Post on 28-Aug-2018
Mapping Context for Social Accountability
A ResouRce PAPeR
S O C I A L D E V E L O P M E N T D E P A R T M E N T
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A ResouRce PAPeR
Mapping Context for Social Accountability
Simon C. O’Meally
S O C I A L D E V E L O P M E N T D E P A R T M E N T
ii
© 2013 The World Bank Group
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Cover: Two Frelimo (ruling party) workers outside the party offices in Marracuene, Mozambique, 2002.
Photo credit: Eric Miller, World Bank.
Citation:
O’Meally, S. C. 2013. “Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper.” Social Development
Department, World Bank, Washington, DC.
iii
contents
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................................ vAbbreviations...................................................................................................................................................... viExecutive.Summary........................................................................................................................................... ix
1.. Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 1What is Social Accountability? ..............................................................................................................................................................1
Why Context? ................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Knowledge Gaps ...........................................................................................................................................................................................3
Objectives of the Paper ...........................................................................................................................................................................4
Challenges and Caveats ............................................................................................................................................................................4
Methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Report Layout .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
2.. .Toward.the.Major.Contextual.Factors:.Six.Domains......................................................................... 7Civil Society ...................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Political Society .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Inter-Elite Relations .................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
State-Society Relations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Intra-Society Relations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 19
Global Dimensions .................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
3... Toward.a.Context-Sensitive.Understanding.of.Social.Accountability.Change........................ 23Design Factors and Change ................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Building Blocks for a Theory of Social Accountability Change .......................................................................................... 26
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
4.. Toward.Practical.Implications.................................................................................................................33Summary of Practical Implications ....................................................................................................................................................33
Unpacking the Cross-Cutting Implications: Tool 1 ..................................................................................................................... 38
Context-Specific Implications—Toward an If … Then Approach: Tool 2 ........................................................................ 47
Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................................................................................60
5.. Conclusion....................................................................................................................................................61
Annexes1 Analyzing Contexts for Social Accountability: Tool 3.........................................................................................................65
2 Thinking about Change in Political Settlements ....................................................................................................................81
3 The Method for Developing Chapter 4’s If … Then Framework ....................................................................................85
Notes....................................................................................................................................................................87
References..........................................................................................................................................................89
iv
Boxes2.1 Health Center Committees in Zambia: The Challenge of Low Civil Society Technical Capacity.................... 8
2.2 Capacity, Willingness, and Political Credibility: Nijera Kori in Bangladesh ................................................................. 9
2.3 Willing Civil Servants and Enhanced Accountability: Citizen Report Cards in Bangalore, India ....................... 11
2.4 Limited Political Will and Weak State Institutions: Tenant’s Movement in Mombasa, Kenya ........................ 12
2.5 Rwanda: A Neo-Patrimonial Developmental Settlement? Emerging Forms of
Social Accountability ........................................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.6 A Fragile Political Settlement, Legitimacy, and Local Civic Engagement in Iraq and Beyond ........................... 17
2.7 The Social Contract and Social Accountability: Three Examples ................................................................................... 18
2.8 A Strong History of Grassroots Mobilization: The Treatment Action Campaign in South Africa ................ 19
2.9 Inequality, Exclusion and Social Accountability: Various Examples ............................................................................20
2.10 Global-Local Accountability Networks: Fishery Example .................................................................................................. 21
3.1 State-Society Alliances, Political Dynamics, and Accountability: The Philippines ............................................... 24
3.2 Information and “Painting” the Picture: Participatory Budgeting in Brazil ................................................................ 25
3.3 A Multipronged Approach to Accountability: Rural Landless Movement in Brazil ............................................. 26
3.4 The ”’Sandwich Strategy’” and Rural Development in Mexico ..................................................................................... 29
4.1 A Note on How to Use This If … Then Tool ........................................................................................................................... 47
Figures1 Toward a Context-Sensitive Understanding of Social Accountability and Change ..............................................xii
3.1 Toward a Context-Sensitive Understanding of Social Accountability and Change .............................................. 31
A1.1 Main Steps in Designing Context-Specific Social Accountability Programs ............................................................ 78
Tables1 Summary of the Key Contextual Domains and Subdimensions that Influence Social Accountability ...... xiii
1.1 Disaggregating Social Accountability .............................................................................................................................................2
1.2 Stylized Differences in Emphasis between Social Accountability Tools and Context-Sensitivity ...................3
2.1 Two Types of Political Settlement and the Incentive Structure: Open Versus Limited
Access Orders ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 Summary of the Key Contextual Domains and Subdimensions that Influence Social Accountability ....... 22
3.1 Mainstream Approaches and the Value-Added of the Paper’s Proposed Approach .......................................... 32
A1.1 Checklist on the Process of Conducting the Analysis ........................................................................................................66
A2.1 The Ways in which Political Settlements Change and the Role for Social Accountability .............................. 82
v
Acknowledgements
The team lead and author of this paper is Dr. Simon O’Meally, a Governance Special-ist at the World Bank. The piece has benefitted from the invaluable input, guidance, and comments of Helene Grandvoinnet, Lead Governance Specialist, the World Bank. The piece has also benefitted from the important input and comments on a number of itera-tions received from Caroline Rusten, Maria Amelina, and Ghazia Aslam, as well as com-ments from Asli Gurkan and Janmejay Singh from the Social Development Department of the World Bank. This piece has also incorporated the excellent inputs of Shruti Majum-dar—World Bank consultant—especially on the case-study material presented here. In addition, the author has received much-appreciated technical input and comments from Anu Joshi, who is a research fellow at the Institute of Development Studies in Brighton, United Kingdom. Sincere appreciation is also extended to Laura Johnson for excellent editorial support, design, and formatting.
The paper draws heavily on work commissioned by the World Bank to the Institute of Devel-opment Policy and Management at the University of Manchester, United Kingdom and led by Dr. Sam Hickey with Badru Bukenya and Sophie King (see Bukenya and King 2012; Bukenya et al. 2012). They conducted a significant amount of the invaluable analytical work underpinning this paper, for which we owe a great debt.
The concept note and/or penultimate draft of this work was also strengthened by comments from Brian Levy, Jeff Thindwa, Christopher Finch, and Anu Joshi (IDS) as well as from Maitreyi Das, Susan Wong, Bernard Harborne, and Nikolas Win Myint from the World Bank. A much earlier version of the annexed tool for analyzing context also benefitted from comments from Denis Maro Biseko and Katherine Bain, also at the World Bank.
These acknowledgements notwithstanding, the views outlined in this paper represent those of the author and do not represent, in any way, a World Bank policy or position.
vi
Abbreviations
AcT Accountability in Tanzania Program
ANC African National Congress
CPI(M) Communist Party of India (Marxist)
BATF Bangalore Agenda Task Force
CPIA Country Policy and Institutional Assessments (World Bank)
CPRC Chronic Poverty Research Centre
CS civil society
CSO civil society organizations
DFID Department for International Development, United Kingdom
EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
INGO international nongovernmental organization
LGP Local Governance Program
MKSS Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan
MNC multinational corporations
MP Member of Parliament
MST Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra
NGO nongovernmental organization
NK Nijera Kori
PB participatory budgeting
PDS Public Distribution System
PE Political Economy
PEA Political Economy Analysis
PETS Public Expenditure Tracking Survey
PS political society
REFLECT Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community Techniques
SAcc Demand-side governance/social accountability
Abbreviations • vii
SPS Samaj Pragiti Sahyog
TAC Treatment Action Campaign
ToC Theory of Change
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
VEC Village Education Committees
ix
executive summary
Demand-side governance and social accountability approaches (hereafter referred to as “SAcc”) have steadily gained prominence as a perceived means for achieving and improving a range of development outcomes. Today, most—if not all—development agencies invest in the promo-tion of various forms of SAcc under the guise of “citizen participation,” “citizen demand,” “voice,” “transparency and accountability,” or, more broadly, “good governance.” While the concept of SAcc remains contested, it can broadly be understood as a range of actions and strategies, beyond voting, that societal actors—namely citizens—employ to hold the state to account.
Knowledge.Gaps.and.Report.Objectives.
This resource paper focuses on the issue of SAcc and context, arising out of a growing recog-nition that context is critical in shaping, making, and breaking SAcc interventions. It seeks to respond to the increasing realization that:
• there are significant challenges associated with transplanting a successful SAcc model from one context to another, and a “tools-based” approach to SAcc risks obscuring the underlying social and political processes that really explain why a given model is, or is not, effective;
• there has been a tendency to be overly optimistic about the potential of “demand-side” governance approaches to solve difficult and context-specific development problems; and,
• various cases of donor-supported SAcc (with exceptions) do not appear to be adequately grounded in the growing evidence of how SAcc has actually played out on the ground.
More specifically, the paper seeks to fill in some critical gaps in our knowledge and practice. Two main gaps are apparent: first, in spite of the growing recog-nition that context matters for SAcc, the precise understanding of what aspects of the context matter and how they matter—beyond generalities—remains somewhat limited; and second, there are very few systematic attempts to help practitioners tailor SAcc to contextual variation.
As such, the four main objectives of this paper are:
(1) to outline the main contextual factors that appear to be critical to SAcc;(2) to examine how SAcc interventions interact with the context to bring about change in
order to provide a preliminary, context-sensitive Theory of Change (ToC);
There has been a tendency to be overly optimistic about the potential of “demand-side” governance approaches to solve difficult and context-specific development problems.
x • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
(3) to explore the operational implications that arise from objectives (1) and (2); and,
(4) to offer a flexible analytical framework to guide practitioners wanting to undertake context analysis prior to engaging in demand-side activities.
The paper, in sum, offers a first step to begin filling some important gaps. It examines how context influences SAcc and how SAcc, in turn, can influence
its context, and it explores the practical implications of these findings. The knowledge derived from applying this paper’s approach should, it is hoped, increase the likelihood of SAcc effective-ness and reduce the risks of failed implementation.
Methodology.
The paper attempted to achieve these objectives by:
(1) summarizing and building on a recently-conducted global review of the evidence-base,(2) drawing on relevant conceptual literature to deepen understanding of SAcc and context,(3) reviewing case-study material to extract indications of what types of SAcc approaches
might work best when faced with different contextual realities, and(4) holding consultations with experts and practitioners to test and modify the ideas being
developed.
Caveats.and.Challenges.
There are, however, a number of challenges associated with addressing these issues. First, the evidence-base on context and SAcc is limited, albeit growing. Second, it is difficult to disen-tangle the “context” from the “intervention” and attribute causality, and it is not possible to exhaustively consider the enormous range of potential contextual variations that one might face on an everyday basis. Third, a better understanding of the context rarely reveals a “magic bullet” solution; it often reveals a degree of complexity and contradiction, leaving open multiple options for action.
In spite of such challenges, there is arguably enough experience to begin taking a more sys-tematic and structured approach to context. As such, this paper acknowledges the preliminary and exploratory nature of this work, while grounding itself in the best-available evidence and relevant concepts. Instead of attempting to provide prescriptions or ready-made solutions, the paper offers an initial tool to guide thinking, analysis, and programming. This work is, in fact, a background input to an ongoing stream of the work at the World Bank, so it is hoped that this report’s ideas are tested and modified in the future.
Various social accountability initiatives do not appear to be strongly informed by the evidence from the ground.
Executive Summary • xi
Report.Layout.
The report is separated into five chapters and an annex. Chapter 1 introduces the topic and the rationale for undertaking work in this area. Chapter 2 outlines some of the key contextual variables that emerge as critical in shaping the form and effectiveness of SAcc. This provides a broad framework for understanding the important contextual constraints and opportunities.
Chapter 3 outlines some of the key ways in which SAcc has influenced the context to produce positive change. When this is considered in conjunction with chapter 2, the paper is able to propose a tentative context-sensitive ToC for SAcc. This is an important exercise because we know that SAcc is not only shaped by the context, it may also shape the context.
Chapter 4 then explores and unpacks the practical implications of the approach. It offers two tools for SAcc practitioners to begin exploring ways to tailor to their contexts in a more structured manner.
Finally, the annex, based on the paper’s overall framework, provides a set of guiding questions for undertaking a context analysis prior to supporting SAcc operations.
A.Note.on.How.to.Use.the.Report.
The intended audience ranges from practitioners to policymakers, academics, and the interested public. Depending on your perspective and interests, some of the chapters may be more or less relevant. For instance, a practitioner may spend more time examining the practical implications outlined in chapter 4. However, it is advised that you first read the entire report as all chapters are interconnected. For further reading, refer to the accompanying background publications (Bukenya et al. 2012; Bukenya and King 2012) as well as other publications cited in the report.
The.Main.Messages.
While few simple or straightforward conclusions can be reached at this stage, a set of main mes-sages has emerged and are briefly summarized here.
The Findings The major contextual variables that have been found to shape the form and effectiveness of SAcc are captured in figure 1 and summarized in table 1. For analytical purposes, these variables can be divided into six domains and corresponding subdimensions, with the recognition that the domains inevitably overlap and interact. The characteristics of such domains may be more or less enabling of SAcc and, in reality, most contexts probably sit somewhere along a spectrum from enabling to disabling.
There are major challenges in taking on this topic … the evidence-base is limited, albeit growing, and it is difficult to disentangle the “context” from the “intervention.”
xii • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
However, there appears to be no straightforward, linear relationship between the context and the opportunities for SAcc. SAcc can also shape the context within which it emerges, and the SAcc design factors that have contributed to positive change include the following:
• Demand-driven accountability change has often been—at least in part—underpinned by a political process.
• SAcc interventions seem to have greater prospects for success in places where the lead implementing actors are seen as locally authoritative, legitimate, and credible by the actors involved.
Figure 1. Toward a context-sensitive understanding of social Accountability and change
Source: Author.
Executive Summary • xiii
Table 1. summary of the Key contextual Domains and subdimensions that Influence social Accountability
six contextual Domains Key Domain subdimensions
1. Civil Society • Technicalandorganizationalcapacity
• Capacitytobuildalliancesacrosssociety
• Capacitytobuildalliances/networkswiththestate
• Authority,legitimacy,andcredibilityofcivilsocietywithcitizensandstateactors
• Willingnessofcivilsocietytochallengeaccountabilitystatusquo
• CapacityofcitizenstoengageinSAcc
• WillingnessofcitizenstoengageinSAcc
2.PoliticalSociety • Willingnessofpolitical/electedelitestorespondtoandfosterSAcc
• WillingnessofstatebureaucratstorespondtoandfosterSAcc
• StateandpoliticalelitecapacitytorespondtoSAcc
• Democratizationandthecivilsocietyenablingenvironment
• Thenatureoftheruleoflaw
• ThecapacityandwillingnessofpoliticalpartiestosupportSAcc
3.Inter-EliteRelations • Thedevelopmentalnatureofthepoliticalsettlement
• Theinclusivenessofthepoliticalsettlement
• Theorganizationalandpoliticalcapabilitiesofthepoliticalsettlement
• Eliteideas/normsofaccountabilityunderpinningthepoliticalsettlement
4.State-SocietyRelations • Thecharacterandformofthesocialcontract
• Historyofstate–citizenbargaining(long-andshort-term)
• State-societyaccountabilityandbridgingmechanisms(formalandinformal)
• Thenatureanddepthofstate-societypro-accountabilitynetworks
5.Intra-SocietyRelations • Inequality
• Socialexclusionandfragmentation
6.GlobalDimensions • Donor-staterelations
• Internationalpower-holderaccountability
• Internationalpoliticalandeconomicdrivers
• SAcc is more likely to be effective when it promotes change in both “supply” and “demand.”• It is the quality and strength of pro-accountability networks across state and society that
often account for success rather than the characteristics of individual actors.• The use of high-quality and relevant information appears to be a key ingre-
dient, and the media may play a role in this regard. However, information alone is unlikely to bring about change—action and sanctions are needed.
• A SAcc initiative tends to have more traction in places where the problems and issues it focuses on are perceived as highly important and significant by the actors involved.
The findings suggest that there is a case to rethink the way in which social accountability is often operationalized.
xiv • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
• SAcc processes appear more likely to bring about sustainable reform when they support “organic” domestic pressures for change.
• SAccappearsmore likely tobeeffectivewhen itbuildson locally legitimate formaland/orinformalaccountabilitymechanisms.
• SAcc interventions that take a multipronged approach, working on answerability and enforcement aspects, have been found to be more effective.
• The conditions for effective SAcc tend to take a long time to emerge, which suggests that SAcc interventions would be wise to take a longer time horizon.
The Practical Implications Taken as a whole, the findings suggest that there is a case to refocus–even radically rethink in some areas—the way in which SAcc has often been understood and operationalized. In sum, the four main aspects of this rethink are:
(1) putting formal and informal political and power relations at the forefront of understanding and operationalizing SAcc rather than focusing on technical aspects or more formal institu-tional blueprints;
(2) focusing on inter-elite and state-society relations, coalitions, and bargaining rather than for instance, focusing on individual actors, civil society alone, or state-citizen dichotomies;
(3) putting inequality and exclusion issues at the center of SAcc design to ensure that its pro-poor promise is met rather than treating such issues with sometimes limited attention or in an ad hoc manner; and,
(4) Exploring and expanding opportunities for “best-fit” or “hybrid” SAcc approaches in given contexts rather than attempting to transplant or force-fit best practice models.
The paper explores this rethink and proposes a tentative ToC as a step forward.
The report also attempts to distill some of the main practical and operational implications of this work. These implications are outlined in some depth in chapter 4 and they resonate with
the more recent, broader experience on governance and development. While there are few simple or “quick fix” remedies, the main interrelated messages are described below.
Context.shapes.the.form.and.effectiveness.of.SAcc,.but.often.in.unpre-dictable.and.complex.ways..Some contexts are more enabling of SAcc and the context will influence—although not necessarily determine—the form SAcc is likely to take and how likely it is to achieve its objectives. As such,
we can take steps to tailor demand-side activities to context, as outlined in chapter 4. Yet there are no clear “recipes-for-success” as SAcc shapes—and is shaped by—the context in often complex and unpredictable ways. For example, there does not appear to be a linear relationship between broad levels of democracy and the potential effectiveness of SAcc. What seems to be more important are the actual forms of politics and power in a specific context that present constraints and opportunities, and this leads to the next message.
Experience suggests that accountability failures, and solutions thereto, are often rooted in formal and informal political and power dynamics.
Executive Summary • xv
Think. “politically”. in. designing. and. implementing. SAcc.. Experi-ence suggests that accountability failures and solutions thereto are very often rooted in formal and informal political and power dynamics. The tendency to view SAcc as a technical exercise can obscure its role as part of a political context, and the failure to adapt to political incen-tives has contributed to underperforming schemes. This means that: (1) it is crucial to fully understand the state of the polity and political settlement before designing and rolling out SAcc; and (2) one needs to explore politically savvy best-fit approaches to SAcc based on the political room for maneuver in a given context rather than attempting to imple-ment formal institutional blueprints.
Build.synergies.between.social.and.political.forms.of.accountability. In addition to the previ-ous message, while many agencies have tended to separate social and political accountability, it seems that both are intimately interrelated. The paper suggests, for example, to: (1) explore ways to work with and link SAcc to pro-reform political actors and movements; (2) devise SAcc in a way that more systematically attempts to shift political incentives rather than just applying pressure on bureaucrats; or (3) seek to mesh social and political forms of accountability, as in voter education programs.
Work. across. the. supply. and. demand. divide. to. facilitate. effective. collective. action. on.accountability.issues..Aid agencies tend to view SAcc through the prism of civil society and “demand.” Yet experience suggests that demand by itself is often an insufficient driver for sus-tained change. The state and political society actors are equally or even more important than civil society in determining whether or not SAcc pressures achieve their intended outcomes, especially because such “top-down” or “supply-side” pressures often hold the power to enforce needed sanctions. More fundamentally, the supply and demand divide has proven somewhat unhelpful, a point reinforced by the subsequent message. Therefore, among other things, there is a need to only increase citizen demand alongside parallel efforts to build the state’s effectiveness in interacting with citizens and addressing their growing expectations, as part of a process of solv-ing collective action problems.
Build.linkages.and.networks.between.pro-accountability.state.and.society.actors..The “state” and “citizenry” are not homogenous, as is sometimes implied in SAcc initiatives. There are often forces within each that are more or less pro-reform. In prac-tice, this means a number of things, including: (1) invest more heavily in strategic network-building approaches to link pro-reform elements of state and society and to build alliances between the poor and non-poor in society, instead of focusing on individual actors; (2) shift some of the focus away from just building the technical and organizational capacity of actors toward building their sociopolitical capabilities, such as coalition-building, political literacy, and advocacy (especially given the importance of such skills in improving accountability outcomes); (3) resource civil soci-ety more strategically to “do no harm” because civil society is not homogenous and can struggle to overcome entrenched accountability challenges, and donor funding of such associations may
Political society actors are often critical in determining whether demand-side pressures achieve their aims.
Top-down pressures often hold the power to enforce needed sanctions.
Social accountability initiatives appear most effective when they build, however incrementally, on existing formal and informal accountability practices.
xvi • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
not achieve the desired results; and, (4) make concerted efforts to identify and support state-society reform champions and to creatively work with, or around, reform antagonists.
Build.on.what.is.already.there;.embed.SAcc.in.“organic”.pressures.for.pro-accountability.change.and.in.the.broader.social.contract..SAcc appears to be most effective when it builds on existing formal and/or informal accountability practices, “working with the grain” of the local institutional fabric. The practical implications of this message are not straightforward, but they include: (1) actively seeking out and supporting—or at least not undermining—existing pressures for improved accountability, however incremental the potential returns might be; (2) recognizing that cultures and standards of accountability differ across contexts and exploring ways that existing practices (even patron-client relations) might provide opportunities for building “good
enough” forms of accountability in the short term; (3) exploring how to build positive synergies between formal and informal institutions—informal institu-tions are pervasive in many developing countries and cannot be wished away; and, (4) understanding the context-specific “social contract” (which is often the basis for accountability claim-making), and supporting SAcc through a policy to “do no harm.” Overall, this resonates with calls to move from opera-tionalizing SAcc as a discrete intervention to one that is part of a process of
social and political institutionalization. Discrete, donor-dependent SAcc interventions may bring about localized changes, but there are questions about their sustainability over the long term.
Take.a.multipronged.approach.to.accountability.reform.to.increase.the.likelihood.of.suc-cess. Experience suggests that effective accountability measures work simultaneously on differ-ent issues and at different levels. This implies, for example, the need to: (1) embed SAcc principles in all stages of the policy cycle; (2) pursue the necessary harder sanction dimension of account-ability (for example, enforcement and action) as well as the more commonly pursued softer answerability dimension of accountability (for example, information and transparency); and (3) recognize that information alone is rarely sufficient to improve accountability outcomes—the information must match the capacity and incentives of actors to act to bring about change.
Address.issues.of.poverty,.inequality,.and.exclusion.more.systematically.in.SAcc.program-ming. The poorest and most excluded can struggle to participate in, and benefit from, social accountability initiatives. However, the extent to which agencies systematically address the needs and realities of the poor and marginalized in SAcc programming is mixed. The paper sug-gests the need for a more systematic treatment of issues of inequality and social exclusion in SAcc that, albeit difficult, may include: (1) focusing on building the poor’s capabilities in and through interventions (for example, by building in literacy or livelihood components to SAcc interventions); (2) focusing on how to secure the rights and effective representation of the poor-est and most marginalized in political and social accountability processes; and, (3) building in strong inequality-mitigating measures in SAcc initiatives (for example, weighting).
The poorest and most excluded can struggle to participate in, and benefit from, social accountability initiatives.
Executive Summary • xvii
Many accountability failures are—at least in part—shaped by global drivers and actors.
Address.the.global.dimensions.of.accountability.failures—think.and.act.beyond.the. local.and.national. level..Many accountability failures are—at least in part—shaped by global drivers and actors. Aid agencies are uniquely positioned to address some of these global drivers, not least by being much more cognizant of their role in supporting or undermining long-term account-ability. Options for practical action, like all suggestions outlined in this report, will differ on a case-by-case basis, but might include: (1) greater adoption and integration of aid effective-ness principles; (2) strengthened international action to improve financial regulation or curb illicit trading to address international enablers of corruption; or (3) supporting efforts to ensure the accountability of powerful international actors, beyond the state, such as multinational corporations.
Take. longer. time. horizons. and. adopt. an. adaptable. learning-by-doing. approach.. Chang-ing the conditions for effective SAcc tends to take time, and experience points toward the importance of adopting an adaptable “learning-by-doing” approach. This is especially because accountability interventions can, over time, shape the context in complex and sometimes unin-tended ways.
This amounts to an ambitious agenda and one that it is unlikely to be addressed by individual actors working alone. There is, however, much experience to suggest that it is an agenda worth tackling.
1
1. Introduction
Demand-side governance and social accountability (hereafter referred to as “SAcc”) approaches have steadily gained prominence as a means of achieving and improving a range of development outcomes (Holland et al. 2009; Ringold et al. 2011). Today, most, if not all, development agencies invest in promoting various forms of SAcc under the guise of “citizen participation,” “demand,” “voice,” “transparency,” “good governance,” and so on. This paper focuses squarely on the issue of context and SAcc.
What.is.Social.Accountability?.
SAcc is a contested concept, with no universally agreed definition of the range of actions that fall within its remit (see Joshi and Houtzager 2012). It is not this paper’s purpose to enter into this debate but instead to take a relatively broad view. SAcc can be understood as an approach for improving public accountability that relies on the actions of citizens and non-state actors. One definition is:
“… the broad range of actions and mechanisms beyond voting that citizens can use to hold the state to account, as well as actions on the part of government, civil society, media and other societal actors that promote or facilitate these efforts.” (Malena and McNeil 2010:1)
SAcc can be further disaggregated. Table 1.1 offers a stylistic breakdown of SAcc’s different elements in terms of focal area, operational tool, policy/institutional aspects, mode of engagement, and outcome focus. This is not an attempt to design a typology in this area, as has been attempted elsewhere (Joshi 2010; Ringold et al. 2011). While SAcc can be disaggregated, it has numerous common elements, and this paper focuses primarily on the overall, aggregate practice.
Why.Context?.
This paper arises out of a growing recognition that context is critical in shaping, making, and breaking SAcc interventions. This ties in with a broader recognition in the international develop-ment community that “context matters” (Grindle 2007; Levy 2011). Indeed, there is a range of cases in which SAcc has been relatively successful in its objectives, and there are many others where it has been a relative failure, with results that are not positive for the for the poor or for development more broadly (Dervarajan et al. 2011; Gaventa and Barrett 2010). The success or failure of such initiatives is shaped by both the way in which SAcc is implemented and by the context of its implementation.
Moreover, various observers have critiqued mainstream SAcc practices for not engaging more closely with on the ground experience and evidence that tells us, more realistically, what SAcc
The extent to which one can transplant a successful model from one context to another is now a matter of much debate.
2 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
might, or might not, be able to achieve in different contexts. There has, they argue, been a tendency to “oversell” or be “overly optimistic” about the potential of demand-side governance approaches to solve context-specific development problems (Booth 2011; Brett 2003; Bukenya et al. 2012; Hickey and Mohan 2005). There are, of course, exceptions, even if the general point tends to hold. Equally, the extent to which one can transplant a successful model from one con-text to another is now a matter of much debate (Joshi and Houtzager 2012), with one observer noting that:
Table 1.1. Disaggregating social Accountability
Focal Area operational Tool
Policy/Institutional
Aspects Mode of engagement outcome Focus
Transparency: The
collection,analysis,
dissemination,
andmonitoringof
informationrelatedto
governmentpolicies
andprograms.
Accountability (more
collaborative):Action
thatseeksimproved
accountability
throughmore
collaborative
andincremental
approaches.
Accountability (more
contentious):Action
that,todiffering
degrees,more
directlychallenges
theaccountability
systemandpolitical
statusquo.
Participation:In
policy-makingor
implementationasa
meansofoversight.
Transparency
• Information
campaigns
• Openbudget
initiatives
• Citizencharters
Accountability
(more collaborative)
• Community
scorecards
• Expendituretracking
• Formalgrievance-
redressmechanisms
Accountability
(more contentious)
• Advocacycampaigns
• Investigative
journalism
• Publicinterest
lawsuits
• Demonstrationand
protest
Participation
• Participatory
budgeting
• Participatory
planning
• Policy reforms
(e.g.,topromote
citizenparticipation)
• Legal reforms
(e.g.,introduction
ofaccessto
information
legislation)
• Capacity/
Institutional
Strengthening
• Public Financial
Management
Reforms
• Public Service
Delivery Systems
Reforms
(e.g.,e-government)
• Instrumental (e.g.,
serviceefficiency)
or transformational
(e.g.,challenge
powerrelationships)
• Collaborative (e.g.,
jointproblem-solving)
or confrontational
(e.g.,advocacyor
protest)
• Project-focused or
institutionalization
• Formal track (e.g.,
legalprocedures)or
informal track (e.g.,
networks)
• Choice (newpublic
management)or
rights/empowerment
(democratization)
• Short route (citizen-
serviceprovider)or
long route (citizen-
state)
• Individualized
routes (e.g.,citizen
scorecards)or
collective action
routes (e.g.,NGO
mobilization)
• Improvedservice
delivery
• Improvedstate
responsiveness
• Betterbudget
utilization
• Lowering
corruption
• Building
democraticspaces
• Citizenship
formation
• Empowerment/
rightsclaiming
• Socialcohesion
• Improved
state-society
relationships
• Answerability
• Sanctions
Source: AdaptedfromJoshiandHoutzager2012;AgarwalandVanWicklin2011;Bukenyaetal.2012;andTembo2012.
Chapter 1: Introduction • 3
“Some of the sharpest minds in development policy agree that the universal best practice approach to governance for development is bankrupt. There are no institutional templates that are valid everywhere and for all stages in a country’s development.” (Booth 2011: 1)
By the same token, efforts to go beyond a “best-practice” mindset and toward a more “best-fit” approach in development practice are arguably impartial and incomplete—both conceptually and operationally—with calls to strike a bal-ance between researchers’ focus on complexity and practitioners’ desire for concrete guidance (see Booth and Golooba-Mutebi 2012).
Knowledge.Gaps
More specifically, this paper arises out of some critical gaps in knowledge and practice. First, in spite of the growing recognition that context matters for SAcc, the precise understanding of what aspects of the context matter and how they matter—beyond generalities—remains somewhat limited. Second, the quite widespread “tools-based” approach to demand-side gover-nance can encourage the transfer of best-practice methodologies across contexts. Also, a focus on a SAcc “tool,” while perhaps part of the story, risks obscuring the underlying social and political processes that really explain why a given initiative is or is not effective (as table 1.2. stylistically suggests). By “tools-based” approach, the paper is referring to the focus on specific operational steps, inputs, and method-ologies as part of somewhat discrete interventions—such as citizen scorecards, participatory budgeting, and so on. This focus has led, with exceptions, to a mushrooming of more generic, albeit useful, operational guidance on applying different SAcc tools. (Agarwal and Wicklin 2011; Joshi and Houtzager 2012). Third, the current understanding of how to tailor SAcc design to context are limited because there have been very few systematic, wide-ranging attempts to help practitioners negotiate contextual realities (Bukenya et al. 2012: 45–46; McGee and Gaventa 2011).1
Table 1.2. stylized Differences in emphasis between social Accountability Tools and context-sensitivity
sAcc Tools Tend to
emphasize … A focus on context tends to emphasize …
Self-containedtool Multipleendogenousandexogenousdriversofchange
Linearity(stepsorstages) Nonlinearity(complexityandunintendedconsequences)
Technicalaspects Politicalandpoweraspects
Best-practiceroadmap Best-fitadaptation
Donor-driven Organicprocesses
Largelyformalmechanisms
ofaccountability
Informalmechanismsarecritical,alongsideformalmechanisms
Source: Author.
Efforts to go beyond a “best-practice” mindset and toward a more “best-fit” approach in development practice are arguably impartial and incomplete.
There are now multiple operational tools for implementation, but a limited knowledge base upon which to make strategic decisions in different contexts.
4 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
In short, there are now multiple tools for implementing SAcc but a limited knowledge base from which to make strategic decisions about SAcc in different contexts. Therefore, there have been increasing calls from practitioners for assistance in designing context-specific SAcc within the World Bank and beyond.
