Post on 27-Apr-2015
ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘIĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ
KHOA SƯ PHẠM TIẾNG ANH
BỘ MÔN CỬ TUYỂN
KỶ YẾU HỘI NGHỊ KHOA HỌC(NĂM HỌC 2009-2010)
HÀ NỘI- 4/2010
i
MỤC LỤC Trang
GIVING FEEDBACK ON ASSESSMENT AND LEARNING
Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy 1
GLOBAL ENGLISH AND THE ROLES OF NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER
TEACHERS
Nguyễn Diệu Linh 9
GAMES AS PART OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING
Nguyễn Hồng Hạnh & Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy 12
HỌC THUYẾT VÔ THỨC CỦA SIGMUND FREUD VÀ VIỆC DẠY VÀ HỌC
NGOẠI NGỮ
Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc 21
AN ANALYSIS ON THE USE OF PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE IN PRESIDENT
BARRACK OBAMA’S INAUGURATION SPEECH
Nguyễn Diệu Hồng, Lương Thị Hương Thảo & Đỗ Thị Trà Mi 29
BACKCHANNEL IN THE ENGLISH MIXED-SEX CONVERSATIONS IN
THE CONTEXT OF VIETNAM: A DISCUSSION OF FREQUENCY, GENDER
TYPICAL EXPRESSION, AND LEVEL OF SUPPORT
Đinh Thị Vinh Quy, Hoàng Vân Trang & Đỗ Phương Thúy 39
PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE : A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ON ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE PLOSIVE CONSONANTS
Hoàng Thị Mỵ 57
ii
GIVING FEEDBACK ON ASSESSMENT AND LEARNING
Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy (1967)
Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh
Vài nét về tác giả
Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy hiện là giảng viên khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh, trường Đại học Ngoại
Ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội. Tốt nghiệp thủ khoa trường Đại học Sư phạm Ngoại ngữ (tên
cũ của ĐHNN, ĐHQGHN) với tấm bằng cử nhân loại giỏi, Thanh Thủy đã được giữ lại trường
làm giảng viên từ tháng 1 năm 1989. Với lòng say mê nghề sư phạm và sở thích nghiên cứu về
ngôn ngữ, văn hóa, các phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho cả người lớn và trẻ nhỏ, Thanh
Thủy đã hoàn thành khóa học thạc sĩ chuyên ngành Phương pháp Giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại
trường năm 2000 và nhận tấm bằng Thạc Sĩ Giáo Dục Học do Bộ trưởng Bộ Giáo Dục và Đào
Tạo cấp. Tác giả còn là cộng tác viên của Nhà Xuất Bản Giáo Dục, NXB Oxford, và Hội Đồng
Anh tại Việt Nam trong các dự án bồi dưỡng phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho giáo viên
tiểu học Việt Nam.
Email: phamthithanhthuy67@yahoo.com or msthuy.pham@gmail.com
Mobile: 098 913 1406
Tóm tắt bài viết:
Kiểm tra đánh giá (KTĐG) là một bộ phận cấu thành của mọi phương pháp dạy học, là một
thành tố không thể thiếu được trong dạy học nói chung, dạy học ngoại ngữ nói riêng. Có thể
nói dạy học và KTĐG là hai mặt của một vấn đề, tác động lẫn nhau và phụ thuộc lẫn nhau.
Một trong những yếu tố làm cho KTĐG đặc biệt quan trọng trong một qui trình đào tạo là
những thông tin phản hồi (feedback) vì chúng cho biết về mức độ đạt được mục tiêu của
người học, về quá trình dạy học của giáo viên, cách học và hiệu quả học của sinh viên; Vì thế
thông tin phản hồi giúp giảng viên điều chỉnh cách dạy và giúp sinh viên chủ động tổ chức
quá trình học của mình để đạt mục tiêu đã đề ra một cách hiệu quả nhất.
Cho đến nay đã có nhiều nghiên cứu trong và ngoài nước về vai trò quan trọng của KTĐG, về
các phương thức KTĐG, và nhiều vấn đề liên quan đến KTĐG. Ngay trong trường ta cũng đã
có rất nhiều đề tài NCKH các cấp về KTĐG và có hẳn một Hội nghị Trao đổi Công tác kiểm
tra đánh giá thường xuyên được tổ chức vào năm 2006. Tuy nhiên chưa có nhiều bài viết về
các thông tin phản hồi (feedback) nói chung và cách phản hồi (giving feedback) nói một
cách cụ thể. Vì vậy bài viết dưới đây của tác giả sẽ đề cập đến việc phản hồi cho sinh viên.
Nội dung chính của bài viết sẽ gồm những phần như sau:
Phần giới thiệu: tác giả nêu những lý do cơ bản tại sao lại cần phản hồi cho sinh viên.
1
Phần nội dung chính gồm 4 ý lớn : 1) Thứ nhất, tác giả đưa ra định nghĩa về feedback; 2) Thứ
hai, tác giả đề câp đến 2 loại feedback chính là evaluative feedback (loại phản hồi chỉ nêu nhận
xét tốt/xấu, đúng/sai, hay khen/chê) và informative feedback (phản hồi có thông tin về những
lỗi của sinh viên để họ chữa lỗi nhằm vươn lên trong học tập); 3) Thứ ba, tác giả đề cập tới một
số kỹ thuật căn bản trong việc phản hồi cho người học (tecniques of giving feedback) như làm
mẫu (modeling), nhắc lại (echoing), gợi mở, khơi gợi (eliciting), gợi ý (promting/ giving a
cue), đặt câu hỏi (questioning), sửa sai (correcting), v.v. 4) Thứ tư, tác giả chia sẻ với độc giả
một số trình tự sửa lỗi cho sinh viên (giving spoken feedback) mà tác giả cho là hiệu quả.
Cuối bài viết tác giả có tóm tắt lại những điểm chính cần nhớ để đưa phản hồi một cách hiệu
quả giúp người học đạt được tiến bộ trong học tập. Đồng thời tác giả cũng đưa ra một số gợi ý
cho những nghiên cứu tiếp theo.
INTRODUCTION
In teaching and learning a subject in general, English language in particular, feedback plays an
important role because learners learn best when ...
they understand clearly what they are trying to learn in order to reach their their
desired goal. and what is expected of them. This can be done through assessment
techniques such as sharing criteria with learners, effective questioning and feedback.
they are given feedback about the quality of their work, what and how they can do to
make improvements or to fill/close the gap between their knowledge now and their desired
goal
they are fully involved in deciding what needs to be done next, and who can give them
help if they need it.
To see the importance of feedback, the writer tries to do some research in this topic. In this
paper, the writer briefly talks about the following four main points:
• the definition of feedback on assessment and learning
• two main types of feedback
• some different feedback techniques
• some procedures for correcting an error / giving spoken feedback
1. What is feedback?
There are different ways of defining feedback, but the following definition in the writer’s
opinion, fits in the learning and teaching context.
• Feedback is part of assessment.
• It is based on evidence from assessment.
• It provides learners with information about their current level of skill or knowledge,
their behaviour, or achievements
2
Example:
Teacher Observation: A student says ‘The farmer work in his field yesterday’ – The teacher
notices that the student has left ‘ed’ off the end of the verb.
Teacher Judgement: incorrect verb form
Teacher Action (feedback): Teacher queries T: ‘work?’ => The student self corrects: ‘oh
no, worked’ => the teacher confirms it is correct.
2. Two Main Types of Feedback
According to the learning and assessing purposes of feedback, it can be divided into two main
types: evaluative feedback and informative feedback.
2.1. Evaluative feedback:
The teacher makes a judgement of the value of a learner’s response, piece of work, or the
student’s behaviour.
E.g. Very Good; 8/10; D-; Well-done, etc.
Evaluative feedback may involve:
• Giving rewards
E.g. smiley faces, getting good marks, or being clapped by the class, etc.
• Giving punishments
E.g. unsmiley faces, losing marks or not getting marks, being made to do the work again
etc.
• Expressing Approval and Disapproval
Positive
Verbal: Fantastic! Well done. I am pleased with you.
Non verbal: smiling, thumbs up, etc.
Negative
Verbal: Don’t talk rubbish; your spelling is really bad.
Non verbal: frowning, thumbs down, etc.
2.2. Informative feedback:
The teacher describes for learners their achievement, or tells them what needs to be improved
or changed.
