Transcript of LOGO Dr. P. Ravindra Babu UNIT – 3 Environmental Chemistry.
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- LOGO Dr. P. Ravindra Babu UNIT 3 Environmental Chemistry
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 2 Contents ATMOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE
LITHOSPHERE
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 3 Contents Atmosphere Definition
Layers, state (Weather, climate) Acid rain, Green house effect
Ozone layer depletion, climate change Global warming, PAN, smog
Seasons of India Kyoto and Montreal protocol
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/3 4 The earth is part of the solar
system where nine planets orbit a Star called the Sun The age of
the earth is approximately 4.65 billion years First life on earth,
single - celled blue-green algae, started around 3.5 billion years
ago Home to millions of species including humans Introduction -
EARTH FACTS
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/3 5 Earth interacts with other
objects in outer space, including the Sun and the Moon
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 6 Biosphere - Environmental
Matrices Water Air Soil AtmosphereHydrosphere Lithosphere Air Water
Soil
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 7 Atmosphere The atmosphere is a
blanket of gases suspended liquids solids that entirely envelops
the earth We refer to this envelope formally as air It extends
outward several thousand kilometers to a zone characterized more by
magnetic field and ionized particles The present atmosphere of the
Earth is an oxidizing atmosphere, while the original atmosphere was
a reducing atmosphere In particular, it probably did not contain
oxygen initially
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 8 Atmosphere has weight and exerts
pressure. A liter of air weighs around 1.3 gm. At sea level, the
air pressure is 1033.6 g/sq. cm (i.e., one atmospheric pressure).
Density and pressure in the atmosphere decrease exponentially with
height. The atmospheric pressure decreases the higher up one goes.
One half of the atmosphere lies below an altitude of 5.6 km. 90% of
the atmosphere is below 16km. At a height of 100 km, only 0.00003%
of all the gases making up the atmosphere remain. Atmosphere
Property
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- ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION 9 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- 10 Vertical Layers of the Atmosphere The Earths atmosphere has
4 distinct layers that are identified by the way temperature
changes with height These layers are: Troposphere Stratosphere
Mesosphere Thermosphere 75% of the total atmosphere is in the
troposphere Approximately 99% of the atmosphere is the troposphere
and stratosphere Atmosphere Structure
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 11 Troposphere Lowest portion of
the atmosphere, Weather phenomenon occurs in this layer. Changes in
this layer cause Acid Rains, increase in global temperatures
(Greenhouse effect) -52 -3 -93
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- Effects of Acid rain SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 12
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- 13 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- 14 Electromagnetic Radiation
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- What is the Greenhouse Effect ? A percentage of this IR
radiation is trapped from escaping back into space by greenhouse
gases. If greenhouse gases increase in concentration more IR is
trapped rise in global temperatures 15
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- The phenomenon whereby the earth's atmosphere traps solar
radiation and dont let them to escape out of the atmosphere is
known as greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases, such as water vapor,
carbon dioxide, etc., form an insulating layer up in the
atmosphere. It acts like an insulator because it slows the loss of
heat radiated out from the Earth. This is called the greenhouse
effect. If the earth didn't have a greenhouse effect, then the
earth wouldn't freeze because it wouldn't trap sunlight. Without
this warming we would be a cold dead planet. 16
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- Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming Water vapor (and clouds)
Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) acid
rain) Ozone Chlorofuorcarbons (CFCs) 17
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- The Natural Causes : Emissions of gases like nitrous oxide,
carbon-di-oxide, methane, ozone and water vapour The Man-Made
Causes : Deforestation Due to the burning of fossil fuels, oil,
coal and gas. All electrical appliances Like refrigerator emits
gases Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and are used in refrigerators,
some foaming agents in the packaging industry, fire extinguisher
chemicals and cleaners used in the electronic industry. Burning of
gasoline, oil and coal. Population growth also is a indirect
contributor Causes of Green House Effect 19
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- Increase the global temperature year by year. Rise in water
level in seas and oceans. Tropical cyclones will become more
intensive Impact of Greenhouse Effect 20
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 22 Stratosphere The ozone layer
encircling the Earth is found It shields the entire Earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun
Chloroflurocarbons destroy ozone layer and cause the ozone layer
depletion (CF 2 Cl 2, CFCl 3, CFCl 2, CF 2 Cl, CCl 4, CH3CCl 3, CF
2 HCl, CH 3 Cl) Photolysis of Cl-containing compounds in the
stratosphere. CFCl 3 + hv (185-210nm) CFCl 2. + Cl. CF 2 Cl 2 + hv
(185-210nm) CF 2 Cl. + Cl. Subsequent reactions of CFCl 2 and CF 2
Cl more Cl atoms
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- ozone Ozone is a stable molecule composed of three oxygen
atoms. While stable, it is highly reactive. The Greek word ozein
means to smell and O 3 has a strong pungent odor. Electric
discharges in air often produce significant quantities of O 3. USES
Ozone absorbs a band of ultraviolet radiation called UVB that is
particularly harmful to living organisms which can cause cancer
skin cancer amd damage vegetation It prevents most UVB reaching the
ground powerful disinfectant and oxidant and can even kill
microbial contaminates Air Purification, Water Purification,
Deodorization, and Food Sanitation SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- Effects of UV radiation on biological organisms DNA damage..
Maximum effect on small and single cell organisms Impaired growth
and photosynthesis...poor crop yields Phytoplankton: ...Reduced
uptake of CO2 ..mortality ..Impaired reproductive capacity
Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria. Reduced, damaged Human health
effects : Suppressed immune system..Enhanced susceptibility to
infection ..Increase risk of Cancer Dermatology (skin)...Sunburn .
..... Loss of skin elasticity (Premature aging) . Photosensitivity
Cancer......Melanocytic (malignant melanoma) ...... Squamous cell
skin cancer . Basal skin cancer Still questionable if causes lip
cancer or cancer of the salivary glands Oculur (Eye). .......