Objectives.of.the.Paper.
This resource paper focuses on the issue of context and SAcc and offers a preliminary framework for better understanding, mapping, and responding to context in the design and implementation of SAcc. The central objectives of this paper—building on a recently-completed review of the current evidence (Bukenya et al. 2012)—are:
• to outline the main contextual factors that appear to be critical to SAcc;• to examine how SAcc interventions interact with the context to bring about change in
order to provide a preliminary context-sensitive ToC;• to explore the operational implications that arise from objectives (1) and (2); and,• to offer a flexible analytical framework, derived from the above objectives, to guide practi-
tioners wanting to undertake context analysis prior to engaging in demand-side activities.
The knowledge derived from applying this paper’s approach should, it is hoped, increase the likelihood of SAcc effectiveness and reduce the risks of failed implementation.
Challenges.and.Caveats.
There are, however, a number of significant challenges in addressing these issues. First, the evi-dence-base on context and SAcc is extremely limited, as outlined in detail elsewhere (Bukenya et al. 2012; McGee and Gaventa 2011). There is a paucity of strong, comparative analyses that control for the effects of contextual variables in SAcc interventions. Second, there is the real challenge of disentangling the “context” from the “intervention” and attributing causality.2 As McGee and Gaventa note:
“… all transparency and accountability initiatives unfold within complex, non-linear, contextually-specific social and political processes and it is these complex contexts and processes that they seek to change.” (McGee and Gaventa 2011: 27)
Third, the paper does not—and cannot—attempt to cover the infinite contextual variations that might be found. Moreover, a better understanding of context rarely reveals any “magic bul-
let” solutions but often reveals complexity and contradictions, leaving open multiple options for action (DFID 2009).
In spite of such challenges, there is arguably enough experience to begin tak-ing a more systematic and structured approach. As McGee and Gaventa (2011: 35) put it: “Despite the unevenness and limits of the evidence base, a review across the sectors begins to point to some common factors that shape the
Contextual knowledge rarely reveals a “magic bullet” solution; it often reveals a degree of complexity and contradiction, leaving open multiple options for action.
Chapter 1: Introduction • 5
impact of transparency and accountability initiatives.” As such, this paper acknowledges the pre-liminary and exploratory nature of this work, while grounding itself in the best-available evidence and relevant concepts. Instead of attempting to provide prescriptions or ready-made solutions (if indeed such solutions exist), the paper offers an initial tool to guide thinking, analysis, and programming about context and SAcc. In many instances, the paper offers working hypotheses. Practitioners may then build on and adapt this work to explore specific contexts. This work is, in fact, a background input to an ongoing stream of work at the World Bank, so it is hoped that the ideas presented here will be built on, tested and modified in the future both inside and outside of the World Bank.
Methodology.
In brief, the methodology for developing this paper has a number of elements:
• First, the paper draws heavily from, and builds on, a recently-undertaken desk-based review of available “evidence” on SAcc and context. This review included a comprehensive anno-tated bibliography (Bukenya and King 2012) and an analytical synthesis paper (Bukenya et al. 2012). This report builds on this work by attempting to summarize the findings for prac-titioners, by designing a context analytical tool and by distilling and unpacking the opera-tional implications. The paper also draws on existing work that has attempted—to varying degrees—to address this paper’s topic (Citizenship DRC 2011; Tembo 2012).
• Second, a review of relevant concepts and theories relating to SAcc and governance was undertaken, especially to inform chapter 3. The most appropriate concepts, based on the existing evidence, are then proposed as a way to guide the development of theories of change of demand-side governance.
• Third, a further review of case study material was undertaken, particularly for chapter 4, in an attempt to scour the literature for indications of what types of approaches might work more or less effectively in different contexts.
• Fourth, the author drew on a range of existing political and social analysis and guidance (for example, DFID 2009; Parks and Cole 2010) and program design and planning approaches (Harris, Kooy, and Jones 2011; Tembo 2012) in order to design the analytical tool in the annex. This tool is not intended to replicate existing detailed guidance on conducting social and political analysis, so the paper flags areas for further reading where relevant.
• Fifth, an earlier version of the analytical tool was partly piloted with a World Bank team in support of some analytical work in the rural water supply sector in Tanzania. Some of the early lessons from this experience have been integrated in this version of the paper. Further-more, a number of consultations have been undertaken with various World Bank staff and external advisers throughout the development of the piece.
6 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Report.Layout.
The report is separated into five chapters and an annex. This chapter has introduced the topic and the rationale for undertaking work in this area. Chapter 2 outlines some of the key contex-tual variables that emerge as critical in shaping the form and effectiveness of SAcc. This provides a broad framework for understanding the important contextual constraints and opportunities.
Chapter 3 outlines some of the key ways in which SAcc has influenced the context to produce positive change. When this is considered in conjunction with chapter 2, the paper is able to pro-pose a tentative context-sensitive ToC for SAcc. This is an important exercise because we know that SAcc is not only shaped by the context, it may also shape the context to differing degrees.
Chapter 4 then explores and unpacks the practical implications of the approach. It offers two tools for SAcc practitioners to draw on to begin exploring the operational implications of their contextual analyses in a more structured manner. Chapter 5 briefly concludes the discussion.
Finally, the annex, based on the paper’s overall framework, provides a set of guiding questions for undertaking a context analysis prior to supporting SAcc operations.
7
2. Toward the Major contextual Factors: six Domains
This chapter addresses the question: “How does context shape the form and effectiveness of SAcc?” Based on the current evidence base, it briefly outlines the major contextual variables and their subdimensions. This provides the foundations of a framework for addressing the contextual constraints and opportunities surrounding SAcc. The chapter provides brief examples in boxes to illustrate some of the points, although the bulk of the examples can be found in chapter 4 or in other background material (McGee and Gaventa 2011; Bukenya et al. 2012).
For analytical purposes, the contextual variables can be separated into distinct domains with the understanding that the domains inevitably overlap and interlock. The six domains, described in turn, are: (1) civil society (CS), (2) political society (PS), (3) inter-elite relations, (4) state-society relations, (5) intra-society relations, and (6) global dimensions. Each domain is described in turn and the treatment of these complex concepts is purposefully brief.
Civil.Society.
The character and extensiveness of CS is important in shaping the form and effectiveness of SAcc. CS is commonly understood as the arena outside of the family, the state, and the market, where people associate to advance common interests—where citizens become aware of and may raise issues to get the attention of public authorities.
The precise characteristics of CS that matter most for SAcc are not entirely clear from the exist-ing literature. However, it is possible to discern some important elements. One critical, overarch-ing characteristic is the extent to which civil society organizations (CSOs) are capable of exerting influence over often-contested and politicized decision making. More specifically, the following interrelated characteristics have been found to be particularly important.
First, the technical and organizational capacity of CSOs, including their capacity to manage and use information for different constituencies, is often cited as critical across a number of cases. Box 2.1, for instance, illustrates how limited CSO capacity can reduce the effectiveness of a SAcc initiative.
Second, the capacity of CSOs to mobilize people and build alliances across society influences the effectiveness of SAcc. This is closely related to the degree to which CS is fragmented or unified around a SAcc goal, and it highlights the key role of broad-based alliances across classes and social categories—often between the “poor” and “non-poor” (CPRC 2008). Notably, the presence, depth, and nature of pro-accountability and anti-accountability societal forces and networks emerge as central factors in mediating the form and effectiveness of SAcc—a point returned to in the section about state-society relations (page 17). “Networks” can be broadly understood as linkages between interdependent actors who interact to produce outcomes.3
8 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Third, the capacity of CSOs to build constructive networks and alliances with pro-reform actors within the state is a critical—perhaps the most critical—variable in explaining the success of
SAcc in many cases. A key issue is the nature of the political capabilities of CS, which includes their political literacy and their mobilization, networking, coalition-building and negotiation skills in their interaction with actors from PS. In fact, the body of evidence tends to suggest that CS demand alone rarely explains change and that it might only be a weak driver of change in a number of cases, as discussed throughout the report.
Fourth, the authority, credibility, and legitimacy of CSOs have also been found to be important factors. SAcc initiatives have tended to be more successful when the lead CSOs are perceived as credible and legitimate by both the citizenry and state actors that are being mobilized. Also, CSOs that are able
to draw on popular support and be accountable to their own constituents, as opposed to being upwardly accountable to donors, seem to be more effective in achieving SAcc goals. This type of CS is not limited to professional NGOs—they include other sources of popular agency, including trade unions, social movements, and religious organizations (Banks and Hulme 2012; Hickey and Bracking 2005).
Fifth, the willingness of CSOs to challenge existing accountability relations is also important. A CSO’s willingness will be shaped by a variety of factors, including its incentives, interests, past
experiences with SAcc, and relationships with powerful actors. The literature suggests that: (1) CS is not homogenous in terms of its willingness to challenge the accountability status quo and to be a force for change; (2) CS is rarely a panacea for challenging entrenched accountability problems, and there are cases in which strengthening CSOs have undermined more legitimate forms of accountability or bolstered existing power structures; and (3) CS is embed-
ded in the political context, and can find it difficult to distance itself from this politics (Booth 2012; Banks and Hulme 2012). As Dervarajan et al. (2011: 4) note:
Box 2.1. Health center committees in Zambia: The challenge of Low civil society Technical capacity
InZambia,thesettingupofmultistakeholderhealthcentercommitteeshadpositiveoutcomesforawarenessraisingof
publichealthissuesbutdidnotdirectlyincreasetheallocationofresourcestowardpoorandvulnerablegroups,nordidit
significantlyimprovehealthserviceresponsivenessorhealthworkerbehaviortowardlocalcommunities.Onereasonforthis
wasthecommitteemembers’lowlevelofknowledgeandunderstandingofhealthissues,aswellastheirlimitedcapacityto
demandchange.Thislessenedtheirabilitytoexertaninfluenceoverdecision-makingprocessesandoutcomes.
Source: Ngulubeetal.2004.
Civil society is rarely a panacea for challenging entrenched accountability problems, for various reasons.
The capacity of civil society organizations to build constructive networks and alliances with pro-reform actors within the state is a critical—perhaps the most critical—variable in explaining the success of social accountability in many cases.
Chapter 2: Toward the Major Contextual Factors: Six Domains • 9
“In political economy environments characterized by high degrees of clientelism and rent-seeking … an unqualified faith in civil society as a force for good is more likely to be misplaced. The evidence base on the organization of civil society suggests that historic institutions of poverty and inequality or of ethnic identity can inhibit collective action in the broader public interest.”
Box 2.2 illustrates the way a number of the above-mentioned CS characteristics contributed to some positive results in Bangladesh.
A sixth element involves the capacity of individual citizens to engage in SAcc, which is notably influenced by their income, education, and, more broadly, their political capabilities. A wide body of evidence illustrates that many SAcc and broader participatory initiatives have struggled to benefit the poor and, in particular, the poorest (Bukenya et al. 2012). Poorer individuals tend to lack the assets, time, and skills to effectively engage; they may have limited political awareness and literacy. For example, they may have limited awareness of certain entitlements or limited citizenship status; they may lack networking and negotiation skills; or they may be dependent on personal relationships for access to critical goods and services (Agarwal and Van Wicklin 2011). A discussion of the challenges faced by poor and excluded groups in SAcc is returned to in the section below on intra-society relations.
A final important characteristic in this domain is the willingness of citizens to pursue SAcc goals and challenge the state. The drivers of such willingness are not entirely clear, but are under-stood to be related to the previous experiences of citizens with state-citizen bargaining; their
Box 2.2. capacity, Willingness, and Political credibility: Nijera Kori in Bangladesh
InBangladesh, themobilizationanddemandworkof a localNGO—NijeraKori (NK)—hascontributed toanumberof
positivechanges.ThesechangeshavebeendriveninpartbyNK’scapacityandwillingnesstopursuesustainedeffortsto
bargainwiththestateanddemandaccountability,whileatthesamehavingthecapacitytomobilizesocietalgroupsand
enhancetheirpoliticalliteracyandstanding.
Resultsobservedin2003includeanoverallincreaseinwagesinareaswhereNKgroupshaveengagedinsuccessfulcollec-
tivebargaining,areductionofillicitpaymentstohealthofficialsandotherformsofpublicsectorcorruption,moreregular
attendancebyteacherswhenNKmembersjoincommittees,andtheconstructionofnewschools.Morerecently,bytaking
stepstocombinesocialandpoliticalaccountability,NKhasimprovedthepoliticalstandingof itsmembersvis-à-visthe
state,mostlybecauseNKmemberswerefoundtobemorelikelythannonmemberstoknowtheirconstitutionalrights,to
vote,tocampaigninlocalandnationalelections,tointeractwithlocally-electedrepresentativesandgovernmentofficials,
and tobeelected to informalvillagecommittees.Fromthisperspective, it seems thatNKmembershavemanaged to
achieveenhancedcitizenshipstatusandappeartobetransferringskillsfromsocialaccountabilityinitiativesintothepolitical
arena.
Sources:Kabeer2003;Kabeeretal.2009.
10 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
perception of the “significance” of the accountability issue in question; their calculations of risk and their incentives to potentially jeopardize their means of survival by challenging exist-ing relationships, particularly when they are dependent on patron-client relationships; and the prevailing culture of legitimacy and accountability that may or may not encourage challenging the status quo. Note, however, that while it is useful to separate capacity and willingness for analytical purposes, the literature suggests that citizens often need to display a high degree of both in order to ensure the success of SAcc.
Political.Society.
PS is a second contextual domain that has emerged as important. It is broadly understood as the arena within which people perceive and encounter the state on an everyday basis and that creates and maintains different patterns of political rule. It is the “place where public demands
get tackled by specific political institutions” (Hyden et al. 2003a: 18). It is con-stituted by a loose community of recognized elected politicians, political par-ties, local political brokers, councillors, and public servants, and it forms a set of institutions, actors, and cultural norms that provide the links between the government and the public.
What we currently know suggests that the nature of the state and the actors and dynamics in PS that govern and interact with state institutions are as important—if often not more so—than CS in explaining the form and effec-tiveness of SAcc. But what subdimensions of this arena are seen to be of
critical importance for SAcc? Much will, of course, depend on context, but some key issues have emerged from the review.
First, the willingness of political elites to promote and/or respond to SAcc is critical. Where there is a strong will, SAcc has tended to be more effective. Political elites and public sector officials—or “reform champions”—have been found to play an important role in delivering on SAcc demands, pushing for accountability reforms, and even stimulating societal actors to make demands on government. On the other hand, when the will is weak or if there is opposition to SAcc goals, SAcc can be thwarted by countervailing measures taken by political actors. The origins of political will are complex and diverse. It is therefore critically important for SAcc prac-titioners to understand the level and drivers of political will in a given context and act accord-ingly; one way to do so is to understand the nature of the political settlement, outlined in the following section.
Second, the willingness of government bureaucrats to promote and respond to SAcc pressures is also important, particularly because bureaucrats can frustrate or champion initiatives. However, the evidence base tends to emphasize the critical role played by influential elected officials over bureaucrats, namely because they can be more susceptible to popular pressure and are in a position to shape the behavior of public officials and service providers through sanctions and other forms of supply-led accountability (Bukenya et al. 2012). However, the extent to which
The nature of the state and the actors in political society that govern and interact with state institutions are as important as—if not more so than—civil society in explaining the form and effectiveness of demand-side initiatives.
Chapter 2: Toward the Major Contextual Factors: Six Domains • 11
bureaucrats may be more or less important in shaping SAcc outcomes will depend on the con-text, as box 2.3 on report cards in Bangalore suggests.
A third subdimension is the level of state “capacity.” The level of capacity is seen as important for SAcc outcomes in a variety of ways, including the following: (1) participatory SAcc approaches have tended to be more effective when supported by strong top-down state capacity and responsiveness; (2) the effectiveness of SAcc depends in part on the level of state capacity to actually respond to demands (in terms of its organizational, technical, and political competen-cies); and (3) the presence of functioning state institutions are often, but not always, key condi-tions for accountability reforms to be effective (see, for example, Mansuri and Rao 2013).
However, the evidence does not suggest that there is no role whatsoever for SAcc in low-capacity environments; SAcc might just take on a more modest form of citizenship formation, trust building, or local associational development (Gaventa and Barrett 2010). As with the concept of “will,” unpacking the drivers of limited capacity will be central in finding ways to address the challenges, as described more thoroughly in the next section about political settlements.
A fourth dimension, which relates to the broader state institutional framework, is the level of democratization and the related CS “enabling environment” of political and civil freedoms. How-ever, the way in which the level of democratization influences the emergence and effectiveness of SAcc is not entirely clear; the evidence is mixed and patchy. On the one hand, the level of democracy is important in key ways such as: (1) highly democratized contexts tend to permit the widest range of SAcc approaches to emerge; (2) more democratic contexts tend to have a stron-ger SAcc enabling environment, which includes higher levels of institutionalized tolerance of dis-sents and debate to accommodate citizen engagement, a range of political and civil freedoms, and effective involvement of the media; and (3) more democratic systems tend to have a wider range of accountability mechanisms and intra-state checks-and-balances that may be “triggered” by SAcc as well as offering the opportunity to gain more traction around accountability issues through such means as elections (Citizenship DRC 2011). As McGee and Gaventa (2011: 21) note: “In
Box 2.3. Willing civil servants and enhanced Accountability: citizen Report cards in Bangalore, India
AnalysisoftheBangaloreservicedeliveryreportcardprocessinIndiasuggeststhatthesupportandcommitmentofthe
chiefministerofKarnatakastatewasan importantcontributingfactor to itseffectiveness.Actingonthefindingsof the
secondreportcardin1997,theministerdirectedthecreationoftheBangaloreAgendaTaskForce(BATF)—apublic-private
partnershipinvolvingseveralnonofficialandeminentcitizensalongwiththeheadsofallserviceproviders—torespondto
thefindingsandimproveservicesandinfrastructureinBangalore.Paul(2011)notesthatthisactionwascriticalbecause,in
contrasttothemorelimitedorfragmentedsingle-agencyresponses,thismoveensuredmoresystemicresponsesacross
agencies.Thismarkedarelativelynovelmoment,asachiefministerinIndiahadlaunchedaninitiativetoimproveservices
foralargecityinresponsetocitizenfeedback.
Source:Paul2011.
The broad level of democratization seems to tell only part of the story.
12 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
a regime lacking the essential freedoms of association, voice or media, citizen-led TAIs [transpar-ency and accountability initiatives] do not have the same prospects for success as in societies where these conditions exist.”
On the other hand, the literature suggests that the broad level of democratization only tells part of the story. As one metareview notes, “our findings begin to question the idea that positive outcomes of [civic] engagement are linked linearly to the level of democratisation in a given setting” (Gaventa and Barrett 2010: 53). For example: (1) the presence of formal democratic insti-tutions and frameworks reveals only part of the picture in many contexts as it is informal institu-tions and the underlying political settlement that explains what happens and why (Crook and Booth 2011); (2) different forms of social contract or developmental accountability can emerge within weakly democratic or semi-authoritarian regimes—as in the case of primary education in Uganda (Stasavage 2005); and (3) direct, participatory forms of democracy may be less relevant in explaining why SAcc processes achieve their objectives than other variables, such as the role of political representation and political parties, as outlined below (Brautigam 2004; Bukenya et al. 2012).
A related fifth dimension is the nature of the rule of law, which relates to the way legal mecha-nisms function are enforced. The presence of certain legal accountability mechanisms and the extent to which they are legitimate and enforceable in a given context will shape the form and prospects of different types of SAcc. For example, legitimate constitutional provisions can pro-vide a basis for making and justifying SAcc claims or SAcc can play a key role in triggering existing accountability mechanisms within the state. Some of these dimensions were evident in the case of the tenant’s movement in Mombasa, Kenya (box 2.4).
Finally, the capacity and willingness of political parties to link with and take up SAcc claims appears to be an important variable in particular cases (especially based on the wider literature available on governance and development). For example, in areas where community manage-ment committees were effective, such as in India’s Midnapore District, Corbridge et al. (2005)
Box 2.4. Limited Political Will and Weak state Institutions: Tenant’s Movement in Mombasa, Kenya
InMombasa,Kenya,limitedstatecapacity,limitedpoliticalwill,andtheweaknessofformalstateinstitutionsundermined
the tenantmovement’sproposal for a tenancypurchase scheme.Theproposals received support from theDirectorof
HousingintheMinistry,butthecitymayoropposedthemandthreatenedtousehisinfluencetohavethedirectorfiredif
theproposalswereputintopractice.Whilethemayorhadnoformalpowerstodismissthedirector,oneanalystarguesthat
theformalchainofcommandofpublicserviceisnotfollowedand“itisnotuncommonformayorsandcouncillorstouse
theirinfluencetogetcivilservantsdismissedortransferredtolessattractivepostings”(Nyamu-Musembi2006:137).This
examplesupportsabroadersetofcasesthatfindthatthenature,functioning,andcapacityofstateinstitutionsplayakey
roleinshapingtheeffectivenessofformsofsocialaction.
Sources: Nyamu-Musembi2006;GaventaandMcGee2010;MooreandPutzel1999.
Chapter 2: Toward the Major Contextual Factors: Six Domains • 13
found that it was in large part due to the commitment of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) to mobilize the poor.
Inter-Elite.Relations.
The third, related domain can be broadly defined as “inter-elite relations.” It focuses on the horizontal power relations between the political and economic elites that, to differing degrees, access and control state structures. The capacity and will of political elites, as noted above, is a key contextual variable in shaping the prospects for SAcc. However, in order to design SAcc actions accordingly, one would need to further unpack the underlying elite relationships and incentives that underpin this “will” (Mcloughlin and Batley 2012). One potentially promising way to do this is by applying the lens of the “political settlement.”
What is a Political settlement? The political settlement that underpins a state can take multiple forms. It can be broadly defined as:
“… the balance or distribution of power between contending social groups and social classes, on which any state is based. Looking at the political settlement focuses atten-tion on intra-elite contention and bargaining (political versus economic elites; landed and non-landed elites, regional elites, rural and urban, religious and secular….” (Di John and Putzel 2009: 4)4
Settlements may be durable but they are rarely static and can be seen as “rolling agreements, at national or sub-national level, among powerful actors that are constantly subject to renego-tiation and contestation” (Parks and Cole 2010: 5–6).5 (See annex 2 for examples of changes in political settlements.) A distinction can also be made between primary and secondary political settlements. A “primary” settlement refers to the configuration of power at the central state level; the “secondary” settlement refers to potential struggles for local control in subnational regions and/or to the different settlements that might form around particular goods and ser-vices, such as taxation, welfare, water, and food (Parks and Cole 2010). By way of illustration, table 2.1 stylistically outlines two types of settlements—open access and limited access—and briefly explains how it shapes incentives for action.
How Do Political settlements Matter for sAcc?The nature of political settlements is increasingly found to be influential in explaining development outcomes, but the settlement lens has not yet been applied to SAcc, even if some preliminary insights are suggested here. In a broad sense, the settlement is likely to shape the incentives for ruling coalitions to act on accountability issues and respond to SAcc claims. As Bukenya et al. (2012: 47) put it:
The “political settlement” is increasingly recognized as highly influential in shaping development outcomes.
14 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Table 2.1. Two Types of Political settlement and the Incentive structure: open Versus Limited Access orders
Marker “open Access” order—Impersonal Politics “Limited Access” order—Personalistic Politics
Rightsandentitlements
Citizenscanreasonablyexpecttheirrightsandentitlementstobedeliveredbygovernment.Itistheobligationofgovernmenttodeliverthemand,typically,todosoimpersonallywithequalregardforall.Ifagovernmentfailstodeliverthem,thereissocialinsurancethatguaranteessomeformofsocialprotectiontocitizens.
Constitution/lawsmayestablishrights,butcitizensusuallyneedtohavetheproper“connections”toenjoythem.Thedemandisoftenonindividualpoliticianstodeliver,notonanimpersonalbureaucracy.Thereislittleornosocialinsurance,socitizensrelyonfamily,socialnetworks,individualpoliticians,andsoon.Connectionsratherthanrightsarewhatmatters.
Contractenforcement
Contractenforcementisroutineandcarriedoutthroughlegalandformalmeansifthereisadispute.Thereisruleoflawthatmakescontractenforcementalegalandformalprocess.
Contractscanbebetterenforcedthroughinformalmeans,suchascovertbargaining,useofinformalauthorities,oreventheuseofcrediblethreatsandviolence.
Roleofpoliticians(e.g.,MPs)
Responsibilitiesarestandardizedandprescribedinformalrules.LimitsonthepoweroftheMPsarealsoprescribedandknowntomost.Boundariesbetweenpublicandprivatedomainsareclearer.
Asidefromformalresponsibilities,theyneedto“opendoors”forconstituentssotheygetservicesandbenefits.SomeMPsdevelopintoprivateprovidersofservicestoconstituents;theyareabletosustainthisbyusingtheirinfluenceorby“creatingrents.”
Politicalcompetition
Loserslivetofightanotherday.Electionsaremainlythemechanismforpoliticalcompetitions.Losersoftheopencompetitionbegintocontemplatenewwaysofcombininginterestsandpoliticalsupport.Failingtoinnovateincreasesriskofremainingoutofpower.
Losersaresuppressed;thewinnertakesall.Politicalcompetitionmanifestsitself—notjustinelections,butalsoineconomicactivities,socialinteraction,andeverydayviolence.Loserstendtolielowandbeindefensivemodebecauseanypoliticalactivityundertakenbythemcanbeseenasathreatbythewinners.
Politicalparties
Partiesaremostlydifferentiatedbyprogramsandideology.Partyswitchingisrarer.Themostsuccessfulpartiesaremadeupofawiderangeofinterestgroups.Thus,partiestendtobebig—madeupofcomponentgroupsthatoftencompromiseonpolicyandmoderatetheirdemandssotheycanbeunitedandstronger.
Partiesaredifferentiatedbytheindividualsleadingthem.Programsandideologyarenotveryimportant.Whatmattersisthecapacitytowinthecompetition.Compromiseswithinthecoalitionarenotaboutpolicy,butmostlyabouthowtocutupthepieofpoliticalpositionsandeconomicrents.
Elections Electionrulesaremostlyfair.Thereisagreatnumberanddensesetofimpersonalorganizations—tradeunions,industryandprofessionalorganizations,faith-basedorganizations,NGOs,andsoon—thatrepresentarangeofinterestsandmobilizewidely-dispersedconstituenciesforelections.Electoralcompetitioncanbeintenseandbitter,butelectionsarelargelyviolence-free.
Electionrulesarenotfair.Restrictionsareimposedtomakeitdifficultfortheoppositiontoorganize,fieldcandidates,orusethepress.Organizationsthatmobilizeinterestsforelectionsarefewerinnumberanddensity.Manyofthosethatexistchoosetoremain“neutral”ofpartypoliticsandmaynothavethecapabilitytomobilizewidely-dispersedconstituencies.Charismatic,individualleadersareoftenmoreeffectiveinmobilizingvoters.Electoralcompetitioncanbedeadly.
Corruption Corruptionandwidespreadrentcreationdestabilizestheincumbentcoalitionandservestomobilizeagreatmanygroupsagainstit.Corruptionchargestypicallydestroyreputations.
Corruptionandrent-creationconsolidatesincumbents.Winnersinpoliticalcompetitiontypicallyregardvictoryas“ourturn”toenjoyrent-seeking.Corruptionchargesdonotnecessarilydestroyreputations.
Civilsociety Inan“openaccess”democracy,thereareanumberofimpersonalorganizationsthathavethecapabilitytoholdpublicofficialstoaccount.
Thestate’suseofprivilegeandrentstosecurepoliticalordernecessitateslimitedaccessthattypicallypreventsacivilsocietyfrombeingcapableofpolicinggovernment.
Source:Gutierrez2011;Northetal.2009.
Chapter 2: Toward the Major Contextual Factors: Six Domains • 15
“… the commitment of elites [to SAcc] … will be strongly shaped by the terms of the politi-cal settlement and the incentives that this places before them to act in favour of certain interests over others.”
Such incentives structure, but do not necessarily determine, elite behavior (Unsworth and Moore 2010).
More specifically, the dimensions of the settlement that seem most relevant to SAcc prospects—based on the evidence discussed above and below—are the extent to which the settlement is developmental and capable, and the nature of the ideas of accountability that bind a given settlement together. Each aspect is briefly discussed in turn.
First, SAcc (in the context of this paper) aims to advance certain development goals. As such, the developmental character of the settlement—i.e., the extent to which its legitimacy is based on furthering broader-based development along with some level of redistri-bution and social development—is important. Indeed, settlements based on high levels of elite predation and patronage may provide very limited space for viable SAcc. As one review notes:
“If politicians, and especially leaders, do not have the incentives to deliver on develop-ment, putting extra pressure on bureaucratic state agencies is likely to have limited, or local effects. When the political leadership has some commitment to development, civil society may have a role to play in how internal state mechanisms work.” (Devarajan et al. 2011: 34)
Box 2.5, for example, briefly outlines how the nature of the political settlement in Rwanda has arguably shaped the form of nascent SAcc processes.
Relatedly, the extent to which the settlement is inclusive may shape the constraints and oppor-tunities for SAcc. Settlements manifest themselves in, “the structure of property rights and entitlements, which give some social actors more distributional advantages than others, and in the regulatory structure of the state” (Di John and Putzel 2009: 4).6 As such, the way in which entitlements are distributed and certain groups are included/excluded in a given context would shape SAcc dynamics. For example, the distribution of rights is important because such rights tend to form the basis of accountability claims (as noted further below). Also, SAcc is likely to take different forms depending on whether certain groups are included or not—for example, SAcc activities may range from attempts to have the rights of excluded groups recognized to asserting already-recognized rights, as briefly outlined in chapter 4.
A second dimension of the settlement that is relevant to SAcc is its capacity to manage the social and political changes underpinning development and the demands that SAcc might place upon it. This relates to organizational and technical capacity but also to political capacities. “Political” capacity refers to the capability of the state to maintain enough political stability for
If politicians, and especially leaders, do not have the incentives to deliver on development, putting extra pressure on bureaucratic state agencies is likely to have limited, or local effects.
16 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
social transformation to take place (Khan 2010: 52) and to maintain synergistic and legitimate relations with different social actors (vom Hau 2012).7 The level of capacity may shape the form of and opportunities for SAcc in various ways. For example, SAcc demands may be more easily accommodated by an adapt-able and capable political settlement. On the other hand, where the settle-ment is weak or fragile, SAcc—if at all appropriate—may take a more modest, incremental form that links state-formation with civic engagement, often at the local level (see box 2.6). Similarly, in moments of political instability or transition, demands for accountability may find windows of opportunity (see chapter 4 for some examples of this).
Finally, the ideas, values, and ideologies of the ruling elite —the “ideological glue” of a settle-ment—may be important in shaping elite thinking and action on accountability issues. Settle-ments, as noted above, tend to be bound together by a set of norms and ideas of what are, or are not, legitimate forms of governance. A growing body of literature notes how elite ideas around public service and development—as well as norms and narratives of legitimacy and accountability—can shape their action and receptiveness to SAcc claims (Reis and Moore 2005; Harris et al. 2011).
The state’s “political capacity” refers to its capabilities to maintain enough political stability for social transformation to take place and to maintain synergistic and legitimate relations with different social actors.
Box 2.5. Rwanda: A Neo-Patrimonial Developmental settlement? emerging Forms of social Accountability
Abroadlyneo-patrimonialdevelopmentsettlementhasarguablycharacterizedRwandainthepastdecadeormore.Itis
“neo-patrimonial”inthesensethatsystemsofpatrimonialismunderpinarelativelycentrally-controlledpoliticaleconomy.
However,it isalsoarguablydevelopmental,byvirtueoftheeffortsbytherulingpoliticalclasstocentralizerentsandto
takealong-termdevelopmentalplanninghorizonalongsidethestate’sefforts—todifferingdegrees—toreducepoverty
andachievecertainsocialdevelopmentgoals—forinstance,thegovernmenthasshownastrongcommitmenttoimproving
maternalhealth.