E.g. You remembered it; You noticed it.
“… There are more than one, so don’t forget to put the –s.”
Informative feedback may involve:
• Telling a student that his/her response is correct or not
• Saying why an answer is correct or not correct
3
• Telling students what they have achieved/ not achieved in relation to learning
objectives
• Suggesting a way of improving
• Getting students to suggest how they can improve
(Adapted from Gipps, Callum & Hargreaves 2000, page 92)
3. Some techniques of giving feedback
When the teacher wants to give feedback to her/his students, s/he can use one or more than one
of the following techniques.
Modeling
The teacher says out the correct answer and asks the student (who has given a wrong response)
to repeat it after her/him.
Example: (Here the student mispronounces the word should, and the teacher corrects him)
S: I have a headache. I [sould] take an aspirin.
T: [should]. Read after me. [should]. I [should] take an aspirin.
S: [should]. I [should] take an aspirin.
T: That’s good.
Echoing
The teacher repeats exactly the wrong response using her intonation as a signal to show the
student that there is something wrong in his/ her answer, and then he will try to self -correct.
See Example a-1 in the table below.
Eliciting
The teacher agrees with the correct part of the student’s answer, but tries to signal the
wrong part in an indirect way. See Example b-2 in the table below.
Encouraging
The teacher tries to say or signal that the student is very near the point or can almost give
the right answer. See Example c-3 in the table below.
Prompting / giving a cue
The teacher tries to give the student clues in many ways so that the student can see their
mistakes and correct them. See Example d-4 in the table below.
Praising
The teacher gives a rewarding comment in response to the student’s correct answer. See
Example e-5 in the table below.
Questioning
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Like prompting, the teacher gives the student a clue by asking him/her again, so that the
student pays more attention to his/her answer and recognizes the mistake/s. See the Example
g-6 in the table below.
Correcting
The teacher sees the student’s mistake, and corrects it in a direct way. See Example h-7 in the
table below.
etc.
Here are some examples of these techniques:
Techniques Examples
a. Echoing
T- What did you do yesterday?
S- I goed to the cinema.
T- goed?
S- Oh, I went to the cinema.
b. Eliciting
T- What did you do yesterday?
S- I goed to the cinema.
T- “… to the cinema”.
Good, but it should be “I….”
c. Encouraging
T- What did you do yesterday?
S- I goed to the cinema.
T- You nearly got that. Say it again.
d. Prompting
T- What did you do yesterday?
S- I goed to the cinema.
T- You goed or you went?
S- Oh, I went to the cinema.
e. Praising
T- What did you do yesterday?
S- I went to the cinema.
T- Very good.
5
g. Questioning
T- What did you do yesterday?
S- I goed to the cinema.
T- Did you say “I goed”?
h. Correcting T- What did you do yesterday?
S- I goed to the cinema.
T- You went.
S- Oh, yes. I went to the cinema.
4. Possible Procedures for Correcting an Error or giving spoken feedback
Teachers should be very flexible in using various feedback techniques or combining them,
depending on different contexts. However, they should always remember to give feedback to
students’ learning, especially when learners make mistakes or give wrong responses. The
writer would like to share some possible procedures for correcting an error made by a student.
One important thing teachers should also remember is that they should always ask the student
to repeat the correct answer and praise for his/her effort, because this can motivate the
student’s learning.
The table below shows you three different procedures. They are of equal importance, but to
apply which procedure depends on the teacher and their own context of learning.
Possible Procedures for Correcting an Error
Incorrect Response
Encourage self correction
Ask another student to answer
Get 1st student to repeat
Model the correct answer
Incorrect response / No response
Student calls a friend for help
Give clues or help
Praise for effort
Student repeats
Examples:
6
Example 1: Two students are practicing the structure “You should…” for giving advice. The
teacher is listening to them and correcting S2’s mistake by modeling.
S1 I have a headache
S2 You [sould] rest now.
T Should. Now repeat after me. Should, you should…..
S2 should, you should
T That’s good. Now say the whole sentence again, please. You should rest now.
S2 You should rest now.
T (to S2) Excellent. What about you? How are you feeling now?
Example 2: Two students are practicing the structure “You should…” for giving advice. The
teacher is listening to them and encouraging students to peer-correct their mistakes.
S2 I’m feeling very hot. I think I have a fever.
T (turns to student 1) So what’s your advice to him?
S1 You should taking an aspirin now.
T taking? Should … taking?
S1 Yes, should taking an aspirin now.
T No, it’s not correct. (turns to student 2) Can you help her?
S2 should take
S1 Oh, I see.
T Can you say the sentence again?
S1 You should take an aspirin now.
T You remembered it. Well-done!
CONCLUSION
1. Key points to remember about feedback
Feedback is vital for learning and it is part of assessment for learning. Here are some key
points to remember about feedback:
• Feedback should be timely-given and specific.
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E.g. “I liked your presentation because you made your points so clear!”
• Informative feedback helps learners to improve and learn. It involves them in their own
learning, encourages them to self correct. Teachers give informative feedback to help and
support students to close the gap and move forwards.
• Positive evaluative feedback (praise and rewards) can motivate learners but teachers
should not overuse them but they have to link praise or rewards to evidence of why the
response is good.
• Negative feedback should be made balanced (sandwich feedback).
E.g. (Student: I goed to my friend’s house) T: That’s nice, but you went to your friend’s
house.
2. Recommendation for further research
Giving feedback to students about their learning, their performance, their achievements, etc. is
a must for teachers if they want their learners to improve their learning. Although spoken
feedback is usually more effective than written feedback, it seems impossible for teachers to
given spoken feedback to every student at all time. That is why they should learn how to give
written feedback as well. Due to the time constraints, this writing does not look at written
feedback, but the writer hopes to deal with it in other studies.
REFERENCES
Authors:
Gipps, C.; Callum, B. & Hargreaves E. 2000. What Makes a Good Primary School Teacher?
London; Routledge
Ionanou_Georgiou, S & Pavlou, P. 2003 Assessing young learners. Oxford University Press.
Moon, J. 2000 Children learning English. Macmillan
Other materials and slides from British Council Primary Innovations Training Workshops in
Hanoi, December 14-18.
Websites:
http://www.qca.org.uk/qca_4334.aspx (U.K.) Assessment for learning guidance
http://www.itscotland.org.uk/assess/for/keyfeatures/feedback.asp (Scotland)
http://formativeassessment.wordpress.com/
http://www.nicurriculum.org.uk
8
GLOBAL ENGLISH AND THE ROLES OF
NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER TEACHERS
Nguyễn Diệu Linh
Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh
Vài nét về tác giả
Tốt nghiệp Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Anh Mĩ, Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội
năm 2006, Nguyễn Diệu Linh hiện đang công tác tại bộ môn Cử tuyển của khoa Sư phạm tiếng
Anh. Tác giả cũng đang theo học chương trình Thạc sỹ về Ngôn ngữ ứng dụng của Đại học
Dalarna, Thụy Điển. Lĩnh vực nghiên cứu mà tác giả quan tâm là Phương pháp giảng dạy ngôn
ngữ. Email: mislinh@gmail.com.
Abstract
In the context of globalization there are brand new varieties of English namely Global English.
It has greater and greater influences on Teaching English as a Foreign English – the ownership
of English, learners’ targets and the focus of foreign language learning process. These effects
modify the roles the non-native-speaker teachers in adjusting materials, providing models and
settling conflicts.
Global English
For the past few decades English has gained its popularity as the lingua franca for economic
and scientific exchange (Warschauer 2000). According to Power (2007) the number of non-
native users of English has tripled that of native ones. In the context of globalization, these
non-native speakers use English to communicate with not only the traditional custodians of this
language – the British or Americans – but people from other non-English speaking cultures as
well. During that communication process, the language is not only passively absorbed but also
actively shaped by the new users. As a result, it turns into an international language namely
Global English.
Influences of Global English on Language Teaching
First of all, the birth of Global English has signaled the transformation in ownership of
English. The language which used to be the property of a few powerful countries (i.e. the
United Kingdom, the United States of America) now belongs to all those who master it
regardless their mother tongues. In other words, these new English users also own ‘rights to be
heard in matters affecting the language’ (Llurda 2004).