Cataract 26 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- Effects on Human Health malignant Non-malignant 27
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- Cataracts Pterygium Cancer over exposure to UV-B 28
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- 29 Mesosphere Clouds are rarely found in the mesosphere Here,
the temperature decreases slowly with the altitude but then sharply
to a minimum of about - 75C near the Mesopause, at 80 km Most
meteors vaporize in this layer, a type of lightning called sprites
sometimes appears in the mesosphere Noctilucent clouds sometimes
form in the mesosphere near Earth's poles.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 30 Noctilucent clouds - night
shining Highest clouds seen in earths atmosphere
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 31 Thermosphere No clouds exist
Temperature increases with height (1500 - 2500C) Coinciding with
the lower portion of the thermosphere is the 'Ionosphere at 100 to
600 km delimited on the basis of ionized particles Above the
ionosphere, the portion is called 'Exosphere' till the edge of
space (600 - 1000 km) SABER : NASA's TIMED (Thermosphere Ionosphere
Mesosphere Energetics Dynamics) Mission.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 32 Aurora An aurora is an
electro-static phenomenon occurs in ionosphere Characterized by a
bright glow in the night sky, particularly in the polar zone Caused
by the collision of charged particles (solar wind particles) in the
with atoms (O 2, N) in the Earth's upper atmosphere Oxygen
emissions Green or brownish-red, depending on the amount of energy
absorbed. Nitrogen emissions Blue or red. Blue if the atom regains
an electron after it has been ionized. Red if returning to ground
state from an excited state.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 33 The treaty was opened for
signature on September 16, 1987, 27 industrialised countries signed
the Montreal Protocol, a landmark international agreement to
protect the stratospheric ozone by agreeing to limit the production
and use of ozone-depleting substances, phasing out of
ozone-depleting substances and helping the developing countries to
implement use of alternatives to CFCs. To-date, more than 175
countries have signed the Montreal Protocol. Montreal Protocol
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 34 The treaty was opened for
signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January
1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since
then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991
(Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997
(Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing).
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 35 The treaty provides a timetable
on which the production of those substances must be phased out and
eventually eliminated. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out
Management Plan Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out
Management Plan (HPMP) There is a slower phase-out (to zero by
2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111,
112, etc) and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon
tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less
active HCFCs started only in 1996 and will go on until a complete
phasing-out is achieved in 2030.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 36 Production of ozone-depleting
substances in EEA member countries Source: European Commission
1999b; UNEP, 1998
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 37 The Kyoto Protocol is an
internationally and legally binding agreement. The major feature of
it is to set binding targets for 37 industrialised countries and
the European community to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto,
Japan and PATMAN entered into force on 16 February 2005 Kyoto
Protocol
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/3 38 The reductions amount to an
average of 5% against 1990 emission levels over the five year
period from 2008 - 2012. The main difference between the Protocol
and the Convention is that the Convention encourages industrialised
countries to stabilise their emissions whereas the Protocol commits
them to actually do it.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/3 39 The Kyoto Protocol is
administered and regulated by an international treaty linked to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Most countries within the UNFCCC joined the treaty and ratified
Kyoto over a decade ago.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/3 40 The 3 Kyoto Mechanisms The
Kyoto Protocol offers its members three different mechanisms to
help meet there targets. These are known as; Emissions Trading The
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Joint Implementation (JI)
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/3 41 Emissions Trading It allows for
an industrialised country to express its allowed emissions or
assigned amounts within the treaty as 'assigned amount units'
(AAUs). As a result countries that have unused units can then trade
them with other countries who have surpassed their own allowances
and require additional units. Since carbon dioxide is the principle
GHG, most people now refer to it as trading carbon within a carbon
market.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/3 42 The Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) The Clean Development Mechanism allows industrialised
countries to meet their emission targets/levels through investment
and/or co-operation in a emission reduction project in a non
industrialised country or developing country. This gives
industrialised countries greater flexibility in terms of the best
way that they can meet their overall targets.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/3 43 Joint Implementation (JI) The
mechanism known as Joint Implementation allows for emission
reduction units (ERUs) to be earned by one industrialised country
from a project in another industrialised country. An example of
this may be the sharing of new technology and/or foreign investment
in a emissions reduction project.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 44 State of the Atmosphere We
commonly express the state of the atmosphere by measuring it using
the following variables: Pressure Temperature Wind Humidity Cloud
cover Precipitation type and amount Visibility (distance one can
see horizontally)
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 45 What is Weather and Climate?
Weather Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular time
and a particular place Weather is what changes from hour to hour,
day to day or month to month. Example: the temperature at Hyderabad
today at 7 p.m Climate Climate is a complex system involving the
sun, oceans, atmosphere, land surfaces, ice, and plant & animal
life. Both natural forces and human changes influence the behaviour
of this system. Climate is the long-term state of the atmosphere at
a particular location Normal conditions is simply a 30-year average
of that particular variable Examples of climate information would
be: The Temperature at Hyderabad on December is 33 degrees.
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- Seasons in India climate is a cycle of six seasons. 3
predominant seasons, namely the summer season, the rainy season and
the winter season With a approximate duration of two months each.
Different climatic factors are accountable for the seasonal changes
taking place within India. Spring (Mid February to April) Summer
(May to June) Monsoon (July to September) Monsoon Autumn (September
to Mid-November) Pre-winter Mid-Nov to December Winter
(Mid-December to Mid-February) SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 46
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- Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the
statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging
from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average
weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the
average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events).
Periods of Earth warming and cooling occur in cycles. Climate
change 47 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- 48 1910-1940 a phase of warming. 1940-1975 a phase of cooling.
1975-2000 a phase of warming. Medieval Warm Period Little Ice Age.