Withinthiscontext,SAccprogramshaveemerged—namelythroughthePublicPolicyInformation,Monitoring,andAdvo-
cacy(PPIMA)Program,fundedbyDFIDandledbyNorwegianPeople’sAidandotherpartners.Amongotherthings,this
hasinvolvedtherolloutofservicedeliverycitizenreportcardsandbudget-literacyinitiatives, includingacitizens’guide
tothebudget.Whileitistooearlytodocumenttheresultsofthisprogram,thesettlementhasshapedSAcc’semergence
andimplementationintwomainways.First,thefactthatrulingelitesappeartohaveincentivestodeliverondevelopment
hasarguablygivenSAcc—andcivilsocietyparticipation—sometraction.Specifically,SAcchasarguablygainedsometrac-
tionwhenithasbeenframed—albeit instrumentallyandnarrowly—intermsof furtheringtheelite’sdevelopmentvision
andimprovingservicedeliveryefficienciesatthelocallevel.Second,giventhesomewhat“closed”natureofthepolitical
system,theSAccinitiativeshaveproceededrelativelyslowlyandwithcaution,andhaveinvestedheavilyinbuildingtrust
anddialoguebetweencitizensandthestatetoimproveservicesandtopossiblymakeincrementalchangestostate-citizen
relationships.Incontrast,inmoreopenpoliticalsettlements,SAccmaybeabletotakeonamoreradicalformofdemand
andovertsocialandpoliticaldissent.
Sources: BoothandGolooba-Mutebi2011;PPIMA2010;O’Meally2010(Fieldnotes).
Chapter 2: Toward the Major Contextual Factors: Six Domains • 17
State-Society.Relations.
A fourth domain focuses on the arena of “state-society relations.” Of course, this domain is related to the political settlement, although it focuses on state-citizen rather than inter-elite relations. Four main aspects of these relations emerge as significant.
First, the nature of the state-citizen “social contract” in a given context can influence the form and effectiveness of SAcc. The term broadly refers to the mutual expectations of the entitle-ments, roles, and responsibilities between the state and citizens.8 The nature of a given con-tract is, however, likely to differ across contexts and even across sectors and goods (Hickey 2011).9 Even in fragile or “collapsed” states, there may be loose forms of a contract between different actors—probably at the local level—even if it does not resemble the Western state-centric social contract. The nature of the social contract can shape SAcc in two main ways: (1) it can set the parameters for SAcc activities because in order to be able to make accountabil-ity claims of the state, “there must be an implicit assumption about the roles and responsibilities of the state, as well as the rights and entitlements of citizens” (Newell and Wheeler 2006: 29);
Box 2.6. A Fragile Political settlement, Legitimacy, and Local civic engagement in Iraq and Beyond
InthecontextofafragilepoliticalsettlementinIraq,somecivicengagementactivitieshavefocusedonincrementalsteps
to build the perceived legitimacy of local government bodies. For example, a Local Governance Program (LGP) has,
amongother things,provided technical assistance and capacity-building topromote trust in andperceived legitimacy
ofthelocalcouncils.FollowingtheinitialcessationofhostilitiesinIraq,theLGPsupportedthecreationoflocalcouncils
and,subsequently,providedtechnicalassistanceandtrainingtothecouncilsalongsidetoolstohelptheminteractwith
citizens.WhilethelocalcouncilswereinitiallydesignedtointerfacewiththeU.S.military,theygrewbeyondthatroleto:
(1)conductserviceneedsassessments; (2)participate in jointplanningwith localdepartmentstaff;or (3)voicecitizens’
concernsandseektoholdlocalofficialsaccountable.
OneevaluationofLGParguedthatthecapacitybuildingwaseffectiveinvariouswaysbecause:(1)theprogramprioritized
buildingthelegitimacyofthelocalcouncilswithconstituents;(2)theparticipatoryprocesseshelpedimprovecouncilrep-
resentationandreduceelitecapture;and(3)becausetheformationofthecouncilsincreasedthenetworksofpeoplewho
werewillingtotrusteachother.However,theevaluationwarns(asdootherevaluationsinfragilecontexts)thatsuchlocal
gainsmaybe reversed in situationswhereconflict isongoing,where the legacyofoppressive state-society relations is
strong,andwherethedecentralizationprocessfacesoppositionfromthecentralgovernment.
Morebroadly,GaventaandBarrett’s(2010)reviewofmultiplecasespointstothepotentialroleofgradualandincremental
stepstobuildcivicengagementandaccountabilityinfragilesettingsthroughrepeatedstate-citizeninteractions.Theirre-
viewofmultiplecasessuggeststhatweneedtorecognize,“therolewhichlocalassociationsandothercitizenactivitiescan
play[infragilesettings]inthestrengtheningofculturesofcitizenship,whichinturncancontributetobuildingresponsive
states.”
Sources: Boeckman2012;BrinkerhoffandMayfield2005;GaventaandBarrett2010;WorldBank2011.
18 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
and (2) it helps explain the willingness of citizens to engage in SAcc—experience sug-gests that citizens are more likely to take part in SAcc if they already believe the state is responsible for delivering a particular good or service (Bukenya et al. 2012). Box 2.7 offers some brief examples.
Second, a related dimension is the history of state-citizen bargaining. The history of state-citizen relations in state formation and service provision matters. SAcc initia-tives tend to be more effective in countries with a strong history of civic engagement (as the example in box 2.8 suggests). This does not mean that all CS action is path dependent, but that a history of CS activism can support the creation of, “a repertoire of activism, replete with skills, networks and tactics, on which these later campaigns
could build” (McGee and Gaventa 2010: 13; also, Goodin and Tilly 2006; Joshi and Houtzager 2012; Shankland 2010). Moreover, the extent to which the experience of citizen engagement has been positive or negative shapes the willingness of citizens to engage in current SAcc initiatives, par-ticularly because engaging in SAcc may divert the resources of actors from other activities—so there are trade-offs.
A third dimension within this domain relates to the character of formal and informal state-society accountability and bridging mechanisms. This covers multiple mechanisms ranging from the media and legal redress mechanisms to participatory spaces and customary institutions (see Agarwal and Van Wicklin 2011). The extent to which such mechanisms are authoritative, legiti-mate, and effective has been found to shape the prospects for SAcc effectiveness. Equally, in spite of the relatively limited evidence base, it seems that informal accountability institutions—and their interaction with formal mechanisms—are important in shaping SAcc outcomes.10 In many developing-country contexts, informal rules are prevalent and “… often involve patrimonial structures of exchange, which rely on different logics of accountability and appeal to different
Box 2.7. The social contract and social Accountability: Three examples
InMalawi,citizenscorecardinitiativeswerefoundtobemoreeffectiveinlocalitieswheresocialcontractswerestrong—that
is,wheretherewaswidespreadagreementonthestate’sroleinservicedelivery.Inthesetypesoflocalities,theprocesswas
abletonurture“collaborativespaces”thatbroughtcommunities,serviceproviders,localauthorities,andotherstogether
tocollectivelysolveservicedeliveryproblems,witheachtypeofactorcontributingto improvementsaccordingtotheir
endowments.
InBrazil,theeffectivenessoftheparticipatorybudgetinginitiativeinPortoAlegrewaspartlyattributedtothefactthatthe
openingofbudgetsandcitizenparticipationformedpartofthesocialcontractbetweentheWorkers’Partyandcivilsociety.
This“contract”wasnegotiatedbeforetheformerwaselectedintooffice.
InUganda,ithasbeenarguedthattheperceptionofthestate-citizen“contract”aroundeducationisstrong;forexample,
householdsvalueeducationforitscriticalroleinpovertyreductionanddevelopment.Arguably,thiscontributedtocitizen
mobilizationaroundanewspapercampaignaimedatfightingcorruptiontoimproveschooling.
Sources: WildandHarris2012:22;Goldfrank2006;ReinikkaandSvensson2011.
The context-specific form of the social contract is key: to make accountability claims there must be an implicit assumption about the role of the state and the entitlements of the citizens.
Chapter 2: Toward the Major Contextual Factors: Six Domains • 19
narratives of legitimacy [compared to the more democratic, formal SAcc models]” (Harris et al. 2011: 5). Also, in contexts where formal accountability mechanisms are weak, SAcc activities may play a role in improving services by, for example, leveraging informal networks or through symbolic acts or protest (Unsworth and Moore 2010).
Finally, the form and effectiveness of SAcc is shaped by the depth and character of networks between state and society actors. As noted above, a key variable in explaining the effectiveness of SAcc interventions is the existence of pro-reform state-society networks. Such networks do not, however, form overnight—they form over time through interaction and rounds of bargain-ing, and they can be reshaped, coopted, or changed by numerous internal and external drivers (for example, Fox 2007; Sorensen and Torfing 2005). These points are all further discussed in the following chapters.
Intra-Society.Relations.
The penultimate domain is called “intra-society relations.” This can be under-stood as the field of power relationships that shapes social interactions and popular agency within society. It is particularly relevant in understanding some of the barriers that prevent people from participating effectively in, and deriving the benefits from, SAcc. At the risk of simplification, a key subdimen-sion (alongside citizen’s individual capacities, outlined above) is the nature of socioeconomic inequality and exclusion.
Levels of inequality and social exclusion have been found to play an important role in shaping SAcc outcomes. As one metareview of context and SAcc finds:
“The contextual factor that emerged most frequently as shaping the success or failure of participatory approaches to securing accountability concerned inequalities amongst citizens as would-be participants.” (Bukenya et al. 2012: 40)
Better-off citizens generally—although not always—tend to benefit more from SAcc processes, and socially excluded groups can be marginalized in such activities (as box 2.9 illustrates). For example, there is relatively strong evidence to suggest that transparency-based initiatives tend
Box 2.8. A strong History of Grassroots Mobilization: The Treatment Action campaign in south Africa
TheTreatmentActionCampaign(TAC)inSouthAfricasuccessfullypushedtheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)govern-
ment toput inplaceHIV/AIDSpolicies like theuniversalprovisionofantiretroviral treatment through thepublichealth
system.TAC’smobilizationoccurred in theaftermathof a successful antiapartheidmovement. It hasbeenargued that
oneofthecontributingfactorstoTAC’seffectivenesswasthatitsfoundersdrewonandemployedthesametechniques
developedinthefightagainstapartheid.
Source: Campbelletal.2010;Friedman2010.
Levels of inequality and social exclusion have been found to play an important role in shaping social accountability outcomes.
20 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
to be utilized more successfully by better-off and less-excluded citizens; other evidence points to the fact that in fractionalized societies, participatory initiatives tend to reproduce exist-ing inequalities (Bukenya et al. 2012). Even strong proponents of participatory approaches to accountability (for example, McGee and Gaventa 2011) stress the need for a greater focus on ensuring the relevance of SAcc to poor and vulnerable groups.
However, the impact of inequality on SAcc is arguably ambiguous. On one hand, in cases like Brazil, India, and South Africa, it is the perception of inequalities that stimulated aggrieved citi-zens to call on the state to do something. On the other hand, some studies note that the degree of fractionalization along religious, ethnic, and class lines, among others, can negatively affect the capacity of citizens for collective action (Bukenya et al. 2012). Therefore, what might be of key importance is the popular perception of the fairness and legitimacy of inequality levels along with perceptions of whether it is the state’s responsibility to rectify such inequalities (see also, Marc et al. 2012); this would, however, require further research.
Box 2.9. Inequality, exclusion and social Accountability: Various examples
LevelsofinequalityandexclusioncanshapetheconstraintsaroundSAccinvariousways.Insomecases,effortsforcitizen
voiceandparticipationhavebeenfoundtoreproduceexistinginequalitiesinspiteofeffortsatmitigation.
VariouscasesinIndia,forinstance,suggestthatattemptstopromotewomen’sparticipationandrepresentationinvillage
panchayat committees has had limited effects.Mohanty (2007: 85), reportingonwomen’s representation inwatershed
subcommittees,writesthat,“Itisalltooobviousthatwomenarerecruitedtowatershedcommitteestomeetprocedural
requirements.Itseemsironictotalkabout‘choice,’sincemostwomenmembersarenotevenawarethattheyhavemem-
bershipinthecommittee.”Similarly,Corbridgeetal. (2005:148–149)findthattheattemptstosetupparticipatorySAcc
structuresinandthroughVillageEducationCommittees(VECs)hasbenefittedthosewealthierandmorecapablegroups.
Theyputitthat,“toexpectMusaharchildren—boysaswellasgirls—togotoschoolinBihar,or,stillmoreoptimistically,
toexpecttheirparentstotakepartinVECs,istomisstheveryobviouspointthatthesefamilieslackeventhemostbasic
assets:land,ofcourse,butalsoasenseofself-worthandtheprospectofsecureandproperlypaidemployment”(Corbridge
etal.2005:149).
InanotherexamplefromtheNigerDelta,citizengroupshaveattemptedtoholdpublicandprivatesectoractorstoaccount
forthelackofinvestmentininfrastructureandeconomicdevelopmentintheregion,aswellastheenvironmentaldegrada-
tionastheresultofnaturalresourceexploration.However,manyofthesemobilizationshavebeendividedbyethnicity,
limitingtheopportunitiesforamorecohesiveandbroad-basedunderstandingofcitizenshipandrightsandexacerbating
preexistinginter-ethnicdisputesoverrentsandresources(Osaghae2010).
ThisisnottosaythatSAccapproachesareuniformandcannotemploydifferentstrategiestoaddressandmitigateinequal-
ity(seechapter4).However,exclusionissuescanbedeeplyingrainedanddifficulttoovercomewithoutsignificantattention
over time.Asone respondent inastudyoncitizenship in the favelas (urbanslums)ofRiodeJaneiroput it,“dignity is
everythingforacitizen—andwehavenodignity.Wearetreatedlikecattleintheclinics,onthebusesandintheshops.Only
inrichneighbourhoodsarepeopletreatedwithdignity”(Wheeler2005:109).GaventaandBarrett(2010:46),thusconclude
that:“Wherecertaingroupshavebeenhistoricallyexcluded,orinregionswithlowlevelsofsocialcohesion,thepromotion
ofmeasuresforcitizenengagementmusttakeintocarefulconsiderationthehistoriesoflocalpopulationgroupsandthe
beststrategiesforpromotinggenuinelyinclusiveparticipatoryprocesses.”
Chapter 2: Toward the Major Contextual Factors: Six Domains • 21
Global.Dimensions.
A final domain can be broadly termed “global dimensions.” This refers to the way in which global actors and processes can support or undermine accountability for development and SAcc. There is limited evidence of the specific impact of global dimensions on SAcc, perhaps partly due to the limitations of the remit of impact evaluations, but there is much to suggest that such dimensions do shape state-citizen accountability relations. The ways in which these dimensions might shape the constraints and opportunities for SAcc will vary across time and place, but some key issues are worth flagging here.
First, donor accountability and donor-state relations, especially in highly aid-dependent countries, can be important in a variety of ways, such as: (1) aid con-ditions may create or limit space for national deliberation and accountability over appropriate policies and measures; (2) donor agencies, when taking too much responsibility for service provi-sion, may undermine the emergence of a social contract; (3) aid flows may provide (dis)incentives for political elites to be more responsive to local citizens and for tax bargaining; and (4) direct aid flows to CS could undermine their independence, effectiveness, and downward accountability (for example, Booth 2012; O’Neil et al. 2007, 2011; Banks and Hulme 2012).
Second, the accountability of other international power-holders beyond the state is increasingly pertinent. For example, multinational corporations (MNCs) or international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) have been found to shape domestic accountability in more or less posi-tive ways, especially when the state is unwilling or unable to regulate these actors’ activities. There are various instances where MNCs have violated poor people’s perceived rights leading to forms of SAcc that target the corporation, rather than just the state (for example, Newell and Garvey 2004; Bebbington et al. 2008). Another example of these international dimensions of accountability dynamics can be found in box 2.10 and also in chapter 4.
Third, there are, more broadly, a range of international economic and political processes that are understood to shape domestic accountability. This includes, but is of course not limited to: (1) the level of a country’s global economic integration, as more extreme forms of globalization can undermine accountability by limiting the state’s capacity to democratically debate and deter-mine social and economic policy (Rodrik 2011; Scott 2012); (2) international trade and financial
Box 2.10. Global-Local Accountability Networks: Fishery example
Inthefisheries,therearecasesinwhichforeigncompanieshavebribedofficialstograntthemfishingrightsoverandabove
preagreedsustainablelimits,thusimpactingsustainabilityandthelivelihoodsofothers.Inthefaceofthisaccountability
challenge,“trumpingnetworks”canformthroughwhichfishingcompanies—seekingtoprotectboththeircontinuedac-
cess to the resourceand its sustainability—buildallianceswith local communities,environmental activists, and retailers
committedtosustainabletradeinordertoexposeandreversepoliciesthatthreatenoverfishing.
Source: Levy2011.
Global actors and processes can support or undermine accountability for development; this in turn shapes the prospects for effective demand-side activities.
22 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
flows (such as trade in illicit goods or money laundering), which can shape the incentives of political and economic elites to pursue anti-development practices; or (3) international stan-dards, such as the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) or international human rights norms, which can exert pressure on certain states and open spaces for greater accountability, and so on (see Unsworth and Moore 2010; Ringold et al. 2011).
Chapter.Summary.
This chapter has outlined some of the key contextual domains and subdimensions that influence the form and effectiveness of SAcc. These variables are summarized in table 2.2.
Table 2.2. summary of the Key contextual Domains and subdimensions that Influence social Accountability
six contextual Domains Key Domain subdimensions
1. Civil Society • Technicalandorganizationalcapacity
• Capacitytobuildalliancesacrosssociety
• Capacitytobuildalliances/networkswiththestate
• Authority,legitimacy,andcredibilityofcivilsocietywithcitizensandstateactors
• Willingnessofcivilsocietytochallengeaccountabilitystatusquo
• CapacityandcapabilityofcitizenstoengageinSAcc
• WillingnessofcitizenstoengageinSAcc
2.PoliticalSociety • Willingnessofpolitical/electedelitestorespondtoandfosterSAcc
• WillingnessofstatebureaucratstorespondtoandfosterSAcc
• StateandpoliticalelitecapacitytorespondtoSAcc
• Democratizationandthecivilsocietyenablingenvironment
• Thenatureoftheruleoflaw
• ThecapacityandwillingnessofpoliticalpartiestosupportSAcc
3.Inter-EliteRelations • Thedevelopmentalnatureofthepoliticalsettlement
• Theinclusivenessofthesettlement
• Theorganizationalandpoliticalcapabilitiesofthesettlement
• Eliteideas/normsofaccountabilityunderpinningthesettlement
4.State-SocietyRelations • Thecharacterandformofthesocialcontract
• Historyofstate–citizenbargaining(long-andshort-term)
• State-societyaccountabilityandbridgingmechanisms(formalandinformal)
• Thenatureanddepthofstate-societypro-accountabilitynetworks
5.Intra-SocietyRelations • Inequality
• Socialexclusionandfragmentation
6.GlobalDimensions • Donor-staterelations
• Internationalpower-holderaccountability
• Internationalpoliticalandeconomicdrivers
23
3. Toward a context-sensitive understanding of social Accountability change
The paper has, to this point, outlined some of the major contextual factors that appear critical in explaining the form and effectiveness of SAcc. However, this is only one part of the picture. SAcc interventions can also shape their context. This chapter thus turns to the question: “How might SAcc interact with and influence the context in order to bring about change?” In order to take action, we need an understanding of how SAcc-driven change happens. Indeed, it is increasingly recognized that a basic prerequisite for planning is to articulate a Theory of Change (ToC) which can,
“… identify the salient features of the context of intervention, the precondi-tions for success, the possible pathways for success and the assumptions underpinning the strategy.” (AcT 2010)
Thus, the chapter first summarizes some key lessons about how SAcc design factors contribute to positive change. Based on this “evidence” and chapter 2, a relevant ToC is proposed. Two points should, however, be highlighted at the outset. First, the chapter outlines the broad contours and concepts of an appropriate ToC; the purpose is not to provide guidance on how a ToC should be developed in a given program or context, as is pro-vided elsewhere (for example, Johnsøn, 2012; Tembo, 2012). Second, as noted in the introduction, we still have a limited under standing of how accountability initiatives interact with context to produce outcomes, so this ToC is tentative and should be tested in the future. Moreover, a ToC cannot offer a singular roadmap toward change and is necessarily partial and simplified, even if it can help sharpen strategic thinking and action (McGee and Gaventa 2011).
Design.Factors.and.Change.
This section briefly summarizes some of the current evidence about how SAcc contributes to change (Bukenya et al. 2012). The boxes offer illustrations of selected points, as do the discus-sions that follow in chapter 4:
• SAcc change processes tend to be complex and nonlinear and can bring about unintended consequences. As McGee and Gaventa (2011: 27) note, “… all transparency and accountability initiatives unfold within complex, nonlinear, contextually-specific social and political processes and it is these complex contexts and processes that they seek to change.” There may also be multiple potential pathways to “success” in one given context (Tembo 2012).11
• SAcc elements are often just one of many drivers of change and accountability change is often—at least in part—underpinned by a broader political process. As Newell and Wheeler (2006: 3) note, accountability reforms are often political as they tend to: “challenge powerful
An intervention is shaped by, but can also shape, the context … to take effective action we also need to sharpen our understanding of how social accountability interventions might contribute to positive change.
24 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
interests that benefit from lack of transparency, low levels of institutional responsiveness, and poor protection of citizens’ rights.”
• SAcc interventions appear more likely to bring about positive change when the lead imple-menting actors from civil society (CS) and/or political society (PS) are seen as locally authori-tative, legitimate, and credible by the actors involved. By the same token, SAcc participatory initiatives tend to be more effective when they are deemed to be credible and authoritative by citizens—i.e., when the decision-making outcomes of these processes are seen as both
valid and enforceable.• SAcc is more likely to be effective when it promotes change in both
spheres of “supply” and “demand.” As noted above, demand-focused SAcc alone has tended to have limited effectiveness. Supply-side changes are often required alongside demand-side pressures to bring about sustained change, especially as it is often with the political masters and powerful state bureaucrats that the power “required to ensure that accountability interventions achieve both enforcement and sanctions resides” (Bukenya et al. 2012: 53), as noted previously. SAcc can be especially
effective as a complement that triggers in-state accountability mechanisms. But it is not a given that SAcc will be the most appropriate driver of accountability change in any given context; this should be decided on a case-by-case basis. For example, in order to improve service delivery in some contexts, it may be more appropriate to strengthen public authori-ties or actors in PS rather than necessarily resourcing demand-led initiatives (see Booth 2012).
Accountability reforms are often political: they tend to challenge powerful interests that benefit from low levels of responsiveness or poor delivery of citizens’ entitlements.
Box 3.1. state-society Alliances, Political Dynamics, and Accountability: The Philippines
TheexperienceoflandreforminthePhilippinesfrom1992to1998showshowanalliancebetweencivilsocietyorganiza-
tionsandstatereformersresultedinchangingaccountabilitydynamicsandpositivegainsforpoorpeopleonacontentious
issue.Briefly,thisiswhathappened.
Bytheearly1980s,thepeasants’protestmovementhadsucceededinputtingagrarianreformonthenationalagenda.After
muchdebate,acompromiselandreformbillwaseventuallypassed,whichbecamethebasisfortheacceleratedperiodof
landredistributionduringtheRamospresidency(1992–98).ShiftingpoliticalalignmentsandadividedelitemeantthatRamos
neededtobolsterhisweakelectoralmandatebyrecruitingcivilsocietyactivistsintoimportantpositionsinthebureaucracy.
Peasantmovements tookadvantageof thesepoliticalopenings to createa critical alliancewith the state reformers to
increasepressureforacceleratedlanddistributionandtheflowofbenefitstomarginalizedgroups.Thepeasantmovements
developedagroundbreakingapproachcalledthe“bibingka”strategy(“Bibingka”isaricecakecookedfrombelowand
above).Itcametosignifythemutuallyreinforcinginteractionbetweenmilitantmobilizationsofpeasantmovements“from
below”andreformistinitiatives“fromabove”bystatebureaucrats(thisreflectsthe“sandwichstrategy”outlinedlaterinthis
report).Cooptionofthereformmovementbyreformantagonistswasavoidedbecausetherewasacriticalmassofreform-
erswithingovernmentandbecausethepeasantmovementwasabletoretainitsindependenceandbackitsdemandswith
broadersocialmobilization.
Source:BorrasJr.andFranco2008.
Chapter 3: Toward a Context-Sensitive Understanding of Social Accountability Change • 25
• It is the quality and strength of pro-accountability networks across state and society rather than the characteristics of individual actors that often account for success. The interests and incentives of PS and CS actors are not homogenous; there are dif-ferences within and across them with regard to their propensity to drive pro-accountability change. The forging of strategic alliances between like-minded actors from CS and PS emerges as critical for change. Box 3.1 illustrates this and other important ingredients contributing to pro-poor change and heightened accountability on land issues in the Philippines.
• Many cases of SAcc have been more effective when founded on high-quality and relevant information that is sufficiently disseminated to the appropriate constituents. In this regard, the media offers a key route through which infor-mation around government activities can be disseminated, although this depends on the independence and integrity of the media. However, information and answerability alone are unlikely to bring about change—sanctions and enforceability are needed. The informa-tion should be salient to solving the accountability problem and must meet existing citizen demands for information and respond to their incentives and capacities for action, thus inspiring behavioral change, as box 3.2 suggests (Dervarajan et al. 2011; Fung et al. 2007). As McGee and Gaventa (2011: 9) warn, “Transparency is a necessary but insufficient condition for accountability … transparency initiatives which ‘mobilise the power of shame’ have no purchase on the shameless.”
• A SAcc initiative tends to have more traction and impact when the issue in question is per-ceived to be “significant” by the actors who are mobilizing around it. This is also illustrated above in the discussion on the social contract.
• Related to this, SAcc processes appear to be more likely to bring about sustainable change when they support existing “organic” domestic ini-tiatives and pressures for change. Discrete SAcc tools may bring about localized changes but there are questions about their sustainability and potential to be scaled up. As Bukenya et al. (2012) note, SAcc may be particularly powerful when it, “moves from being introduced as part of the intervention to being institutionalised within/as part of the political context.” This, as Joshi and Houtzager (2012) outline, means thinking less in terms of the tools or widgets that are the particular steps and inputs of a given SAcc initiative and more in terms of the watchdog nature of SAcc actors that relates to their organic social and political capabilities to oversee public authorities. Moreover, SAcc is arguably more likely to be effective when it builds on and complements locally legitimate formal and/or informal accountability mechanisms (Mansuri and Rao 2013).
Box 3.2. Information and “Painting” the Picture: Participatory Budgeting in Brazil
Amongotherthings,thesuccessofparticipatorybudgetinginPortoAlegre,Brazil,isattributedtothetailoredandappro-
priateinformationdisseminationmeanttoinspiremobilizationandenablepeopletotakeinformedaction.Forexample,
evenintheremotestofthecity’ssuburbs—suchastheimpoverishedBrazilianfishingvillageofIcapuí—themayorpainted
monthlybudgetfigures(bothrevenuesandexpenditures)onthesideofhishouse.
Source:Goldfrank2006.
Social accountability processes appear more likely to bring about sustainable reform when they support “organic‚“ domestic pressures for change.
Information and answerability alone are unlikely to bring about change—sanctions and enforceability are needed.
26 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
•. SAcc interventions that take a multilevel and multipronged approach have been found to be more effective. These are approaches that work simultaneously on transparency, account-ability and participation; that work at different levels, from global to local; and, that are embedded in different stages of the policy cycle (Fox 2004, 2007; Gaventa 2009). Box 3.3 describes a movement that combines multiple strategies to achieve its objectives. As Fox (2007: 354) notes, “… transparency, accountability and participation reforms need each other, they can be mutually enforcing—but such synergy remains exceedingly rare.”
• SAcc interventions that adopt a longer time horizon may have greater chances of success, namely because the changes in social and political conditions to increase accountability tend to take time (even if this is not well documented perhaps because of the often shorter-term impact evaluation timescales.
Building.Blocks.for.a.Theory.of.Social.Accountability.Change.
Based on the findings illustrated so far, there is arguably a case to refocus—even radically rethink in some areas—the way in which SAcc has often been understood and operationalized. It can be inferred that the main elements of this rethink involve the integration of at least four principles, which are briefly outlined below. The next section attempts to tie this all together.
First, there is a good case to put political and power relations at the forefront of understanding and operationalizing SAcc. The findings point to the critical importance of power and political relationships in shaping SAcc processes and outcomes. This challenges the tendency, with exceptions, to promote SAcc as a technical process in and through formal institutional frameworks. Related to this, the evidence suggests a rethink of how CS is commonly perceived. CS has often been seen as an autonomous arena that is by and large a force for the good—this has been termed the “associational school” (Howell and Pearce 2001;
Whaites 1996). The evidence, however, suggests that: (1) CS can be shot through with power rela-tions and CS actors may have incentives to maintain, as well as challenge, accountability failures; and, (2) CSOs can find it very difficult to find room to maneuver for their projects vis-à-vis the broader politics of patronage and exclusion (Benequista 2010; Evans 2010; Houtzager et al. 2005). This resonates with “neo-Gramscian”12 understandings of CS, which see it as embedded in, and not autonomous from, political and power relations (Cox and Sinclair 1996; O’Meally 2009).
The findings point to the critical importance of power and political relationships in shaping social accountability processes and outcomes.
Box 3.3. A Multipronged Approach to Accountability: Rural Landless Movement in Brazil
Therural landlesspeople’smovement—theMovimentodosTrabalhadoresRuraisSemTerra (MST)—inBrazil,soughtto
holdthegovernmenttoaccountforitsconstitutionalresponsibilityonlandissues.Itwaseffectivearguablybecauseitused
arangeofmutually-reinforcingstrategiestocreate“demand,”includingthejudicialprocess,formalandinformalinterac-
tionwithstateactors,grassrootsmobilization,themedia,andprotests.MSTorganizedmorethan230,000landoccupations,
won15millionacresforlandreform,created1,500agriculturalcommunities,andsettledmorethan250,000families.
Source: Campbelletal.2010.
The changes in social and political conditions needed to increase accountability tend to take time.
Chapter 3: Toward a Context-Sensitive Understanding of Social Accountability Change • 27
Second, inter-elite and state-society relations, coalitions and bargaining war-rant much greater attention. A good deal of attention has been focused on individual actors from the state and CS, such as through building the organiza-tional capacity of CSOs. However, what also seems to be particularly impor-tant are the relations and interactions between the different actors; and the incentives that flow from these relations. The findings urge us to go beyond the supply/demand, principal/agent, and state/citizen dichotomies and instead understand the more progressive and regressive coalitions that cut across the state and citizen divide. Related to this, in Booth’s (2012a: 11) view, “Governance challenges are not fundamentally about one set of people get-ting another set of people to behave better. They are about both sets of people finding ways of being able to act collectively in their own best interests.” He cautions against, on the one hand, supply side principal-agent approaches that tend to assume there is political commitment to reform and the problem is mainly about compliance and information asymmetry down the chain of command; and against, on the other hand, the demand-side principal-agent logic which treats citizens, voters or service users as (homogenous) principals seeking to get compliance from politicians and civil servants (Booth 2012).
Third, there is a need to sharpen and deepen the focus on inequality and exclusion dynamics. As outlined in the previous chapter, poverty, inequality, and exclusionary dynamics shape the extent to which many citizens can engage effectively in and/or benefit from SAcc claim-making. This implies the need to put “inequality-mitigating” measures at the center of all SAcc thinking and implementation, rather than sometimes addressing these issues in a piecemeal or ad hoc manner.
Fourth, a greater emphasis is needed on how to work with the grain and support best-fit SAcc interventions. Given the findings, the paper supports calls to go beyond a best-practice mindset and to pay greater attention to existing contextual relations and identify best-fit or “good enough” solutions (Levy 2011; Grindle 2007).13 This means focusing more on what exists and can be built on and less to gap filling to address what is judged to be missing when a country is compared with an OECD country or development success case (Unsworth 2003; Warrener 2004; Unsworth and Moore 2010). What may result from this shift have been recently termed “practical hybrids”—that is, where modern bureaucratic and formal standards combine with, or adapt to, locally-accepted cultures and practices (see Booth 2012a and chapter 4).14
Tying it All Together What springs from these findings are arguably diverse threads with which to start weaving an alternative, context-sensitive ToC for accountability change. While this is no easy task, the weight of the findings suggests that a relevant ToC could be rooted in a broad political sociology approach. These concepts are briefly outlined here.