9
Moreover, Global English means less emphasis is put on ‘the native speaker as the model in
language teaching’ (Llurda 2004) as the targeted audience is now expanding beyond this
limited community. For examples, Vietnamese learners can use English to communicate with
people from cultures where English is also a foreign language. Thus, there is a shift in the
target of the non-native learners – from authencity (trying to be perfectly native-like) to
ownership (attempting to make themselves understood when using the foreign language)
(Warschauer 2000).
In addition, time and attention in language teaching class is proposed to be devoted to learners’
explorations of their own culture as much as to those of the English-speaking ones (McKay
2000, 2003). In future, they will act as the bridges between two cultures and these in-class
activities will give them opportunities to ‘share their own culture with other speakers of
English’ (Llurda 2004).
According to Alptekin (2002) there is also a change in the production of instructional materials
in terms of communicative competence. Learners will no longer study the ‘pragmatic and
discourse particularities of the native-speaker community’ only (for example, polite structures
in the American English or informality in the British variety). The focus of their learning will
be effective communication in international settings (Warschauer 2000).
Roles of Non-native-speaker Teachers in Language Teaching
In the context of globalization arise the concern over learners’ original identity as Warschauer
(2000) puts it ‘we are not living in a global village, but in customized cottages globally
produced and locally distributed’. Teachers of Global English will play an active role in
adjusting the available learning materials provided by native speakers according to their local
learners’ cultural and educational backgrounds as well as to meet the communication needs
that the learners are expected to perform later. They have an advantage over the native
counterparts as they are bilingual and are able to switch between their mother tongues and the
target language, which ‘enhances their understanding of the demands of the learning situation’
(Llurda 2004).
Furthermore, non-native-speakers used to be learners of English themselves. They provide
better models than the natives in guiding learners’ foreign language acquisition process
through the sharing of learning tips from their own mistakes and experiences.
Teaching a foreign language – in this case Global English- does not necessarily mean
assimilate the learners with the native culture. Therefore, the foreign language teacher does not
have to ‘be the ambassador of the English culture in the classroom’ or ‘teach the language and
10
introduce the social convention, ideologies, and cultural expectations of the English-speaking
community’ (Llurda 2004). In fact, the learners are embracing a new culture along with
acquiring the foreign language. Therefore, whenever there are conflicts, the non-native-
speakers will be much more ‘negotiators’ than ‘ambassadors’. The teachers are expected to be
in charge of providing their students with the use of Global English in multifaceted reality and
assist them ‘to express their own identity through this newly acquired voice.’ (Llurda 2004)
In conclusion, non-native-speaker teachers play an important role in assisting their learners
during their acquisition of Global English as well as enhance the learners’ skills to
communicate effectively with other non-native partners.
References
Alptekin, C. (2002) Towards intercultural communicative competence in ELT. ELT Journal
56.1:57-64
Llurda, E. (2004) Non-native-speaker teachers and English as an International Language.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Vol. 14. No. 3
McKay, S. (2000) Teaching English as an international language: implications for cultural
materials in the classroom. TESOL Journal 9.4:7-11
Power, C. (2007) Not the Queen’s English. Newsweek: International Editions
Warschauer, M. (2000) The changing global economy and the future of English teaching.
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)
.
11
GAMES AS PART OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
LEARNING AND TEACHING
Nguyễn Hồng Hạnh
Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy (1967)
Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh
Vài nét về nhóm tác giả
Nguyễn Hồng Hạnh tốt nghiệp Khoa Anh, hệ Sư phạm, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học
Quốc Gia, Hà Nội năm 2005; hiện đang giảng dạy thực hành tiếng và Hoa Kỳ học tại Khoa Sư
phạm tiếng Anh, Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc Gia, Hà Nội. Trong lĩnh vực nghiên cứu,
Nguyễn Hồng Hạnh đặc biệt quan tâm đến ngành Hoa Kỳ học và ngành Ngôn Ngữ học.
Email: honghanh315@gmail.com
Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy hiện là giảng viên khoa Sư phạm Tiếng Anh, trường Đại Học Ngoại
Ngữ, Đại Học Quốc Gia Hà Nội. Tốt nghiệp thủ khoa trường Đại Học Sư Phạm Ngoại Ngữ
(tên cũ của ĐHNN, ĐHQGHN) với tấm bằng cử nhân loại giỏi, Thanh Thủy đã được giữ lại
trường làm giảng viên từ tháng 1 năm 1989. Với lòng say mê nghề sư phạm và sở thích nghiên
cứu về ngôn ngữ, văn hóa, các phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho cả người lớn và trẻ nhỏ,
Thanh Thủy đã hoàn thành khóa học thạc sĩ chuyên ngành Phương Pháp Giảng Dạy tiếng Anh
tại trường năm 2000 và nhận tấm bằng Thạc Sĩ Giáo Dục Học do Bộ trưởng Bộ Giáo Dục và
Đào Tạo cấp. Tác giả còn là cộng tác viên của Nhà Xuất Bản Giáo Dục, NXB Oxford, và Hội
Đồng Anh tại Việt Nam trong các dự án bồi dưỡng phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho giáo
viên tiểu học Việt Nam.
Email: phamthithanhthuy67@yahoo.com or msthuy.pham@gmail.com
Mobile: 098 913 1406
Introduction
To an English Language teacher, one of the most difficult challenges is to create an
environment where positive attitudes toward the language flourish. There are many different
tools used by class instructors in the effort of motivating students, such as the use of visual-
aids, competitions and awards, etc. Among all these tools, it is worth mentioning that games
for language learning have become one of the most commonly-used and helpful instruments of
creating an effective language-learning environment which makes students want to come back
for more. In other words, games as warm-up activities play an important role in creating the
atmosphere for the whole lesson to function properly and effectively (Hadfield, 1992). In the
scope of this paper, the writers will focus on the important roles of games in a language class
as a tool of inspiring positive attitudes and motivation toward language study. Besides, an
12
attempt has been made to introduce some practical procedures and useful techniques for
teachers to organize games in their language lessons.
1. Role of positive attitudes and motivation in language learning
Research over the last three decades has consistently underlined the important role of
motivation in successful language learning. According to Krashen (1985), attitudes can act as
barriers or bridges to new language learning and are the "essential environmental ingredient"
for this process. He has also proposed that learning can only happen if certain affective
conditions such as positive attitudes, self-confidence, low anxiety exist and that when these
conditions are presented, input can pass through the "affective filter" and be used by the
learner. It has also been noted that learners who feel that self-identity is being threatened in
any way in the learning environment, can experience language anxiety (Horwitz, Horwitz, &
Cope, 1986). Other studies suggested that attitudes and motivation are positively related to the
tendency to the pursuit of language study. Bartley (1969) demonstrated that those with less
positive attitudes toward the second language dropped out of further language study the
following year while those who continued language study had more favorable attitudes. In
conclusion, there is an obvious link between language learning and positive attitudes and
motivation. It is, therefore, important for teachers to create an effective language-learning
environment, in which, anxiety levels are low and comfort level are high; students are
motivated to participate and to take risk in using their second language in the classroom.
2. Definition of games in a language class
Games as part of language learning have long been of interest of many linguistics and
philosophers. According to Wittgenstein (2001), language game is forms of language simpler
than the entirety of a language itself. It consists of language and the actions into which the
language is woven and connected by family resemblance. Specifically, a game in a language
class is the same as a game at the playground in a sense that it is entertaining and engaging.
However, it also needs to be a challenging activity in which the learners play and interact with
each other in the language that they are learning (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 2006). It is
clear that these concepts define games in language learning as activities that involve both
playing and learning the language at the same time.
3. Roles of games in a language class
There is a common perception that all learning should be serious and solemn in nature and that
if one is having fun and there is hilarity and laughter, then it is not really learning. This is, in
fact, a misconception. It is possible to learn a language as well as enjoy oneself at the same
time, and one of the best ways of doing this is through games. Although the time period for an
activity is often very short (just up to ¼ of the class time), it plays an important role in creating
the atmosphere for the whole lesson to function properly and effectively (Hadfield, 1992).
This is particularly true when language learning is a hard work and there will inevitably be
13
times when students lack energy or fell unready for the lesson, and that is when they need to
be warmed up (Hadfield, 1992). Specifically, a game can function as an introduction to the
theme, which leads the students into the lesson naturally and skillfully. Apart from providing
teachers with oral fluency practice, it also helps them to add humor into the class atmosphere
as a stimulus which encourages many students to sustain their interest in language learning.
