

So, the above studies reveal that infrastructure facilities available during the

training affect the adoption differently.

3.3 REASONS FOR JOINING THE TRAINING COURSES

3.3.1. Shehrawat (1998) reported that most of the respondents had joined the

training of income generation to upgrade the skill, to learn new

operational techniques and to learn better marketing techniques.

3.3.2. Anuradha (2004) reported that main reasons for joining the training

were income generation, to supplement the family income, easy

availability of loan after the training and motivation by family

members.

3.4 CONSTRAINTS FACED BY WOMEN IN ADOPTION OF INCOME

GENERATING PROJECTS

3.4.1. Burkhalter (1979) reported that Asha Handicraft faced the serious

problem of marketing because it was difficult for the women to

produce according to the specification.

3.4.2. Lal (1979) reported that women earn only Rs.40 to 50 per month from

mirror work due to marketing problem.

3.4.3. Anonymous (1979), World Conference on Agrarian Reforms and Rural

Development (WCARRD) reported that lack of technical knowledge

and skill limited the participation of women in income generating

projects. Other serious problems faced by rural women were lack of

marketing skills and lack of vital information.

3.4.4. A project was conducted by Tulsi (1980) on “Incentives for Small-Scale

Industries : An Evaluation”. He found that there is a great need of new

technology, stimulation of innovative research activities and

counseling services in the field of small-scale sector. Small

entrepreneurs suffer not merely because of weak infrastructure but

also to a considerable extent by information gaps in respect of the

availability of different forms of financial incentives available and

techniques of investment appraisal.

3.4.5. Solanki (1981) reported that economic conditions of rural craftsmen

had been deteriorating due to serious problem of marketing.

3.4.6. Smucker (1981) found that a major constraint on employment options

of women was the lack of system to teach them the skill needed for

economic development.

3.4.7. Singh and Gill (1981) reported that problems faced by trainees during

training were short duration of general motivational course, teachers

lacking knowledge of regional language, less involvement of teachers

in practical classes, lack of follow up and physical facilities.

3.4.8. Bharadwaj (1982) concluded that major constraints felt by the trainees

were: unsuitable time schedule and inadequate marketing facilities.

3.4.9. Gangrade and Gathia (1983) studied on “Women and Child Workers in

the Unorganised Sector”. They reported that the women in

unorganised sector face a lot of problems such as low wages, long

hours of work, insecurity regarding job and sexual harassment. Inspite

of the law prescribing equal wages for equal work, women are seldom

paid wages at par with men workers. The employers give two reasons

for this : (i) that women are less productive; and (ii) that they are less

skilled. Infact, these reasons are not so convincing.

3.4.10. Janardhan Swaroop (1983) observed that lack of technical knowledge

and skill limited the participation of women in self-employment.

3.4.11. Srivastava (1983) reported that in TRYSEM, the period of training was

generally short and training was incomplete in most of the cases so,

beneficiaries were not able to generate employment. Stipend paid by

District Rural Development Agency was not regular and no tool kit

was provided to trainees during the training. The Industrial Training

Institutes impart trainings which are appropriate for organised urban

industrial sectors and not for self-employment in rural sectors. Also,

the post training guidance in the project related to problems continues

to be poor.

3.4.12. Balakrishnan (1984) reported that main problems felt by women for

income generation are using banking service, keeping simple accounts

and maintaining the stock inventories.

3.4.13. Government of India (1984) while conducting a study revealed that

females had undergone the training not for self-employment but for an

art to learn.

3.4.14. Kaur (1984) found that complicated loaning procedure and short

duration of training were found to be major constraints for flat

knitting, chalk making and circular knitting.

3.4.15. Anuradha and Sinha (1985) reported that in TRYSEM, no attempt was

made by trainers to identify the special needs of trainees and no

outside expert was involved in the training. As a result, no input for

developing entrepreneurial qualities was provided in the training

programme. The statement, "The activities of TRYSEM are not clear to

me" made by head of training institute speaks for itself. Sewing

machines were also indiscriminately distributed to the girls with no

thought given to income generating projects of the trade.

3.4.16. Singh (1985) found that women workers face lots of constraints and

difficulties. First, the agents who recruit them for job receive more

commission and exploit them. Secondly, there is no definite hours of

work, they work day and night for getting small amount of money.