A political sociology or “polity” approach understands politics to be mutually constituted by state-society relations (Houtzager 2003).15 This can be distinguished from the more principal-agent model that can imply a state-citizen dichotomy or from the notion that there are separate (and largely distinct) interest groups, as in interest-group economistic understandings of politics.
“Governance challenges are not fundamentally about one set of people getting another set of people to behave better. They are about both sets of people finding ways of being able to act collectively in their own best interests.” – D. Booth
What springs from these findings are diverse threads with which to start weaving a more appropriate theory of accountability change.
28 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
In this view, accountability relations can be largely understood to change through mutually reinforcing interactions between state and nonstate institutions. As Fox (2004) notes, public institutions that attempt to move in more pro-poor directions without the backing of informal or societal authority will achieve limited results, and attempts to drive change by societal actors alone may often be thwarted by public authority-holders. He notes that:
“Pro-empowerment institutional reforms are driven by mutually reinforcing cross-sectoral coalitions between state and society, grounded in mutually perceived shared interests.” (Fox 2004: 84)
Fox describes this through the metaphor of a “sandwich strategy.”
In the short term, such coalitions might be incrementally built up through interaction, negotia-tion, and institutional innovation across societal actors and between state and society actors, building social and political capital (Joshi 2010). As such, pro-change actors might interact strate-gically with actors opposed to change in order to bring about incremental shifts and to improve the bargaining power of pro-reform actors.
In the longer term, effectiveness hinges largely on the extent to which pro-reform state-society coalitions can change the balance of power at the relevant level:
“… the reform process depends on changing the balance of power between pro-reform actors embedded in both state and society and anti-reform actors, who are also embedded in state and society. While the anti-reform forces in state and society are very likely to constitute a de facto coalition closely linked through informal ties, pro-reform forces do not necessarily coordinate their efforts … This process of cross-sectoral coalition-building requires its own set of investment strategies, which involve both social and political capital.” (Fox 2004: 70)
This chimes with neo-Gramscian concepts that understand the polity to be composed of coali-tions (referred to as “blocs”) of actors and groups from political, economic, and civil society. The ruling—or “hegemonic”—coalition revolves around the dominant political and economic classes who maintain their power through alliances and settlements, and through a blend of consensus and coercion. In this view, change is understood as being driven by the formation of counter-hegemonic blocs—class-based and/or identity-based coalitions—that could reshape, challenge, or unseat the dominant coalition (Murphy 2005; O’Meally 2009).
The prospects for building effective pro-reform movements would be shaped by the strategies the movements’ employ and also by the nature and dynamics in the contextual domains outlined in chapter 2. This is not to say, however, that powerful actors from the state—such as political elites—or from society—such as social movements—might not act relatively independently to drive change, but experience tends to suggest that such actors rarely succeed in isolation and over the long term. By way of illustration, box 3.4, drawing on cases of rural mobilization in Mexico, illustrates an example of this type of sandwich strategy approach.
“… the reform process depends on changing the balance of power between pro-reform actors embedded in both state and society and anti-reform actors, who are also embedded in state and society.” – J. Fox
Chapter 3: Toward a Context-Sensitive Understanding of Social Accountability Change • 29
From this TOC’s perspective, attempts to heighten accountability can challenge the existing political coalition or settlement. At the risk of simplification, such challenges might lead to three broad outcomes: (1) coercion—a backlash from the powerful coalition; (2) cooptation—some appeasement and accommodation from the powerful coalition to ensure consensus and diffuse the challenge; or (3) change—the ruling coalition changes significantly and one can begin to talk about a new political settlement (Murphy 2005; Parks and Cole 2010).
Articulating a Theory of change Even if one is convinced by this reasoning, this approach does not lend itself to a singular or straightforward ToC. Nonetheless, it is a useful exercise to propose a preliminary, “meta” ToC that might underpin SAcc and change. It might go something like this:
“If pro-accountability and pro-poor networks in society are adequately resourced and build coalitions with pro-accountability networks in political society through rounds of state-society bargaining and interaction; and
Box 3.4. The ”’sandwich strategy’” and Rural Development in Mexico
AswiththecaseofthePhilippineslandreformmovement(box3.1onpage24)andvariousothercases,thecaseofrural
developmentpolicyandpracticeinMexicoillustratestheimportanceofpro-reformactorsandnetworksfrombothstate
andsocietyindrivingchangeandimprovingaccountability.Anumberofprograms,mainlyintheregionofOaxaca,involved
institutionalizedopportunitiesforMexicanindigenouspeoples’organizationstosharepowerwiththepublicsector.Thepro-
gramsincludedtheCommunityFoodCouncils,theRegionalDevelopmentFundsandtheMunicipalDevelopmentFunds.
Forexample,onesignificantruralconsumerprogramfocusedonremote,low-incomeareas,creatingthousandsofcom-
munity-managedlocalstoresthatweresuppliedbytheretaildistributionbranchofthegovernmentfoodcompanycalled
DICONSA.Theprogramattemptedtousecommunityparticipationandoversighttoencouragepublicaccountabilityof
thefooddistributioncompany.Itdidsobybuildingruralconsumers’opportunitiesandcapacitiesbycreatingregionalcivil
societycouncils.Inmanyregions,thesecouncilswerethefirstautonomousandrepresentativeCSOstobetoleratedbythe
government.Withinafewyears,approximatelyathirdofthecouncilshadachievedsomedegreeofautonomousoversight
capacity.Asanotherexample,inspiredbytheDICONSAfoodcouncilexperience,theNationalIndigenousInstitute(INI)
alsocreatedregionaleconomicdevelopmentcouncilswhereelectedrepresentativesofindigenousproducerorganizations
jointlyevaluatedgrassrootsfundingproposalsandco-signedcheckstogetherwithINIoutreachofficials.
Basedonasynthesisofthefindings,Foxconcludesthattheeffectivenessoftheinitiativesreliedonthecapacityandwilling-
nessofbothstateandsocietyactorsandonaneffectiveinterfacebetweenthetwo.Heconcludesthat:
• Reformsrequirechangesinthreedistinctarenas:withinthestateitself,withinsociety,andatthestate-societyinterface,
whichinvolvesbothformalandinformalpowerrelations.
• Thereformprocessdependsonchangingthebalanceofpowerbetweenpro-reformactorsandanti-reformactors.Build-
ingpro-reformcoalitionsrequiresitsownsetofinvestmentstrategies,involvingthebuildingofbothsocialandpolitical
capital.Pro-accountabilitypolicymakerscouldplayacriticalroleininvestingtheirpoliticalcapitaltogivepotentialcivil
societycounterpartsclearsignals,tangibleincentivestoengage,andsomeprotectionfrombacklash.
Source: Fox,2004.
30 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
If these coalitions are able to: (1) negotiate changes with anti-change actors; (2) generate sufficient countervailing power to change governing elite incentives; and/or (3) activate legitimate accountability mechanisms …
… then, this might result in: (1) coercion—a backlash from existing power-holders; (2) coop-tation and collaboration—incremental improvements in accountability relations and developmental gains within the existing political settlement; and/or, (3) change—more fundamental change leading to the formation of a new political settlement or social contract.”
Three points should, however, be underscored about this ToC. First, it is hypothesized that the dynamics outlined in this ToC would shape most SAcc processes whether they are focused at the national level—through the primary political settlement—or at the local or sectoral level around the secondary political settlement. Second, it is recognized that a single discrete SAcc operation, by itself, is unlikely to engender such change, even if one single intervention may con-tribute incrementally to certain aspects of the change process. Third, and finally, given that much depends on contextual variation and that there are often multiple levers for change, this ToC should be adapted to your particular programming context. As noted above, this is a preliminary ToC that should be tested and refined going forward.
Chapter.Summary.
The chapter has explored how a SAcc intervention might shape its context in order to produce outcomes. In so doing, it has outlined some key ingredients of “demand-driven” change and proposed a ToC. The main ingredients outlined were:
• SAcc change processes tend to be complex, nonlinear, and embedded in broader political processes;
• SAcc interventions seem to have greater prospects for success when the lead implementing actors are seen as locally authoritative, legitimate, and credible by the actors involved;
• SAcc is more likely to be effective where it promotes change that cuts across supply and demand;
• It is the quality and strength of pro-accountability networks across state and society that often account for success, rather than the characteristics of individual actors;
• The use of high-quality and relevant information appears to be a key ingredient, but infor-mation alone is unlikely to bring about change—action and sanctions are usually needed;
• A SAcc initiative tends to have more traction when it is perceived to be significant by involved actors, which links back to the discussion on the social contract in chapter 2;
• SAcc processes appear to be more likely to bring about sustainable change when they sup-port organic domestic initiatives and pressures for change;
• SAcc is more likely to be effective when it builds on locally-legitimate formal and/or infor-mal accountability mechanisms;
• SAcc interventions that take a multipronged approach have been found to be more effec-tive; and
• SAcc interventions may take a long time to produce results.
Chapter 3: Toward a Context-Sensitive Understanding of Social Accountability Change • 31
The paper then proposed a broad ToC that prompts a rethink of the way SAcc is often under-stood. At the very least, the ToC suggests that much greater and concerted attention should be paid to certain issues. By way of a summary, see table 3.1. The table is stylistic and each column is not mutually exclusive: there is, most likely, a spectrum and many agencies might find themselves somewhere in the in the middle of the spectrum or combining different elements of each column.
Finally, figure 3.1 summarizes the main dimensions of a contextualized understanding of SAcc. It highlights the five contextual domains that are interconnected and embedded in a broader sixth domain—the global dimensions. It shows how a SAcc intervention shapes and is shaped by the context, and it emphasizes the critical role of pro- and anti-accountability forces and networks in driving or hindering change.
Figure 3.1. Toward a context-sensitive understanding of social Accountability and change
Source: Author.
32 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Table 3.1. Mainstream Approaches and the Value-Added of the Paper’s Proposed ApproachMore Mainstream Approaches to sAcc Have Tended
to emphasize …
The Approach in this Paper suggests the Need to
Pay More Attention to …
The Role of context
Apply“models”acrossdifferentcontextsandfocusmore
heavilyonbestpractice
Usecontextualrealitiesasastartingpointandfacilitatelocal
problemsolvingaroundbestfit
Western/OECD-derivedideasofaccountabilitymaybe
thestartingpoint
Localnarrativesofaccountabilityasthestartingpoint
InducingSAccfromtheoutside
(sometimessetsupnew/parallelSAccmechanisms)
BuildingonorganicSAcc(focusesontriggering/buildingon
whatisalreadythere)
How change Happens
Morelinearunderstandingofchange Complex/lesslinearunderstanding
Shorter-termprojectlifetimes Long-termprocesses
Fixedlog-frames—stagesandsteps Learning-by-doing—modificationandadaptation
The Approach
Focusmoreontechnicalaspects Moreemphasisonpolitical/poweraspects
Social/politicalaccountabilitylargelyseparate Socialandpoliticalaccountabilityintertwined
Self-containedoperationaltools Broadersocial/politicalcapabilitiesofactorsandmultiple
driversofchange
Pressureonbureaucrats/serviceproviders
(the“shortroute”)
Alsoneedgreaterpressureonthe“politicalmasters”
(the“longroute”)
Where to Focus
Demand(withdifferingattentiontosupplyissues) Supply/demandsynergies
(collapsesupply/demanddichotomy)
Individualactors/spheres Linkages/networksbetweenactors
State-citizendichotomy State-societymutuallyconstituted
“State”or“Citizens”oftentreatedashomogenous Stateandsocietyisheterogeneous—
containbothprogressiveandregressiveelements
The Role of civil society and the Poor
StrongerbeliefinCSasforceforgood CSrolecanbemixed;needtobeselectiveinsupportingCS
Moreoptimisticregardingagencyofthepoor
(focusmoreondirectparticipationofthepoor)
Morecircumspectabouttheagencyofthepoor
(focusmoreonrepresentationofthepoor)
Variablefocusonpovertyandinequality Inequalityandexclusionneedtobecentral
How to Further Accountability
Formalinstitutionalframeworks Formal/informaldynamics
Informationandanswerability Answerabilityplussanctions
Local/micro-level Localplusmacroandglobaldimensions
Source: Author.
33
4. Toward Practical Implications
This chapter now takes some first steps to explore the practical implications of the findings and approach outlined in the previous chapters. In order to do so, the chapter first distills the main implications that have emerged from the discussion. The following sections then provide two tools for drilling down into some of the operational implications:
(1) Tool 1 unpacks the central, cross-cutting operational implications of the paper. It provides preliminary examples and guidance for practitioners in these areas.
(2) Tool 2 provides some guidance on how SAcc might be tailored to contextual variations through an If … Then framework.
The chapter, in short, attempts to navigate the tricky balance between the complexity of con-textual variation and the pressures to provide specific, practical guidance. Annex 1 also offers a tool for conducting a context analysis. These tools should be used together to help in thinking through and designing accountability interventions.
As outlined in the introduction, there are notable challenges in undertaking this task. First, there are very few systematic attempts to understand and respond to contextual realities in planning and implementing SAcc (not least because of the limited evidence base). The preliminary nature of this chapter should, as such, be underscored. Second, there are few unambiguous roadmaps for success—the whole point of taking context seriously is that it is necessary to work through an iterative approach that is based, in large part, on dynamic contextual realities. Third, the universe of contextual possibili-ties is vast. As such, the chapter does not attempt to cover all contextual variation but rather outlines some relatively well-documented scenarios and appropriate responses. The sugges-tions put forward here should ideally be explored and tested in a long-term learning-by-doing approach.
Summary.of.Practical.Implications.
By way of summarizing the preceding discussion, the main practical implications are outlined under each contextual domain.
Domain 1: civil society There is a need to move beyond the supply/demand dichotomy. Civil society (CS) and demand-side pressures alone rarely achieve sustained change. As one review describes it: “In most cases, civil society activism without reforms on the other side of the equation (i.e., supply) will fail to yield sustained results” (Bukenya et al. 2012: 45). We should also more critically reflect on the role of CS in accountability change dynamics and should adopt a more nuanced understanding of CS than the one that has often dominated. CS tends to be heterogeneous and is not always a pro-accountability force for change, which implies the need to promote CS selectively and strategically.
There are no roadmaps for success—the whole point of taking context seriously is that you need to take an iterative approach based, in large part, on dynamic contextual realities.
34 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Practitioners may need to put greater emphasis on political capacities when seeking to facilitate SAcc. The findings imply that CS organizational and techni-cal capacity is only one part of the picture; and more attention might be given to supporting the political capacities of CS around networking and coalition-building across the state-society divide. As Menocal and Sharma (2008: xiv), argue, there is a need to
“Pay considerably more attention to the lack of substantial political capacity of both state and non-state actors, i.e. the capacity to forge alliances, use
evidence and build a case, contribute to the decision-making and policy-making process and influence others to make change happen.”
Careful attention should be given to doing no harm and not undermining the most authoritative and legitimate forms of CS in a context. This might mean working with more than just formal NGOs and identifying other sources of legitimate popular agency in a context such as social movements, trade unions, grassroots associations and so on. However, there are risks associated with external actors supporting CS that should be mitigated, as outlined in the report.
Domain 2: Political society Real change in accountability systems is, to a significant degree, underpinned by political dynam-ics. As one paper notes: “… change for the better in accountability systems … is, first and fore-most, a political challenge, while technical challenges are only a secondary concern” (Sundet 2008: 8). This means that one needs to understand the political economy of the “demand-side” before promoting such interventions.
The nature of the state invariably shapes the form and effectiveness of SAcc. Different forms of state will enable different forms of SAcc. As one review puts it:
“… what the state does, how it is organised, and how public policy is designed and imple-mented all have a bearing on the ability of poor people or those working for them to mobilise and make demands on elected officials and government agencies.” (Unsworth and Moore 2010: 37)
SAcc tends to be more successful where supported by a strong and responsive state, but there is still a potential role for certain forms of SAcc in low-capacity or fragile contexts. A critical
takeaway is that support for voice-based approaches “may prove problematic … without a parallel effort to build the effectiveness and capacity of state institutions to address growing demands and expectations” (Menocal and Sharma 2008: ix).
Actors in PS are equally—if not more—critical in making or breaking SAcc interventions, even if practitioners have tended to view SAcc through the prism of CS. The capacity and willingness of political elites are often critical factors for success. This points to the importance of finding ways to work with and link SAcc to pro-reform political elites, to explore
Civil society technical capacity is only one part of the picture; more attention should be given to the political capacities of civil society, such as networking and coalition-building across society and with state actors.
We need to fully understand the political economy of the “demand side” before taking action.
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 35
the ways that SAcc can shift political incentives, and to seek to mesh social and political forms of accountability. As one report warns: “Countless well-intentioned [SAcc] schemes fail because the political incentives are all aligned against success” (Devarajan et al. 2011). This supports the broader recognition in development policy of the central role of political elites in explaining develop-ment outcomes, as further noted below (DFID 2010; Leftwich 2011).
The capacity and willingness of bureaucrats to champion SAcc is also impor-tant. But applying pressure on bureaucrats and service providers—the so-called ”short route” to accountability—should be pursued selectively or at least in tandem with a political strategy. In some cases, demands are placed on already under-resourced local bureaucrats who are unable to adequately respond; in other cases, pressure applied on the bureaucracy is limited in its effectiveness when the bureaucratic machinery is embedded in a broader politics of patronage. In this way, SAcc should also consciously seek to influence bureaucrats’ political masters.
What we currently know suggests that there is not a linear relationship between levels of democ-racy and the potential effectiveness of SAcc—contrary to what has often been thought. The broad level of democratization and the formal enabling environment may be less important than the actual forms of politics, power, and incentives in a specific context. Experience also puts into question whether the direct participation of the poor in SAcc is as important as the role of representation through social and political intermediaries (such as through political parties), not least of all because of the often limited agency of the poor to directly influence SAcc processes.
The independence and enforceability of the law and intra-state accountability mechanisms are important. Certain SAcc cases have been effective when they draw on or trigger existing and legitimate legal accountability mechanisms within the state. Efforts to promote an enabling envi-ronment for CS may be helpful, but is rarely sufficient, and forms of SAcc may arise in contexts where no such enabling environment exists (for example, when CS movements are incubated in closed polities). Notably, “informal” accountability institutions may be equally, if not more, important in explaining outcomes, depending on the context.
Domain 3: Inter-elite Relations Given that the capacity and willingness of political elites matter for SAcc, it is important to unpack the underlying drivers of such political will if we are to respond accordingly. One way to do this is to examine the fabric of inter-elite relations and related incentives—the so-called political settlement. This could help identify existing political reform parameters and targeted ways of influencing this will in more pro-development directions.
There are, however, few easy operational recommendations for this.16 Political settlements are not easily manufactured from the outside (Di John and Putzel 2009; Hickey 2011). But there seems to be little choice except to take these issues seriously. In addition to helping us unpack political
The broad level of democratization and the formal enabling environment may be less important than the actual forms of politics, power, and incentives in a specific context.
Political settlements are not easily influenced by outsiders, but there seems to be little choice other than to take these settlements seriously.
36 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
will, the settlements approach can: (1) help us see SAcc processes as part of a broader political context; (2) take us beyond formal governance blueprint thinking and help explain why very similar sets of formal institutions—like rules govern-ing accountability—can have divergent outcomes in different contexts; and (3) reveal contending interests within the state, potentially helping us to identify pro-accountability state actors (see DiJohn and Putzel 2009; Levy 2011). As one report sums it up:
“Powerful local and national elites … are always in a position, and by definition have the power, to flout, co-opt, thwart or even reverse good governance reforms and development-enhancing institutional change … In many circum-
stances, reforms can succeed only if allowed or tolerated by powerful elites who cannot be dislodged or pushed out … So there seems to be no choice but to negotiate a bargain with, or present an arrangement to, such elites ….” (Guttierez 2011: 1)
Domain 4: state-society Relations The relations between powerful elites can shape SAcc, but these relations are also intertwined with state-society accountability relations and alliances. It is important to understand the short and longer-term history of state-citizen bargaining in a given context to better understand the opportunities and constraints for SAcc. The findings suggest that we should understand, “… social accountability actions as one part of a broader and longer process of engagement between collective actors and the state” (Joshi and Houtzager 2011: 155).
Related to this, the form of social contract—understandings of state-citizen roles and entitle-ments—can shape the emergence and effectiveness of “demand.” The form of contract dif-
fers across contexts, but SAcc could be thought of as a process of constructing, rearticulating, challenging, and/or making claims about a contract. As Newell and Wheeler (2006: 29) argue, “in order to be able to make accountability claims, there must be an implicit assumption about the roles and responsibilities of the state, as well as the rights and entitlements of citizens.”
There are, however, operational challenges. As with the political settlement, prac-titioners are not in an easy position to influence social contracts, and donor fund-ing may undermine rather than facilitate the formation of a more developmental contract (CPRC 2008). SAcc practitioners should, therefore, adopt a policy of doing no harm. Among other things, this means: (1) having a strong understanding
of the sociopolitical contractual dynamics around certain goods and services, and supporting, rather than seeking to replace or regulate, domestically-driven initiatives; and, (2) taking cues from local narratives of accountability and legitimacy rather than seeking to apply externally-conceived ideas (Booth 2012; Bukenya et al. 2012; Hickey 2011).17
The form of social contract can shape the nature of “demand” in a context—practitioners are not in an easy position to influence social contracts, and donor funding can risk undermining their formation.
Informal institutions of accountability are prevalent and often decisive in many developing countries—but rather than see them as governance problems they may need to be part of the solution.
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 37
A final and related implication is that the informal state-society accountability institutions need to be taken more seriously. The evidence on SAcc, as well as the broader governance literature, increasingly point to the role of informal institutions in explaining outcomes. Again, this is not easy to operational-ize, but it suggests that, for example, more attention should be paid to the possibility that informal mechanisms such as patron-client relations or forms of neopatrimonialism could offer opportunities for good enough forms of accountability in certain contexts. As Unsworth and Moore (2010: i) suggest:
“Informal institutions and personalised relationships are usually seen as governance prob-lems. However … they can also be part of the solution. Donors have had limited success in trying to improve the investment climate, reform public services and fight corruption in poor countries by strengthening formal, rules-based institutions. They need to … pay much more attention to the informal institutions, relationships and interests that under-pin formal arrangements.”
Domain 5: Intra-society Relations Differences, as we know, exist within society. The evidence base suggests the need for a much greater focus on and systematic treatment of poverty, inequality, and exclusion issues in SAcc design and implementation. The poorest and most excluded tend to lack the capacity and will-ingness to engage in SACC and can benefit least from such dynamics.
Practitioners also need to approach SAcc with a grounded and more realistic understanding of the agency of the poor to take part in and effect change through their “demand.” Experience points to several obstacles, including social status, confidence, time, and a lack of ablebodied-ness, which lead people to caution against, “advancing a heady but ultimately unconvincing notion of participatory citizenship based on over-optimistic notions of agency” (Cleaver 2005: 271, also Booth 2011).
Domain 6: Global Dimensions The regional and global drivers and actors that shape accountability processes and outcomes need attention in SAcc design and implementation. SAcc—and accountability more broadly—can often be shaped in both positive and negative ways by international drivers, including donors and MNCs. Such actors should see themselves as intimately shaping the opportunities and constraints for more accountable development governance.
The evidence base suggests the need for a much greater focus on and systematic treatment of poverty, inequality, and exclusion issues in social accountability design and implementation.
38 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Unpacking.the.Cross-Cutting.Implications:.Tool.1
Based on a further synthesis of the above implications, the report now outlines nine cross-cutting opera-tional recommendations. These recommendations are overlapping and mutually reinforcing. In order to provide cues and ideas for action, it provides some preliminary guidance, examples, and further reading under each recommendation. The following tables are derived from a reading of a range of relevant literature, including both cases of “success,” cases of “failure,” and cases that lie somewhere in between. It does not attempt to be exhaustive, but instead selects some key illustrations to flesh out the message.
Message 1: Think politically in designing and implementing sAcc
What.does.that.mean?
• A failure to understand the politics around accountability issues can
result in suboptimal programs.
• Accountability change is not just about technical reform but often
involves transforming power relations.
• The formal institutional framework is often only one part of the
accountability picture in many contexts.
Some.ideas.on.what.to.do
• Analyze the politics underlying the identified accountability failures
before designing SAcc.
• Time and sequence SAcc interventions in line with political dynam-
ics—political transition can provide windows of opportunity.
• Work through political, and not just civil, society. For example, some
political parties can be key allies in SAcc-type initiatives.
• Develop a SAcc strategy based on the political “room for maneuver”
in a given context rather than attempting to force-fit an institutional
blueprint. This may involve some of the following: (1) choosing changes
that do not confront powerful incumbents and hooking initiatives on
political regime objectives; (2) crowding in pro-reform stakeholders
and facilitating pro-reform collective action; (3) working with politi-
cal actors with aligned incentives; and, (4) attempting best-practice
reforms only if politically feasible.
Possible.operational.activities
• Strengthening pro-accountability political institutions—for example,
parliaments or political parties.
• Dialogue/information-sharing campaigns to address collective action
problems and/or influence incentive calculations.
• Strategies to compensate losers and appease antagonists in reform
processes.
Selected.examples
• Being Politically Savvy? Road-building in Uganda: DFID Uganda under-
took a political economy analysis to inform its design of support to a
national roads program. A key study finding was that while institutional
reforms have created opportunities for improved public investment
in Uganda’s roads, important political economy obstacles remained,
such as the operation of longstanding patronage networks involving
public and private sector actors who are opposed to change. The
main implication was that a large planned package of donor technical
and financial assistance alone would be unlikely to deliver significant
improvements. So a program was proposed to focus on shifting incen-
tives over the medium term—for example, activities to build alliances
between pro-reform actors within the government, roads agency, and
private sector and to develop mechanisms to foster greater account-
ability to the parliament.
• Exploit Political Windows of Opportunity: In Rajasthan, India,
Mazdoor Kisan Sangathan Samiti (MKSS) exploited the state-level
election campaign of 1999 to ensure that the right to information
became a campaign issue, and later managed to hold the newly-
elected congress to account for its manifesto promise to pass right-
to-information legislation.
• Political Timing Works Both Ways: The findings from Public Expen-
diture Tracking Surveys (PETS) on primary education in Tanzania were
not enthusiastically received by state officials, despite their highly-
regarded methodology. Although the exercise found a huge leakage
in the region—40 percent of the total allocated funds—the findings
came in the run up to the 2005 elections. Some observers note that
this provided political disincentives for the incumbent government to
publicly tackle powerful vested interests that could have upset the
ruling parties political fortunes.
Some.words.of.caution
• Few—if any—magic bullet solutions exist, but political strategizing
can complement a more technical approach to SAcc.
• External agencies have limited legitimacy in influencing political
dynamics, even if they do so inadvertently; adopt a “do no harm”
policy.
• Political dynamics can play themselves out in complex and sometimes
unpredictable ways.
Further.reading
• Booth and Golooba-Mutebi 2009; DFID 2009; Fritz et al. 2009; Levy
2010; Sundet 2008.
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 39
Message 2: Build synergies between social and political forms of accountability
What.does.that.mean?
• Social and political accountability processes rarely operate in entirely
separate spaces and often cross-fertilize—seek ways to maximize the
complementarities.
Some.ideas.on.what.to.do
• Devise SAcc activities in a way that is linked with political processes.
For instance, assess the incentives for the political masters to actually
deliver services to the poor and devise SAcc strategies for influencing
such incentives, rather than solely applying pressure on bureaucrats.
(See also Message 1.)
• Promote SAcc as an instrument to reshape power relations and not
just as an instrument to increase service delivery efficiencies.
• Ensure SAcc does not undermine legitimate sociopolitical forms of
representation. For instance, SAcc interventions, like direct participa-
tion in budgeting or new complaints procedures, may set up parallel
structures or undermine existing institutional channels for redress.
Possible.operational.activities
• Voter education or political literacy programs
• Citizenship and rights-based approaches
• Training for MPs and local counselors
Selected.examples
• Bridging Social and Political Aspects: REFLECT (Regenerated Freirean
Literacy through Empowering Community Techniques) is one
approach that works on participation as a way to transform politi-
cal relations. The idea is to merge techniques of participatory rural
appraisal with more political elements. It engages participants in dis-
cussions of their socioeconomic and political problems using visual
graphics. “Keywords” emerge from these discussions, which then form
the basis for: literacy development; the discussion for literacy devel-
opment; the discussion of participant’s roles and responsibilities as
part of a broader political community; and ways to assert their rights.
In some cases, REFLECT’s impact has been positive, with transforma-
tions taking place in community-state relations. A key aspect of its
approach is that it pursues participation as part of wider social and
political change and aims at securing citizenship rights, particularly for
the marginalized.
• Participatory Budgeting, Meshing Social and Political Institutions: In
Brazil, the success of participatory budgeting was rooted in part in
it being embedded in an existing political channel for accountability;
namely the Worker’s Party. The party’s support for democratic decen-
tralization was rooted in its close association with autonomous move-
ments at the grassroots. During its first decade of existence, it sought
to maintain ties to a multitude of grassroots social movements and
developed decentralized internal structures. The PB process evolved
as the institutional design and the redistributive criteria were fine-
tuned through iterative negotiations led by the Worker’s Party. More
broadly, a review of participatory budgeting in Brazil, Ireland, Chile,
Mauritius, and Costa Rica in 2004 notes that democracy or even popu-
lar participation per se was less significant in achieving government
responsiveness to pro-poor concerns than the role of well institution-
alized, programmatic political parties.
Some.words.of.caution
• Political risks, as outlined in the previous message, apply.”
• There are no simple ways to link political and social forms of account-
ability and ensure that they are complementary.
Further.reading
• Baiocchi et al. 2012; Brautigam 2004; Cleaver 2005; Heller 2001.
40 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Message 3: Work across the supply/demand divide to facilitate effective collective action on accountability issues
What.does.that.mean?
• Demand alone is often insufficient to drive sustained accountability
change. PS actors are equally (if not more) important.
• CS pressures often matter most when they empower the state’s own
checks-and-balances, especially as top-down state (or “supply-side”)
institutions often hold the power to enforce needed sanctions.
• Think less in terms of separate supply/demand or principal/agent
and instead seek to work on the interface between state and society
actors in taking collective action.
Some.ideas.on.what.to.do
• Only support citizen voice in the context of parallel efforts to build
the effectiveness of state institutions to interact with and accommo-
date these expectations.
• Identify social and political forces for pro-accountability change and
encourage linkages between the two.
• Facilitate collective action and problem-solving around locally-defined
issues (see Message 5).
Possible.operational.activities
• Capacity-building programs to enable state institutions to foster and/
or respond to SAcc.
• Institutional strengthening of intra-state mechanisms of accountability
(for example, parliamentary oversight or anti-corruption commissions)
while simultaneously strengthening societal capacity to understand
and trigger these mechanisms.
• Information-sharing and network-building activities across relevant
actors.
• Measures to trigger accountability mechanisms, such as public interest
lawsuits, advocacy campaigns, or awareness-raising.
Selected.examples
• Continuous State-Society Interface: One ingredient of the effective-
ness of the Samaj Pragati Sahyog (SPS) NGO in Madhya Pradesh, was
its continuous interface with key actors in PS, such as government
officials and political representatives. The SPS began small, focusing on
just one village. It built or improved wells on individual plots of land
in order to build direct relationships with the local population before
moving into more politicized activities. The eight founding members
of SPS were high caste, highly educated, and left-leaning elites, which
both enabled and encouraged their critical interactions with high-
ranking bureaucrats and officials in the district.
• Demand and Supply Combines for Reform:.An examination of land
reform in the Philippines from 1992 to 1998 shows how an alliance
between CSOs and state reformers resulted in positive and signifi-
cant gains for poor people on a contentious issue. Change was made
possible because of mobilization by autonomous rural organizations,
independent initiatives by state reformers, and by the sophisticated
interaction between both groups of actors.