This period was characterized by harsh winters, shorter growing
seasons, and a drier climate. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- Causes of climate change The causes of climate change can be
divided into two categories those that are due to natural causes
and those that are created by man. CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHNAGE NATURAL
Continental drift Volcanoes The earth's tilt Ocean currents Solar
variations HUMAN Deforestation Population Explosion
Industrialization 49 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- 50 Tectonic Causes Landmass distribution: Shifting continents
(continental drift) causing changes in circulatory patterns of
ocean currents. It seems that whenever there is a large land mass
at one of the Earth's poles, either the north pole or south pole,
there are ice ages. Undersea ridge activity: "Sea floor spreading"
(associated with continental drift) causing variations in ocean
displacement. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- 51 Ocean Currents: the warm surface currents (red) intertwine
with the deep cold currents (blue), creating climate patterns
across the Earth. (Robert Simons/Nasa)
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- 52 84 % of the heat is taken up by the global ocean itself, and
this can cause a lot of problems for the animals living therein, as
their environment begins to change. The world ocean has experienced
a net warming of 0.06 C to a depth of 3,000 m during the past 35 to
45 years. More than half of the increase in heat content has
occurred in the upper 300 m, which has warmed by 0.31 C. Warming is
occurring in all ocean basins and at much deeper depths than
previously thought. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- 53 Uneven distribution of suns energy Ocean Current movements
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- Global Measurements NASA's Earth Science Enterprise has placed
into orbit several satellites to monitor the Earth's ecosystem.
Studying the oceans, NASA scientists are using TOPEX/POSEIDON
satellite data to learn how heat from the Sun is transported around
the globe by ocean circulation patterns.
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- PAN, or photochemical, smog Smog is a combination of ozone,
carbon monoxide, PAN, and organic molecules.
PANperoxyacetylnitrateis produced in the atmosphere by the action
of sunlight on the chemicals present in urban areas. PAN has a very
unpleasant odor. Smog precursor chemicals include volatile organic
compounds (VOCs, or basically hydrocarbons), carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and sulfur oxides. Because
the complex chemical reactions of the constituents in smog with
sunlight create fairly large particles. When sunlight scatters from
very small particles such as molecular oxygen or nitrogen, it
scatters more in the blue than the red, creating Earths beautiful
blue sky and reddish sunsets. 55 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- But when it scatters from large particles, such as water
droplets, the scattering is not selective, and they appear as white
clouds. Smog consists of fairly large particles that scatters
sunlight nonselectively, similar to the way clouds scatter
sunlight, but not so densely. 56 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- Ozone Production at low altitudes NOx from exhaust gases Ozone
production is dominant when NO 2 /NO is greater than 3 Effects of
Ground Level Ozone Damage to crops Irritates the respiratory tract
and eyes High levels of O 3 results in chest tightness, coughing
and wheezing Increased hospital admissions and premature death
Pollutants in Photochemical Smog 57
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- Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Carbon based molecules
(aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons) Short- and long-term adverse
health effects Sources Paints; wood preservatives; aerosol sprays;
cleansers and disinfectants; moth repellents and air fresheners
etc. Health Effects Eye, nose, and throat irritation; headaches;
damage to liver, kidney, and central nervous system. Some organics
can cause cancer in animals; some are suspected or known to cause
cancer in humans. 58 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
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- PAN Important contributor to photochemical smog Secondary
pollutant-formed from other pollutants by chemical reaction
Contributor to production of groundlevel ozone, by transporting NOx
Powerful respiratory and eye irritants and toxic Higher
concentrations lead to damage of vegetation 59
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- smog creates immediate problems that everyone will experience.
Smog can irritate and inflame pulmonary membranes, causing chest
pains, coughing, and throat irritation. Other illnesses such as
colds and pneumonia can also be brought on by exposure to smog.
People with asthma problems are under an even greater threat. Even
minor exposure to smog may cause these people to get asthma attacks
It can cause anything from minor pain to deadly diseases such as
lung cancer. Smog slowly ruins people's lungs to an extent as great
as that of cigarettes. Agriculture is also hurt by smog. Soybeans,
wheat, tomatoes, peanuts, lettuce, and cotton are all subject to
infection when exposed to smog. Harmful Effects of SMOG 60
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- The sulfur and nitrogen dioxides found in smog alter the pH
level of ground-level air, resulting in the precipitation of acid
rain. This toxic chemical shower hinders the process of plant
respiration known as photosynthesis, making vegetation more
vulnerable to pesticides, insects and erosion. Not only does smog
damage the existing plants, but it also alters the delicate organic
balance of soil, stunting plant and tree growth and reproduction.
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- 62 Contents Classification of Natural Resources Water Resources
Mineral Resources Energy Resources Land Resources
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 63 NATURAL RESOURCES Natural
resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered
valuable in their relatively natural form. Air we breathe, Water to
drink Land to live Food for growth
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 64 Classification of Resources On
the basis of origin, the natural resources Living Resources: All
Living Natural resources like birds, animals Non Living Resources:
All non-living resources like ocean full of water, wind energy,
sun, metals like iron, aluminium, gold, etc.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 65 Based on the availability,
natural resources are divided into (a) Inexhaustible Resources
Present in unlimited quantities on earth Eg: Water, wind, sun (b)
Exhaustible Resources Present in limited quantities. Coal,
oil,gas
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 66 Renewable & Non-renewable
Resources On the basis of Replenishability: Renewable : Resources
have the ability to reappear or replenish themselves by recycling,
reproduction or replacement. E.g.: Oxygen in air is replenished
through photosynthesis. Fresh water is replenished through water
cycles. Biological products include wild life and natural
vegetation of all kinds. They are replenished through natural
cycles of growth and reproduction.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 67 Non-renewable Resources It
exists in a fixed amount that cannot be re-made, re-grown or
regenerated as fast as it is consumed and used up. Often fossil
fuels, such as coal, petroleum natural gas, and Gold
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 68 WATER RESOURCES Introduction Use
and over utilization of surface and ground water Use and over
utilization of surface and ground water FLOODS DROUGHT Dams:
Benefits & problems
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 69 Introduction The economy,
agriculture and industrial growth of mankind is largely dependent
on water resources Infact, ancient civilizations flourished along
perennial surface water like streams and rivers
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 71 Distribution of Water 90% of the
earth is covered by water Of the total water available Oceans and
salt lakes 97.6% Freshwater constitute 2.4% If we look at
freshwater alone Trapped in ice and snow 87% Available as liquid
water 13% Of the total available liquid water (13%) Groundwater
constitutes 95% Lakes, rivers and streams 03% Soil moisture 02%
Therefore, only about 0.1% of the worlds freshwater is
accessible
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 72 Use and Overuse Water is a vital
natural resource which forms the basis of all life. Water is needed
to fulfill diverse Domestic requirements. Aquaculture has come up
as a very potent industry. For generation of Hydroelectric Power.