3.4.17. Verma and Kaur (1985) reported that majority of women expressed

procedure of loan/subsidy procurement to be very complicated.

Further, it was reported that lack of raw material and marketing

problems were acting as hindrance in income generation.

3.4.18. Yadav (1985) concluded that lack of awareness regarding the credit

facilities and lack of skill were the major problems for rural women to

generate the income.

3.4.19. Banarjee (1986) reported that women are unable to generate income

due to lack of skill, lack of technical know how, marketing and

financial problems.

3.4.20. Gupta (1986) reported lack of finance and technical know how as main

constraints for income generation.

3.4.21. Kumar (1987) found that women workers lack technical guidance and

marketing ability so they are not able to compete with advanced urban

market.

3.4.22. Sarkar (1987) reported that rural women face many constraints such as

some time they are not able to identify any bankable scheme that

would suit them. Women in most of the cases find it difficult to get

loan from bank because the land records in most cases stand in the

name of male members of the family.

3.4.23. Kumar (1988) reported that the beneficiaries of DWCRA faced the

problem of marketing in selling their products.

3.4.24. Singharoy and Agarwal (1989) reported that in Khanpur village of

Dinojpur district of West Bengal, jute mats have higher demand in

urban area but even then, the rural women are not able to generate

income through this project as they were not given proper training for

improved quality and for marketing facilities so they have to depend

on middle men.

3.4.25. Vidyu Lata (1989) reported that main problems faced by women were

low sale of products, inadequate skill, non-remunerative job, tiring job,

inadequate finance and non- availability of raw material.

3.4.26. Iyenger (1990) reported that in Khadi Gramodyog training, the trail

and error method adopted in training in beginning could not bring

fruitful results of the training. The training centre was not need based.

Few centres were abruptly closed and no new organisation came up for

filling their places.

3.4.27. Reddy et al. (1990) reported that in Chittore district of Andhra Pradesh

in training of income generation, too much emphasis is given on the

theoretical training rather than imparting technical training to the

beneficiaries. At various stages beneficiaries require suggestions,

guidance and support which is totally absent.

3.4.28. Satyasundaram (1991) reported that under TRYSEM the period of

training was short and in most of the cases, training was incomplete

and the payment of stipends was also irregular.

3.4.29. Kamalun Nabi and Kumar (1992) reported that in Orissa, the slow

growth of entrepreneurs is due to lack of infrastructure facilities, non-

availability of raw material, transport and communication facilities and

lack of market.

3.4.30. Kaushik and Singhal (1992) found that constraints faced by Dairy

Cooperatives in Karnal were : lack of knowledge about Government

help and subsidies, lack of knowledge about cooperative society, lack

of finance, lack of credit facilities, lack of timely instructions.

Personal/familial problems tended to be ranked low than educational,

communicational and economic problems.

3.4.31. Nikhade et al. (1992) reported that serious constraints felt by the rural

youth were problem of marketing and transportation, lack of technical

know-how and lack of finance.

3.4.32. Singh and Sharma (1992) reported that serious economic problems

encountered by educated unemployed rural youth were : lack of

finance for generating self employment, difficulty in getting loan from

banks and other concerned agencies. Other problems were : lack of

vocational training centres at village level, lack of guidance for self

employment and lack of initiative from family members and peers in

opting for self employment.

3.4.33. Shehrawat and Sharma (1992) Observed that educated

unemployed rural youth has to encounter a lot of problems after

acquiring education for setting up of their self employment

projects. The facilities for counselling and guidance at village

level are completely lacking.

3.4.34. Deputy Director, SISI, Solan (1993) reported lack of economic

motivation on the part of individuals, lack of managerial skills to

start and manage the enterprise, lack of finance for initial

investment and lack of financial support as the major constraints

in adoption of income generating activities.

3.4.35. Yadav (1993) reported that over burden, negligence of duties

(Children, household, family members) and family were the three

important constraints faced by self employed women in tailoring,

embroidery, durri making and cotton spinning activities. Other

constraints were lack of cooperation from husband and family

members and no time for leisure, sleep, personal care and

entertainment.