Moreover, games can also motivate the students, involve them into the lesson and prepare
them for the coming activities so that they can finish the next activities successfully.
Besides the role of motivating learners, games promote active use of the target language and
plenty of meaningful repetition. Repetition is a natural part of language learning as a complex
process. Therefore, if we can use games to incorporate content, language, rhetorical structures,
and processes that have already been addressed in earlier classes, learners will become more
familiar with the content and more comfortable as they tackle new and more challenging one.
This approach also gives learners as sense of accomplishment and success (Williams, 2005).
Below is an example of games that help learners to learn new structures by repeating them.
Game: GETTING TO KNOW EACH OTHER
Level: Post-elementary and above
Language: Introducing oneself and others using “I am ….” and “I like…..”, learning friends’
names
Preparation: Set a friendly classroom atmosphere by putting on some music, if you wish.
Procedure:
1. Sit the learners in the circles of about eight.
2. Give the class a moment or two to choose something which is important to them and
can be referred to in one or two words. You can begin as a model. Introduce yourself by
saying, for example, I am Martine and I like playing football.
3. The next learner in the circle repeats what the first learner said and adds his or her own
information.
Learner one: You’re Martine and you like football. I’m Rubino and I like watching
movies.
4. The third learner repeats what the first two learners said and then adds his or her own
information. And so it continues round the circle.
5. To make it more challenging (i.e. for intermediate-level students), the person who has
just spoken should choose the next speaker by pointing at them. This may not be their
neighbor but someone sitting in the other side of the circle. In this way, it is a little more
difficult to remember the information.
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(Adapted from “Games for Language Learning”)
Games provide hidden language practice in which the focus is on the task, not on the language.
In other words, language use is authentic and the game is the real world. Therefore, in this real
world all aspects of language can be practiced, from pronunciation to the development of the
four basic skills. Many teachers tend to think games should be used mainly to practice
speaking skill, but actually they are a very effective tool to drill other language skills. The
following game is an example of how games can be used in a listening lesson or a
pronunciation one as well.
Game: BINGO
Level: Elementary and above
Language: Listening for chosen words or phrases within a given topic, and reacting as they
are heard
Preparation: Decide on a group of words that you wish to practice, totaling not more than
about 25, and write them on the board. You may choose to practice numbers, for instance:
either sequences (e.g. 1-25) or a selection of numbers which present listening problems (e.g.
13 and 30, 19 and 90). Or, instead of numbers, you may wish to use minimal pairs (e.g.
pin/pen, box/books, etc.). Alternatively, brainstorm with learners on to the board a number of
words related to an area of vocabulary you would like to revise.
Procedure:
1. Show the learners how to make a Bingo grid – a rectangle about 10 cm x 15 cm
divided
into four parts (or more for older and/or more proficient learners, picture below)
2. Tell the learners to write down any four of the items (words or numbers) from the
board
on to their Bingo grid.
3. Read out the words on the board in any order, making a note of them as you do so. If
the learners hear a word that they have written on their Bingo grid they should cross it
out. The first learners to cross out all four items on their list calls out ‘Bingo’, and reads
out the list to prove the claim. This person is the winner.
Teacher’s note:1. You can ask learners to add other types of information such as family,
home area, job, favorite things to do when not working, favorite food, reason
for learning English, and something really nice which has happened recently.
2. Learning names is a necessary condition to establishing familiarity and
trust and confidence in the other classmates.
3. In order to establish a true communicative classroom atmosphere you must
include yourself in all of these activities.
15
MOUSE SHIP SHEEP
HAT HAD BEAN
NINE NICE BAT
4.
(Adapted from “Games for Language Learning”)
Moreover, games as part of a language lesson create opportunities for learners to work as
individual, in pair or in group, which brings about many advantages for their learning process.
As games in a language class are often played in pair or in group, the paper only focuses on
the benefits of these two arrangements. Long (1983) has argues that when second language
learners focus on meaningful tasks the learners receive
a comprehensive input from his or her partner
a chance to ask for clarification as well as feedback on his or her input
adjustment of the input to match the level of the leaner’s comprehension
the opportunity to develop new structures through this process of interaction
In addition to the benefits of pair work activities, group work has a number of advantages
in changing the interactional dynamics of games in language class. According to Richards
(2005), successful group work
reduces the dominance of teacher over the class
increases the amount of student participation
increases the opportunities for individual students to practice and use new features
of target language
Teacher’s note:1. To make the game more challenging you might want to put each item in to
a sentence so that the learners must listen carefully for the words. For example,
Brenda’s hat is a new and cute one.
2. If you wish you could continue until you have read out all the words to
enable all the learners to complete their grid and to be able to shout out Bingo!
3. More examples of items you can use in bingo
Phonetics: For example, you read out mouth; they cross out mouth but not
mouse
Opposites: For example, you read out big and they cross out small.
16
promotes collaboration among learners
enables the teacher to work more as a facilitator and consultant
gives learners a more active role in learning
Most importantly, a positive group work atmosphere can have positive effect “on the morale
motivation, and self-image of its members, and thus significantly affect their learning, by
developing in them positive attitude to the language being learned, to the learning process, and
to themselves as learners” (Hadfield, 1992: 10).
According to Hinkel (1999:2), “applied linguistics and language teachers have become
increasing aware of the a second or foreign language can rarely be learned or taught without
addressing the culture of the community in which it is used.” Games in language teaching and
learning, in fact, can function as a gateway to cultural and intercultural understanding. For
example, playing traditional games from cultures linked with the target language can help
students experience those cultures without having to be there. Following is a game that is
designed to teacher learners about American holidays by using greeting cards.
Game: NAME SIX
Level: Elementary and above
Language: Names of American holidays
Preparation: Varieties of greeting cards and a soft object (such as a small pillow, stuffed
animal, etc.).
Procedure:
1. Introduce varieties of greeting cards and their functions to students.
2. Arrange six chairs in a circle and choose one learner to stand outside the circle. Give
someone in the circle the prepared soft object
3. The learner outside the circle may say "Name six kinds of greeting cards." The first person
sitting in the circle begins naming six kinds of greeting cards and, at the same time, passes the
soft object to the next person. The object is for the player to name 6 cards before the soft
object comes back to him/her. Otherwise, the person has lost and it's his/her turn to stand
outside the group.
(Adapted from http://iteslj.org)
Moreover, games help to raise language awareness among learners by reinforcing new sounds,
words or structures introduced in another part of the class.
Last but not least, games promote the development of many other skills such as concentration
and memory. They increase confidence, social cohesion in the class and a different
relationship between learners and teacher as well as among learners themselves.
4. A common procedure to conduct games in a language class
There are several different ways for teachers to carry out games in their class. This depends on
the nature of the game they want their students to play, whether it is a class, individual, pair or
group work. For pair work, teaches will have little difficulty in organizing and keeping the
17
game under control. For group work, however, it will take more time and efforts to help
learners to become familiar with working with other people as a team. Once the teacher has
succeeded in doing this, a game can be normally introduced in the following steps:
1. The teacher explains the game to the whole class
2. The teacher and one or two learners demonstrate parts of the game or a group of
learners can do the trail in front of the class
3. The teacher writes any key language or/and instructions on the board if necessary
4. The teacher removes key languages, etc from the board
5. The game continues
This procedure can be adjusted accordingly to the students’ level and the content of the
activity.
(Adapted from “Games for Language Learning”)
5. Some suggested techniques for teachers to successfully conduct games in their
language class
5.1 Considering games as central to language learning and teaching
Because of its essential role in providing intense and meaningful practice of language, it is
recommended that language teachers take games seriously in their lesson plan rather than
considering it a way of passing the time (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 2006). Instructions
and expectations of the teachers should be clear. Learners will appreciate the clarity in how the
game should be played and what language focus should be used. This will help the learners
play the games as the best as they can.
5.2 Being creative and innovative
When a language teacher takes games seriously, he or she will feel the need of being creative
and innovative in preparing games for the students just as much as they are in other parts of
the lesson. It is the facts that some teachers may prefer certain games and even do not imagine
themselves using other ones at all. Once the teacher is not comfortable with the game, then the
learners will not be likely to feel easy. However, according to Hadfield (1992), if a teacher is
open to experimenting new things, he or she may later enjoy some pleasant surprise. In other
words, the teacher should dare to deviate occasionally from the humdrum routine and do
something refreshing and different in the class. Designing and conducting a game can be a
serious job but they do not require too much effort. It is rewarding to both learners and teacher
in many ways such as the joy on the students' faces, the mirth, the hilarity, and the enthusiasm,
which are indispensable in a successful learning process.