Some.words.of.caution
• Virtuous state-society relations are not easy to manufacture but may
be more feasible when rooted in locally-defined problems and prac-
tices (see Message 5).
Further.reading
• Ackerman 2004; Booth 2012; Borras Jr. and Franco 2008; Chhotray 2008;
CPRC 2008; Devarajan et al. 2011; Goldfrank 2006; Hickey and Mohan
2008.
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 41
Message 4: Build the linkages and networks between pro-accountability state and society actors
What.does.that.mean?
• Building on Message 3, the linkages and networks between state and
society actors—and the networks across societal actors—can be
critical in driving pro-accountability change. These are arguably more
critical than the characteristics of individual actors.
• The state and citizenry are not homogenous. There are often more
and less pro-accountability forces within both.
• Pro-reform state-society linkages may give citizens access to decision
makers and/or build countervailing power to promote change.
Some.ideas.on.what.to.do
• Invest in strategic network-building activities (for example, identify
state-society champions and support them; identify antagonists and
creatively work with or around them; support broad-based, progres-
sive coalitions among the poor and non-poor).18
• Shift some focus from the technical and organizational capacity of
actors toward building their sociopolitical capabilities, such as net-
working, coalition-building, and political advocacy.
• Assess the character of the networks across society and with the state
(for example, through network governance analysis), and not just the
characteristics of CS.
• Resource CS strategically and cautiously—elements may be pro- or
anti-accountability change.
Possible.operational.activities
• Network-strengthening activities focused on key network functions,
such as: (1) community-building, (2) amplifying, (3) filtering, (4) learning
and facilitating, (5) investing and providing, and (6) convening.
• Strengthen sustainable multistakeholder knowledge and information-
sharing initiatives and platforms.
• Promote (political) capacity-building (for example, ability to network
with MPs) or political literacy.
• Facilitate collaborative problem-solving between public and private
stakeholders.
Selected.examples
• State-Society Alliance-Building—the Mama Misitu campaign against
illegal logging in Tanzania represents a potentially effective approach
to SAcc. It has adopted politically-informed engagement at different
levels of governance and with different stakeholders. Among other
things, it has involved the development of strategic alliances between
partner organizations with the purpose of cultivating personal trust
and political pressure.
• Enabling Local Problem-Solving: In Malawi, service delivery outcomes
seemed to be most promising in localities where the citizen scorecard
project was able to bring together groups of public and private actors
to nurture collaborative spaces and solve collective-action problems
around shared interests.
• State-Society Reformers and Backlash: In exploring rural develop-
ment programs in Mexico, Fox notes how pro-accountability linkages
and networks across state and society were, over time, able to shift
the reform parameters and progressively counteract backlashes from
incumbent and anti-reform elites from state and society (see also
chapter 3).
• Using Personal Contacts to Shape Outcomes: The Accountability
in Tanzania program (AcT) notes how, through personal linkages (for
example, to local politicians or leaders), CSOs can seek to engage the
support of decision makers, possibly through pursuing a dialogue that
demonstrates that the advocated change will generate popular sup-
port or that not acting risks incurring public dissatisfaction.
• Some Civil Society Actors May Not be Strongly Pro-Poor: In Kenya,
the empowerment programs of some CSOs have scored poorly on
their contributions to improving the quality and equality of represen-
tation of interests in local governance, in part because these organiza-
tions have taught the theory of citizen participation without offering
any opportunities for action.
Some.words.of.caution
• Strong networks take time to emerge and become embedded.
Networks may be costly and unsustainable, especially when donor-
driven—seek to do no harm.
• Powerful actors may capture such networks and adequate attention
needs to be paid to anti-reformist forces.
Further.reading
• AcT 2011; Citizenship DRC 2011; DFID 2009; Harris et al. 2011; Huppé and
Creech 2001; Ramalingan et al. 2008; Wild and Harris 2012.
42 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Message 5: Build on what is already there—embed sAcc in organic pressures for pro-accountability change and in the broader social contract
What.does.that.mean?.
• SAcc appears to be more effective when it builds on existing formal
and/or informal accountability practices.
• Informal institutions and forms of accountability (such as patrimonial
structures of exchange or customary institutions) can be critical in
many developing countries. Moreover, when formal accountability
mechanisms are weak, more informal SAcc initiatives may be key to
improving services.
• SAcc should be seen as shaping, and being shaped by, a locally-defined
social contract. SAcc activities might seek to construct, rearticulate,
challenge, or make claims around this contract.
• There are different narratives and ideas of accountability in different
contexts; SAcc needs to understand and build on them.
Some.ideas.on.what.to.do
• Conduct detailed accountability assessments (as per chapter 2). Iden-
tify and support (or at least do not undermine) existing pressures for
improved accountability, however incremental they may be.
• Rather than seeking to implement and/or reform formal institutions,
pay more attention to informal institutions, relationships, and interests
that underpin the formal arrangements, and look for opportunities to
strengthen accountability within them.
• Assess the form and strength of the social contract and tailor SAcc
accordingly (for example, where the “contract” is strong regarding
a particular good or service, donors might resource SAcc activities;
where it is weak, a donor role may be somewhat more limited).
• Make use of local resources and draw legitimacy from existing views
on what is important, borrowing institutional elements from local cul-
tural repertoires to avoid the high costs of inventing initiatives from
scratch.
Possible.operational.activities
• Facilitate practical hybrids, combining modern, bureaucratic, and inno-
vative approaches with locally-accepted practices.
• Enhance informal measures that work such as through engaging cus-
tomary leaders or tapping into popular sources of mobilization.
• Enable reform processes that are genuinely locally-initiated.
• Adopt rights-based approaches rooted in local conceptions of rights
and responsibilities.
Selected.examples
• Borrowing from Local Cultural Repertoires: In Uganda, a music band
has being used to alert people of meetings and a puppet show is staged
to communicate key messages. This is then worked into a formal meet-
ing that local government officials attend to discuss citizen issues. In
Nigeria, the use of forum theater provided a unique opportunity for vil-
lagers to express their grievances about divisions arising from traditional
community hierarchies and wealth inequality in the public sphere.
• The Role of Organic Social Movements: Long-term, organic social
movements can be crucial ingredients for effective SAcc. For example,
a long period of activism by the MKSS, a landless laborers and small
farmer solidarity movement, led to the passage of the right-to-infor-
mation law in India and, consequently, to the institutionalization of a
new form of SAcc—the social audit—that originated in organically-
evolved public hearings.
• The Challenge of Donor-Driven “Demand” When Local Cultures are
Not Fully Understood: In Niger, certain committees and other asso-
ciational structures promoted by projects and development partners
have ended up being dissolved or becoming inactive; the view among
citizens is that it is the responsibility of local government to carry out
such functions.
• Finding Local Solutions When National Policies May Not Have
Answers: In Niger, a number of mayors have begun collecting a few
additional centimes from all users of primary healthcare facilities to
fund the fuel and staff costs associated with emergency evacuations
of pregnant women; these collections are outside the national regimes
of user charges and free care, but it enables a solution to an otherwise
difficult problem.
• Where Formal Accountability Mechanisms are Less Effective: Experi-
ence in some areas of rural China demonstrate that citizens rely on
informal solidarity groups, such as temples or lineage groups, rather
than formal frameworks in order to exact accountability from oth-
erwise unwilling public officials, because such face-to-face solidarity
groups often impose reputational costs on the officials.
Some.words.of.caution
• Donors can play a quite limited role in promoting the formation of
“homegrown” social contracts or political settlements. External actors
may sometimes do more harm than good—so adopt a policy to “do
no harm.”
• Informal mechanisms may be a double-edged sword: they may hold
potential for developmental outcomes, but they may also embody
regressive or exclusionary dynamics that are difficult to change.
Reading
• Bebbington et al. 2009; Booth 2012; Citizenship DRC 2011; CPRC 2008;
Devarajan et al. 2011; Gaventa 2008; Tsai 2007; Unsworth and Moore
2010.
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 43
Message 6: Take a multipronged approach to accountability reform to increase the likelihood of success
What.does.that.mean?
• Different aspects of accountability—information, answerability, and
sanctions—are most often needed together to drive change.
• Accountability challenges may often cut across multiple levels, actors,
and sectors, pushing and pulling in different directions.
• Discrete SAcc interventions may bring about localized changes, but
their long-run sustainability is questionable.
Some.ideas.on.what.to.do
• Recognize that information alone is rarely sufficient to improve
accountability outcomes; the information must match the capacity
and incentives of societal actors to demand change and/or it must
activate sanctions to change behavior.
• Give adequate attention to the harder sanction dimension of account-
ability (for example, enforcement) as well as the more commonly-pur-
sued softer answerability dimension of accountability (for example,
information and transparency).
• Embed SAcc principles in institutions, country systems, and all stages
of the policy cycle—not just in projects or discrete operations.
Possible.operational.activities
• Policy, legal, and institutional reforms to integrate SAcc principles and
mechanisms (where feasible).
• Partnership-building in order to address different dimensions of the
accountability problem.
• Pursuit of multisectoral accountability initiatives.
• Information-sharing activities alongside activities to activate sanctions.
Selected.examples
• Work on Multiple Fronts: An initiative that sought to help indigenous
communities in Southern Veracruz manage watersheds and realize
the right to water from municipal authorities worked on a variety of
fronts to achieve its objectives. It included the development of an
effective legal framework, mechanisms of technical/environmental
monitoring, and a social audit. Paré and Robles (2006: 80) concluded
that “building accountability … between numerous actors with diverse
and contradictory interests requires an ongoing process of negotiation
and engagement through both formal and informal channels.”
• Working on Different Angles at the Same Time: MKSS’s work on
social audits in India was more effective when it decided to campaign
for the right-to-information legislation alongside amendments to
the state’s local government law (the Panchayati Raj Act) to create
mandatory legal procedures for the investigation of corruption and
to officially institutionalize the public-hearing audit method at the
village-assembly level.
Some.words.of.caution
• A virtuous synergy between transparency, accountability, and partici-
pation is difficult, but can be achieved (Fox 2007a: 354).
• One agency alone is unlikely to be able to fulfill all these goals, so
multistakeholder action is often what is needed.
Further.reading
• Citizenship DRC 2011; Gaventa 2008; Newell and Wheeler 2006.
44 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Message 7: Address issues of poverty, inequality, and exclusion systematically in sAcc programming
What.does.that.mean?
• The poorest and most excluded often struggle to participate in, or
benefit the least from, SAcc processes.
• The unique opportunities and often deep-seated constraints faced by
the poor need great attention in SAcc.
Some.ideas.on.what.to.do
• Assess relevant poverty/exclusion dynamics, and then build system-
atic mitigation strategies (where feasible) into the SAcc intervention.
• Focus on building the poor’s capabilities in and through the inter-
vention.
• Provide incentives to benefit and mobilize the poor over the long run.
• Focus more attention on securing the effective representation of the
poor (for instance, through alliances with non-poor actors or political
parties) rather than just the direct participation of the poor, especially
given that the poor often have limited power and agency.
Possible.operational.activities
• Rights-based approaches that focus on the most marginalized (see
also the REFLECT approach in Message 2).
• Build in inequality-mitigating mechanisms (for example, quotas or
weighting systems).
• Build in capacity-building components for the marginalized.
• Link SAcc activities to direct economic/livelihood benefits for the
poorest.
Selected.examples
• Disincentives for the Poorest to Engage in SAcc: In Bangladesh, an
examination of SAcc-type initiatives notes that “the absence of
immediate economic gains may discourage the longer-term participa-
tion of the very poor, particularly if Nijera Kori (NK) group membership
jeopardizes precarious survival strategies which depend on … main-
taining the patronage of powerful sections of village society” (Kabeer
2003: 37–38).
• Inequality-Mitigation—Weighting: Drawing on Porto Alegre experi-
ence, PB helped to limit the capture of state resources by wealthy
interests through the weighting system that was used in determining
budget priorities which essentially “tilt[ed] investments toward poorer
neighbourhoods.”
• Struggles for Recognition: In Pakistan the concerted efforts of women
leaders in 30 districts have helped more than 105,000 marginalized
women obtain identity cards for the first time, which is arguably a first
step toward accessing other entitlements. The lack of official docu-
mentation is a major barrier for many women in Pakistan; without
identification, they cannot vote, use a bank, buy property, claim their
inheritance rights, or get a passport.
Some.words.of.caution
• Enhancing the inclusion of marginalized groups is difficult and requires
systematic attention.
• Making a political settlement more “inclusive” may take time as such
settlements may comprise powerful groups who benefit from the
status quo and who may resist greater inclusion. especially as political
settlements can be more easily shaped by and adjusted to serve the
interests of the ruling coalition.
Further.reading
• Ackerman 2004; Corbridge et al. 2005; Hickey and Bracking 2005;
Oxfam 2012; Sen 2001; Tembo 2012.
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 45
Message 8: Address the global dimensions of accountability failures—think beyond the local and national level
What.does.that.mean?
• Many accountability failures are, at least in part, shaped by global driv-
ers and actors.
• Global agencies may be uniquely positioned to address some of these
global drivers.
Some.ideas.on.what.to.do
• Assess how global dimensions shape national and local accountability
failures; support SAcc accordingly.
• Go beyond just the state to address accountability of other power
holders (such as MNCs), especially in instances where the state is
unwilling or unable to subject such power-holders to certain standards.
• Donor agencies should be more reflective about their roles in sup-
porting, or undermining, state-citizen accountability relationships.
Possible.operational.activities
• Internal donor reform/aid effectiveness programs to heighten donor
accountability
• Measures to pursue accountability of nonstate international actors
(for example, corporate accountability initiatives).
• Initiatives to address global or external drivers of lack of accountabil-
ity (such as, illicit trade flows or tax havens).
Selected.examples
• International Trade and Financial Flows Shape Accountability:
Accountability failures in the forestry sector in Tanzania were shaped
by, among other things, the illegal transnational logging trade; or
limitations in international financial regulations have enabled elites in
fragile states to perpetuate the status quo, thus limiting their incen-
tives to be more accountable to the citizenry.
• MNCs and Accountability: There are various cases—for example in
India—where MNC actions have had negative social and environmen-
tal impacts and, as a result, community-based action has been taken
to seek redress against corporate actors.
• Forms of Globalization Can Undermine National Democratic
Accountability: Some argue that more extreme forms of globaliza-
tion are undermining accountability by limiting the state’s autonomy
to democratically debate and determine policy; or trade liberalization
processes can, in cases, undermine state capacity to tax and generate
revenue, which is a key ingredient of state effectiveness.
• Donor Funding Can Have Unintended Consequences: Various cases
suggest that aid flows can support or undermine the emergence of
legitimate associations (see also Tool 2 below). For instance, in Benin,
the presence of development donor funds has arguable contributed
to the marginalization of preexisting forms of associational activities,
with donor-promoted cotton farming cooperatives displacing viable
local producer groups.
Some.words.of.caution
• International drivers are often complex and multifaceted; but should
not be ignored.
Further.reading
• Banks and Hulme 2012; Booth 2012; Evans 2010; Garvey and Newell
2004; Harris et al. 2011; Newell and Wheeler 2006; Rodrik 2011; Scott
2012; Unsworth and Moore 2010.
46 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Message 9: Take longer time horizons and adopt an adaptable “learning by-doing” approach
What.does.that.mean?
• The conditions for effective SAcc may take a long time to emerge.
• SAcc interventions can shape the context over time in complex and
unintended ways—so there is a need for constant adaptation.
• An incremental approach is especially important in lower-capacity or
politically-unstable environments.
Some.ideas.on.what.to.do
• Adopt a longer planning time horizon to ensure that early successes
(such as budgetary allocations) are not scrapped at a later stage.
• Adopt a learning-by-doing approach.
Possible.operational.activities
• Action-research programs
• Adaptive piloting programs
• Flexible M&E and “outcome mapping” systems to ensure learning,
documentation, and adaptation throughout.
• Adopt 15- to 20-year plans and build phased programs with realistic
timeframes.
Selected.examples
• Try Different Approaches and Institutionalize the Winner: The pro-
gram, known as Chukua Hatua (Swahili for “take action”) in Tanzania,
funded by the Accountability in Tanzania program, uses an evolution-
ary model of change. It pilots a range of SAcc initiatives, observes
their strengths, failures, and weaknesses, and then selects approaches
to invest in and scale up. Chakua Hatua, according to one analyst
(Green 2012) is more like “a venture capitalist backing ten start-up firms
knowing that most will fail, but some will win big.” This has been pos-
sible partly because of the grant-making agency’s (DFID’s) willingness
to adopt an experimental approach.
• Listen, Observe, and Adapt Accordingly: The Mwananchi (Swahili for
“ordinary citizen”) program promotes forms of SAcc in six countries
in sub-Saharan Africa. One of the early findings relates to the impor-
tance of listening closely to citizens, piloting initiatives, observing citi-
zen behavior in action, and adapting accordingly. Experience has also
shown how important it is to encourage local organizations and citi-
zens to voice their narratives on governance and to try to understand
such narratives in the context of citizens’ cultural, social, and political
norms. This often involves the use of symbols and other postures
informed by culture that provide meaning. The program suggests that
SAcc interventions should adapt to these realities and not just focus
on verbal interactions between citizens and state actors.
• SAcc Results May Take Time: The Bangalore report card started in 1994,
but it was not until 2003 that clear positive results began to emerge.
Similarly, MKSS’s right-to-information campaign, which started in the
early 1990s, gained partial success in 2000 when the Indian state of Raj-
asthan (where the organization is based) passed a right-to-information
law; it took another five years for the nationwide Right to Information
Act to be passed.
Some.words.of.caution
• It may require significant institutional change for development agen-
cies to plan over the long term, especially given the pressures to
provide quick results, aversion to risk, and the use of somewhat rigid
logframes.
Further.reading
• Aiyar 2010; Green 2012; Ramkumar 2008; Tembo 2012.
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 47
Box 4.1. A Note on How to use This If … Then Tool
• Thistoolshouldbeusedafterapractitionerhasgatheredsomeknowledgeabouttheircontextusingtheanalyticalguid-
anceprovidedintheannex.
• AtrafficlightsystemisusedtohelpseetheifscenariosthatarebroadlyenablingofSAcc(i.e.,green)andthosewhichare
lessenabling(i.e.,red).Although,asnotedinearlierchapters,mostcontextsprobablysitsomewherealongaspectrum
fromfully enabling to fully disabling.
• Theexamplesandoperationaloptionsarebynomeansintendedtobeexhaustive,butratherprovidecuesforfurther
reading,exploration,andactionwithinagivencontext.Attheriskofrepetition,thistoolshouldbeusedinconjunction
withtherestofthisreportanddoesnotofferprescriptionsforaction,butinsteadprovidesavenuesforexploration.
• Giventhehugerangeofcontextualpossibilitiesandthelimitedevidence,ithasonlybeenpossibletoaddresssomeof
thepotentialscenarios.
• Theframeworkisnotmeanttoimplythatcontextualvariablesshouldbetreatedinanatomizedmanner.Thecontextual
domainsoverlap,interactandinfluenceeachother—soactinginjustonedomain,withoutaddressingtheotherpotential
contextualconstraints,islesslikelytoproducepositiveoutcomes.However,aftersomeexperimentation,thisapproach
hasproventobethemostfeasibleatthisstage.TheevidencebaseofferslimitedgranularinsightsonwhichSAccactivi-
tiesaremostappropriatebasedoncombinationsofallthecontextualvariables.Itisalsodifficulttoproducerelevant
countrytypologies,especiallyasin-countryvariationappearstobehighlyimportant.Existingliteraturedoes,however,
offerstrongercuesforaction,basedonsubdimensioncharacteristics(forexample,wherecitizencapabilitiesarehighor
wherestatecapacityislow).
• ThisframeworkcouldbeusedforplanningandthinkingthroughdifferentdesignelementsofoneSAccintervention/
program.Itdoesnotsuggestthatactingononlyonedimensionofthecontextwouldbeadequatetoachieveimproved
accountability.Indeed,forthepurposeofplanning,practitionersregularlyseparatetheworldinto“components.”Thus,
eachsubdimensioncouldprovidethebackdropfordevisingdifferentcomponentsofaprogram.
• Theselectedexamplesareusedasillustrationsthatcanpromptfurtherthinkingandreading—theyarenottobetaken
asexamplesofsuccess,failure,orwhattodoinyourcontext.
Context-Specific.Implications—Toward.an.If … Then Approach:..Tool.2
Having outlined the cross-cutting operational implications, this tool now attempts to help prac-titioners think through and address contextual variation in SAcc initiatives. It does so through a preliminary If … Then framework. The following tables outline a range of contextual scenarios—by contextual domain and subdimensions as per the framework outlined in chapter 2—and offer some options for action with illustrative examples. At the risk of repetition, the “do no harm” principle runs throughout all these examples.
Given the limited evidence base, this should be seen as a first step that needs further testing and modification going forward. Before proceeding, please read box 4.1 on how to use this tool, and see annex 3 for a brief note on the methodology and challenges involved in developing developing the framework.
48 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource PaperD
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ivil
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If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
Tech
nica
l and
org
aniz
atio
nal c
apac
ity
CSOshavehigh
technicaland
organizational
capacity
Theyhavethe
analyticaland
adaptivecapacityfor
strategicplanning,
management,
andresource
mobilization
•CSOsmayactaslead“info-mediaries”for
gatheringanddisseminatinginformation
(e.g.,aboutbudgets)
•StrategicallysupportCStoleveragecapac-
ityandpromotemoretechnicallycomplex
SAcc,ifappropriate.
•Providepoliticalcapacity-buildingiflow
(seebelow).
•InSouthAfrica,high-qualitybudgetanalysisandeffective
lobbyingbyCSOsachievedpositiveresults.IDASA—anNGO—
usedbudgetanalysistomonitorfederalbudgetallocationsand
programsdesignedforchildrenfromlow-incomefamiliesand
tohighlightchallengesregardingthedeliveryofservices.This
wasdoneinactivecollaborationwithotherCSOsinacampaign
thatwasspearheadedbytheAllianceforChildren’sEntitlement
toSocialSecurity.Thecampaignwassuccessfulinitsobjective
ofincreasingtheresourcesoriginallycommittedinthenational
budgetfortheChildSupportGrantwhenitwasfirstintroduced
in1998andraisingthemaximumeligibilityagetofourteen
years.a
CSOsdonot
havehigh
technicaland
organizational
capacity
Theylackabilityto
managecomplex
informationand
mayfaceproblems
offinancialand
organizational
sustainability.
•Exploreotherroutestoaccountability
(suchasmoretop-down/supply-side
options).
•Incrementallybuildonexistingaccountability
institutions(e.g.,customarypractices).
•ExploreSAccoptionsthatrequireless
technicalcapacity
•Buildinstrongcapacity-building
componentstoanySAccactivities.
•Anumberofopendatainitiatives(e.g.,budgettransparency)
havehadalimitedimpactonpolicydialogueandoutcomes.
Onereasonforthisisthelackoftechnicalcapacityandknow-
howamongcivilsocietyactorstobothinterpretandactonthe
informationprovided.b
cap
acit
y to
bui
ld a
llian
ces
acro
ss s
oci
ety
Key/many
CSOshave
thecapacity/
incentivesto
buildalliances
acrosssociety
andmobilize
constituents
Credibilitywith
constituentsmaybe
high.Theiractivities
arelikelytohave
“bite”inchallenging
prevailing
accountability/
powerrelationships.
•Donoharm—donotbypass/undermine
suchgroups.
•Providestrategicsupportifrequiredto
solvepro-accountabilitycollectiveaction
problemswithin/amongCSOs
(e.g.,conveningorinformation-sharing).
•Targeted“enablingenvironment”reforms
mayopenopportunitiesforsuchgroupsto
promoteaccountabilitychange.
•InBrazil,therurallandlessmovementwasabletoincrease
governmentaccountabilityforlandreformthroughitsbroad-
basedmobilizationofsocietalgroups—itorganizedmorethan
230,000landoccupations,won15millionacresforlandreform,
created1,500agriculturalcommunities,andsettledmorethan
250,000families.c
CSOsdo
nothavethe
capacity/
incentivesto
buildalliances
acrosssociety
andmobilize
constituents
Theymayhave
limitedlegitimacy
withgrassroots
constituentsand/
orlackalliance-
buildingskills.
Prospectsfor
effectiveSAccinthe
short-termmaybe
morelimited.
•Intheshortterm,exploreSAccapproaches
requiringlesscollectiveaction
(e.g.,scorecardsandbudgetliteracy).
•Exploreotherroutestoaccountability
(suchasmoretop-down/supply-side
options).
•Inthelongerterm,grassrootsassociations
mayprovidebuildingblocks,raiseawareness
onissues,andsupportCSinformation-
sharing/alliance-building.
•InTanzania,theabsenceofcooperationandhighlevels
ofcompetitionamongCSOscontributedtothefailureof
publicexpendituretracking.Thisfragmentation,asinother
cases,canbepartlylinkedtotheincentivesinaid-dependent
environmentsforCSOstocompeteratherthancooperatewith
eachother.d
•InTanzania,atoolcalled“ToolforOrganizationalSelf-
Assessment”wasdevelopedtogobeyondcapacitybuildingin
anorganizational/technicalsenseintotheareasofpartnership-
workingandconstituency-building.NGOsself-assesstheir
capabilitiesusingthistoolandcomeupwithsolutionsforthe
same.
e
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 49D
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ivil
soci
ety
(co
ntin
ued
)
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
cap
acit
y to
bui
ld a
llian
ces/
netw
ork
s w
ith
the
stat
e
KeyCSOshave
thecapacityto
buildalliances/
networkswith
stateactors
Theycanably
negotiatewith
thestate.They
maybeableto
influencedecision
makingoutcomes.
Ifcredibleand
authoritativewith
theirconstituents,
theprospectsfor
SAcccanbestrong.
•SupportformsofSAccthatseektoenforce
sanctions(wheremorepoliticalcloutonthe
partoftheCSOsisrequired),possiblyon
morecontentiousissues.
•Strategicallysupportpro-reformelementsof
suchalliances(fromthedemandandsupply-
side).
•Helpsolveanyexistingcollectiveaction
failures.
•InNigeria,partoftheeffectivenessoftheanti-ThirdTerm
campaignwasCS’sabilitytobuildlike-mindedalliancesacross
societyandwithstateactors.f
•InSãoPaulo,CSOexperienceshowedthatitisoftenCSOs
wellconnectedtogovernments/politicalpartiesthatgivepoor
peopleavoiceinpolicymaking,withoutsacrificingtheirability
toengageincontentiouswaystopressforgovernmentaction.g
Key/manyCSOs
donothave
thecapacityto
buildalliances
networkswith
thestate
Theirleverage
andaccesstokey
decision-makersis
limited,andtheir
influencepotentially
limited.
•Intheshortterm,exploresofterformsof
SAccthatrequirelesspoliticalcloutbut
thatmightbuildlinkages(e.g.,information
displaysorreportcards).
•Overthelongerterm,facilitatestrategic
network-buildingbetweenpro-reformCSOs
andstatechampions.
•InBangalore,citizenreportcardscontributedtoimprovements
inservicedeliveryanditresulted,overthelonger-term,in
increasedcitizenactivismandtheenhancementofcitizens’
abilitytointeractwithandinfluencestateofficials.
•InDelhi,localactorswhowerelinkedintobroadernational
policynetworksweremorelikelytoengageincollectiveaction
becausetheyarebetterabletousenetworkstosupport
mobilizationandmonitoringactivities.h
Aut
hori
ty,
leg
itim
acy,
and
cre
dib
ility
of
civi
l so
ciet
y w
ith
citi
zens
and
sta
te a
cto
rs
Certainforms
ofCSare
considered
credible,
legitimate,and
authoritativeby
poorcitizens
and/orthestate
TheseCSOsare
perhapsmorelikely
tobesuccessful
vehiclesforSAcc.
•DonotbypassorunderminesuchCSOs.
Providesupportifshowntobeneededand
sustainable.
•Exploremoreambitiousandscaled-upSAcc
interventionsthatrelyontheabilityofCSOs
toenlistprominentactorsacrossthestate
andsociety(e.g.,publicinterestlawsuitsor
citizenjuries).
•InSouthAfrica,TACleaderswereseenasrespectedcitizens
whohadplayedanactivepartintheantiapartheidliberation
movementandhadastrongreputationaslegitimate
representativesofthemarginalized.Thiscontributedtothe
campaign’ssuccessinpushingthegovernmenttoputinplace
universalHIV/AIDSpolicies.
i •ThesocialauditsinIndiagainedlegitimacy,partlyfromthe
abilityofMKSStoenlistprominentsocialworkers,politicians,
judges,andcivilservantstositoncitizenjuriesatitspublic
hearings.Whensocialauditswerescaled-upinAndhra
Pradesh,thecommitteesincludedemployeesofMKSSinorder
togivethemcredibility.j
CSsphereis
notconsidered
credibleand
legitimateby
bothstateand
citizens
SAccunlikelytobe
effective.Driversof
thisillegitimacymay
bemanifold.
•Proceedwithcautionandconsiderif/howto
engageCSactors.
•SeektoincrementallybuildcredibilityofCS,
evenifdifficult.
•SmallstepsandgainsinCSengagement
couldleadtoamultipliereffect.
•Cashtransferprogramsforpoorpeople(RendaMinimainBrazil
andOportunidadesinMexico)weredesigneddeliberately
tobypassthosecivilsocietyintermediariesthatwereseenas
corruptandpoliticized.Theseprogramsdemonstratethat
collectiveactionisnottheonlymeansofimprovingservice
delivery.However,cashtransfersarenotalwaysappropriate.
Moreover,overthelongerterm,itmaybeproblematicto
excludecollectiveactorswhocouldprovideoversightand
advocacy.k
(co
ntin
ued
)
50 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource PaperD
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ivil
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ety
(co
ntin
ued
)
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
Will
ing
ness
of
civi
l so
ciet
y to
cha
lleng
e ac
coun
tab
ility
sta
tus
quo
KeyCSOsare
willingtoseek
heightened
accountability
Thiswillingnessis
aprerequisitefor
effectivedemand-
drivenSAcc.
•ExplorearangeofSAccinterventions
throughdialoguewithCSOs.Boththe
softeranswerabilityapproachesandharder
enforcementapproachescouldbeexplored.
•Supportstrategicactionsthataddvalue
anddonotcompromiselong-termCSO
effectiveness.
•Morecontentiousapproachesmaytakeroot
(e.g.,advocacycampaigns,investigative
journalism,anddemonstrations).
•Withregardtowomen’srightsinTurkeyandMorocco,the
effectivenessofCSOsreliedontheirwillingnesstochallenge
andholdtheirownagainstpowerfulinterests.Initially,the
issuesweredivisiveandoftencontentiousratherthanissues
thatallowedformorecomfortablepartnerships
withgovernment.
l
KeyCSOsare
unwillingtoseek
heightened
accountability
Theylackthe
incentives,
interest,and/or
ideastoactively
challengeexisting
accountability
failures.
•Exploreotherroutestoaccountability
(suchasmoretop-down/supply-side
options).
•Unpacktheunderlyingdriversofsuch
incentives.Seektoshiftsuchincentivesif
theoutcomesarelikelytobepositiveand
sustainable(e.g.,dialogue,information-
sharing,communicationcampaigns,
andprovisionofdirectincentivesforCS
participation).
•InBenin,aCSgrouporganizedatownhallmeetingwith
politicalcandidatesforthefirstroundofthe2006presidential
electionstodiscussspecificpolicyproposals,informedby
empiricalevidence.InthelocalitieswhereCSOswerewillingto
promotethiskindofheightenedaccountabilityandorganize
townhallmeetings,voterturnoutwashigherandsupportfor
clientelistpoliticalplatformswaslower.m
cap
acit
y an
d w
illin
gne
ss o
f ci
tize
ns t
o e
ngag
e in
sA
cc
Capacityand
willingness
ofcitizensto
engageinSAcc
isrelativelyhigh
Relativelyspeaking,
thetargetgroups
haveenablinglevels
ofcapacity(e.g.,
skills,income,and
education)aswellas
politicalcapabilities.