3.4.36. Kaptan (1994) in his study “Towards a New Dawn” revealed that

all entrepreneurs have problems with their business during start-

up and current operations. Women entrepreneurs in developing

regions have to face many such problems, as they are the first of

their kind to enter this male dominated world. Sex stereotyping

and continuing discrimination against women in the work force

affect business women very significantly. Women with sufficient

managerial and business expertise have not been offered the

same opportunity. Major problems faced by women

entrepreneurs during start-up are: lack of business training, lack

of awareness, lack of foresight, lack of under standing as to

selection of right line of business, limited support from family

and relations, lack of guidance and counseling and weak

collateral position. Problems faced during current operations

such as lack of experience in financial matters and obtaining

credit, problem in selecting appropriate marketing strategy, poor

sales network, tough competition and problems of technology

automation and personnel.

3.4.37. Singh and Goel (1994) reported that major problems faced by the

women beneficiaries in Cinwa Panchayat Samiti of Udaipur district

were lack of finance, lack of space and lack of cooperative zeal among

the members. Other problems faced by the beneficiaries were non

availability of quality raw material, high cost of raw material, delayed

payment of goods produced, lack of knowledge of account keeping

and lack of technical knowledge.

3.4.38. Patel (1995) found that main problems encountered by

entrepreneurs in setting up of their economy units were lack of

full knowledge about available business particulars, lack of

managerial competence to run manufacturing units and lack of

information about various institution, requirements and source

of assistance.

3.4.39. Kataria (1995) and Kaushik (1996) concluded that the major constraints

felt by the beneficiaries in adopting the income generating projects

were lack of timely instructions/training, lack of encouragement,

inadequate credit, low rate of income generation, lack of appropriate

skill to run the project and low level of marketing ability.

3.4.40. Bhagania (1996) concluded that majority of beneficiaries reported

improper distribution of loan and lack of capital money as the major

economic barrier in adoption of economic projects. 75 percent

beneficiaries felt lack of guidance for availing credit facilities and

complicated procurement procedure as major input barrier. Some

beneficiaries reported parents and family objection to work in group

projects and interaction with male persons as socio cultural barrier.

Most of the women observed no provision of remunerative price in the

local market and difficulty outside the village as marketing barriers.

3.4.41. Bimlesh (1996) stated that under DWCRA scheme in Hisar and Sirsa

district most commonly constraints faced by the enterprises were delay

in supply of raw material, difficulty in maintenance of machinery, lack

of finance and delayed disposal of produce.

3.4.42. Jairath (1996) and Malliswari (1996) concluded that main

constraints encountered by entrepreneurs in agro processing

industries were inadequate marketing facilities, transport

facilities and inadequate finance to run the enterprise.

3.4.43. Lalitha Rani (1996) reported that major problems encountered by

entrepreneurs were non-availability of proper raw materials

locally and complicated credit facilities.

3.4.44. Rao et al. (1996) reported that the main constraints faced by

cooperative society of Hyderabad were as follows:-

1. Obtaining raw material is the foremost problem.

2. Lack of orders for producing handicrafts.

3. Delayed payments.

4. Lack of infrastructural facilities.

5. Unwillingness of regional rural banks and commercials banks to

lend loans to cooperative society.

3.4.45. Seema (1996) concluded that entrepreneurs faced the problem of

complicated credit procedures so, they obtained the money from

relatives. Other problems faced by the women enterprises were lack of

proper staff, difficulty in getting the money from buyer after sale, lack

of finance for purchase of raw material and lack of marketing ability.

3.4.46. Chidambaram and Themanzhi (1998) concluded that various

constraints encountered by women enterprises were excessive burden

of work and responsibilities (72 percent) followed by lack of leisure

time (62 percent), difficulty in handling technical, financial and

managerial activities (43 percent), lack of sufficient time to look after

the children and family (34 percent), complicated procedure in

maintenance and repairing of machines (44 percent) and lack of

technical knowledge (35 percent). Similarly, among marketing

constraints the most common constraint were lack of transport

facilities, lack of marketing experience and difficulty in getting money

from buyer after sale.