5.3 Keeping the learners exposed to the target language
As mentioned before, games in a language class are not only necessarily fun but also
challenging the learners’ language competence. This means when a learner wants to be part in
18
the game they have to interact by talking, listening, understanding, and expressing themselves
to the others. By doing this, the learners are actually “experiencing language rather than
merely studying it,” (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 2006).
5.4 Repeating target language items
As a part of the learners’ language learning process, a target language item should be exposed
to them repeatedly and naturally. Besides drill exercises, games are an effective tool in
providing teachers and learners an enjoyable context in which a particular language form is
frequently used. Moreover, according to Spaventa (1980), emotions are normally expressed in
games, and thus the meaning of the language is more vividly experienced. Therefore, it is
necessary for teachers to design and conduct games that have a solid language focus.
5.5 Giving every single learner opportunity to use the language
It is very important that teachers ensure each and every leaner has their opportunity for oral
practice of the target language. Specifically, no learners should be given a dominant role in the
game even if that one is a team leader. Only by doing this can a language teacher get all of the
students involve in the learning process, which actually “goes beyond what is possible in class
work” (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 2006).
5.6 Avoiding correcting learners’ mistakes
It is totally possible for students to make mistakes when they take parts in games. Those
mistakes can be those of grammar, pronunciation or idiom. However, most language experts
believe that errors are a natural and inevitable part of the language learning process. Errors are
not bad; they are a sign of language development (Corder, 1967,1982) Therefore, As long as
the learners understand what they are expected to do and the language is not beyond their
competence, mistakes are acceptable.
6. Conclusion
It is worth noticing that games are an essential part in language learning and teaching. This
fact has been clearly proven by many linguistics and language teachers. From the writers’
teaching experience, games have become an effective tool in making language lessons
motivating and enjoyable. Within the limit of this study, some suggestions to approach and use
games in a language class are introduced so that both students and teachers can make the best
of the time and effort they spend on these activities. For teachers who have a tight working
schedule, a pool of interesting language games can be found in the two books “Games for
Language Learning” and “Classroom Dynamics”.
REFERENCES
Andrew, W, David, B. & Michael, B. (2006). Games for language learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
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Allan G. R. (1991) & Wallace, E. L. Bilingualism, multiculturalism, and second language
learning, 3. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bartley, D. E. (1969). A pilot study of aptitude and attitude factors in language
dropout. California Journal of Educational Research, 20, 48-55.
Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of learner's errors. International Review of Applied
Linguistics, 5(4), 162-170
Eli, H. (1999). Culture in second language teaching and learning, 2. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B. & Cope, J. A. (1986). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety.
Modern Language Journal. 70. 125-132.
Jack, C. R. & Charles, L. (1996). Reflective teaching in second language classrooms.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jill, H. (1992). Classroom dynamics, 10. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Krashen, S. (1985). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Keith, S. F. (2007). The art of teaching speaking, 32. Michigan: The University of Michigan
Press.
Lucy, T. (1997). Affecting Affect: The Impact of Ethnic Language Programs on Students’
Attitudes. Canadian Modern Language Review.
Marilyn, L. S. (1980). Towards the Creative Teaching of English. London: Allen and Unwin
Williams, R. L. (2005). Targeting critical thinking with teacher education: The potential
impact on society. The Teacher Educator, 40(3), 163-187.
1. www.storyarts.org
2. http://www.momscape.com/articles/storytelling-techniques.htm
20
HỌC THUYẾT VÔ THỨC CỦA SIGMUND FREUD
VÀ VIỆC DẠY VÀ HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ
Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc, B.A.
Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh
Vài nét về tác giả:
Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc là cán bộ giảng dạy tại Bộ môn Cử tuyển, Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh,
ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN từ năm 2008. Hiện nay, Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc đang theo học chương
trình Thạc sỹ tại khoa Sau đại học, trường ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN. Sở thích nghiên cứu của
Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc bao gồm các vấn đề về dịch thuật.
Tóm tắt nội dung:
Học thuyết vô thức của Freud có vai trò rất lớn trong nhiều lĩnh vực khoa học và xã hội. Theo
tác giả bài viết, vô thức cũng có vai trò rất lớn trong việc đắc thụ ngôn ngữ nói chung và ngoại
ngữ nói riêng. Trong bài viết này, dựa trên học thuyết về vô thức của Freud, tác giả đưa ra ý
kiến của mình về vai trò của vô thức trong việc học ngoại ngữ, sự khác nhau giữa việc ‘học’
ngoại ngữ một cách chủ động và việc ‘đắc thụ’ ngôn ngữ một cách vô thức, và khẳng định
rằng vai trò của vô thức là vô cùng lớn trong việc học ngoại ngữ. Trên cơ sở đó, tác giả đưa ra
những kiến nghị đối với việc dạy và học ngoại ngữ để có thể phát huy tối đa phần ‘vô thức’
trong tư duy để việc học đạt kết quả cao nhất.
1. Giới thiệu về triết gia Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (tên đầy đủ là Sigmund Schlomo Freud) sinh
ngày 6 tháng 5 năm 1856, mất năm 1936, là một bác sĩ thần
kinh và tâm lý người Áo. Ông sinh ra trong một gia đình Do
Thái, cha ông là một nhà buôn, mẹ ông là vợ thứ ba của cha
ông và kém cha ông tới 20 tuổi. Tuổi thơ của ông có một sự
kiện đặc biệt là cái chết của người em trai ngay sau ông khi
chỉ mới 7 tháng tuổi, người mà ông luôn ghen tị khi thấy em
mình dành được nhiều sự quan tâm của bố mẹ hơn. Cái chết
của em trai làm ông có cảm giác tội lỗi sâu sắc. Chính những
ký ức này là chủ đề cho nhiều bài viết sau này của ông.
Từ bé ông đã tỏ ra là một cậu bé thông minh, luôn đứng đầu trong lớp học. Lớn lên ông học
đại học y khoa. Ở đây, ông đã tham gia nhiều nghiên cứu dưới sự hướng dẫn của giáo sư
ngành sinh lý học Ernst Bruckle. Brucle là người tin vào “giản hoá luận” (reductionism), một
phương pháp rất nổi tiếng thời bấy giờ. Chính vì vậy Freud đã mất nhiều năm cố gắng “qui
giản” “nhân cách” về thần kinh học, về sau ông phải từ bỏ đường hướng này.
21
Các nghiên cứu của ông tập trung vào thần kinh học. Buckle đã giúp ông đoạt được học bổng
nghiên cứu, đầu tiên là với nhà tâm thần học Charcot ở Paris, sau đó với đối thủ của Charcot là
Bernheim ở Nancy. Cả hai nhà tâm thần học này đều nghiên cứu về việc sử dụng thuật thôi
miên để chữa bệnh tâm thần.
Sau một thời gian là bác sĩ nội trú ở khoa thần kinh, và giám đốc một bệnh viện nhi ở Berlin,
ông trở lại Viên, kết hôn với vị hôn thê trong nhiều năm của mình Martha Bernays, và mở
phòng khám tư.
Những cuốn sách và bài giảng của ông đã mang lại cho ông cả danh tiếng và sự tẩy chay trong
cộng đồng y khoa. Ông đã tập hợp được một số môn đồ. Nhưng thật không may, Freud có
thiên hướng loại bỏ những người không hoàn toàn đồng ý với ông, vì vậy một số môn đồ của
ông sau này đã tách ra và đi theo những trường phái riêng.
Ngay trước thế chiến thứ 2, Freud di cư sang Anh vì lúc bấy giờ Viên trở thành một nơi nguy
hiểm cho những người Do Thái, đặc biệt là những người nổi tiếng như Freud. Không lâu sau,
ông chết vì bệnh ung thu vòm họng, căn bệnh ông đã phải chịu đựng suốt 20 năm.