In industrial processes viz., a raw material, solvent, chemical
reactant, coolant, and cleaning agent.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 73 Use of Fresh Water
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 75 Hydrological Cycle
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- Ground Water Groundwater is the source of about 90% country's
drinking water. In rural areas, groundwater is the only source for
water and more than one-third of our 100 largest cities depend on
it. Rain water move downward and get stopped when the water meets
rock that has no porosity. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 76
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- Aquifer A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable
(porous) and contains water is called an aquifer. This causes
saturation of water in the soil and the zone is called saturation
zone. The upper boundary of the zone of saturation is called the
water table. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 77
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 78 However, groundwater is becoming
contaminated with industrial effluents discharged on land and
septic systems, as well as illegal and uncontrolled hazardous waste
sites. Once contaminated, groundwater is difficult, if not
impossible, to restore.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 79 Over utilization Groundwater
Groundwater abstraction from aquifers faster than natural recharge
causes a cone of depression in the water table This may dry up
nearby wells Over utilization also allows aquifers to collapse
followed by sinking of the groundwater surface Overuse of
freshwater allows salt water intrusion into aquifers used for
domestic and agricultural purposes in coastal areas
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 80 Surface Water: Surface waters
are available as a result of precipitation. Precipitation that
doesn't seep into the ground or does not return to the atmosphere
by evaporation or transpiration is called surface water. Rain drops
and snow flakes reach to surface of the earth It forms streams,
ponds, ocean, lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 81 In china it takes 1000 tonnes of
water to produce one tonne of wheat. water required to grow a tonne
of grain = manufacture a tonne of most industrial materials (e.g.,
metals or plastics, etc.). World water council believes that by
2020, we shall need 17% more water than is available to feed the
world.
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- Human impacts We pollute ground and surface water so that it is
no longer safe to use. Common pollutants include: chemicals, such
as fertilizers and other farm runoff oil and gas from cars, trucks
and underground storage tanks sewage from septic tanks or untreated
sewer air pollution that becomes dissolved and falls in rain (or
snow) SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 82
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- Major Rivers in India SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 83
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- Annual Rainfall of india SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 84
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 85 FLOODS Floods occur when water
from heavy rainfall, melting ice or snow, tsunamis or a combination
of these, exceeds the carrying capacity of the receiving river
system. It is a natural process
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 86 Floods occur when soil and
vegetation cannot absorb all the water; water then runs off the
land in quantities that cannot be carried in river channels or
retained in natural ponds and constructed reservoirs held behind
dams.
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 87 Failure of levees and dams and
inadequate drainage in urban areas can also result in flooding.
Floods damage property, cause soil erosion and endanger the
lives
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 88 Flooding may deposit as much as
0.4 inches (1 cm) of sediment a year on a flood plain Floods
throughout Asia in 1998 killed 7,000 people, damaged more than 6
million houses and destroyed 25 million hectares of cropland in
Bangladesh, China, India and Vietnam In 2005, the remarkable
flooding by Hurricane Katrina, caused more than $200 billion in
losses, constituted the costliest natural disaster in U.S.
history
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 89 Flood Control Measures
Reforestation Construction of dams, reservoirs, and floodways
(artificial channels that divert floodwater) Defenses such as
levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers
from bursting their banks
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 90 DROUGHT Deficiency of rainfall
over a period of time, resulting in a water shortage for some
activity, group or environmental sector Dryness due to a deficiency
of precipitation and is related to the climatic conditions in a
specific environment
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 91 EFFECTS OF DROUGHT Economic
impacts Lower crop yields, Spend on irrigation, Digging wells, loss
of livestock Environmental impacts Forest fires, Soil erosion, Loss
of habitat Loss of endangered species
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 92 Social impacts Conflicts between
people Mental and physical stress on people due to economic losses
Health problems related to low water flows Threat to public safety
from an increased number of forest and range fires Reduced incomes
Population migrations from rural to urban areas Fewer recreational
activities Loss of Human life
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- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 93 DAMS Benefits and problems Dam
is the barrier constructed across a stream or river to impound
water and raise its level. Dams - Benefits To concentrate the
natural fall of a river at a given site; To generate electricity;
To direct water from rivers into canals,irrigation and water-supply
systems; To increase river depths for navigational purposes; To
control water flow during times of flood and drought; To create
artificial lakes for recreational use. The first dam was built
about 4000 BC to divert the Nile in Egypt in order to provide a
site for the city of Memphis.
- Slide 95
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 94 loss of vegetal cover
submergence of large area of land (human settlement) soil erosion
Resettlement and rehabilitation problem of displaced people.