3.4.47. Shehrawat (1998) concluded that irregular supply of raw

material, high cost of quality raw material, non-availability of

raw material locally, lack of Government support, lack of

technical know how, long and complicated procedures to avail

institutional help, difficulty in maintenance and repair of

machinery, difficulty in getting money from buyer after sale, lack

of finance and lack of motivation as the major constraints faced

by enterprises.

3.4.48. Yadav et al. (1998) conducted a study in rural area of Hisar district of

Haryana to study the familial constraints of working women. Rural

women reported that excessive burden of work and responsibilities,

negligence of family and children, no cooperation from family

members were major constraints felt by them.

3.4.49. Cauvery and Sudha Nayak (2000) have studied both demand and

supply side issues related to women domestic workers of Salem

to analyze the gender-poverty nexus in the informal sector. They

revealed many hitherto unexplored aspects of this segment of

poor female labourers. Lack of skills, physical work of different

types, long hours of work with limited payment, lack of

guarantee of minimum facilities at the work spot are the

characteristics of the informal sector.

3.4.50. Bishnoi (2001) reported that major constraints felt by the beneficiaries

of developmental programmes for empowerment of mother and girl

child were lack of literature and timely guidance, lack of

encouragement and motivation, family responsibilities, excessive

burden of work at home and hindrance due to ill health.

3.4.51. Bhople (2001) found that the major constraints revealed by the

respondents of KVKs Jalgaon, Jamol and Karda in Vidarbha region

were non availability of raw material, high cost of quality of raw

material and non availability of loan in adoption of important

agricultural practices.

3.4.52. Srivastava (2001), Deshmanya et al. (2003) and Adhikaram and

Vasantha (2004) stated that irregular payment of labour cost and low

and discriminatory wages were the most commonly felt economic

constraints by the women workers.

3.4.53. Sudarshan (2001) reported that the economic constraints felt by the

beneficiaries of Krishi Vigyan Kendras and Training institutes of

training cum production centers were low and discriminatory wages,

unassured income from the projects and lack of risk taking ability.

3.4.54. Vyas and Patel (2001) reported that the constraints faced by milk

producers in adoption of dairy technology were non availability of

loan facility for purchase of milk animals and fodder, high construction

cost of byre, no proper rate of milk produced, non availability of milk

marketing and transport facility.

3.4.55. Waman and Rahane (2001) found that the major constraints in

adoption of economic activities as paid job were insufficient wage,

irregularity in payment of labour cost, negligence of children and

family members, hindrance due to ill health.

3.4.56. Joshi (2002) reported that the current income generation programmes

mainly include–Ringal products (Bamboo) i.e. basket, mats etc.,

handicrafts, carpet making, shawls, woolen sheets, warm coats, angora

production, banana chips making, embroidery etc. However, the

number of trainers is not adequate and this affects timing and

regularity of class adversely. Resources like raw material and

equipments are often unavailable or inadequate to suit the demands of

the villagers who come for training. Lack of systematic planning and

implementation of training camps leaves no room for follow up,

feedback, monitoring and supported activities after the training

programmes. Travel difficulties, large distances from accessible

markets and abysmally poor service delivering system in the region

have constrained marketing opportunities. In addition to this lack of

support from DRDA or Panchayat has resulted in restricted number of

training classes. These activities provide women with meager income

which do not allow them economic independence in an effective sense.

3.4.57. Kumar (2002) found that lack of technical know how, inadequate

facilities, high cost of quality raw material, inadequate availability of

raw material and poor credit facilities were perceived as major

constraints in adoption of rape seed production technology.

3.4.58. Sandhu (2002) revealed that excessive burden of work, family

problems and negligence of children were the major socio cultural

constraints felt by the women workers.

3.4.59. Sivanarayana et al. (2002) reported that lack of credit facilities, high

cost and non availability of quality inputs, inadequate knowledge, lack

of vital information, lack of skills, lack of practicals during the training

programmes and no provision of literature for retaining the knowledge

were the few constraints faced by most of the farmers in adoption of

improved agricultural technologies.

3.4.60. Adhikaram Vasantha (2004) stated that socio cultural constraints faced

by working women were excessive burden of work and

responsibilities, negligence of house and children and family problems.