2. Điều kiện lịch sử, xã hội
Thế chiến thứ nhất và thứ hai đã tàn phá phương Tây về mọi mặt. Tuy nhiên, những tổn thất
này nhanh chóng được khắc phục bởi giai cấp tư sản. Việc áp dụng những thành tựu khoa học
kỹ thuật mới, đổi mới phương pháp quản lí, thay đổi cơ cấu sản xuất, điều chỉnh quan hệ sở
hữu và chính sách xã hội đã mang lại cho chủ nghĩa tư bản một khối lượng hàng hoá đồ sộ, sản
phẩm ngày càng dồi dào, đáp ứng ngày càng cao nhu cầu của xã hội tư bản. Tuy nhiên những
thay đổi này vẫn không làm thay đổi bản chất bóc lột, bất công trong xã hội tư bản. Không
những thế, xung đột giữa tư sản và người lao động ngày càng gay gắt. Sự bóc lột ngày càng
tinh vi và xu hướng phân hoá giàu nghèo ngày càng sâu sắc. Thực trạng xã hội đó là căn
nguyên cho những tư tưởng mới phản ánh sự bế tắc trong xã hội phương Tây hiện đại.
Hệ quả của những thay đổi về mặt kinh tế-xã hội như ở trên là những nghịch lý trong tư tưởng
và văn hoá. Trong xã hội hiện đại, tiến bộ của khoa học kỹ thuật đã mang lại sức sống mới góp
phần làm biến đổi đời sống vật chất con người và xã hội. Tuy nhiên, nó lại không giải quyết
được đời sống tinh thần của con người. Thực tế cho thấy, sự phát triển của chủ nghĩa tư bản và
mặt trái của nó đã làm con người mất hết niềm tin, lí tưởng.
Trong bối cảnh kinh tế- xã hội, và văn hoá như vậy, triết học phương Tây hiện đại ra đời với
mong muốn đưa con người ra khỏi thảm cảnh đó và mở hướng cho một xã hội tương lai, xã
hội hậu công nghiệp. Điều này được thể hiện qua ba khuynh hướng triết học. Thứ nhất, triết
học duy lí tập trung trong triết học khoa học tự nhiên với mục đích đề cao , tăng cường lí trí
của con người; Thứ hai, triết học nhân bản – duy con người, quay trở lại với con người nhằm
khai thác chủ thể tính người của con người; Thứ ba, triết học tôn giáo, chủ yếu nhằm đề cao
niềm tin của con người vào Thượng đế, dung hợp tôn giáo với nhu cầu thế tục. Cả ba khuynh
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hướng triết học này đều phản ánh kịp thời xã hội tư bản phương Tây hiện đại. (Theo Trần
Đặng Sinh và các tác giả).
Nhìn chung, các khuynh hướng trên là biểu hiện sự đối lập giữa chủ nghĩa duy lí và phi duy lí
về mặt bản thể luận. Chúng là hai mặt đối lập nhau của một hệ ý thức thống nhất xét về mặt tư
tưởng xã hội. Chủ nghĩa duy lí là một trong những động lực tạo nên nền văn minh hiện đại.
Chủ nghĩa phi duy lí đề cao nhân vị con người, kéo con người trở về với chính nó. Còn triết
học tôn giáo lại đưa con người về với Thượng đế. Các trào lưu trên không tách rời tuyệt đối
mà bổ sung cho nhau, tạo nên bộ mặt phong phú của triết học, đáp ứng sự tồn tại, phát triển
của con người trong xã hội phương Tây hiện đại. (Trần Đăng Sinh và các tác giả, Sđd)
3. Nội dung tư tưởng
Freud không phải là người đầu tiên phát hiện ra vô thức (trong cuốn sách “Các nguyên tắc của
Tâm lý học” của William James đã nghiên cứu cách các nhà tâm lý học Schopenhauer, von
Hartmann, Janet, Binet và những người khác sử dụng thuật ngữ “vô thức” hay “tiềm thức” từ
trước). Tuy nhiên Freud là người làm sáng tỏ vai trò của vô thức trong đời sống xã hội. Theo
ông, khi loài người bước vào xã hội văn minh, con người cần kiềm chế những dục vọng mang
tính nguyên thuỷ nhưng vẫn rất mạnh mẽ của mình. Trong tác phẩm “Văn minh và những bất
mãn” (có nơi dịch: Bất mãn với văn hoá), ông cho rằng xã hội văn minh là một hình thức thay
thế cho những bản năng và dục vọng của con người. “Văn minh mới đựơc tạo ra liên tục, và
mỗi cá thể sinh ra lại tiếp tục hi sinh sự thoả mãn bản năng của mình vì lợi ích của cả cộng
đồng”. Những dục vọng nguyên thuỷ này sẽ bị dồn nén; tuy nhiên, chúng rất mạnh mẽ và có
thể quay trở lại bất cứ lúc nào, và do vậy tạo nên những hành vi vô thức của con người hàng
ngày. Điều này giải thích cho việc nói nhịu, viết sai, quên lãng, đưa nhầm, lấy nhầm, v.v. Ông
cho rằng những hành vi vô thức này là manh mối để “điều tra” quá trình hoạt động bí mật của
vô thức.
Để làm sáng tỏ điều này, Freud đã đề xuất mô hình chiều sâu của tâm lí con người bao gồm ba
bậc: ý thức, tiền thức (có chỗ dịch là tiềm thức) và vô thức, được sơ đồ hoá như sau:
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Ghi chú: -pcpt-cs (perception-
consciousness) : nhận thức-ý thức
- pre-conscious : tiền thức
- unconscious : vô thức
- repressed : bị kìm nén
- ID : cái ấy
- EGO : cái tôi
- SUPER-EGO : cái siêu tôi
Ý thức là tâm lý nhận biết của con người, là những gì mà con người nhận thức được ở một
thời điểm cụ thể. Ý thức là sự nhận thức thế giới bên ngoài, có liên quan trực tiếp đến kinh
nghiệm và bị điều kiện xã hội quy định. Hoạt động của ý thức luôn tuân theo những quy luật,
nguyên tắc nhất định, nguyên tắc thực tại. Ý thức bao giờ cũng mang tính xã hội, xong nó chỉ
là một phần nhỏ và tạm thời trong đời sống tinh thần của cá nhân.
Ngược lại, vô thức là hiện tượng tâm lý nằm ngoài phạm vi lý trí do bản năng, thói quen và
dục vọng của con người gây ra. Hoạt động tâm lý này là do tình cảm và dục vọng chi phối. Nó
bao gồm tất cả những gì không còn hiện hữu trong ý thức của chúng ta nữa, nhưng căn nguyên
của nó vẫn còn ở đó, chẳng hạn như những ước vọng, bản năng chúng ta đã cố gắng quên lãng.
Vô thức mới là phần chủ yếu trong đời sống tâm lý của con người, là căn cứ cho mọi hành vi
của con người.
Tiền thức là yếu tố trung gian giữa ý thức và vô thức. Theo Freud, trong vô thức có ẩn dấu
xung đột bản năng, để trở thành ý thức phải thông qua sự lựa chọn, phê chuẩn của tiền thức.
Quá trình này diễn ta một cách bình thường ở những người khoẻ mạnh. Tuy nhiên, đối với
những bệnh nhân tâm thần, những ý nghĩ ‘không dễ chịu’ hay những ước vọng bị dồn nén là
quá lớn, lúc nào cũng rình rập để quay trở lại ý thức, và quá trình kìm nén trở nên vô cùng khó
khăn, đôi khi trở nên vô hiệu. Freud cho rằng người bình thường và người điên chỉ khác nhau
ở ‘mức độ của quá trình kìm nén’ này. Về mặt lý thuyết thì tất cả chúng ta đều ‘bệnh’, hay nói
cách khác là ‘bị điên’ bởi lẽ những điều kiện tiên quyết cho sự hình thành các triệu chứng ‘tâm
thần’ có thể quan sát được cả ở những người bình thường.
Bên cạnh quá trình tâm lý, Freud còn mô phỏng kết cấu nhân cách con người bao gồm ba bộ
phận tương ứng là cái ấy, cái tôi và cái siêu tôi (như mô hình).
Cái ấy là toàn bộ bản năng làm thành nền tảng của nhân cách, nó bao gồm những ham muốn
vô thức hay những đam mê đã bị chèn ra khỏi ý thức. Nó là căn tầng hầm tăm tối nhất của tâm
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lý, luôn hoạt động rất mạnh mẽ để lấn át ý thức, mong muốn vọt ra ngoài để được thoả mãn.