•ExplorearangeofSAccactivitiesiftheother
contextualfactorsareconducive.
•Variousopene-governmentinitiativesoronlineaid-
transparencycampaignshavebeenmoreeffectiveinsettings
wherecitizensarewillingandabletoaccessandusethese
toolsandtotakeactionsbasedontheinformationprovided.n
Capacityand
willingness
ofcitizensto
engageinSAcc
islow
Targetgroupsmay
havelimitedtime,
skills,andincentives
toengage.
•Assessdriversoflowcapacityand
willingness.Addresspovertyandcapability
issues(e.g.,accesstoservicesandliteracy)
•Resourcepro-poor,sociopolitical
intermediariestoadvocateontheirbehalf
and/orsupporttheminassertingtheirrights
•Inlongerterm,incorporateeducation/
capacity-buildingintoSAcc;providepoor
withincentivestoengageinSAcc
(ifsustainable).
•InBangladesh,theabsenceofimmediateeconomicgains
discouragedthelong-termparticipationoftheverypoorin
thegovernanceprocesses.Thepoorestwerediscouraged,
especiallywhenmembershipinNijeraKori(NK)—theactivist
CSO—riskedjeopardizingtheirprecarioussurvivalstrategies,
whichdependedonmaintainingthepatronageofpowerful
sectionsofvillagesociety.
o
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 51D
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olit
ical
so
ciet
y
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
Will
ing
ness
of
po
litic
al/e
lect
ed e
lites
to
res
po
nd t
o a
nd f
ost
er s
Acc
Politicalwillto
promoteand/or
respondtoSAcc
ishigh
PowerfulPSactors
couldgenuinely
seektofosterSAcc.
Thiscouldenablea
widevarietyofSAcc
activitiestotake
roo
t.
•Understanddriversofthispoliticalwill,
engagetherelevantpoliticalactors/
champions,andpromoteadialogueabout
SAcc
.•Pursue(higherprofile)SAccapproaches
thatgenerallyneedhigherlevelsof
governmentcooperation(e.g.,thirdparty
oversight,publicexpendituretracking,and
multisectoralSAccinterventions).
•InUganda,apublicinformationcampaignwaslaunchedthat
enabledthepublictobettermonitorlocalofficials’handling
ofthefundsreleasedthroughtheUniversalPrimaryEducation
program.Thiscampaignwasfoundtoreduce“leakage”in
thesector.ThecommitmentoftheUgandanpresidenttothe
successoftheprogramisseenasonecontributingfactorto
promotingtheseresults.p
Politicalwillto
promoteand/or
respondtoSAcc
islow
Politicalsociety
actorsmightnot
promoteSAcc
initiativesormight
eventakecounter-
veilingmeasuresto
thwartthem.
•Proceedwithcaution,basedonwhatis
politicallyfeasible.
•Ifappropriate,promotedialogueand
SAccthatcouldreshapepoliticalincentives
(e.g.,engagepoliticalelitesaboutthe
potentialbenefitsofSAccorraisesocietal
awareness,whichcouldshiftpolitical
calculations).
•OnecaseofPBinBuenosAiresfizzledoutbecauseitarose
fromneitherapoliticalreforminitiativenorsocietalpressure;
instead,itwasimplementedindesperationbyagovernment
lackinglegitimacy.q
•Votereducationcampaignstoencouragevotersnottosell
theirvote—ledprimarilybyCSOsinSaoTomeandPrincipe,
Mozambique,andNigeria—havereshapedpeople’svoting
patternsand(arguably)influencedpoliticalincentivestoa
degree.
r
Will
ing
ness
of
stat
e b
urea
ucra
ts t
o r
esp
ond
to
and
fo
ster
sA
cc
Willingnessof
government
bureaucratsto
promoteand
respondtoSAcc
pressuresishigh
Bureaucrats
mayhavestrong
incentivesto
promoteSAcc.
Thismayallowfor
smootherexecution
ofSAcc.
•AlignSAccaccordinglywithsuchincentives
andworkcollaborativelywithsuchactors.
•PromoteSAccapproachesthatmightbe
moreambitiousinscopeandthatrequire
abureaucraticcommitment—especiallyif
politicalincentivesarealigned(e.g.,PBor
publicexpendituretracking).
•InIndia,theworkofanNGOcalledSamajPragitiSahyog(SPS)
inMadhyaPradeshgreatlybenefitedfromthesupportofa
seniordistrictofficialwiththeauthoritytoimposesanctionson
corruptjuniorofficials.s
•ThetenantmovementinMombasa,Kenya,suggeststhat
allianceswithreformistbureaucratsmaynotbesufficientin
contextswherethereareinfluentialpoliticiansopposedtothe
changes.t
Willingnessof
government
bureaucratsto
promoteand/or
respondtoSAcc
pressuresislow
Bureaucratshave
limitedindividual
and/orinstitutional
incentivesfor
promotingSAcc.
•Proceedcautiously.FocusonSAccinitiatives
thatcouldfeasiblyshiftbureaucratic
incentivesandactivatehigher-level,in-state
mechanismsforaccountability.
•Dialoguewithreform-mindedpoliticalactors
inordertoimposenecessarysanctions.
•Promotebroaderinstitutionalreformsthat
includeSAcccomponents(e.g.,civilservice
reformprogramsthatalsoincentivizegreater
citizenengagement)
•Reportedly,AndhraPradeshsocialauditswereworking
becauseofanearlyrecognitionthatgovernmentfunctionaries
wouldfeelthreatenedbytheprocess.Asaresult,therewas
aconcertedefforttoreachouttotheseofficialsinorderto
sensitizethemandtocommunicateclearlythattheywerekey
membersoftheteam.u
(co
ntin
ued
)
52 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource PaperD
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olit
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so
ciet
y (c
ont
inue
d)
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
stat
e (a
nd p
olit
ical
elit
e) c
apac
ity
Statecapacityis
high
Toanotableextent,
theeffectivenessof
SAccdependson
thelevelofstate
capacitytorespond
todemands.
•Participatoryandmorecomplexortechnical
formsofSAcccouldbepursuedifstate/
citizenwillingnessforimplementationisalso
high(e.g.,participatoryplanning).
•Whilecapacitymaybehigh,theother
contextualfactorswouldneedtobe
conducive(suchaswillingnessofstateactors
topursueSAcc).
•InBrazil,goodperformancethroughPBisnoticedinmunicipal
governmentsthatcontrolsubstantialrevenues,allowingthem
tomakeinvestmentsinprogramsidentifiedbycitizens.
v
Statecapacity
islow
Stateinstitutionsare
weakandperform
basicfunctions
withlimited
effectiveness.
•Supportstrategiestoincrementallybuild
statecapacityandfunctions.Besurethatany
effortstopromotevoicealsosimultaneously
buildstatecapacitytorespond.
•FocusonSAccapproachesthatenable
collaborativeproblemsolvingbetween
thestateandcitizenry,ratherthanon
SAccapproachesthatseekto“demand”
accountability.
•Inthelong-term,promoteformaland
informalinstitutionsthatcanundertakecore
governancefunctions.
•InSomaliland,measureshavebeentakentostrengthen
district-levelgovernmentcapacitytogeneratelocalrevenue
andcollecttaxesinthecontextofdecentralization.Thishas
incrementallycontributedtothecapacityandincentivesfor
districtgovernmentstobeaccountableandresponsiveto
citizens,andtothewillingnessofSomalilanderstoengage
constructivelyinthestate-buildingprocess.w
Dem
ocr
atiz
atio
n an
d t
he c
ivil
soci
ety
enab
ling
env
iro
nmen
t
Thesettingis
democratic
Thereisarelatively
highlevelof
democratization
withinstitutionalized
toleranceofdissent
anddebate.
•Permitsmorewide-ranging,transformational
formsofSAccthatrelyontheexistenceofa
rangeofpoliticalandcivilfreedoms.
•Explorepower,incentivesandpolitical
dynamics;andtailorSAccthereto.
Highlevelsofdemocratizationdonot
automaticallyimplypositiveoutcomesof
civicengagement.
•InChile,anNGO-ledcampaignaboutchildrightsledtoanew
policyframework,contributingtoadecreaseinchildpoverty.
Thiswasfacilitatedinpartbyanewdemocraticgovernment
thatwelcomedcivilsocietyorganizationsaspartnersina
processofcollaborativepolicyreform.x
•TheTAChealthcampaigninSouthAfricawasabletodrawon
therelativelyeffectivemediatopromoteitsgoals.WhenTAC
startedthecivildisobediencecampaignin2003,ittookout.y
Levelof
democratization
islow
Thereisarelatively
lowlevelof
democratization
withlimited
institutionalized
toleranceofdissent.
•Pursuemoreinstrumentalorindividualized
formsofSAccthatcouldgaintractionwith
governingelitegoals(e.g.,toimprove
servicedeliveryoutcomesforpolitical
legitimacy)
•Moreinformal“weaponsoftheweak”forms
ofSAccmaybemostplausibleintheshort
term.
•InVietnam,throughthe1960sand1970s,peasantsengagedin
“everydaypolitical”zformsofprotestagainstthegovernment
agriculturalcollectivizationpolicy.Withlimiteddemocratic
channelsforredress,thistypicallyinvolvedlow-profileactsor
nonconformismthatunderminedandfrustratedauthorities.aa
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 53D
om
ain
2: P
olit
ical
so
ciet
y (c
ont
inue
d)
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
The
natu
re o
f th
e ru
le o
f la
w
Formallegal
frameworkis
strong
Thereexistsa
functionalcourt
systemthatcanbe
activatedbySAcc.
•Drawonconstitutionalandlegalprovisions
asaresourcetofurtherSAccgoals.
•Seektoextendlegalrightstomarginalized
orexcludedgroupsand/orbuildcapacityfor
groupstoclaimrights.
•MovementslikeTACandMSTweresuccessful,partlybecause
oftheexistenceofajudiciarythatdisposedofthecases
broughttoitsattention.
•InIndianstateswheretheformallegalframeworkisalready
strong,socialauditsarebeingintroducedasawayoffurther
institutionalizingprotectionbylaw.bb
Formallegal
frameworkis
weak
Onemightnotbe
abletodepend
onformallegal
mechanismsto
providearesource
forstrengthening
SAccclaims.
•Overshorterterm,seekwaystobuildon
moreinformalinstitutionsofaccountability
andlinkcustomarywithmoreformalsystems
throughhybridinstitutions.
•Overthemedium-andlong-term,
strengthenjudicialindependence;promote
keypiecesoflegislation,suchastherightto
information;andstrengthenthecapacityof
thejudiciary(e.g.,trainjudgesandclerksor
buildcapacityforcourtadministration).
•InSierraLeone,programslike“JusticeforthePoor”have,
amongotherthings,soughttobuildoncommunity-based
paralegalsandtraditionaljusticesystemsfromthebottom-up,
whileprovidingtechnicalassistanceonbroaderlegalpolicyand
institution-building.cc
Do
mai
n 3
: In
ter-
elit
e R
elat
ions
The
dev
elo
pm
enta
l nat
ure
of
the
po
litic
al s
ettl
emen
t
Thesettlement
isrelatively
developmental
Tosomedegree,
thelegitimacyofthe
settlementhinges
onfurtheringbroad-
baseddevelopment.
•Indialoguewithgovernment,frameSAcc
initiatives,ifcredible,asmeanstobetter
achieveelitedevelopmentgoals.
•PromotetheSAcctoolsandapproachesthat
havethepotentialtofurthertheregime’s
identifieddevelopmentgoals.
•InRwanda,certainSAcctoolsaregraduallybeingdeployed
toachieveandimproveservicedeliverygoals.Thisisbeing
pursuedinlinewiththebroadlyneopatrimonialdevelopmental
settlementthatcharacterizestheregime(seebox2.5on
page16).
Thesettlement
isweakly
developmental
Elitesmayhave
no—orweak—
incentivestodeliver
ondevelopment.
Predationlevelsmay
behigh.
•SAccisunlikelytobeapanacea.Iffeasible
inthecontext,SAccmightincrementallyshift
political/bureaucraticincentives.
•Strengthenexistinggoodenoughformsof
accountabilitywherepossible.
•SAccinitiativesshouldbuildinstrong
mechanismstoreduceelitecapture
(e.g.,oversightelements,grievanceredress
mechanisms,oraudits)
•SAccinitiativesmaygaintractionifelites
wishtochangeperceptionsofstate
legitimacy.
•AnNGOcalledParivartanusedauditmethodsinDelhito
monitorthePublicDistributionSystem(PDS)—alargefood
subsidyprogramintendedforthepoor.Areportfindsthat
the“depthofcorruptionexposedthroughtheprocess
ledtoimprovementsintheoperationofPDSaswellas
institutionalizationofasystemofmonthly‘openingofthe
books’forpublicscrutiny.”dd
(co
ntin
ued
)
54 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource PaperD
om
ain
3: In
ter-
elit
e R
elat
ions
(co
ntin
ued
)
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
The
incl
usiv
enes
s o
f th
e se
ttle
men
t
Thesettlement
isrelatively
inclusive
Mostelitesand
theirconstituents
arerepresented
inthesettlement,
andawiderangeof
groupscanexpect
basicentitlements
toberecognizedby
government.
•EstablishwhetherformsofSAccare
appropriateforfurtheringdefinedgoals.
•SAccmaybeusedasavehicleforrealizing
rightsthathavenotbeendelivered.(i.e.,
citizensmaybeawareoftheirentitlements
butunawareofhowtoclaimthem).Tools
thatassumesomeinclusivenessinclude
participatoryplanningandbudgeting.
•SAccmayalsobeavehicleforseekingto
extendentitlementrecognitiontogroups
thatarestillexcluded.
•Inthecontextofamoreinclusivesettlementinthepost-
apartheiderainSouthAfrica,thewomen’smovement—
particularlytheWomen’sNationalCommittee,madeupofall
partymembersandwomen’sorganizations—werevocalabout
women’srepresentationinthesettlement,resultinginvarious
gains.ee
Thesettlement
isrelatively
exclusive
Asmallerrangeof
groupsmayaccess
publicentitlements.
Policyandlawsmay
formallyrecognize
entitlements,but
citizensmayneed
connectionstoenjoy
them.
•SAccmaybesomewhatonthemargins.
•SAccactivities—through,forexample,
information-sharing—couldhelptoincrease
supportforexcludedfactions,orcallinto
questionthelegitimacyofthestate.
•SAcccouldstrengthenthevoiceofexcluded
groupsandenhancetheirlinkageswithpro-
changesocialandpoliticalforces.SAccmay
needtoenhancetheinformalnetworksand
connectionsoftheexcludedgroups.
•Supportstepstobuildamoreinclusive
settlement(e.g.,targetedmeasureslike
genderandchildren’sbudgeting).
•ThepoliticalmovementthatledtothecreationofThailand’s
1997“People’sConstitution”waslargelyaproductofeffortsby
civilsocietyorganizationsthatweresupportedbytheBangkok
middleclass.Itresultedintheemergenceofarevisednational
politicalsettlementcharacterizedbygreaterinclusiveness,
albeitofarelativelyunstablenature.ff
•InYemen,womendonothavethesameaccesstojusticeas
men.TheYemeniWomen’sUnion,withsupportfromanINGO,
isworkingtoensurethatthelegalsystemprotectstherights
ofvulnerablewomenbyraisingawarenessaboutlegalrights,
providinglegalaid,andsupportingfemaleprisoners.Thishas
hadpositiveimpactsonwomen’slives.gg
The
org
aniz
atio
nal a
nd p
olit
ical
cap
abili
ties
of
the
sett
lem
ent
Thecapabilities
ofthe
settlementare
relativelystrong
Thesettlement
permitsthe
maintenanceof
enoughpolitical
stabilitytoallowthe
muddlingthroughof
socialtransformation
totakeplace.
•Highcapacityallowsforawiderangeof
developmentandSAccactivities—including
morecomplexandcostlyformsofSAcc—to
beexplored.Nonetheless,thisisconditional
onwhetheractorsfrompoliticalandcivil
societyarewillingandabletopursuesuch
activities.
•InpartsofBrazil,PBevolvediterativelyandwasmodifiedover
time,whichledtomoreeffectiveimplementation.Onefactor
thatarguablycontributedtothiseffectiveevolutionwasthe
natureofthepoliticalsettlement.Therelativelyadaptable,
legitimate,andwell-institutionalizedsettlement—between
politicalelitesintheWorkersParty,civilsocietyelitesand
broadersocietalgroups—enabledPBtobeeffectively
renegotiated,modified,andbroadlyagreeduponovertime.
hh
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 55D
om
ain
3: In
ter-
elit
e R
elat
ions
(co
ntin
ued
)
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
Thecapabilities
ofthe
settlementare
weak
Thesettlement
isrelatively
unstable,with
weakgovernance
capabilitiesto
managesocial
transformation.
Conflictmaybe
prevalent.
•SAccinitiativesshouldproceedwith
caution—donoharm.
•Localized,incrementalSAccthatbuilds
onlocalandtraditionalassociationsand
thatfosterscollaborativestateandcitizen
formationmaybeappropriate.
•SAccmightbecarefullytimedtocapitalize
ontransitionandwindowsofopportunity
(seealsoannex2onpoliticalsettlements).
•Takegradualstepsto(re)buildinclusive-
enoughcoalitionstoenablesome
legitimacy,confidence,andprogress.
•IntheSomaliregionofOgaden,localGuurtieldershave
beenincorporatedintothelocalgovernmenttohelp
resolvelocal-leveldisputesandtolinkthegovernmentwith
communities.Thisapproachwaslargelyviewedaslegitimate
bythepopulationbecauseGuurtieldersareseenaslegitimate
mediatorsandthe“xeer”systemofdisputeresolutionby
compensationenjoyshistoricallegitimacy.(seealsobox2.6
onIraq).i
i
Do
mai
n 4
: st
ate-
soci
ety
Rel
atio
nsTh
e ch
arac
ter
and
fo
rm o
f th
e so
cial
co
ntra
ct
Socialcontract(s)
forspecific
goodsor
servicesisstrong
Thereisarelatively
strongshared
understanding
ofastate-society
contractforthe
deliveryofparticular
goods.
•Adoptadonoharmapproach—donot
underminestate-citizenresponsibilities.
•SAccmaybeemployedtofulfillshared
contractualunderstandings.
•FacilitatecollaborativeSAccinitiativesthat
bringtogetherdiverseactorstoproblem-
solvearoundrecognizedproblems(e.g.,
communityscorecardsandparticipatory
budgeting).
•InMalawi,inlocalitieswherethesocialcontractwasstrong
(i.e.,therewaswidespreadagreementonthestate’srolein
servicedelivery),thescorecardprojectwasabletonurture
collaborativespacestobringtogethercommunities,service
providers,localauthorities,andotherstocollectivelysolve
servicedeliveryproblems.Insuchinstances,improvements
wererealized.jj
Socialcontract(s)
forspecific
goodsor
servicesisweak
Thereareweak
contractual
understandingsof
state-societyroles
andresponsibilities,
withmanygroups
excludedfrom
publicprovisioning.
•CalibrateSAccaccordingly;thereisacaseto
bemadeforavoidingthepromotionofSAcc
wherethecontractisweak.
•Intheshortterm,exploreandstrengthen
informalorgoodenoughformsof
accountability.
•Involvingcitizensintheearlystagesof
reforminitiativescanresultinincremental
buildingofastate-citizencontract.
•Invariouscountries,roadfundshavebeencreatedasameans
toensurethatvehicletaxesandotherearmarkedrevenuesare
usedasintended.Roadusersareincluded,andtheroadfunds
haveshownthepotentialtocounterbalancecorruptionand
contributetobuildingasenseofasocialcontractaroundthe
publicgood.kk
•InMexico,theeffortsofindigenouscommunitiesinVeracruzto
winmoreaccountablepracticesfromstatewatermanagement
institutionsrequiredyearsofsocialorganizingtoconfront
patronagepoliticsandtoreshapethesocialcontractatthe
villagelevel.l
l
(co
ntin
ued
)
56 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource PaperD
om
ain
4: st
ate-
soci
ety
Rel
atio
ns
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
His
tory
of
stat
e–ci
tize
n b
arg
aini
ng (
long
- an
d s
hort
-ter
m)
Historyof
state-citizen
bargainingis
relativelystrong
and/orpositive
Overtime,state
actorsandcitizens
havedeveloped
capabilitiesfor
activismand
interaction;the
resultsofsuch
trendshavebeen
relativelypositive.
•Buildonwhatistherewheneveritcanbe
demonstratedthatexternalagenciescan
addvalue.
•AwiderangeofSAccpracticescanbe
consideredtoresolveongoingbottlenecks.
•MST’ssuccessesinBrazilcanbepartiallyunderstoodwithinthe
widercontextofBrazilianactivism,especiallythe“liberation
theology”preachedbytheCatholicChurch’sradicalwingthat
encouragedactivismamongthepoor.m
m
•InSouthAfrica,TAC’smobilizationhappenedintheaftermath
oftheantiapartheidmovement,withthefoundersofTACusing
thesametechniquesdevelopedinthefightagainstapartheid.nn
Historyof
state-citizen
bargainingis
relativelyweak
and/ornegative
Thereisarelatively
poorhistoryofstate-
citizenbargaining.
Pastinstancesof
bargainingmayhave
ledtomorenegative
outcomes,providing
disincentivesfor
citizenstomobilize.
•Donoharm—understandthenuancesofthe
historyby,amongotherthings,encouraging
citizenstoprovidenarrativesofit.
•Actsmalltofacilitatepositivestate-citizen
problem-solving.Adoptanincremental
learning-by-doingapproach.
•Seektoscaleupwhereresultshavebeen
achievedandincentivesshifted.
•TheexperienceoftheMwananchiprograminthesub-Saharan
hasshownhowimportantitistoencouragecitizenstovoice
theirnarrativesongovernanceandsituatethemwithintheir
cultural,social,andpoliticalnormsofengagement.This
enablesmorerealisticSAccsupport.o
o
•InBurundi,incrementalstepsweretakentorebuildstate-
citizentrust.Afirststepwastoestablishcredibleformsof
representation.Inparticipatingcommunes,electionswereheld
forcommunitydevelopmentcommitteesthataimedtocut
acrossethnicdivides.pp
Historyof
state-society
relationsmarred
withfragilityor
conflict
State-society
andintra-society
relationshipsmaybe
conflict-ridden.Trust
levelsmaybelow.
•Donoharm—understanddriversofconflict
andrespondcautiously.
•Intheshort-term,supporttrust-building
activitiesalongsidetherestorationofbasic
services.
•Slowlybringpeopleintocontactwitheach
otherandthestate.SAccshouldgradually
buildonlegitimatelocalandtraditional
associationsandfostergradualcollaborative
stateandcitizenformation.
•Inthemedium-tolong-term,buildstate-
societyinstitutionsandfunctions,reduce
tensionamongpeople,andcontribute
toincreasedconfidenceandcapacityfor
citizenship.
•InColombia,theprimaryinstitutionalchallengesinthepost-
conflictperiodweretobringthestateclosertocommunities
andovercomedistrust.Assuch,aninitiativewasundertaken
wherebypublicfundsareheldbyindividualgovernment
ministries,butapprovalsforactivitiesaremadebymultisectoral
teamsinfieldoffices.Thishascontributedtotrust-building
acrossgroupsandatthelocallevel.qq
•InAfghanistan,acommunity-drivendevelopmentprogramwas
aimedatbuildingstatecapacityinphases,firstfocusingon
rebuildinginfrastructureandservicesthroughtheestablishment
ofcommunitydevelopmentcouncils,thengraduallyphasing
inthestrengtheningoflocalinstitutionsandimprovement
oflivelihoods.Reportedly,however,insomecases,these
communitydevelopmentcouncilswerenotfullyaccountable
tovillagers,underminingtheprovisionofpublicgoodsby
customaryvillageorganizations.rr
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 57D
om
ain
4: st
ate-
soci
ety
Rel
atio
ns (co
ntin
ued
)
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
The
natu
re a
nd d
epth
of
stat
e-so
ciet
y p
ro-a
cco
unta
bili
ty n
etw
ork
s
Pro-reform
networks
betweenstate
andsocietyare
relativelystrong
Thismayprovide
astrongerbasis
foreffectiveSAcc
activity.
•Strategicallystrengthenthespecific
functionsofnetworkswhereneeded(see
alsoMessage4onnetworksonp.42–43).
•Engageindialogueandinformation-sharing
aboutdealingwithanti-reformnetworks.
•LandreforminthePhilippinesshowshowastrongalliance
betweenCSOsandacriticalmassofstatereformersresultedin
positivegainsforpoorpeople.
•InSouthAfrica,pro-reformnetworks,particularlybetweenthe
movementandseniorstateofficials,wasakeydeterminantof
theeffectivenessofTAC.ss
Pro-reform
networks
betweenstate
andsocietyare
relativelyweak
Thisoften
representsaweaker
basisforSAcc
activity.
•Promoteaccountabilityinterventionsthat
cangraduallyfacilitatestate-societydialogue
andinteraction,andbringthestatecloserto
thepeople(e.g.,communityscorecardsand
dialogueplatforms).
•Thirdparties—suchascredibleNGOsor
academics—maybeabletobrokerand
improvestate-societylinkages.
•InsomepartsofWestBengal(e.g.,Debra-Midnapore),village
committeemeetingswereeffectiveingraduallybringingthe
statetothepeopleinthesensethatgovernmentofficials,
inanunprecedentedmove,begandialoguingwithpoor
peopleintargetedIndianvillages,slowlybuildinguplinkages.
Researcherspresentevidencethatsuggestslesspowerful
villagershaveusedtheseforumstomakeacasefor“ProjectA”
or“ProjectB.”
tt
Do
mai
n 5
: In
tra-
soci
ety
Rel
atio
nsIn
equa
lity
and
so
cial
exc
lusi
on
Levelof
inequalityand
socialexclusion
isrelativelylow
Thismayprovidea
strongerbasisfor
collectiveaction,
althoughthisisnota
given.SAccbenefits
maybemoreevenly
spread.
•CollectiveactionformsofSAccmaybe
easiertoinitiateandsustain.Explorethe
rangeofpossibleinitiatives.
•InSouthernVeracruz,sharedsocialnormsunderpinnedby
traditionalprinciplesofreciprocityandcooperationwerean
enablingfactorinlayingthefoundationsforareframingof
watermanagementforthecommongood.uu
•AcomparativeanalysisofPBinBolivia,Guatemala,Nicaragua,
andPerusuggeststhatitfunctionedmoreeffectivelyinsmaller,
morehomogeneouscommunitieswithstrongtraditional
organizations.vv
Levelof
inequality
andsocial
fragmentationis
high
SAccbenefitsmay
accruetobetter-
offcitizensand
inequalitymay
bereproduced
inparticipatory
interventions.
•Buildininequality-mitigatingmeasures
inSAcc(e.g.,quotas,weighting,special
investmentandcapacity-buildingfor
excludedgroups,andminoritylanguage
recognition).
•Supportmeasurestomakethevoicesofthe
marginalizedheard(e.g.,economicincentives
forparticipation,useofvirtualsafermedia,
andanonymouscommentforms).
•Inthelongerterm,seekwaystobuild
broaderprogramsforsocialjustice
andbroader-basedalliances(e.g.,
antidiscriminationlegislationcoalition-
building,institutionalizationofprogrammatic
politicalparties,andgeographicalvoting
spreadrequirements).
•InMoroccoandTurkey,campaignsforwomen’srightschanged
legalprovisionsbutalsochallengedbroadersocialnorms
affectingwomen.InMorocco,somearguemorebroadlythat
thechangestotheFamilyCodechangedmindsetsbecause
religiouslawwasnolongerseenasentirelyuntouchableor
closedforreinterpretation.ww
•InUganda,certainCSOsinvestedinfindingwaystoaddress
underlyinginequalityandpowerdynamics.Inonecase,it
wasrecognizedthatpeoplewerenotreadyorabletocome
togetheronthesameplatformbecauseofdeeply-rooted
cleavages.Assuch,theypresentedideasthroughthevirtual
spaceofradioprograms.xx
(co
ntin
ued
)
58 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource PaperD
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lob
al D
imen
sio
nsyy
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
Do
nor-
stat
e re
lati
ons
Donor-state
relationssupport
state-citizen
accountability
Aidflowsand
practicesdo
notnecessarily
undermine
accountability.
•Pursueanddeepenaideffectiveness
principlesandpractice.Ensurecontinued
alignmentwithdomesticinitiatives.
•Providestrategicsupportforlearningand
innovation.
•Leadbyexample—reforminternal
organizationalaccountability
(e.g.,transparencypolicies).
•Donorscanhelpfinancelearningandexperimental
interventions(e.g.,variousdonorssupportaction-researchand
impactevaluationsinordertoboostlearninganddialogue
aboutlocaldevelopmentsolutions).
Donor-state
relations
undermine
state-citizen
accountability
Aidflows
mayprovide
disincentivesfor
eliteaccountability
tocitizenryorcould
supplantstate
responsibilities.
•Adoptaconsciouspolicytodonoharmand
designexplicitstrategiestobuild-inexits
fromaidanddebt.
•Avoidreplacingorregulatingnational
activitiesevenifthegainsmaybemore
incremental.Workwiththegrainand
facilitatelocalproblem-solving.
•Becautiousinfundinggovernmentsandcivil
societybecauseoftheperverseincentives
itmaycreate;keepfundingatarmslength
(e.g.,throughorganizationswithsome
autonomythatanswertolocalstakeholders)
andsupporttheenablingenvironment.
•InPakistan,oneauthornotesthatcivicgroupsthatreceive
fundingfromdevelopmentassistanceendupwithfewer
membersbecausethefundingcanunderminetrustinthe
civicgroupleader.zzMorebroadly,anumberofcasestudies
showhowCSOsthataredependentonexternaldonorshave
compromisedontheirgrassrootsorientation,innovativeness,
anddownwardaccountabilitytotheirconstituents.aaa
•InNiger,onepieceofresearchnotesthatthecommittees
promotedbydevelopmentpartnerstendtoendupbeing
dissolvedor“fallingasleep”whenfundingstops.Instead,it
advocatesthatdonorsengagewithlocalinformalinitiativesto
helpthembecomeinstitutionalized,supportinglocalreformers
fromthebottomup.bbb
Inte
rnat
iona
l po
wer
-ho
lder
acc
oun
tab
ility
and
inte
rnat
iona
l po
litic
al e
cono
mic
pro
cess
es
Oth
er
international
power-holders
andprocesses
aresupportive
ofSAccgoals
MNCs,INGOs,or
otheractorsmay
support—oratleast
notundermine—
long-term
accountability.
•Strengthenorbuildonpracticesalready
demonstratedtobepositive.
•MNCsmayplayaroleasvehiclesfor
introducingmoretransparentsystemsof
accountancyoreffectivemodesofcorporate
governance.
•INGOsmayaidlocalactorsindemanding
accountabilitybyprovidingaccesstowider
mediaandpolicyspaces,galvanizingwider
globalsupportforthecause.
•InSouthAfrica,INGOswereabletolendsupporttocommunity
groupsthroughinformationexchangeandcoalition-building
intheirattemptstoseekredress.Thiswasinthecaseagainst
theUK-basedCapeplccompany,wheretheparentcompany
wasfoundtobeliableforknowinglysubjectingworkersto
hazardousworkingconditionsinitsasbestosmineinSouth
Africa.
ccc
•VariousINGOshavefosteredpartnershipswithinternational
corporationsinordertostrengthencorporategovernanceand
accountabilityfordevelopmentresultstothecommunities
withinwhichtheyhaveinvested.Theresultsofsuch
partnershipswouldneedtobeexaminedonacase-by-case
basis.
Chapter 4: Toward Practical Implications • 59
Do
mai
n 6
: G
lob
al D
imen
sio
ns (co
ntin
ued
)
If …
…
Imp
licat
ion
…
… T
hen:
Wha
t A
ctio
ns M
ight
Wo
rk?
sele
cted
exa
mp
les
Oth
er
international
power-holders
andprocesses
arenot
supportiveof
SAccgoals
Internationalactors
mayundermine
accountability
orviolaterights,
especiallywhenthe
stateisunwillingor
unabletoregulate
them
•AddressSAccasanissueandprocessthat
extendsbeyondjustcitizenandstateactors.