3.4.61. Bhatia (2004) reported the socio cultural constraints reported by

women workers were excessive burden of work, negligence of

children, negligence of family members and hindrance due to ill health.

3.4.62. Gill et al. (2004) reported that the major constraints faced by farm

women in agriculture and allied practices were lack of latest technical

knowledge, financial problems and marketing problems.

3.4.63. Goyal (2004) reported that main problems felt by women enterprises

were shortage of finance, marketing problem, shortage of raw material,

high cost of quality raw material, negligence of family members,

inadequate infrastructure, lack of technical know how and other social

and economical constraints.

3.4.64. Ukkuru (2004) sought to study the impact of dual role played by

working women on their health and nutritional profile. Women

going out to work have increasingly to cope with the double

burden of work. The implications of outside work, in addition to

their domestic burden, on working women’s health and

nutritional profile they reported a sense of economic

independence emerging from employment and reported using

their economic resources to meet household expenses. They

prioritized their constraints as emerging from poor transport

facilities, low wages, and strenuous work conditions. Employed

women were spending less time on ‘personal care’ than full time

housewives, who reported greater time spent on entertainment

and relaxation. Employed women, despite their dual burden of

work, were found to enjoy better health status than their

unemployed counterparts. They were also stated to be health

conscious.

3.4.65. Vepa (2004) Summarized that lack of technical know-how, lack of

marketing ability, inadequate finance, inadequate credit facilities

through financial institutions were the major problems of rural

enterprises.

3.4.66. Bardhan et al. (2005) reported that major constraints perceived by dairy

farmers were non-remunerative price of milk, testing of milk only on

the basis of fat and high cost of feeds.

3.4.67. Sharma et al. (2005) reported that about 90 percent of respondents

reported that they were lacking technical information as well as

knowledge about the rules and regulation governing to start the

preferred enterprise. As large as 70-80 percent of the respondents did

not posses knowledge about various government/non-government

agencies promoting the enterprises.

3.4.68. Kaur (2006) in her study on “Female Participation in Unorganised

Sector in Reference to Small Scale Industries of Saharanpur – An

Industrial City of Uttar Pradesh” reported that constraints faced by the

female workers were : unsatisfactory working conditions, heavy

physical work, long hours of work, lack of minimum facilities at work

place and ill treatment by the employers.

The above studies reveal that the major constraints faced by the adopters and

non adopters are input constraints like non availability of credit, raw material

etc., economic constraints, like low wages, lack of finance for generating self

employment etc., educational and communicational constraints like lack of

knowledge for availing inputs and credit, lack of vital information and short

duration of trainings. The other constraints faced by women are technological

constraints, marketing constraints and lack of follow up action.

3.5 PATTERNS OF INCOME SUPPLEMENTING PRACTICES:-

3.5.1. Johns (1979) reported that most of the women had adopted the rope

making and knitting project for household purpose only due to the

problem of marketing.

3.5.2. Almelu (1983) in his survey conducted in Delhi found that more or

less, all the trainees from dress making training course were

unemployed.

3.5.3. Rujula Devi (1983) in her study on TRYSEM in Andhra Pradesh in

Visakhapatnam district reported that as far as post training activities

were concerned, a sizeable number of candidates had gone for job

rather than establishing their own units because there was no agency to

take care of infrastructural needs for the units to be set up under

TRYSEM.

3.5.4. Grewal et al. (1985) observed that after receiving the training only 20

percent of the women adopted tailoring as a profession and the rest

used the art at home and saved approximately Rs. 200/ year.

3.5.5. Bansal and Chamola (1986) found that women after getting the training

in tailoring and embroidery adopted it for household purpose only

because it was difficult for them to generate income by manufacturing

the articles due to their high cost and low demand.

3.5.6. Grewal et al. (1986) found that most of the ladies had not adopted

tailoring as profession because they were not properly trained and

lacked confidence to adopt tailoring as profession.

3.5.7. Mohiuddin (1986) reported that in Andhra Pradesh, women have taken

up tailoring, embroidery, candle making and paper making as

economic activity, but in general profit obtained by them was on lower

side.

3.5.8. Gaur (1987) observed that most of the women had established their

own tailoring and knitting units with the help of District Industries

Centre after receiving the training in the same fields.