variation in water table and enhanced seismic activities due to
pressure of water. Salts left behind by evaporation increase
salinity of the river and makes it unusable. The nature and
magnitude of the impacts vary with the project locations and the
conditions therein. Environmental Impacts of Large dams -
Problems
- Slide 96
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 95 MINERAL RESOURCES Introduction
Use and Exploitation Environmental effects of extracting and using
mineral resources Case studies
- Slide 97
- Introduction Minerals are naturally occurring chemical elements
or compounds, formed through inorganic processes They are
exhaustible, non- renewable resources found in the earth's crust
More than 3,000 mineral species are known. However, only 200
minerals are put to economic use They are characterized by chemical
composition crystalline structure physical properties
SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 96
- Slide 98
- India is endowed with significant mineral resources. India
produces 89 minerals out of which 4 are fuel minerals, 11 metallic,
52 non-metallic and 22 minor minerals. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
97
- Slide 99
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 98 Introduction Minerals are not
evenly distributed in the world Therefore, each country is
dependent upon other countries for the requirement of certain
minerals India has large reserves of iron, manganese, lime stone,
dolomite, silica, and mica But it has little reserves of copper,
gold, silver, lead and phosphate Even for NPK fertilizers, India is
dependent upon foreign countries
- Slide 100
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 99 Classification of Minerals
MINERALS 1. Metals2. Industrial Minerals 3. Construction Materials
The study of minerals is called Mineralogy
- Slide 101
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 100 (a)Precious Metals Gold Silver
Platinum I. Metals (b) Steel Metals Iron Nickel Cobalt
- Slide 102
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 101 (c) Base Metals Copper Lead Tin
Zinc (d) Light metals Magnesium Aluminium
- Slide 103
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 102 (e) Nuclear Metals Uranium
Radium Thorium (f) Special Metals Lithium Germanium Arsenic
- Slide 104
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 103 II. Industrial Minerals Quartz
Trona Salt Potash Asbestos Feldspar Sulphur Phosphates
- Slide 105
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 104 III. Construction Materials
Sand Gravel Brick clays Limestone Shale Granite Travertine Marble
collectively known as dimension stones
- Slide 106
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 105 Uses of Minerals Minerals have
always been important after their uses were discovered Mineral
wealth reveals a countrys economy and their ability to sell or
create products For example, The USA became the richest and the
most powerful nation in the world in even less than 200 years, due
to huge mineral and energy resources Minerals have many uses. They
are: Gold Gold is mostly used for making ornaments Gold could be
hammered into thin sheets that could be made into useable items
without fear of breaking or rusting
- Slide 107
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 106 Table 2.1 Important uses of
some of the major metals Metal Major World ReservesMajor Uses
AluminiumAustralia, Guinea, JamaicaPackaging food items,
transportation, utensils, electronics ChromiumCIS, South AfricaFor
making high strength steel alloys, In textile/tanning industries
CopperU.S.A., Canada, CIS, Chile, Zambia Electric and electronic
goods, building, construction, vessels IronCIS, South America,
Canada, U.S.A. Heavy machinery, steel production transportation
means LeadNorth America, U.S.A., CISLeaded gasoline, Car batteries,
paints, ammunition ManganeseSouth Africa, CIS, Brazil, Gabon For
making high strength, heat-resistant steel alloys Platinum
groupSouth Africa, CISUse in automobiles, catalytic converters,
electronics, medical uses. GoldSouth Africa, CIS, Canada Ornaments,
medical use, electronic use, use in aerospace SilverCanada, South
Africa, Mexico Photography, electronics, jewellery NickelCIS,
Canada, New Caledonia Chemical industry, steel alloys
- Slide 108
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 107 Major Minerals of India India
has large number of economically useful minerals India also
produces 75% of the worlds Mica Coal and lignite: West Bengal,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P, A.P,TN Uranium (Pitchblende or
Uranite ore): Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda),
Meghalaya, Rajasthan (Ajmer). Aluminium (Bauxite ore): Jharkhand,
West Bengal, Maharashtra, M.P, Tamilnadu. Iron (haematite and
magnetite ore): Jharkhand, Orissa, Bihar, M.P, A.P, Tamilnadu,
Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa. Copper (Copper Pyrites): Rajasthan
(Khetri), Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, M.P, West Bengal, Andhra
Pradesh and Uttaranchal. Gold Mines: Ramagiri field in Andhra
Pradesh, Kolar and Hutti in Karnataka. Diamond belt: Panna diamond
field in district of Panna, Chatarpur. And Satna in MP, and some
parts of Banda in UP Petroleum deposits are found in Assam and
Gujarat, Bombay, Assam, Tripura, Manipur, WB, Punjab, Himachal
Pradesh.
- Slide 109
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 108 Exploitation The ever
increasing demand of the limited mineral deposits and over
exploitation may exhaust them within a few decades
- Slide 110
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 109 S.NoResourcesYears to Depletion
1Aluminium 31 2Chromium 95 3Copper 21 4Iron 93 5Lead 21 6Manganese
46 7Mercury 13 8Molybdenum 34 9Nickel 53 10Silver 13 11Tin 15
12Tungsten 28 13Zinc 18
- Slide 111
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 110 Environmental Effects Any
civilization could not exist without mining because it is the only
way to obtain mineral resources Without mining, for example, we
could not have sources for new metals However, mining practiced
without critical safeguards can have dangerous effects to
individuals and environment Exploration : Drilling & sampling
Loss of vegetation Noise pollution Road trailing Habitat loss
Mining operations disrupt ecosystems and may destroy the habitat of
many species. For instance, about 350 tons of soil, rock and
vegetation must be removed from an area to produce only 1 tonne of
copper This process destroys the native biodiversity and makes an
area vulnerable to land degradation by erosion and pollution
- Slide 112
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 111 Mining and Milling - Ore
extraction, crushing /grinding of ore, chemical concentration of
ore. wind borne dust, acid generation from waste rock, heavy metal
leaching from acid mine drainage Mining leads to severe water, air
and land pollution Many drainage waters from mining areas have high
sulfate and iron concentrations When exposed to air, pyrite and
ferrous sulphide in coal seams produce sulphuric acid Plants can be
seriously affected in areas with waste water contaminated by
copper, nickel, lead and zinc mines Such waste discharges may also
kill the decomposers and reduce the soil fertility There are also
impacts on aquatic life. One recent study found that mine
discharges contain selenium, a chemical harmful in high doses
accumulates in fish downstream That might also pose a risk to
humans who eat the fish
- Slide 113
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 112 Smelting & and Refining
Processing of mineral concentrate by heat or electro-chemical
processes Use of toxic chemicals for processing Sulphur dioxide
emissions contribute to acid rain Require high energy
- Slide 114
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 113 Mine Closure Waste dumps
Dismantling of buildings Surface water contamination Revegetation
failure Wind pollution Improperly disposed fuel drums
- Slide 115
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 114 CASE STUDIES 1 ) Jaduguda
Uranium Mine, Jharkhand -exposing local people to radioactive
hazards (2) Jharia coal mines, Jharkhand underground fire leading
to land subsidence and forced displacement of people (3) Sukinda
chromite mines, Orissa seeping of hexavalent chromium into river
posing serious health hazard, Cr6 + being highly toxic and
carcinogenic (4) Kudremukh iron ore mine, Karnataka causing river
pollution and threat to biodiversity (5) East coast Bauxite mine,
Orissa Land encroachment and issue of rehabilitation unsettled (6)
North-Eastern Coal Fields, Assam Very high sulphur- contamination
of groundwater
- Slide 116
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 115 Uranium Mining in Nalgonda
Uranium reserves in Jaduguda mines, Jharkhand supplied the yellow
cake until 2004 There is a pressing need for mining more uranium to
meet the demands of India's nuclear programme Uranium Corporation
Of India Limited (UCIL) will invest Rs. 20 billion (US$ 460
million) to open new mines and set up processing plants in
Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Meghalaya UCIL proposes to mine
uranium from the deposits in Lambapur and Peddagattu villages of
Nalgonda district in Andhra Pradesh and a processing unit at about
18 kms at Mallapur The plan is to extract the ore of 11.02 million
tons in 20 years.