•Prioritizeinternationalactionthatsuccesses
on,forinstance,debtcancellationandfair
trade(e.g.,improvefinancialregulationand
constraincriminalactivity,whichreduces
opportunitiesforcorruption).
•Promotecorporateaccountability
(e.g.,promoteanadequateregulatory
frameworkandinstitutionalizeinternational
best-practicestandards).
•InNigeria,multipleprotestsbylocalcommunitieshavebeen
directedatoilcompanies(e.g.,Shell)thattheyclaimhave
violatedtheirrights,andtheyhavereceivedlimitedredress
throughthegovernmentsystems.ddd
•InIndia,therearevariouscasesofcorporateactorsviolating
theperceivedrightsoflocalcommunities(e.g.,inVizag,
Jharkand,andChiplun),promptingcitizenstousepublic
hearingsorpeople’sdevelopmentplanstocallforredressand
accountability.ee
e •Variousinternationalstrategiestoaddresstherootsoflimited
accountabilityhavebeensetupwithdifferingresults,including
theKimberleyprocesstopreventtradinginconflictdiamonds;
theExtractiveIndustriesTransparencyInitiative(EITI);and
internationalactiontocontrolillegallogging.International
campaignshavealsoregisteredenhancesdevelopment
accountability.fff
a.Robinson2006.
b. Davenport2012.
c.Campbelletal.2010.
d.Sunder2008.
e.AgaKhanFoundation2008.
f.Sundet2008;CitizenshipDRC2011.
g.Houtzageretal.2005;Evans2001.
h.Joshi2009;Bukenyaetal.2012.
i.Friedman2010.
j.AiyarandSamji2009;Campbelletal.2010;Friedman2010;
GoetzandJenkins2001.
k.UnsworthandMoore2010.
l.Gaventa2008.
m.Wantchekkon2003.
n.Kabeer2003;McGee2010.
o.Kabeer2003.
p.Stasavage2005.
q.Peruzotti2011.
r.Robinson2006;VicenteandWantchekon2009;Collierand
Vicente2011;Banerjeeetal.2010.
s.Chhotray2008.
t.Chhotray2008;Nyamu-Musembi2006.
u.SinghandVutukuru2010;Corbridgeetal.2005.
v.Goldfrank2006.
w.Eubank2010.
x.Gaventa2008.
y.Campbelletal.2010.
z.Everydaypoliticsinvolvespeopleembracing,complyingwith,
adjusting,andcontestingnormsandrulesregardingauthority
over,productionof,orallocationofresourcesanddoingsoin
quiet,mundane,andsubtleexpressionsandactsthatarerarely
organisedordirect.
aa.Scott1985;Kerkvliet2005.
bb.Campbelletal.2010;SinghandVutkuru2010.
cc.JusticeforthePoorwebsite.
dd.Nyamu-Musembi2006;Aiyar2010,Joshi2010;Levy2011.
ee.NazneenandMahmud2012.
ff.ParksandCole2010.
gg.Oxfam2012.
hh.SchneiderandGoldfrank2002;Bukenyaetal.2012.
ii.Hagmann2007;Ringoldetal.2011;Holland2011.
jj.WildandHarris2012.
kk.UnsworthandMoore2010;CitizenshipDRC2011;Levy2011.
ll.Paré,L.,andC.Robles2006.
mm.Campbelletal.2010.
nn.Friedman2010;Campbelletal.2010.
oo.Tembo2012.
pp.Ringoldetal.2011.
qq.Ibid.
rr.WorldBank2011.
ss.BorrasandFranco2008;Bukenyaetal.2012.
tt.Corbridgeetal.2005.
uu.ParéandRobles2006.
vv.Goldfrank2006;ParéandRobles2006.
ww.GaventaandBarrett2010.
xx.Tembo2012.
yy.N.b.manyoftherecommendationsfromthepreviousdomains
arealsorelevantinthisdomain.
zz.Bano2012.
aaa.BanksandHulme2012;Booth2012.
bbb.deSardanetal.2010:15.
ccc.GarveyandNewell2004.
ddd.HumanRightsWatch1999.
eee.NewellandWheeler2006.
fff.IbrahimandHulme2011.
60 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Chapter.Summary.
This chapter has offered two interrelated tools for beginning to think through the operational implications of a context-sensitive approach to SAcc: (1) a breakdown of the main cross-cutting operational implications of the paper with suggestions for operational activities based on expe-rience; and (2) an exploration, in a structured way, of what to do in different contexts through a preliminary If … Then framework. While the chapter makes no claims at being prescriptive, it does attempt to provide a set of ideas and examples for practitioners to plan and think through context-specific SAcc in a more systematic and informed manner.
61
5. conclusion
This paper has focused on the role of context in influencing the constraints and opportuni-ties for SAcc, with the core objective to fill some critical gaps in knowledge and practice on this important, yet complex, topic. Despite the limited evidence, the paper has drawn on and synthesized the available documentation in order to take preliminary steps toward a more sys-tematic and realistic treatment of of the issue. It has offered both ideas for action and potential hypotheses for further exploration.
In so doing, the paper has sought to address four main objectives: (1) to outline and deepen understanding of the contextual factors that shape the form and effectiveness of SAcc; (2) to outline what seems to be the most plausible context-sensitive theory of SAcc change to enable more strategic thinking and practice when supporting SAcc interventions; (3) based on (1) and (2), to explore some of the practical implications of this work; and (4) to provide some basic guidance on conducting context analysis prior to undertaking accountability initiatives (annex 1).
While few straightforward conclusions can be reached at this stage, the paper offers a set of main messages that are summarized in the executive sum-mary and not repeated here. Ultimately, the central contention is that there is a good case to refocus—in some areas radically rethink—SAcc thinking and practice. In so doing, the paper adds to growing calls for a more context-sensitive and politically-attuned approach to SAcc that focuses on pro-accountability state-society synergies, bargaining, and networks, and that places issues of poverty and inequality at the very center of the frame. This may be a difficult and ambitious agenda, but there is much to suggest that it should be pursued.
This may be a difficult agenda, but there is much to suggest that it should be pursued.
ANNeXes
65
Annex 1. A Tool for Analyzing contexts for social Accountability
Based on the paper’s broad framework and the current evidence base, this annex briefly provides some preliminary guiding questions for undertaking a context analysis prior to designing or sup-porting SAcc. The tool is separated into three phases: (1) the preanalysis phase, which describes how to use this tool and provides some brief tips on the key process requirements for designing and conducting the analysis; (2) the analysis phase, which provides a list of potential questions, prompts and “starting points” for undertaking the analysis; and, (3) the postanalysis phase, which provides questions and guidance on how to translate the findings into an operation or program.
Preanalysis:.Guidance.on.Using.this.Tool.
It is worth highlighting a few points on how to use this tool before outlining the questions:
• This is not designed to be an exhaustive list of questions. It is designed to point the analysis toward some of the most critical contextual issues, as derived from chapters 2, 3, and 4 in the report. The report should be read before attempting to undertake the analysis shown below.
• The questions cannot cover all eventualities, and the reader is encouraged to adapt or drill down on certain questions as appropriate to their diverse needs. Such needs include: (1) the timeframe and resources available for the contextual analysis; or (2) the objectives and focal point of the operational issues in question (for example, if you want to focus on broader country issues and country strategies, on a specific sector, or on a specific operation). There are already a number of resources (cited below) providing guidance on applying social and political analysis; their good practice guid-ance principles apply and it is not the intention here to repeat them in any detail. You may wish to follow the citations for further reading.
• Alongside the questions, there are a few prompt examples of the types of issues to consider in answering them and some indications of places to start when looking for answers.19 Note, however, that while the global datasets might be good starting points, they rarely provide sufficient information to make management decisions and their accuracy is often contested (Court et al. 2007). Indeed, many of the questions may be answered, to differing degrees, by using existing social and political analyses, even if answers to some of the questions require considerable analysis and judgment.
• When to stop looking for answers? There are, unfortunately, no fixed param-eters for knowing that you have conducted a good enough analysis. At a minimum, one should have enough information to support a convincing ToC of how a proposed interven-tion is likely to achieve its pro-poor and pro-accountability outcomes in the given context. Persistent accountability issues tend to be complex and have multiple dimensions. For this
There are, unfortunately, no fixed parameters for knowing that you have conducted a good enough analysis. At a minimum, one should have enough information to support a convincing ToC of how a proposed intervention is likely to achieve its pro-poor and pro-accountability outcomes in the given context.
66 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Table A1.1. checklist on the Process of conducting the Analysis
Process Area Actions and Key Questions to Address
1.Planningtheanalysis Toclarify:
• Whatistheprimaryobjectiveoftheanalysis?
• Whatquestionsshouldbedrilleddowninto?
• Whoistheprimaryaudience—internalorexternal?
• Whenandhowwillthefindingsfeedintoprogramdesignand
policydialogue?
• Istheresufficientinternalbuy-intotheimportanceofthe
analysis?Isthereaclearownerorchampionwithresponsibility
formovingforwardwiththeimplications?
2.Definingthemethodology
andneededskills
Todefine:
• Doyouhavethenecessarymixofskillsandexpertiseto
undertakethework(e.g.,politicalscience,sociology,or
developmentstudiesbackgrounds;astrongunderstandingof
demand-sidegovernanceandofthecountryandcontextin
question)?
• Willitbeconductedin-houseorarespecialistconsultantskills
required?Considercombiningoneinternationalexpertand
onelocalexpert.
• Whatkindofmethodologywillbeemployed(e.g.,examination
ofexistingcountrydatasets,qualitativefieldanalysis,expert
andkeyinformantinterviews,orfocusgroupinterviews)?
• Howwillthequestionsbeadaptedandused?Thequestions
couldbeusedasabasisfordesigningaTermsofReference,
orpractitionerswhoalreadyhaveawell-roundedknowledge
oftheissuesmayusethequestionsasthebasisforstrategic
thinkingor“gap-filling.”
3.Involvingother
stakeholders
Todecide:
• Whereappropriate,howcantherightpartnersand
stakeholdersbeinvolved?
4.Disseminatingthework Todecide:
• Isthereagreementastohowtheworkwillbedisseminated?
5.Bridginganalysisand
follow-upaction
Toensure:
• Isthereanagreed-toprocessforfollow-uponcetheanalysis
iscomplete?Hasadequatetimebeendedicatedtoexploring
theoperationalimplicationsoftheanalysis?
• Haveindicatorsbeendevelopedtoassesstheimpactofthe
analysisonprograms?Whatresultsareexpectedfromthe
work?
Source: AdaptedfromDFID2009;Poole2011.
Annex 1. A Tool for Analyzing “Contexts” for Social Accountability • 67
reason, a good context analysis prior to investment should unpack any problems and their underlying drivers in order to identify strategic entry points. This may mean that you would adopt a so-called “problem-focused approach” (Fritz et al. 2011).
• Experience suggests that, in many ways, the process by which the analysis is conceived, car-ried out, and translated into operations is as important as the findings (DFID 2009; Fritz et al. 2011). Some of the key process issues to take into account are summarized in table A1.1.
Analysis:.The.Guiding.Questions.
Below is a list of potential questions, prompts and “starting points” for undertaking the analy-sis and deepening understanding of the accountability dynamics in a given context. There are, first, some core overarching questions that would, at a minimum, need to be addressed before designing or supporting SAcc processes. The questions listed below the overarching questions are designed to enable a drilling down into the issue areas and contextual domains outlined in this report.20
overarching Questions • What is the accountability problem you would like to address in your context?• What are the underlying drivers of this problem, the drivers of change, and the opportuni-
ties for addressing it?• What is the capacity and willingness of political elites to address the problem?• What is the capacity and willingness of citizens and civil society to address the problem?• What is the nature and strength of state-society networks that might challenge or perpetu-
ate this problem?• What is the change you would like to see, and how might “demand-side” interventions
realistically contribute to this change?• How can your organization support this change over the short and long term?
68 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
The Full Question set: Drilling Down into the six Key Domains
Domain 1. civil societyArea Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
extensiveness Whatformdoescivilsociety
(CS)takeandhowvibrantis
it?
TypesofCSOs;quantityof
CSOs
• Barometer(numberofCSOs)
• BertelsmannTransformationIndex
(CSparticipation)
• GlobalCivilSocietyIndex(organization
membership)a
capacity
(technical, social,
and political)
Whatistheleveloftechnical
andorganizationalcapacityof
CSOs?
Organizationalperformance;
technicalcapacity;financial
sustainability
• GlobalCivilSocietyIndex(capacity;
sustainabilityofCSOs)
WhatisthecapacityofCSOs
tomobilizepeopleandbuild
alliancesacrosssocietyand
withotherCSOs?
Societalmobilizationand
coalition-buildingskills;
well-functioningjointCSO
platforms
• CIVICUSCivilSocietyIndex(impactof
activitiespursuedbyCSOs)
• GlobalCivilSocietyIndex(CSOimpact)
Whatarethepolitical
capabilitiesofCSOs(i.e.,are
there“strong”CSOscapable
ofexertinginfluenceover
politicizeddecision-making
outcomes)?
Connectionswithand
influenceoverpolitical
decisionmakers;political
literacy;rightsawareness
• Barometer(levelofpoliticalefficacy)
• BertelsmannTransformationIndex
(associationandassemblyrights)
Willingness HowwillingareCSOstoact
aspro-accountabilityforces
onaspecificand/orrangeof
issues?
Incentivestochallenge
system;ideasabout
accountability;interestin
resolvingtheproblem
• CIVICUSCivilSocietyIndex(values
practicedandpromotedinCSarena)
Authority,
legitimacy, and
credibility (for
citizens and the
state)
WhichCSOsareseenas
popular,authoritative,and
legitimaterepresentativesof
citizens—namely,of“poor”
citizens?
Grassrootsassociations;trade
unions;socialmovements;
NGOs;faith-based
organizations;mediabodies
• Politicaleconomyanalysis(PEA)
• Civilsocietyassessments
WhichCSOsareseentobe
authoritativeandlegitimate
bystateactors,ifany?
Grassrootsassociations;trade
unions;socialmovements;
servicedeliveryNGOs
• DFIDgovernanceandconflictindicators
(numberofCSOsconsultedonpolicy
developmentbystate;numberofrelevant
CSOsstatingtheywereconsultedinPRSP)
• PEA;CSassessments
(continued)
Annex 1. A Tool for Analyzing “Contexts” for Social Accountability • 69
Domain 1. civil society (continued)Area Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
cs networks
(pro-accountability
versus anti-
accountability)
Whatisthenatureand
relativestrengthofpro-
accountabilitynetworks
acrossCS?
Well-organizednetworks;
clearandsharedgoals;
financialviabilityofthe
networks;relationshipwith
anti-accountabilitypolitical
forces
• Civilsocietyassessments
• Countrysocialanalyses
• Networkanalyses
Whatisthenatureand
relativestrengthofanti-
accountabilitynetworks
acrossCS?
Well-organizednetworks;
clearandsharedgoals;
financialviabilityofthe
networks;relationshipwith
anti-accountabilitypolitical
forces
• Civilsocietyassessments
• PEA
• Networkanalyses
citizen capacity
(human and
political)
Whatisthelevelofhuman
capacityamongtherelevant
citizenry?
Education;income;literacy;
livelihoodstrategies
• WorldDevelopmentIndicators
(literacyrate;lifeexpectancyatbirth)
• EdstatsDatabase(accessandqualityof
education;equityofeducationoutcomes;
preprimary,primary,secondary,andtertiary
literacyrates)
• UnitedNationsHumanDevelopmentIndex
(genderempowermentandeducation
index)
• Povertyandsocialimpactanalyses
Whatlevelofpolitical
capabilitiesdotherelevant
citizenryhave(i.e.,by
whatmeans—ifany—do
marginalizedgroupsinfluence
politicaldecisions)?
Connectednessandnetworks
withCSandpoliticalsociety
(PS);politicalliteracyand
rightsawareness;political
statusandrecognitionas
“citizens”
• Barometer(percentageofpeoplethat
voicedopiniontopublicofficials)
• Rights-basedanalysesb
citizen willingness Howwillingisthecitizenry
toactinundertakingsocial
accountabilityinitiatives?
Incentives;ideasof
accountability;interests
• Gallup(percentageofpeoplewhovoiced
theiropiniontopublicofficials)
• Barometer(percentageofpeoplewho
contactedaleaderwithaproblem)
(continued)
70 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Domain 2. Political societyArea Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
capacity of
political elites and
elected officials
Whatisthelevelofpolitical
elitecapacitytorespondto
and/orfosterSAcc?
Technicalcompetencies;
abilitytousebureaucracyto
respond;connectednessto
CS(seealsoDomain3for
furtherunpackingofcertain
issuesrelatedto“political
society”)
• Politicalconstraintindex(measurespolitical
institutions)
• GlobalIntegrityIndex(government
accountability)
• BertelsmannTransformationIndex
(commitmenttodemocraticinstitutions)
capacity of state
(organizational and
political)
Whatisthelevelof
organizationalandtechnical
statecapacitytorespond
toand/orfosterSAcc?How
autonomous(i.e.,rational/
legal)orpoliticizedisthe
bureaucracy?
Technicalcompetencies;level
andqualityofimplementation
oflegislationorpolicy;
financialprobity;facilitation
andconsultationskills
• GlobalIntegrityIndex(functioningof
government)
• EconomistIntelligenceUnit(qualityof
bureaucracy)
• WorldwideGovernanceIndicators
(governmenteffectiveness)
• WorldBank’sCountryPolicyand
InstitutionalAssessments(CPIA)
Whatisthelevelofthe
“state’s”politicalcapacityto
respondtoandfosterSAcc
processesandclaims?
Connectednessand
opennesstoCS;abilityto
mediatecompetingsocial
andpoliticalforces;ability
tosecureconsensusacross
conflictinggroups
• Stakeholderandpoweranalysis
• Politicalsettlementanalysis(below)
Willingness of
political elites and
elected officials
Whatisthelevelofpolitical
elitewillingnesstorespondto
and/orfosterSAcc?
Incentives;ideason
accountability;material
interests
• USAIDpolicynote(statementsmadeby
nationalleadersinnewspapers;availability
offundingforSAcc)
Willingness of
government
bureaucrats
Whatisthelevelof
willingnessamong
bureaucratstorespondto
and/orfosterSAcc?
Incentives(e.g.,performance
standards);ideason
accountability;material
interests
• WorldGovernanceIndicators(policy
consistencyofbureaucrats;abilityto
deliverinfrastructure)
capacity of
political parties
Howprogrammaticarethe
parties?Whatisthecapacity
ofpoliticalpartiestofoster
SAcc?
Organizationalandtechnical
capacity;connectednessto
CS;capacitytomobilizeCS
andSAccclaims
• DFIDgovernanceandconflictindicators
(percentageofpoliticalpartieswithissue-
basedmanifesto)
Willingness of
political parties
Whatisthelevelofpolitical
partywillingnesstochampion
andsupportSAcc?
Incentives;ideason
accountability;material
interests
• PEA
(continued)
Annex 1. A Tool for Analyzing “Contexts” for Social Accountability • 71
Domain 2. Political society (continued)Area Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
Ps networks
(pro-accountability
versus anti-
accountability)
Whatisthenatureand
strengthofpro-accountability
networksacrossPS?
Well-organizednetworks;clear
andsharedgoals;financial
viabilityofthenetworks;
relationshipwithanti-
accountabilitypoliticalforces
• Politicalanalyses
• Networkanalyses
Whatisnatureandstrengthof
anti-accountabilitynetworks
acrossPS?
Well-organizednetworks;
clearandsharedgoals;
financialviabilityofthe
networks
• Politicalanalyses
• Networkanalyses(seeabove)
Broader Institutional Frameworks across Political Society
Democratization Whatisthenatureandextent
ofpoliticaldebateand
competition?
Elections;natureoftheparty
system;democraticlegal
framework
• EconomistIntelligenceUnit(democracy
index)
• Democracyscore(nationsintransitratings)
Accountability
and cs enabling
environment
Whatarethecharacteristics
andstrengthsofpolitical
andcivilrightsandlaws
(i.e.,theSAcc“enabling
environment”)?Arethese
lawsrespectedandenforced?
Civilandpoliticalrights;
freedomofassociationand
speech;right-to-information
legislation;media
freedoms;mediaintegrity
andeffectiveness
• EconomistIntelligenceUnit(indexofcivil
liberties)
• ReportersWithoutBorders(pressfreedom
score)
• FreedomHouse(mediaindependence;
freedomofexpression)
• GlobalIntegrityIndex(abilityofcitizens
toformmediaentities;abilityofmediato
reportoncorruption;credibilityofmedia
information)
• Politicalandcivilrightsratings
Rule of law and
enforceability
Towhatdegreeistheruleof
lawenforceableandinsulated
frompoliticalinterference?
Independentjudiciary;
functioninglegalframework;
responsivenesstocitizen
demands
• Barometer(whetherornotpeople
treatedequallyunderlaw;whetherornot
governmentignoresthelaw)
• GlobalIntegrityIndex(abilityofcitizensto
accesslegislativeprocess)
• WorldGovernanceIndicators(ruleoflaw)
• CPIA
Whataretheotherformal
intra-statemechanismsof
accountability(“horizontal
accountability”)andhowwell
dotheyfunction?
Executivepowerand
restraint;parliamentary
checks-and-balances;intra-
stateaccountabilityagencies
(ombudsmenandanti-
corruptioncommissions)
• FreedomHouse(accountablegovernment;
environmenttoprotectagainstcorruption)
• Barometer(bribedoftentogeta
document,permit,orbasicservice)
• GlobalIntegrityIndex(anti-corruptionand
ruleoflaw;effectivenessofthenational
ombudsman;governmentaccountability)
• BribePayersIndex
• WorldGovernanceIndicators(controlof
corruption)
(continued)
72 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Domain 3. Inter-elite Relations These questions further unpack many of the underlying drivers of the characteristics in Domain 2.
Area Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
Political settlement
(overall, primary
and secondary,
developmental,
capacity,
inclusiveness, and
implications)
Whatistheoverallnature
oftheprimarypolitical
settlement?Whichelitesare
representedandwhatisthe
basisforpowersharing?
Socialandpoliticalgroups
represented(landowners,
urbanelites,ethnicities,
religious,secular,andso
on);basisofthepower-and
benefit-sharingagreement—
open,democratizing,and
patrimonial
• Politicalsettlementmappingc
• PEA/driversofchangeanalysis
• Elitebargaininganalysis
Whatisthecurrentsecondary
politicalsettlementabout
specificgoodsorservices?
Agreementsaboutcertain
goodsandservices(e.g.,
waterorfood);central-local
dynamics;localsettlements
• PEA
• Politicalsettlementmapping
Towhatdegreeisthe
settlementfoundedonbroad-
baseddevelopmentand/
ormorepatronage-based,
clientelist,and/orpredatory
lines?
Timehorizonsforusing
publicresources;focus
onbroad-basedgoodsor
narrowpoliticalinterestsand
“clients”(programmaticor
clientelistic);levelorfocuson
socialdevelopment;tendency
towardredistribution;levels
ofcorruption
• Politicalsettlementanalysis
• PEA
• Historicalanddevelopmentanalyses
Whatisthelevelofpolitical
andgovernancecapabilities
underpinningthesettlement?
Whatisthelevelofstability
andwindowsofopportunity
foraccountabilityactions?
Capacitytomaintainpolitical
stability;legitimacyofthe
settlement;capacitytoreach
agreementsacrossconflicting
groupsanddiscipline
powerfulactors;political
driversofunder-capacity;
capacitytoforgeand
maintainrelationswithsocial
actorsincludedorexcluded
fromsettlement;levelsof
conflict
• Politicalstabilityindex(levelofthreat
posedtogovernmentsbysocialprotest)
• PEA
(continued)
Annex 1. A Tool for Analyzing “Contexts” for Social Accountability • 73
Domain 3. Inter-elite Relations (continued)Area Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
Political settlement
(overall, primary
and secondary,
developmental,
capacity,
inclusiveness, and
implications)
Howinclusiveisthe
settlementandwhois
includedorexcluded?How
areentitlementsdistributed,
claimed,andenforced?
Distributionofrights,
responsibilities,and
entitlementsacrossthe
settlement;impersonal
orpersonalisticmodesof
securingrights;diversityof
elitecoalition;influenceby
nonelitegroups;political
spacefordissentanddebate;
perceptionsofsettlement
legitimacy
• Politicalsettlementmapping
• PEA
• Historicalanddevelopmentanalyses
Overall,whatdoesthis
analysissuggestaboutthe
politicalcapacitiesand
higher-levelincentivesto
addressSAccclaimsbroadly
and/orinspecificareas?
Levelofincentives;likelihood
ofSAccclaimstoreceivea
backlash,cooptation,and
accommodation
• Driversofchangeanalysis
• Scenarioanalysis
(continued)
74 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Domain 4. state-society Relations These questions also help unpack the underlying drivers of the capacity/willingness of actors to engage in SAcc.
Area Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
social contract
(overall, cultures
and perceptions of
accountability, and
implications)
Whatisthenatureofthe
primarysocialcontract?
Howentitlementshavebeen
distributedovertimeand
onwhatbasis(formallegal
provisionsandmoreinformal
customarypractices);the
presenceofpopularpressure
aboutcertainpublicgoods
• Barometer(peoplearetreatedequally
underthelaw;whetherornotgovernment
ignoresthelaw)
• Sociological,contractual,andrights-based
analyses
• Politicalandinstitutionalanalysis
Whatisthesecondarysocial
contractaboutspecificgoods
orservices(ifrelevant)?
Taxation;food;water;social
security
• Sociologicalandcontractualanalyses
• Politicalandinstitutionalanalyses
Whatisconsideredlegitimate
andillegitimateuseofpublic
resourcesandauthority
bycitizensandbystate
functionaries?
Basedonfamilyorlocal
favors;strengthofclientelist
networks;localstandards
oftransparencyand
accountability
• Anthropologicalanalyses
• Politicalandinstitutionalorlegalanalysis
Whatissuesareperceived
bypoorcitizenstobe
“significant”enough
toinspireactionand
involvementinSAcc?Towhat
degreedotheyreflector
relatetothesocialcontract?
Corruption;poor
performance;absenteeism
amongpublicofficials;
deliveryofcertainservices;
justicesystem
• WorldGovernanceIndicators(controlof
corruption)
• Barometer(whetherornotpeopleare
treatedunequallyunderthelaw;whether
ornotgovernmentignoresthelaw)
History of state-
citizen bargaining
(long-term,
shorter-term, and
implications)
Whathasbeenthelonger-
termhistoryofstate-citizen
bargaining?Isthereastrong
historyofCSactivism?
Degreetowhichcitizens
havebeeninvolvedin
stateformationandpolicy;
outcomeofattemptsto
challengestate
• PEA
• DFIDgovernanceandconflictindicators
(numberofCSOsconsultedaboutpolicy
bystate;numberofrelevantCSOsstating
theywereconsultedinPRSPtoasatisfying
extent)
Whathasbeentherecent
experiencewithSAcc
activitiesinthecontext?How
positiveornegative?What
doesthistellusaboutthe
likelyincentivesforcitizensto
reengageinSAcc?
Typeoftoolsused;scaleof
theintervention;timehorizon;
impactsandlessonslearned;
governmentresponse;levels
oftrustinthestate
• Impactevaluations
• Donorassessments
Howhasthisexperience
impactedtheskillsand
tacticsofCSactivismandPS
responses?
Strongskillsandpoolof
experiencetodrawon;well-
functioningnetworks;limited
capabilities
• Historicalpoliticalandsocialanalysis
• Impactevaluations
(continued)
Annex 1. A Tool for Analyzing “Contexts” for Social Accountability • 75
Domain 4. state-society Relations (continued)Area Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
Formal and
informal
state-society
accountability
mechanisms
Whataretheexistingformal
andinformalmechanismsof
accountability(answerability
andenforcement)forthe
provisionofpublicgoods?
Howeffectiveandlegitimate
arethey?
Elections;localcouncils;legal
provisions;ombudsmen;
patronagenetworks;
customaryinstitutions(chief
structures);grievance-redress
mechanisms
• BertelsmannTransformationIndex(Free
andfairelections,anti-democraticactors)
• Countrysocialanalyses
• Accountabilitystudies
Whataretheexistingformal
andinformalmechanismsfor
state-citizeninteraction?
Participatoryspaces;
channelsofstate-citizen
communication;monitoring
mechanisms
• Barometer(citizenempowerment;whether
ornotcitizensgetnews;whetherthey
contactlocalleaders—aloneoringroups—
forpersonalproblemsorcommunity
problems)
Towhatdegreedothe
formalmechanismsexplain
outcomes?Towhatdegree
doinformalaccountability
mechanismsexplain
outcomes?Howdotheformal
andinformalinteractto
produceoutcomes?
Mechanismsthatexplainhow
thingsreallywork;howpast
accountabilityissueshave
beenresolvedandthrough
whatmechanisms
• Accountabilitystudies
• PEA
state-society
networks (pro- and
anti-accountability)
Whatisthenatureanddepth
ofpro-accountabilitystate-
societynetworks?
Well-organizednetworks;
clearandsharedgoals;
financialviabilityofthe
networks
• Networkanalyses(asabove)
• PEA
• Stakeholderanalyses
Whatisthenatureanddepth
ofanti-accountabilitystate-
societynetworks?
Well-organizednetworks;
clearandsharedgoals;
financialviabilityofthe
networks
• Networkanalyses
• PEA
• Stakeholderanalyses
Whichintermediariesand
networksarethemost
authoritativeorlegitimatein
representingtheinterestsof
thepoorandfurtheringSAcc?
Haspopularsupport;has
aprojectforsocialjustice
andpovertyreduction;
downwardaccountabilityto
representatives
• Qualitativeanalyses
• PEAandstakeholderanalyses
(continued)
76 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Domain 5. Intra-society RelationsArea Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
overall Whataretheoverallsocial
andstructuralbarriersthat
thecitizenryfaceinactingas
“agentsofchange”inand
throughSAcc?
Dependencyonpersonalor
patron-clientrelationships
toaccessgoods;poverty;
limitedskillsandcapabilities;
limitedrecognitionascitizens
• Povertyandsocialimpactanalyses
• Countrysocialanalyses
Inequality
(real and
perceived)
Whatisthelevelofinequality
ingeneraland/orinrelation
toaspecificsectororissue?
Incomedisparities;unequal
accesstoassetsand
services;unequalpolitical
representation
• WorldIncomeInequalityDatabase(cross-
countryandtime-seriesdataonchangesin
incomeinequality)
• MeasuringIncomeInequalityDatabase
(datafrom1890–1996)
Whatarethepopular
perceptionsofinequalityand
fairness,andhowdoesthis
shapepeople’spropensityto
undertakeSAcc?
Inequalityissuesseenas
anindividual—notstate—
responsibility;perceptions
thatsystemisgenerallyfair
orunfair
• Barometer(roleofgovernmentvis-à-vis
citizens/whoistheboss?)
• EconomistIntelligenceUnit(leveloftrustin
publicinstitutions)
• DFIDgovernanceandconflictindicators
(citizenssatisfiedwithparliamentary
performance)
social exclusion
and fragmentation
Towhatdegreearecertain
groupsexcludedoradversely
incorporatedbasedontheir
socialstatus?Towhatdegree
istheresocialfragmentation?
Ethnicity;clan;religion;class;
gender;ability
• Countrysocialanalyses
• FreedomHouse(genderequity;rightsof
ethnic,religious,andothergroups)
• WorldDevelopmentIndicators
• UNDPHumanDevelopmentIndex
(genderempowermentmeasure;seats
intheparliamentheldbywomen)
conflict and
cooperation
Whatisthehistoryand
currentlevelofsocietal
conflictandstate-society
conflict/fragility?Howdoes
thisimpactsocialcohesion
andpotentialcollective
action?