3.5.9. Rajasekharan (1987) studied that not even a single woman had adopted

tailoring as a profession after receiving the training under TRYSEM

because too many tailors can not be absorbed by one village.

3.5.10. Rao (1987) in Tamil Nadu, revealed the fact that majority of the

trainees of income generating projects were unemployed or

underemployed and after receiving the training hardly 1/5th of them

started their own enterprise.

3.5.11. Dogra (1988) reported that 21 per cent followed by 6 per cent and 4 per

cent of respondents from TRYSEM had adopted weaving, tailoring and

knitting as profession after getting the training in the same fields.

3.5.12. Longanathan (1988) reported that 50 per cent and 46 per cent of

beneficiaries trained under TRYSEM were employed and self -

employed respectively.

3.5.13. Ghosh (1989) reported that in Nadia, women who got training through

TRYSEM failed to establish their self-employment projects. Out of 7092

women who had received the training in different trades, only 2352

ventured for setting their own projects i.e. only 33 per cent actually

utilised the training. If number of women set up self-employment and

enterprise be added up with women who had taken up wage

employment, it was found that 60 per cent adopted some form of

engagements for earning.

3.5.14. Reddy (1989) reported that in Kurnool district, 9.53 per cent of

backward class women were employed in tailoring after getting

training through TRYSEM. The percentage of scheduled caste and

scheduled tribe women depending on tailoring was found to be 10.48

per cent and 10.00 per cent respectively.

3.5.15. Vidyu Lata (1989) reported that under TRYSEM, training was imparted

in eight trades namely durri making, sewing, embroidery, knitting,

hosiery, dyeing, printing, handloom, typing , canning and bra making

but less than 50 per cent of the beneficiaries could find opportunities

for income generation in the trade of training . Only 18 per cent

beneficiaries were self employed.

3.5.16. Kumar and Kumar (1992) reported that in Gulbarga district of

Karnataka, 40 percent of women under DWCRA were found to be

practically unemployed with a meager income and the remaining were

wage earners. 30 percent of the wage earners were earning Rs. 400-

600/- per month. Considering the employment status of women under

tailoring trade, nearly 75 percent of them were able to get employment

for more than 13 days in a month.

3.5.17. Pande (1993) found that in Almora district of U.P., women were

trained only in weaving and tailoring under the TRYSEM programme

so, stitching appeared to be the major entrepreneurial activity and

carpet making enterprise was the next major women enterprise. It was

found that low level of employment had been generated in these

activities due to lack of experience, lack of technical know how, lack of

marketing skill and social barriers; so enterprises had remained limited

upto manufacturing items for domestic use covering a limited demand

of neighbouring consumers.

3.5.18. Sharma (1993) revealed that fruit and vegetable preservation was

adopted by most of the beneficiaries of Krishi Vigyan Kendra in Karnal

district of Haryana State for household purpose and self-employment.

Tailoring was adopted as self-employment by most of the beneficiaries

of Industrial Training Institute. Durri and Galicha making was adopted

as paid job by most of the beneficiaries of TRYSEM.

3.5.19. Yadav (1993) reported that 15.50 percent of rural women were self-

employed in Mirzapur and Raipur of Hisar District. Most of the

women were involved in tailoring (48.38 percent) followed by

embroidery (19.36 percent), Durri making and Cotton spinning (19.35

percent), earthenware and pottery (12.91 percent). Main reasons to opt

for self-employment were to increase the income of the family, to grow

personally and professionally and inadequacy of husband's income.

3.5.20. Srivastava (1994) reported that majority of the women had

supplemented their income through business. They entered into

business to improve the economic conditions and to satisfy their innate

desire to do something in life.

3.5.21. Patel (1995) reported that most of the educated women had

supplemented their income through enterprises. Most of them had

strongest motivation for their own business because they wanted to

achieve economic independence and satisfaction by earning.

3.5.22. Suhasini and Renuka (1995) reported that most of the women had

supplemented their income through enterprises. They had started their

own enterprises because of economic necessity, their need for

economic independence and provision of incentives and support by

government.