- Slide 117
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 116
- Slide 118
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 117 A uranium processing plant is
to be set up at Seripally village in Deverkonda Mandal in Andhra
Pradesh at estimated cost of Rs 5584.2 million (US$ 124 million).
The UCIL is trying its best to allure the villagers through
employment opportunities The proposed mines are just 1 km from
human habitation hardly 10 km from Nagarjuna Sagar Dam barely 4 km
from the Akkampalli reservoir which is Hyderabad's new source of
drinking water The proposed mines would cover about 445 ha of
Yellapurum Reserve Forest and the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Sanctuary It
is estimated that 20 years of mining would generate about 7.5
million metric tones of radioactive waste of which 99.9% will be
left behind Though IUCL claims that there won't be any such
accidents, it is a highly hazardous industry and safety measures
cannot be overlooked Environmentalists formed as Movement Against
Uranium Project (MAUP), are resisting the government's moves to set
up a uranium mining and processing plant Activists said the mining
would lead to radon emissions and would affect Hyderabad,
Vijayawada and Khammam The exposure to the radioactive gas would
result in genetic deformities in babies The fate of the proposed
mining is yet to be decided
- Slide 119
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 118
- Slide 120
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 119 LAND RESOURCES Introduction
Land as a resource Land degradation Man induced landslides Land use
/land cover mapping
- Slide 121
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 120 Land as a Resource Land forms
about one fifth of the earth's surface covering about 13,393
million hectares About 36.6 % of the land area is occupied by human
dwellings, factories, roads, railways, deserts, mountains, rocks,
glaciers and polar ice marshes About 30 % of the total land mass in
under forests About 22 % of land is occupied by meadows and
pastures Only 11 % of land is suitable for ploughing Soil is an
organized mixture of minerals, organic matter, living organisms,
air and water Soil is formed by two processes (i) Weathering-
breaking down of rock into small particles (ii) Pedogenesis-
maturation of soil through development of humus The study of soil
is called Pedology (Gk. pedion = ground, logos = discourse) It
deals with the origin, formation and geographic distribution of the
soil
- Slide 122
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 121 Causes: Deforestation
Overgrazing Agricultural practices Industrialization The main
causes of soil degradation differ in various continents Europe:
Deforestation Agriculture Africa: Overgrazing North America:
Agriculture Australia New Zealand: Overgrazing Other factors
include Soil erosion Salinization of soils Acidification due to
leaching of soluble bases Deposition of salt due to floods
Developmental activities such as construction of dams, roads,
railways, urban encroachment, mining
- Slide 123
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 122 Lithosphere - GEOLOGICAL LAYERS
Earth is stratified into layers When the Earth was molten: Heavy
elements (Fe, Ni) sank to center Light elements (Si, Al, Na, K, Mg)
floated to surface Three compositional layers formed: Crust Mantle
Core
- Slide 124
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 123 Lithosphere It is the top crust
of the earth on which the continents and ocean basins rest. The
lithosphere forms only 3/10th of the total surface of the earth. It
is thickest in the continental regions with an average thickness of
40 km ; thinnest in the oceans where it has a maximum thickness of
10 to 12 km. it contains organic matter and supports biological
activities.
- Slide 125
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 124
- Slide 126
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 125 Plate
- Slide 127
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 126 Explains How the Earth works
Earth's outermost layer, the Lithosphere, is broken into 7 large,
rigid pieces called plates: African North American South American
Eurasian Australian Antarctic Pacific Several minor plates also
exist, including the Arabian, Nazca, and Philippines plates Plate
Tectonic Theory
- Slide 128
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 127 The plates move in different
directions and speeds 2 cm to 10 cm per year Plate boundary Place
where the two plates meet is called a Plate boundary Boundaries
have different names Crashing : Convergent Boundaries Pulling apart
:Divergent Boundaries Sideswiping : Transform Boundaries
- Slide 129
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 128 Convergent boundary of two
oceanic plates creates an Island arc or a Trench Convergent
boundary of an oceanic plate and a continental plate forms a
Volcanic mountain range and Trench Convergent boundary of two
continental plates forms a Folded mountain range Convergent
boundaries Oceanic Plates Ocean and Continental Plates Continental
Plates
- Slide 130
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 129 Divergent Boundaries Divergent
boundaries occur when plate are rifted apart and begin to move
apart, creating large expanses of oceanic crust.