Cái ấy hoạt động theo nguyên tắc khoái lạc.
Còn cái tôi là một bộ phận có tổ chức của nhân cách, là cầu nối giữa cái ấy và thế giới bên
ngoài, được hình thành trong quá trình xã hội hoá cá thể. Cái tôi phục vụ những ham muốn của
cái ấy nhưng một cách có kiểm soát để tương hợp với những đòi hỏi của hiện thực. Cái tôi là
hạt nhân của nhân cách, có vai trò chi phối kiểm soát hành vi con người, là bộ phận duy nhất
mà người khác có thể tiếp xúc đựơc.
Cái siêu tôi là đại diện của xã hội, của lý tưởng và của uy thế bên ngoài trong tâm lý con
người. Nó được tạo thành từ các chuẩn mực xã hội, quy tắc luân lý và các luật tôn giáo. Cái
siêu tôi sẽ đấu tranh để làm cho cái tôi hoạt động theo các chuẩn mực lý tưởng thay vì các quy
tắc thực tế.
Ở người bình thường có sự cân bằng giữa ba cái ‘cái ấy’ ‘cái tôi’ và ‘cái siêu tôi’. Trong đó
‘cái tôi’ là mạnh nhất, nó hoạt động để vừa làm thoả mãn ‘cái ấy’, vừa không làm ‘cái siêu tôi’
thất vọng, và còn dựa trên thực tế của mỗi tình huống. Những người thần kinh là do mối quan
hệ cân bằng giữa ba cái đó bị phá vỡ.
4. Ý nghĩa và hạn chế
Cống hiến của thuyết vô thức của Freud là rất lớn. Đầu tiên và quan trọng nhất là cho ngành
Phân tâm học, không còn nghi ngờ gì nữa, ông là ông tổ của phân tâm học. Học thuyết của ông
đã giúp chữa những chứng bệnh thần kinh. Không chỉ vậy, học thuyết vô thức còn có ý nghĩa
rất lớn trong mọi lĩnh vực khác và trong đời sống xã hội, đặc biệt là trong nghệ thuật, thậm chí
còn có một trào lưu văn học nổi lên nhờ học thuyết vô thức của Freud : đó là chủ nghĩa siêu
thực. Những nghệ sĩ theo chủ nghĩa siêu thực cố gắng khai thác phần ‘vô thức’ khi sáng tác
nghệ thuật. Ở một khía cạnh nào đấy, những nghệ sĩ theo chủ nghĩa siêu thực là một phương
thức, một phương tiện hay một cầu nối với phần ‘vô thức’ của chính anh ta, và quá trình sáng
tạo bao giờ cũng hàm chứa yếu tố vô thức. Trong quá trình sáng tạo ra cái mới, sự tưởng tượng
và lý trí luôn tác động qua lại lẫn nhau, và lý trí luôn điều chỉnh sự tưởng tượng cũng như sự
lựa chọn, phê chuẩn của ‘tiền thức’ đối với ‘vô thức’ để trở thành ý thức. Ở điểm này, Freud
đã tiếp thu học thuyết tiến hoá của Darwin về chọn lọc tự nhiên. Chúng ta có thể thấy rằng
Freud đã tiếp thu truyền thống duy vật của khoa học tự nhiên cổ điển và của thuyết tiến hoá.
Tuy nhiên sai lầm lớn nhất của ông là quá đề cao vai trò của vô thức đối với hành vi của con
người, không đánh giá đúng vai trò của ý thức và các điều kiện xã hội. (Theo Trần Văn Thuỵ,
2008). Điều này hoàn toàn dễ hiểu. Phần lớn đối tượng nghiên cứu của Freud là các bệnh nhân
tâm thần. Khi khẳng định rằng bản chất nhân cách của chúng ta được tạo thành bởi cái tôi
thầm kín mà không có mảy may một mối quan hệ trực tiếo nào với thế giới bên ngoài, thì
Freud đã đánh giá quá mức vai trò của vô thức, đã phổ quát hoá sự cách biệt giữa những người
bị bệnh tâm thần với môi trường xã hội. Khi cho rằng vô thức là căn cứ hành vi của con người
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thì Freud đã sinh vật hoá những cái thuộc về tâm lý con người. Có thể thấy rằng ở điểm này
học thuyết của Freud lại bộc lộ những yếu tố duy tâm.
Một sai lầm nữa của học thuyết Freud chính là cách tiếp cận phân tâm học. Khi cho rằng văn
hoá đã tước đoạt một lượng lớn năng lượng tình dục vì mục đích tập thể, bắt buộc con người
phải hạn chế nhưng ham muốn của mình, và là yếu tố duy nhất để phân biệt con người và con
vật thì Freud đã hiểu sai bản chất của văn hoá. Theo ông, bản chất của con người là không
thích lao động nhưng vì lợi ích của cộng đồng, văn hoá đã cưỡng bức con người phải lao động.
Thực ra, hoạt động sáng tạo của con người là cội nguồn, là nền tảng của đời sống con người và
chính trong tiến trình này mà ‘cái tự nhiên’ đã được nhân cách hoá và ‘cái văn hoá’ đã được
sinh thành. Những mong muốn của con người do vậy mà hình thành trong hoạt động tập thể
của mọi người. Vì thế, theo bản chất của mình, chúng không đối lập với những tất yếu xã hội,
mà bao hàm những tất yếu ấy.
Có thể kết luận rằng những lý luận về vô thức của Freud đã bổ sung những kiến thức quan
trọng cho tâm lý học. Chủ nghĩa Freud đã tiếp thu truyền thống duy vật của khoa học tự nhiên
cổ điển và thuyết tiến hoá. Tuy nhiên trong thế giới quan triết học của ông lại bộc lộ những
yếu tố duy tâm khi đem sinh vật hoá những cái thuộc về tâm lý con người, đem tự nhiên hoá
những cái về loài người, đem tâm lý hoá những cái thuộc về xã hội và tuyệt đối hoá cái tâm lý
trong đời sống con người.
5. Ý nghĩa của vô thức trong việc học ngoại ngữ
Đã có nhiều công trình nghiên cứu về vai trò của ‘vô thức’ trong việc học. Gần đây nhất, tạp
chí Journal of Consciousness Studies công bố một công trình nghiên cứu của McFadden tại
Đại học Surrey ở Anh chứng minh rằng cơ sở vật chất của tư duy là một trường điện từ của bộ
não, trong đó khẳng định rằng hoạt động tư duy bao gồm vô thức và ý thức. Học là một hoạt
động điển hình như vậy : Học = Vô thức + Ý thức. McFadden nhấn mạnh : rất nhiều người
thường đồng nhất tư duy với ý thức, thật là nhầm lẫn lớn. Thực tế phần lớn tư duy là vô thức,
vô thức bao giờ cũng có trước, ý thức có sau, vô thức là cái phần bẩm sinh mà ai cũng có. Ý
thức là cái có sau, hình thành trong quá trình sống, phụ thuộc nhiều vào hoàn cảnh môi trường.
Vô thức và ý thức liên quan mật thiết với nhau, thiếu một trong hai vế đều dẫn tới tư duy què
quặt (Theo bản tin của Đại học Quốc Gia Hà Nội). Có thể thấy rằng công trình nghiên cứu này
có nhiều nét tương đồng với học thuyết vô thức của Freud.