3.5.23. Bimlesh (1996) stated that commonly adopted practices under DWCRA

scheme in both Hisar and Sirsa were Panjeri making, masala grinding,

bakery, embroidery, bangle work, flour making and vegetable

growing. The units like handloom, tailoring, bead making, lakh churra

making, bookbinding and papad wadi making were found only in

Hisar district. While, dairy, rope making, oil expeller, mushroom

cultivation, rabbit rearing and nursery raising were found only in Sirsa

district.

3.5.24. Seema (1996) found that Soap and Papad wadi making units were

started by most of the women for income generation as, they require

low cost and use of local inputs.

3.5.25. Sharma (1996) reported that embroidery, Jutti making and boutique

units were started by most of the women and large units were better

managed. Income generating capacity per rupee of investment of

larger units was found to be more as compared to smaller and medium

units.

3.5.26. Hanamashetti (1998) reported that after receiving the training through

Khadi and Village Industries Corporation lots of women have

supplemented their income by processing of cereals and pulses, papad

and masala making, cottage match and agarbattis making, fruit

processing and fruit preservation, bamboo and cane work, pottery,

palmgur and handmade paper.

3.5.27. Rao and Padmaja (1998) concluded that most of the women under

Swran Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana started Self employment

ventures life petty shops, canteens, tailoring units , milk business etc.

3.5.28. Shehrawat (1998) reported that most of the respondents had opted for

Agro processing industries. They adopted the project because they had

sufficient knowledge and skill to run the project and loan was easily

available.

3.5.29. Tripta and Kaushik (2003) reported that Garments making, knitting,

embroidery, beauty parlour, furniture making, tea Shop, vegetable

shop, agarbatti making, kiryana shop, bangle shop, general store and

papad making were the few areas which were adopted for income

generation by the beneficiaries of Nehru Rozgar Yojana.

3.5.30. Anuradha (2004) reported that most the respondents under Swa-shakti

Self Help Groups had adopted dairy, sheep rearing, goat rearing,

poultry and agriculture for income generation.

3.5.31. Bhatia (2004) reported that majority (68.89 percent) of the women had

supplemented their income through paid job. They had opted for job

due to family pressure and economic necessity.

3.5.32. Sharma et al. (2005) reported that majority of the respondents (about 75

percent) had supplemented their income through knitting enterprises

for better utilization of skill, for income generation and boosting up of

their social status. A small percentage of respondents had preferred

pickle/chutney/murabba making, dairy, beauty parlour and poultry

farming because of their profitability, involving less resources,

approval of family members and high demand of these products.

3.5.33. Jha (2006) reported that in Ramgarh of Boudh District, Orissa about 65

women received the training to process Arhar dal under Swarnjayanti

Gram Swarozgar Yojana. After receiving the training the women have

supplemented their income through micro enterprises. Apart from the

processing of Arhar Dal women are also supplementing their income

by cultivating watermelons.

3.5.34. Kaur (2006) in her study on “Female Participation in Unorganised

Sector in Reference to Small Scale Industries of Saharanpur – An

Industrial City of Uttar Pradesh” reported that female workers were

supplementing their family income through paid job because they

were not aware of the beneficial provisions enforced by government

through various acts and schemes.

3.5.35. Rawat (2007) reported that in Uttarakhand, women were given training

in bamboo dustbin making, biscuit and sevaeen making and squash

making under Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana. After receiving

the training women are making these products at home and selling

them to the Gramya Udyog outlets which are started by Khadi Gram

Udhyog. The Gramya Udyog outlets get these products from Self Help

Groups from all parts of Uttarakhand and sell them. The main sale is

through trade fairs and exhibitions.

3.5.36. Sood (2007) reported that in Kohima, women formed the Self Help

Group (SHG) under Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana. These

women were trained in making woolen shoes. The group not only

started making woolen shoes on cooperative basis and earned steady

income but also went beyond. The other achievements of this SHG

(Self Help Group) is in making of banana chips, potato chips,

preparing papads/rotis from sticky rice and making pickles, stitching

jute bags and other handicrafts besides producing their traditional

handloom items.

This SHG now has a steady income of their own. Their total savings

have accumulated to over Rs. 40,000/-, not a mean feat considering

that these very women at one time were in awe of talking to an official

for help. Products made by their SHG get sold as hot cakes.