- Slide 131
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 130 Transform-fault boundary where
the North American and Pacific plates are moving PAST each other
Transform-fault boundary
- Slide 132
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 131
- Slide 133
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/3 132 200 Million Years Ago 150
Million Years Ago 100 Million Years Ago 50 Million Years Ago
Present
- Slide 134
- 133 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3
- Slide 135
- 134 ROCKS AND MOUNTAINS Granite Lime stone Marble
- Slide 136
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 135 Rock Types Rocks are
conglomerations of minerals and form the bulk of the Earth Rocks
are classified based on their origin I. IGNEOUS ROCKS from molten
rock called magma Eg., Granite II. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS by weathering
of rocks Eg. Lime stone, Sand stone III. METAMORPHIC ROCKS formed
due to Changes in temperature, pressure, and chemistry of igneous
and sedimentary rocks Eg., Marble The approximate volume
proportions of these three rock types throughout the Earths crust
are: igneous 65% metamorphic27% sedimentary 8%
- Slide 137
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 136 Rock Cycle Fundamental concept
in geology Describes how each type of rock is altered or destroyed
when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions Driving forces
of the rock cycle Plate tectonics Water cycle Due to these forces
rocks do not remain in equilibrium and are forced to change as they
encounter new environments
- Slide 138
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 137 Mountains Produced by the
movement of tectonic plates The compressional forces, uplift and
intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upwards Creates a
landform higher than the surrounding features The height of the
feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a
mountain
- Slide 139
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 138 As a whole, 24% of the Earth's
land mass is mountainous Glaciers Most of the world's rivers are
fed from mountain sources, and more than half of humanity depends
on mountains for water
- Slide 140
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 139
- Slide 141
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 140 Some Exquisite mountains Table
Mountain, Cape Town Pilot Mountain, NC, USKarakoram, PakistanMount
Damavand, Iran Mount Kailash
- Slide 142
- LOGO SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5 141 Global Environmental
Problems and Global Efforts UNIT-5 P. Ravindra Babu, Asst.
Professor, Dept. of Biotechnology, Sreenidhi Institute of Science
and Technology
- Slide 143
- LOGO SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5 142 Contents Global Warming
Greenhouse effect Green House Gases (GHG) Sea Level Rise Climate
change and impact on human environment Ozone Depletion
Deforestation and Desertification International
Conventions/Protocols Earth Summit Kyoto Protocol Montreal
Protocol
- Slide 144
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 143 GLOBAL WARMING Definition:
Global warming is an increase in the Earth's temperature due to the
use of fossil fuels and other industrial processes leading to a
build-up of "greenhouse gases" (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons) in the atmosphere. These gases (CO
2, CH 4, N 2 O and CFCs) are radiatively active gases because they
can absorb long wave infrared radiation. The atmospheric cover
around the earth acts like a window glass pane.
- Slide 145
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 144 It allows most of the solar
radiation (short wave length energy ) to enter right up to the
earth's surface, but does not allow a substantial amount of the
long-wave radiation (heat) emitted by the earth to escape in space.
The outgoing longwave infrared radiation is absorbed by the
greenhouse gases normally present in the atmosphere. This is known
as Green House Effect. There is concern that increasing
concentrations of carbon dioxide and other trace greenhouse gases
due to human activities will enhance the green-house effect and
cause 'global warming'.
- Slide 146
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 145 The warming trend over the
last 50 years (0.13C per decade) is nearly twice the rate for the
last 100 years. Temperatures in the atmosphere and in the oceans
(to depths of at least 3000m) have also been rising, along with
water vapor content of the atmosphere.
- Slide 147
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5 146 Average Global Temperature by
Decade, 1880-2004 Decade Average Temperature Degrees Celsius
1880-188913.82 1890-189913.69 1900-190913.74 1910-191913.79
1920-192913.91 1930-193914.02 1940-194914.05 1950-195913.98
1960-196913.94 1970-197914.01 1980-198914.26 1990-199914.40
2000-200414.59
- Slide 148
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 147 S. No. Gases Major sources 1.
C02 Fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, respiration. 2. CH4
Wetlands, anaerobic decomposition of organic wastes, termites. 3. N
2 0 Natural soils, fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion. 4. 0 3
Photochemical reactions in troposphere, transport (diffusion) from
stratosphere. 5. CFC-11 Manufacturing of foams, aerosol propellant.
6. CFC-12 Refrigerant, aerosol propeltent, manufacturing of foams.
7. CFC-113 Electronics solvent. 8., HCFC-22 Refrigerant, production
of fluoropolymers. 9. CH3CC13 Industrial degreasing solvent. 10.
CC14 Intermediate in production of CFC-11, CFC-12, solvent.
- Slide 149
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 148 Graphs of the rise in
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Global Average
Temperatures
- Slide 150
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 149 Major sources of greenhouse
gases Carbon dioxide: CO 2 is the most abundant greenhouse gas in
the atmosphere. The level of CO 2 in the atmosphere has increased
from the pre-industrial level of 280 ppm to about 368 ppm in 2000.
The CFCs persist for 45 to 260 years or more in the atmosphere. The
relative contribution of different greenhouse gases to global
warming. Year 1990 2030 2060 2100 CO2 Cone, (ppm) 354 470 600 850
Temp, rise (C) 1.1 2.0 3.3 Sea-level rise (cm) 18 38 65
- Slide 151
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 150 Mean surface temperature
anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the
average temperatures from 1940 to 1980
- Slide 152
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 151 Melting of Glaciers
- Slide 153
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 152 Ozone layer depletion The
ozone layer, is the part of the Earth's atmosphere and contains
ozone (O 3 ). It is mainly located in the lower portion of the
stratosphere from approximately 40 km to 45 km above Earth's
surface, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists
Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson.
- Slide 154
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 153 Its properties were explored
in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who
developed a simple spectrophotometer that could be used to measure
stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958 Dobson
established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations which
continues to operate today. The "Dobson unit", a convenient measure
of the total amount of ozone in a column overhead, is named in his
honor. The average thickness of the atmospheric ozone layer at any
place varies from month to month, but is generally between 260 and
330 DU.
- Slide 155
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 154 Ozone Layer Depletion
- Slide 156
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 155 Chloroflourobcarbons (CFCs),
contribute to the thinning of the ozone layer
- Slide 157
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 156 The concentration of ozone in
the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life
because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation
emitted from the Sun. UV radiation is divided into three
categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A
(315- to 400-nm), UV-B (280-315 nm), and UV-C. UV-C, which would be
very harmful to humans, is entirely screened out by ozone at around
35 km altitude.