Emergingfromconflict;in
transition;pocketsoffragility
• Failedstatesindex(percentageof
refugees;groupgrievance;
delegitimizationofstate;security
apparatuses;factionalizedelites;
externalintervention)
• CPIA(countrieswithascorebelow3.2
areviewedasfragile)
• LowerIncomeCountriesUnderStress
(LICUS)
• WorldBank’spostconflictindicators
framework(qualityofpolicyand
institutionalframeworktosupport
transitionfromconflict,tofosterpoverty
reduction,andusedevelopment
assistance)
• BertelsmannTransformationIndex
(continued)
Annex 1. A Tool for Analyzing “Contexts” for Social Accountability • 77
Domain 6. Global DimensionsArea Question(s) Prompt examples Places to start
Global drivers and
political/economic
processes
Howdoglobaldrivers
anddimensionsinfluence
politicaleliteincentivesand
state-societyaccountability
relations?
Internationaltransparency
standards;levelofglobal
economicintegration;
internationaltrade(licitor
illicit);migrationflows
• InternationalPEA
• EconomistIntelligenceUnit(extentof
foreigninfluence)
Dodonoragencies
strengthenorundermine
theforgingofastate-citizen
socialcontractandSAcc
claimsinthecountryand/or
sector?
Donor-staterelationships;
aidmodalities;levelofaid-
dependence
• Aideffectivenessanalyses
• Internalaccountabilityaudits
Towhatdegreeareother
internationalactorsheld
accountablefortheirimpact
inthecontext?
RoleandpowerofMNCs;
INGOaccountability
• InternationalPEA
• NGOanalysis/literature
• Popularsources(e.g.,newspapers)
overall conclusionsArea Question(s) Prompt examples
Drivers of the
accountability
failure
Takenasawhole,what
appeartobetheprincipal
driversoftheaccountability
problem?
Lackofsalientinformation;lackofenforcementsanctions;collectiveaction
failures;politicaldisincentives
Priority areas Acrossthedomains,which
contextualissuesappear
tobethemostpressingto
addressinordertoimprove
accountability?Why?
PoliticalcapabilitiesofCS;inclusivenessofthepoliticalsettlement;inequality
levels
opportunities and
constraints
Whatarethemajor
opportunitiesforand
constraintstoaction?
HowmightSAccleadto
“coercion,”“cooptation”
or“change”inthepolitical
settlement(seechapter3)?
Scenarios;specificpolicyreformprocessopeningupspaces;elections;
changeingovernment;riseofsocialmovements
Source: Author.a.See,forexample,SalamonandSokolowski2005.b.See,forexample,Sen2001.
78 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Figure A1.1. Main steps in Designing context-specific social Accountability Programs
Postanalysis:.Operational.Actions.
Having undertaken the analysis, this section offers some brief guiding questions to help think through what to do next. The questions are broadly clustered around the project development cycle, summarized in figure A1.1. They can be adapted to the project cycle procedures and orga-nizational objectives of different organizations. After conducting the analysis, it is particularly recommended to refer to chapter 4 of this report for further practical ideas on what to do.
Annex 1. A Tool for Analyzing “Contexts” for Social Accountability • 79
Process step sub-area Guiding Questions Tips and Pointers
extract
practical
implications
n/a • Whatarethemajoroperationalimplicationsofthe
analysis?
• Whatarethemaindriversoftheaccountability
challenges?
• Whatissuesappeartobethemosturgent?
• Ensurebuy-inandinvolvementof
operationalteamsandpartners.
• Considerfillinganystrategic“gaps”in
theanalysisatthisstage.
Define
objectives—
the change
you want to
see
n/a • Whatchangewouldyouliketoseebasedonthe
analysis?
• Canyouidentifychangesforeachofthesix
contextualdomains?Arechangesneededwithin
eachdomain?Canprogressbemadewithinthe
existingcontextualconstraints?
• Whatobjectivesarefeasibleintheshort,medium,
andlongterm?
• Categorizekeycontextualfactorsby
domainandtheir“tractability”(i.e.,some
factorsaremorelikelytochangeover
short-orlong-term,suchasinformation
availabilityandstatecapacity).
Devise a
strategy/
Toc—how
change will
happen
BasicToC • WhatisthebasicToCtoachievetheobjectives?
• Isitconvincinggiventheanalysisundertaken?Ifnot,
canitbemodified?
• Drawonlessonsinthisreporttohelp
devisetheToC(seechapters1–3)
• DrawonToCfromchapter3butadaptto
yourcontextandanalysis.
• Play“devil’sadvocate”tomaketheToC
morerobust.
Strategyfor
good enough
change
• Whatoverallstrategycouldyourorganization
adopttobeginachievingthechange?Forexample,
whatstrategywouldbemostappropriatefor
eachdomain?Howcanyouactgiventhepolitical
economycontext?Howcanyoubuildonandnot
undermineorganicpressuresforchange?What
best-fit,second-best,orgood-enough approachesare
appropriate?
• Assessthe“roomformaneuver”
andclarifywhichpolicyoptionsand
approachesmaybepoliticallyfeasible.
Isitpreferabletotakeanincremental
approach,adaptingtoreformspace,
oramoretransformationalapproach
(expandingreformspace)?
Entry
pointsand
partnerships
• Whatarethepotentialentrypoints?
• Whatisyourcomparativeadvantageandwhich
partofthechangeprocesscanyoubestcontribute
to?Howcanyouengagepartnerstocontributeto
differentpiecesofthechangeprocess?
• Explorelinksandleveragerelatedto
existingprogramsandinterventions,
timing,sequencing,andsoon.
• Socialandpoliticalchangesarerarely
drivenbyoneorganizationactingalone.
Internal
alignment
andchange
• Areyourorganization’scapacitiesadequateto
promotethechange?
• Isyourorganizationlikelytocontributetoamore
accountablelonger-termstate-societycontract?
How?Areyouaccountableforyouractions?
• Assessrelevantstaffskills,identifyproject
leadorchampions,andassessinternal
willingnesstotakerisks.
• Identifyareasforinternalreformto
ensureaccountability.
(continued)
80 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Process step sub-area Guiding Questions Tips and Pointers
Define
concrete
activities–
getting from
this context
(“here”) to
the change
(“there”)
What • Whatspecificactionscanbeproposedtoaddress
thedifferentdimensionsoftheaccountability
problems?
• Howcanyouensurethatallthedifferentconditions
ofaccountabilityareputinplace(answerabilityplus
enforcement)?
• Selectappropriateactionsand
approaches(referbacktochapter4)
Who • Withwhomcouldyouworktobringaboutchange?
• Whoarethegame-changers?Whoarethereform
antagonistsandchampions?Howinfluentialare
bothandhowwillyouworkwiththem?
• Selectpartnersbroadlyalignedwith
SAccgoalsanddevisewaystoworkwith
antagonists.
When • Howwillyousequenceinterventionsmost
appropriately?
• Identifykeyreformprocessesorshiftsin
politicalequilibrium.
How • Howwillyouimplementtheactivities? • Willtheybebasedonexistingprograms
orinterventions,willtheybeapartof
broaderinstitutionalreforms,willtheybe
“standalone”approaches,andsoon?
Identify
risksand
barriers—
mitigation
strategies
• Whatarethelikelyrisks,namelytotheparticipants
butalsototheorganization,partners,andsoon?
Whoarelikely“winners”and“losers,”andwhat
backlashmightthisentail?
• Howwillyourespondtoand/ormitigatetheserisks?
• Developarisk,assumptions,and
mitigationframework.
• Devisewaystonegotiateawayaround
powerrelationshipsandthecontention
thataccountabilitychangecanproduce.
• Adjustactivitiesinlightoftherisk
assessment.
Setup
M&E—
learning
systems
• Howcanyousetupongoinglearningandanalysis—
aswellasexperimentation—giventhecomplexityof
SAccchange?
• Contextualknowledgeisnotaone-time
exercise;contextschange.
• Buildinlearningsystemsandflexibility.
Source: Author.Note:n/a=notapplicable
81
Annex 2. Thinking about change in Political settlements
Given the prominence of the “political settlements” concept to this paper, it is useful to reflect on how such settlements change. This can be seen as the bigger picture change, allowing a move beyond the view that SAcc is merely a discrete intervention to also considering it as part of a broader fabric of social and political change.
However, this is not a straightforward process. The study of political settlements in international development is relatively new; attempting to think about SAcc within this framework is even newer. As Dervarajan et al. (2011) note, “… the big question remaining for such types of [SAcc] interventions is how to improve the incentives of higher-level leadership to pursue appropriate policy design and implementation.” Further, there are not yet easy ways to translate the political settlements approach into workable operational guidelines, and there remains a lack of clarity and consensus on which elements of political settlements are critical (for example, OECD-DAC 2008; Park and Coles 2010). Even more fundamentally, political settlements are not easily manu-factured from the outside, and external agencies play a difficult, modest, and sometimes risky role in promoting more accountable political settlements (Di John and Putzel 2009; Hickey 2011).
Political.Settlements.and.Change.
According to Parks and Cole (2010), political settlements are typically established, consolidated, and strengthened in the following ways:
• the most basic method is coercion, often by amassing the capacity to use or threaten to use physical force;
• cooptation of potential threats from powerful excluded elites;• building and maintaining the legitimacy of state institutions established and shaped through
the political settlement; and• actions of the international community (for example, military interventions or provision of
security and aid).
Change in the political settlement happens, “when there is a change in the common under-standing of how power is to be organized and exercised” (DFID, cited in Cole). Change, as such, represents shifts, “… in the accepted norms of political behavior, usually brought about by gradual changes in political dynamics or shifting interests of powerful actors” (Parks and Cole 2010). Acemoglu and Robinson (2012) broadly point to change as being driven by an enlightened elite leadership willing to cede power and/or an elite leadership that eventually succumbs to pressures for social and political change; that is, opposition elites and social forces that—in essence—force their hand. The path to a more inclusive and developmental settlement is rarely linear: “In most cases, countries that have reached stable, inclusive, developmental settlements
82 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
have been through periods of extreme instability, or highly exclusionary settlements.” More-over, settlements rarely change through a single event or a single factor; rather, they usually change because of a complex interaction of factors (for example, DLP Paper 2010).
As noted in chapter 3, SAcc pressures can be thought of as contributing to change processes that might lead to broad coercion, cooptation, and change in and around the political settlement. Drawing on work done by Parks and Cole (2010), table A2.1 outlines nine main drivers of change.
Main Driver of
change Description example
Possible Role(s) for
sAcc
A powerful,
excluded elite
faction “opts
in” to political
settlement
Whenapowerfulelitegroupthat
formerlysoughttodestabilizeexisting
arrangementsjoinsthepolitical
settlement,itmayincreaseitsdurability.
Itcouldalsomakethesettlement
moreinclusiveiftheexcludedgroup
representsasignificantportionof
thepopulationthatwaspreviously
excluded.
InThailand,thebuildingoftheThaiRak
ThaipoliticalcoalitionduringThaksin
Shinawatra’sfirstterm(2001–05)included
newallianceswithseveralsmallpolitical
partiesandelitefactions,primarilyfrom
outsideofBangkok.Thesealliances
transformedThaipoliticsbyconsolidating
politicalpowerinasinglepartyaftera
decadeofshort-lived,unstablecoalition
governments.
SAccmayincrease
popularsupportfor
excludedfactionsand
oppositionparties.
A new alliance is
formed between
excluded groups
and an elite
faction
Whenanelitefactionseeksanalliance
withtheleadershipofadiscontented
minorityandchampionsthatminority’s
causes,itcangeneratepressurefor
adjustmentsinthepoliticalsettlement.
Thesealliancescanbeusedbyfactions
inthedominantcoalitiontostrengthen
positionsinthecurrentpolitical
settlement,ortheycanbeusedby
excludedelitestopressforinclusion
inthesettlement.Insomecases,the
impactmaybegreaterinclusiveness
andalsogreaterinstability—ifother
factionswithintherulingcoalitionresist
suchchange.Inmanycases,excluded
eliteswillforgenewallianceswiththe
leadershipofanemergingmiddleclass,
withaninterestinbroadeningaccessto
powerandcurtailingeliteprivileges.
The“PeoplePower”movementinthe
Philippinesin1986witnessedtraditionally
elitepoliticalfamiliesexcludedfrom
FerdinandMarcos’sauthoritarianrule
leadpopularmovementstochallengethe
politicalsettlementestablishedbyMarcos.
Thecriticalturningpointcamein1986
whenkeyfactionsofthemilitaryjoined
forceswiththepopularmovementledby
CorazonAquino.Initially,thesettlement
thatemergedwentthroughaperiodof
significantinstability,aselementsoftheold
Marcosregimeandsomedisenchanted
militaryfactionschallengedthenewpolitical
settlementthroughaseriesofattempted
militarycoups.Underthesubsequent
administrationofFidelRamos,the
settlementstabilizedconsiderably,allowing
forsteadyimprovementsineconomic
growthanddevelopment.
SAccmightstrengthen
thevoiceofexcluded
groupsandenhance
linkagesand
organizationswith
excludedandpro-
changeelites.
(continued)
Table A2.1. The Ways in which Political settlements change and the Role for social Accountability
Annex 2. Thinking about Change in Political Settlements • 83
Main Driver of
change Description example
Possible Role(s) for
sAcc
An influential
new group
emerges
Theemergenceofanewelitefaction
orawell-organized,influentialmiddle
classhasbeenanimportantfactorinthe
evolutionofpoliticalsettlementsinAsia.
Inmanycases,theemergenceofan
independent,organizedentrepreneurial
classwithaccesstoresourceshasled
tochangesinkeyinstitutionsandthe
emergenceofnewelitecoalitions.
TheriseoftheprivatesectorinIndiasince
theearly1990shascreatednewpressures
onthetraditionalrulingelitestofurther
relaxstatecontroloftheIndianeconomy.
Incases,thisscenariocanleadtoimproved
developmentbecausetheneweliteshave
aninterestinsustainedeconomicgrowth
andconstraintsonthepoweroftraditional
elites.
SAccmightcontribute
tochecks-and-balances
ontheinfluentialnew
groups.
Nonelite groups
mobilize around
shared interests
for reform
Thereareoccasionswhennonelite
groupscanmobilizeenoughpeople
toexertsubstantialpressureonelite
coalitionstomodifythepolitical
settlement.Occasionally,theleadership
ofthesemovementscomesfromthe
nonelitelevel,althoughitcanbein
alliancewithelitegroups.
SomepoliticalreformsinIndonesiaafter
1998weremadepossiblebythepressure
generatedbythemassmobilizationof
studentsandothernonelitegroups.The
politicalmovementthatledtothecreation
ofThailand’s1997“People’sConstitution”
wasprimarilyaproductofcivilsociety
organizationssupportedbytheBangkok
middleclass,resultinginarevisednational
politicalsettlement.
SAccprocesses
cancontributeto
themobilizationof
“poorcitizens”and
nonelitegroups.
SAccmightalsobuild
onorcontributeto
existingmovementsfor
change.
A state agency
becomes
powerful and
independent of
the settlement
Inmanycases,theleadershipofthe
militaryandpowerfulministriesare
politicalactorsthemselves,becoming
thedominantfactioninacoalition
reshapingthepoliticalsettlement.
Amilitarycoupisthemostcommon
exampleofthistypeofchangeinthe
politicalsettlement.
Insomecases,theresultingpolitical
settlementcandriveamorerapid
developmentprocess—aswasthecase
inThailand,Indonesia,Korea,andTaiwan
inthe1970sand1980s.Inthepost-Cold
Warera,imposedpoliticalsettlementsthat
emergedoutofthesecircumstanceswere
notusuallysustainableoverthelongterm.
Negligible,although
SAccmayinadvertently
strengthen/weaken
certainpartsofa
“state.”
changes in
legitimacy of
state or its
leadership
Publicperceptionsofthelegitimacy
ofthestateanditsleadershiphave
importantimplicationsfortheresilience
ofapoliticalsettlement.Aslegitimacy
erodes,potentialopponentsofthe
rulingcoalition—especiallyexcluded
factionsorfactionswithintheruling
coalition—mightseeopportunitiesfor
changingthesettlement.
Winningelectionshasbecomeawidely-
acceptedsourceoflegitimacy,although
thisdependsonthecountryinvolved.In
Indonesia,forexample,sincethe2004
election,thepopularlegitimacyofthe
Yudhoyonogovernmenthelpedtostabilize
thepoliticalsettlement.
SAccactivitiesmay
reshapepublic
perceptionsofstate
legitimacycontributing
tochangeprocesses.
(continued)
Table A2.1. The Ways in which Political settlements change and the Role for social Accountability (cont.)
84 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
Main Driver of
change Description example
Possible Role(s) for
sAcc
changes
in coercive
capacity under
the control of
dominant elite
coalition
Whentherulingcoalitionincreasesits
coercivecapacityandthethreattouse
thatcapacitybecomesmorecredible,
potentialcompetitorsmightbeforced
toaccedetochangesinthesettlement
thatfavorthedominantelitefaction.
Power-sharingagreementsinZimbabwe—
andtosomedegreeinKenya—mightbe
relevantexamples.
Do“noharm”
principles—SAcc
activitiesmayreceive
acoercivebacklash;
therefore,risksmustbe
assessed.
Alliance of
excluded elites
challenges
current
established
ruling
settlement
Whenpowerfulexcludedfactionsjoin
forcestochallengetherulingcoalition,
itcanleadtothecollapseoftheold
settlementandtheemergenceofanew
settlement.
Oneexampleisthe2006agreement
betweentheCommunistPartyofNepal
(Maoist)andthemainstreamNepali
politicalpartiestojoinforcesinopposition
tothenarrowrulingcoalitionledbyKing
Gyanendraandsupportedbythemilitary.
Thisagreementprecipitatedtheendof
themonarchyandtheemergenceofa
newunstable,butstillenduring,political
settlement.
Beawareoftherole
ofSAccwithinsuch
dynamics.SAccmay
buildlinkagesbetween
excludedsocietal
groupsandexcluded
elitesiftheysharea
commoninterestina
progressiveproject.
outside force
intervenes
Often,whenanoutsidepowermilitarily
intervenesagainsttherulingcoalition,
thecurrentpoliticalsettlement
collapses.Theexternalforcemay
thenstrengthenthehandofoneor
moreelitefactionsandbrokeranew
settlement.
The2001militaryinterventionbytheUnited
StatesandNATOalliesinAfghanistanled
tothecollapseoftheTaliban-ledpolitical
settlement.However,thenewpolitical
settlementthatemergesfromthistypeof
eventisoftenveryunstable,especiallywhen
perceivedtobeacreationoftheintervening
power.
Exploreways
thatSAcccould
contributetoconflict
andpostconflict
reconstruction.
Source:AdaptedfromParksandColes2010.
Table A2.1. The Ways in which Political settlements change and the Role for social Accountability (cont.)
85
Annex 3. The Method for Developing chapter 4’s If … Then Framework
As outlined throughout this paper, the evidence does not lend itself to a strong understanding of what SAcc approaches should work in which contexts. So how did we go about building an If … Then framework? Some points are highlighted here.
The.Challenges
First, many SAcc interventions are undertaken without a contextual analysis as a baseline and without an impact evaluation controlling for contextual variation and comparisons across con-texts. Further, few studies make clear their theories of change or sequencing through which outcomes are reached. As such, it is very difficult to make claims of causality or to know which contextual variable is decisive, especially because each contextual variable interacts with others and the intervention to produce outcomes.
Second, we sought to avoid the pitfall of drawing causal inferences from what are, in fact, cor-relations. For example, if a transparency intervention “X” worked well in South Africa and it was (retrospectively) deemed to have worked so well because of high political will, this does that mean that in contexts with high political will, transparency intervention “X” is likely to work—not least because a range of other endogenous and exogenous factors may be at play.
Third, some of the evidence is contradictory. For example, a high level of inequality has been shown to both facilitate and inhibit certain SAcc interventions in different contexts. It is, there-fore, difficult to draw single causal lessons from these variables.
Navigating.Solutions
Nevertheless, it is possible—and arguably useful—to take some steps forward. Here are some details of how the challenges were navigated to generate the If … Then table:
• A number of cues for what might or might not work were taken from a rereading of a wide range of material that included, but was not limited to, relatively robust stock-takes of SAcc and the contextual factors that matter. These studies have, to differing degrees, already done some of the legwork of what works and what does not work in some contexts, and could at least provide hypotheses of what is more likely to work or not (see Tembo 2012; McGee and Gaventa 2011; Bukenya et al. 2011; Joshi and Houtzager 2012).
86 • Mapping Context for Social Accountability: A Resource Paper
• It is also possible to employ some reverse causality in certain cases (i.e., it is often easier to think through what might not work and then work backward toward what is more likely to work). Many documented cases point toward failed or partially successful interventions that are judged to fail not because of their internal ineffectiveness, but because of their interac-tion with broader contextual factors. For example, “X” participatory intervention failed in Niger because the history of state-citizen bargaining and the prior experience of citizens with SAcc interventions was not conducive to making this intervention a success. One can then work backward and deduce that if presented with a context with similar conditions, one might benefit from eliminating X from their universe of options.
• Further, a degree of good judgment or common sense can be applied in certain cases. For example, if information deficits are identified in a given context as one barrier among oth-ers to enhanced accountability, then it is logical to explore measures to fill the deficit; if the capabilities of would-be participants are very low, then it makes sense to explore ways to build them in the intervention and/or calibrate expectations accordingly.
• The scenarios presented attempt to cover all domains of the framework offered in chapter 2. The scenarios that are outlined were selected on the basis of whether there was reason-ably credible experience or evidence upon which to base suggestions for action. Moreover, an attempt was made to at least highlight one enabling and one disabling scenario under the same subdimension in order to give a broader—albeit far from exhaustive—range of food for thought.
87
Notes
1.Notably,Tembo(2012)andCitizenshipDRC(2011)havemadeattemptstoaddresstheissueofcontextandsocialac-
countabilitytodifferentdegrees.Thispaperhasdrawnonthiswork.However,thisresourcepaper(andthebackground
work)arguablygoesfurtheranddeeperbyattemptingtomoresystematicallyexplorethewaysinwhichcontextinflu-
encesSAcc.
2.AsGaventaandMcGee(2011:18)note,“…[wecaution]againsthastilydrawngeneralconclusionsfromtheexisting
evidencebase,foranumberofreasons…Insomecases,theinitiativesareverynew,andaccompanyingimpactstudies
areunderwayor justbeginning,makingittooearlytodetectorexplainresultingimpacts;manyofthestudiesfocus
ononlyoneinitiativeinonelocality,precludinggeneralconclusions,orpermittingconclusionsbasedonlyonlimited
anecdotalevidence;muchliteraturefocusesontheeffectivenessofimplementationofinitiatives—onwhethertheywere
implementedasplanned,notontheirbroaderdevelopmentalordemocraticoutcomes.”
3.Networkshavebeenfoundtofulfilsixmainfunctions:(1)filtering—managinginformationanddecidingwhatinforma-
tionisworthpayingattentionto;(2)amplifying—takingcomplexideasandtransferringthemintoasimple,broad-based
one;(3)investing—providingmemberswiththeresourcesneededtocarryouttheiractivities;(4)convening—bringing
togetherdifferentindividualsandgroups;(5)community-building—promotingandsustainingsharedvaluesandideas
across thenetwork; and (4) facilitating—enablingnetworkmembers to carryout their activitiesmoreeffectively and
efficiently(forexample,PorteandYeo2004;ODI2010).
4.Indeed,elitesarenotindependentfromunderlyingsocietaldynamicsbecausethereisasocialbasisofinstitutionaland
politicalpowerthatrendertheseactorseliteinthefirstplace(Almond1990:24).AsDiJohnandPutzelputit,lookingat
thesettlementalsodrawsattentionto“contentionandbargainingbetweenelitesandnon-elites(eitherwithingroups
oracrossthem,asbetweenclasses),inter-groupcontentionandbargaining(gender,regional,ethnic/linguistic,religious)
andoncontentionandbargainingbetweenthosewhooccupythestateandsocietymorewidely”(DiJohnandPutzel
2009).Assuch, thisdomainshouldnotbeviewed in isolation fromstate-societyand intra-society relations, (outlined
below),evenifitisworthseparateattention.
5.Changeinthesettlementhappenswhenthereisachangeinthecommonunderstandingofhowpowershouldbeex-
ercisedandrepresentsshifts,“…intheacceptednormsofpoliticalbehavior,usuallybroughtaboutbygradualchanges
inpoliticaldynamicsorshiftinginterestsofpowerfulactors”(ParksandCole2010:12).
6.Ahighlyinclusivesettlementisseenasonethatincludesmost,ifnotall,politicalelitesandtheirconstituentsandhas
ahighleveloflegitimacyacrossabroadrangeofsocietalactors(Putzel2007).Tounderstandtheinclusivenessofagiven
settlement,onewouldneedtoexamine—onacase-by-casebasis—therealdistributionofentitlementsacrossgroups
inthesociety.Assessingtheextenttowhichasettlementisorisnotsufficientlyinclusiveisoftenamatterofdebate.
7.Moreover,lowinstitutionalcapacityisoftendriven,todifferingdegrees,bypoliticalchoices,drawingattentiononce
againtotheroleofthepoliticalsettlement(Desai2011).
8.Thesocialcontracthastypicallyreferredtotheelementofstateformationbywhichthestatecomestoacttoprotect
people—throughlawandorder,services,infrastructure,andsoon—inreturnfortheircommitmenttothestate,includ-
ingawillingnesstofinanceitthroughtaxation(forexample,CPRC2008).Asocialcontractmayconstituteagreements
betweenstatesandcitizenswhichareforgedduringseminalpoliticalmoments,oracontractmayformincrementally
overtime(forexample,protectionfromfamineinIndiaorotherformsofsocialprotection).Onemightbreakthecontract
downalongthelinesofaprimaryandsecondarycontract.Theprimarycontractreferstotheoverarchingstate-citizen
contractandthesecondarycontractmightrefertolocalagreementsonspecificgoodsandsectors(HoutzagerandJoshi
2008).AsHoutzagerandJoshi(2008)note,“…whatisexpectedbycitizensandwhatstatesarepreparedtocommitto
deliveringvariesaccordingtotheparticulargoodsandservicesunderdiscussion,totheirlevelofpopularandpolitical
importance…andthehistoryofstate-societybargainingaroundthem.”
9.Somekeyelementsforunderstandingtheformofacontractinagivencontextinclude(1)howcitizenentitlementsto
differentresourceshavebeendistributedovertimeandonwhatbasis;(2)formalandconstitutionalprovisionsaroundthe
deliveryofcertaingoods;(3)informalandreciprocalagreementsandexpectations,includingperceptionsandnarratives
ofthelegitimacyofpublicauthorityandactionaroundcertainissues;(4)thepresenceorabsenceofpopularpressure
aroundcertainpublicgoods;and (5) thehistoryofstate-citizenbargaining (forexample,Bukenyaetal.2012;Hickey
88 • Endnotes
2011).Differentformsofcontractmayemergedependinginpartonthebalanceandinteractionbetweendemocratic
andmoreclientelist formsofpolitics.Forexample,formsofcontractexistandcanemergeincontextscharacterized
largelybypatron-clientpolitics,suchasinUganda(Bukenyaetal.2012).
10.Amore formal institutionalperspectiveviewsaccountabilityasenshrined in the formal institutionsofstatesover-
eignty;amoreinformalperspectiveputsanemphasisonwhetherinstitutionsareactuallylegitimizedbyandaccountable
tothesocialandpoliticalfoundationsofpoliticalandeconomicelitesandsociety.
11.AsTembo(2012:v)notes:“These[state-citizen]relationsare,inthemselves,acomplexwebofformalandinformalin-
teractionsthataredifficulttodisentangleandexplain.Thiscomplexityincreasesevenfurtherwhenthemultipleexternal
relations,interestsandinfluencesinthespecificstatecitizenrelationstargetedinCV&A[citizenvoiceandaccountability]
projectsaretakenintoaccount.AlltheseinternalandexternalrelationsmeanthatCV&Aprojectinterventionsproduce
andreproducediverseoutcomeswhicharenotamenabletothelinearmodelsofToCs.”
12.Theterm“Neo-Gramscian”referstoabroadschoolofthoughtthathasdrawnon,andadapted,thewritingsofthe
ItaliantheoristandpoliticalleaderAntonioGramsci.GramsciwasafoundingmemberandonetimeleaderoftheCom-
munistPartyofItalyandwasimprisonedbyBenitoMussolini’sregime.
13.AsBooth(2011:3)sumsup:“Animplicationofbestfitatthelevelofregimetypesisthatexternalactorsbasetheir
decisions and their policy dialogue on a thorough understanding of the prevailing institutional arrangements. They
then lendtheirsupport to thoseaspectsof theset-upthatworkwellenoughfordevelopment, rather thanapplying
prefabricatednormsandexpectations.Thatmaymeantakingtheircuesfromthecountry’scitizens,andwhattheyfind
acceptable…forexample,thatless-than-perfectstandardsoftransparencyandaccountabilityareoftenconsideredac-
ceptablesolongasthereispeace,developmentisvisibleandthedistributionofbenefitsamongthevarioussegments
ofsocietyisperceivedasbroadlyfair….”
14.Inthisapproachtopractical hybrids,Booth(2012)elaboratesthattheprovisionofsometypesofpublicgoodswill
beenhancedbyinstitutionsthatarelocallyanchored,intwosenses.First,theywillbeproblem-solving,inacollective
actionsense,intherelevantcontext.Second,theywillbehybridsthatmakesomeuseoflocalculturalrepertoires.Booth
(2012:xi)alsoarguesthat,intheAfricancontext“the‘grain’ofpopulardemandincontemporaryAfricaisnotadesirefor
‘traditional‘institutions,butratherformodernstatestructuresthathavebeenadaptedto,orinfusedwith,contemporary
localvalues.”
15.AsoutlinedbyJoshi(2008),theapproachdrawsattentiontofourkindsofprocesses:(1)theprocessesofreformsof
stateinstitutions;(2)theimpactsofstateinstitutionsoncollectiveactorsinterestedinspecificpolicyarenas;(3)thefit
betweencollectiveactorswithspecificgoalsandthepointsofaccessandleverageaffordedbypoliticalinstitutions;and
(4)thepathdependenceofpoliciesandsocialaction(Skocpol1992:41citedinJoshi2010:15).
16.Despitethegrowingprominenceofpoliticalsettlements inemergingeffortstorethinkaidpolicy,there is limited
experienceinoperationalizingtheseconcepts,andlimitedguidanceisavailable(seeLevy2011).
17.Therearealsodifferentformsofsocialcontracttheory,frommoreliberal-economisticcontractstomoresocialdemo-
cratic/rights-basedcontracts(Hickey2011).
18.ADFIDpublication(2010:64),forinstancearguesthefollowing:“Lookbeyondanarrowconceptof‘pro-poor’to
supportmiddleclasspoliticalengagement.Theurbanmiddleclassesplayaparticularlycriticalroleindrivingforward
progressiveandstabilisingreforms.Toonarrowafocuson‘thepoor’tendstooverlookthecentralroleofthenon-poor,
non-elitegroupsthatarereallydrivingforwardprogressivelong-termsustainable‘pro-poor’reforms.Whenorganised,
themiddleclasses—suchas inprofessionalassociationsofaccountants,doctorsor lawyers—combineorganizational
capacitiesandtechnicalexpertisetoinfluencegovernmentseffectivelytoimprovesecurity,servicedelivery,andother
developmentaims.Theyprovidethebulkoftheresourcesandcapacitiesrequiredtosupportavibrantcivilsociety(such
asNGOsandsocialmovements). It isusuallybroadbasedcoalitions,not just ‘thepoor’or ‘civilsociety,’whichbring
aboutchange.Ontheotherhand,professionalbodieswhicharenotcloselylinkedtothegrassrootsmayneverachieve
reformsthatmakeconcreteimprovementstothelivesofthosedirectlyaffected.”
19.Todownloadcountry-level indicatorsongovernanceandthedemand-side,seethesectionon‘actionablegover-
nanceindicators’on‘demandforgoodgovernance’atthefollowingsite:https://www.agidata.org/Site/Reports.aspx.
20.Todownloadcountry-levelindicatorsongovernanceandthe“demand-side,”seethesectionon‘actionablegover-
nanceindicators’atthefollowingsite:https://www.agidata.org/Site/Reports.aspx.
89
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