- Slide 158
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 157 However it is interesting to
note that ozone gas is a pollutant at lower levels and cause severe
problems like oedema, hemorrage etc. UV-B radiation can be harmful
to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure
can also cause genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin
cancer. The ozone layer is very effective at screening out UV-B;
for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm,
- Slide 159
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 158 CFCs, CH 4 and N 2 O escape
into the stratosphere and cause destruction of O3 there. Most
damaging is the effect of CFCs, which produce "active chlorine" (Cl
and CIO radicals) in the presence of UV-radiation. These radicals
catalytically destroy ozone, converting it into oxygen. CH4 and N2O
also cause ozone destruction through a complicated series of
reactions. For making these discoveries related to O3 destruction,
Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, along with Paul Crutzen, were
honoured with Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1995.
- Slide 160
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 159 Ozone hole : During the period
1956-1970, the spring-time O3 layer thickness above Antarctica
varied from 280 to 325 Dobson Unit (1 DU = 1 ppb). The thickness
was sharply reduced to 225 DU in 1979 and to 136 DU in 1985. The
ozone hole was first discovered in 1985 over Antarctica.
- Slide 161
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 160 Later, the O3 layer thickness
continued to decline to about 94 DU in 1994. The decline ozone
layer thickness is termed Ozone hole.
- Slide 162
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 161 The treaty was opened for
signature on September 16, 1987, 27 industrialised countries signed
the Montreal Protocol, a landmark international agreement to
protect the stratospheric ozone by agreeing to limit the production
and use of ozone-depleting substances, phasing out of ozone-
depleting substances and helping the developing countries to
implement use of alternatives to CFCs. To-date, more than 175
countries have signed the Montreal Protocol. Montreal Protocol
- Slide 163
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 162 The treaty was opened for
signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January
1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since
then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991
(Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997
(Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing).
- Slide 164
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 163 The treaty provides a
timetable on which the production of those substances must be
phased out and eventually eliminated. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Phase-out Management Plan Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) There is a slower phase-out (to
zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13,
111, 112, etc) and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon
tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less
active HCFCs started only in 1996 and will go on until a complete
phasing-out is achieved in 2030.
- Slide 165
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 164 Production of ozone-depleting
substances in EEA member countries Source: European Commission
1999b; UNEP, 1998
- Slide 166
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 165 Earth Summit The United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, Earth
Summit), held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from 3 June to 14 June in
1992. It was held twenty years after the United Nations Conference
on the Human Environment (UNCHE) took place in Stockholm, Sweden.
established the principles for reducing greenhouse gas
emission.
- Slide 167
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 166 Government officials from 178
countries and 30,000 individuals from governments, non-governmental
organizations, and the media participated in this event. To discuss
solutions for global problems such as poverty, war, and the growing
gap between industrialized and developing countries. The central
focus was the question of how to relieve the global environmental
system through the introduction to the paradigm of sustainable
development.
- Slide 168
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 167 It enunciating 27 principles
of environment and development, Agenda 21 Agreement on the
operating rules Statement of principles for the Sustainable
Management of Forests, Global Environmental Facility (GEF), United
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, and United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) The United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity were products of independent,
but concurrent, negotiating processes that were opened for
signatures at UNCED.
- Slide 169
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 168 Agenda 21, the international
plan of action to sustainable development, outlines key policies
for achieving sustainable development that meets the needs of the
poor and recognizes the limits of development to meet global needs.
Agenda 21 has become the blueprint for sustainability and forms the
basis for sustainable development strategies. It attempts to define
a balance between production, consumption, population, development,
and the Earth's life-supporting capacity. It addresses poverty,
excessive consumption, health and education, cities and
agriculture; food and natural resource management and several more
subjects.
- Slide 170
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 169 The Kyoto Protocol is an
internationally and legally binding agreement. The major feature of
it is to set binding targets for 37 industrialised countries and
the European community to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto,
Japan and PATMAN entered into force on 16 February 2005 Kyoto
Protocol
- Slide 171
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 170 The reductions amount to an
average of 5% against 1990 emission levels over the five year
period from 2008 - 2012. The main difference between the Protocol
and the Convention is that the Convention encourages industrialised
countries to stabilise their emissions whereas the Protocol commits
them to actually do it.
- Slide 172
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 171 The Kyoto Protocol is
administered and regulated by an international treaty linked to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Most countries within the UNFCCC joined the treaty and ratified
Kyoto over a decade ago.
- Slide 173
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 172 The 3 Kyoto Mechanisms The
Kyoto Protocol offers its members three different mechanisms to
help meet there targets. These are known as; Emissions Trading The
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Joint Implementation (JI)
- Slide 174
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 173 Emissions Trading It allows
for an industrialised country to express its allowed emissions or
assigned amounts within the treaty as 'assigned amount units'
(AAUs). As a result countries that have unused units can then trade
them with other countries who have surpassed their own allowances
and require additional units. Since carbon dioxide is the principle
GHG, most people now refer to it as trading carbon within a carbon
market.
- Slide 175
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 174 The Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) The Clean Development Mechanism allows
industrialised countries to meet their emission targets/levels
through investment and/or co-operation in a emission reduction
project in a non industrialised country or developing country. This
gives industrialised countries greater flexibility in terms of the
best way that they can meet their overall targets.
- Slide 176
- SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES/5 175 Joint Implementation (JI) The
mechanism known as Joint Implementation allows for emission
reduction units (ERUs) to be earned by one industrialised country
from a project in another industrialised country. An example of
this may be the sharing of new technology and/or foreign investment
in a emissions reduction project.