Việc học ngoại ngữ cũng không nằm ngoại lệ. Một đứa trẻ bình thường nào cứ đến 4-5 tuổi là
có thể nói thông thạo tiếng mẹ đẻ mà không cần phải vất vả nhồi nhét chữ nghĩa. Có thể nói
rằng ngữ pháp của một người lớn không hơn ngữ pháp của một đứa trẻ 5 tuổi là mấy, chúng ta
chỉ hơn trẻ con ở vốn từ vựng ! Trong khi đó, người lớn cố gắng nhồi nhét một ngoại ngữ
nhưng rốt cuộc lại không thể nói được một câu tiếng Anh trôi chảy. Có bao nhiêu từ mà quyển
sổ học từ nào chúng ta cũng ghi nhưng rốt cuộc vẫn không thể nhớ nổi, trong khi có thể khẳng
định rằng vốn từ mà bạn có nhiều hơn gấp nhiều lần số từ mà bạn chủ tâm học. Một người bản
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ngữ có thể nói trôi chảy thứ tiếng của họ nhưng khi hỏi họ về ngữ pháp của một câu, có thể họ
sẽ rất lúng túng không thể giải thích tại sao lại nói như vậy mới đúng. Ngược lại, một người
học ngoại ngữ có thể nói được rất nhiều các quy tắc ngữ pháp mà anh ta đã học nhưng rốt cuộc
trong khi giao tiếp bằng thứ tiếng đó lại mắc rất nhiều lỗi ngữ pháp. Những nhà ngôn ngữ học
đã cố gắng lí giải những hiện tượng như vậy. Chomsky, một nhà ngôn ngữ nổi tiếng đã phân
biệt giữa ‘năng lực ngôn ngữ’ (linguistic competence) là những gì chúng ta ‘biết’ về một ngôn
ngữ và ‘sự thực hiện ngôn ngữ’ là việc chúng ta thực sự sử dụng ngôn ngữ để giao tiếp. Việc
học ngôn ngữ phải kết hợp được cả hai yếu tố này. Chúng ta biết được từ và các quy tắc ngữ
pháp không có nghĩa là chúng ta có thể giao tiếp, sử dụng được ngôn ngữ. Để sử dụng được
ngôn ngữ, chúng ta phải thực hành nhiều, phải được ‘tắm trong môi trường ngôn ngữ đó’, biến
những gì chúng ta ‘biết’ thành những kỹ năng.
Việc học tiếng mẹ đẻ của trẻ em có thể khẳng định là một quá trình vô thức, là bản năng mà
con người ai cũng có. Việc chúng ta nhồi nhét những quy tắc ngữ pháp vào đầu là hoạt động
của ý thức. Việc chúng ta nói sai ngữ pháp (mặc dù nắm vững mọi quy tắc ngữ pháp) là do vô
thức. Do vậy, vai trò của vô thức là rất lớn trong việc học ngoại ngữ. Để ‘đánh thức’ và ‘phát
huy’ nó một cách có hiệu quả trong việc học ngoại ngữ, chúng tôi xin đưa ra một số kiến nghị
như sau :
1. Học ngoại ngữ càng sớm càng tốt, khi mà tư duy chủ yếu bằng vô thức.
2. Người học phải được ‘tắm’ trong môi trường ngôn ngữ đó. Chúng ta không cần phải
quá tập trung để mà hiểu một bản tin, hay xem một bộ phim tiếng nước ngoài, nhưng
khi được tiếp xúc một cách vô thức như vậy, ngôn ngữ cũng sẽ ‘ngấm’ vào chúng ta.
Tuy nhiên, việc này phải được kết hợp với việc học có ý thức thì mới có tác dụng.
Chúng ta không thể cứ ‘tiếp xúc’ với nó, mà có thể thông thạo một ngôn ngữ được.
3. Càng thực hành các kỹ năng ngôn ngữ nhiều thì dần dần chúng ta mới có thể sử dụng
thông thạo. Việc học các quy tắc ngữ pháp được xem như là hỗ trợ cho các kỹ năng
này chứ không phải là mục đích của việc học ngoại ngữ.
4. Việc mắc lỗi khi học ngoại ngữ phải được xem là hiện tượng hoàn toàn bình thường.
Giáo viên nên có thái độ tích cực với lỗi của học sinh, không nên coi đó là ‘thất bại’
của việc dạy và học.
5. Không nên phải quá mất công sức để học tất cả các từ mới mà chúng ta gặp hay tất cả
các quy tắc ngữ pháp. Chỉ học chúng khi chúng làm ngăn cản việc hiểu cả văn bản
hoặc khi chúng ta thích học chúng. Dần dần chúng ta sẽ học được những từ đó khi đã
gặp nó nhiều lần và hiểu ý nghĩa của nó trong các văn cảnh chúng ta gặp.
6. Cuối cùng nhưng cũng rất quan trọng : môi trường học tập là vô cùng quan trọng.
Chúng ta nên học những gì chúng ta thích như xem phim nước ngoài có hoặc không có
phụ đề nếu bạn là người thích xem phim, nghe nhạc tiếng nước ngoài nếu bạn yêu
thích âm nhạc, hay đọc các tài liệu về Freud bằng tiếng anh. Trên lớp học, giáo viên
nên tạo một môi trường học tập thân thiện, thoải mái. Cách này sẽ tạo điều kiện cho
27
phần ‘vô thức’ của chúng ta phát huy tác dụng tối đa, làm trí tưởng tượng bay bổng,
việc học sẽ nhẹ nhàng hơn rất nhiều.
6. Kết luận
Học thuyết vô thức của Freud, tuy còn một số hạn chế nhưng đóng góp của nó là vô cùng to
lớn trong mọi lĩnh vực đời sống. Bài viết này bàn về những đóng góp và hạn chế của học
thuyết này và đưa ra một số kiến nghị cho việc học ngoại ngữ trên tinh thần tiếp thu những giá
trị của nó. Trong khuôn khổ cho phép, những bàn luận trên chỉ là khởi đầu, có thể gợi mở cho
những nghiên cứu sau.
Tài liệu tham khảo
1. Đoàn Quang Thọ và các tác giả. Giáo trình Triết học. 2008
2. Trần Đặng Sinh và các tác giả. Lịch sử Triết Học. 2009
3. Gaarder J. Thế giới của Sophie (Sophie’s World). 2003
4. Ngụy Hữu Tâm. Chân dung nhà tâm lý học: Sigmund Freud và học thuyết phân tâm
http://chungta.com/Desktop.aspx/ChungTa-SuyNgam/Con-Nguoi/
Chan_dung_nha_tam_ly_hoc-Sigmund_Freud_va_hoc_thuyet_phan_tam/
5. Nguyễn Huy Hoàng. Văn hoá dưới cái nhìn phân tâm học của Sigmund Freud
http://www.chungta.com/Desktop.aspx/ChungTa-SuyNgam/Con-Nguoi/
Van_hoa_duoi_cai_nhin_phan_tam_hoc_cua_Sigmund_Freud/
6. Felluga, Dino. Các bài giảng về Freud: về vô thức
"Modules on Freud: On the Unconscious." Introductory Guide to Critical Theory. Purdue U.
<http://www.purdue.edu/guidetotheory/psychoanalysis/freud2.html>.
7. Boeree. C. G. Sigmund Freud: Học thuyết về nhân cách. (Personality theories)
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/freud.html
8. Hãy đánh thức người học
http://www.bulletin.vnu.edu.vn/btdhqghn/Vietnamese/C1483/C1636/2008/11/N23385/?1
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AN ANALYSIS ON THE USE OF PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE IN
PRESIDENT BARRACK OBAMA’S INAUGURATION SPEECH
Nguyễn Diệu Hồng, Lương Thị Hương Thảo & Đỗ Thị Trà Mi
Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh
Vài nét về nhóm tác giả
Nguyễn Diệu Hồng, Lương Thị Hương Thảo và Đỗ Thị Trà Mi cùng công tác tại Bộ môn Cử
Tuyển, Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ - ĐHQGHN. Nguyễn Diệu
Hồng quan tâm nghiên cứu về Hoa Kỳ học và phân tích diễn ngôn. Lương Thị Hương Thảo
đặc biệt quan tâm đến nghiên cứu ứng dụng máy tính hỗ trợ học ngoại ngữ (CALL), lý thuyết
về cú pháp, âm vị học và các chiến lược học tập ngoại ngữ. Sở thích nghiên cứu của của Đỗ
Thị Trà Mi bao gồm các phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh và Đất nước học.
Email: Nguyễn Diệu Hồng: dieuhongnguyen@gmail.com
Lương Thị Hương Thảo: chittythao@yahoo.com
Đỗ Thị Trà Mi: piszyr@yahoo.com
Tóm tắt vấn đề
Báo cáo dưới đây phân tích những thủ pháp tu từ trong bài phát biểu của tổng thống Mỹ
Barack Obama tại lễ nhậm chức của ông vào tháng 1 năm 2009. Báo cáo sẽ tập trung vào các
thủ pháp tu từ sau: tần suất sử dụng đại từ nhân xưng ngôi thứ nhất số ít và số nhiều, các từ
được sử dụng thường xuyên nhất trong bài diễn văn và quy tắc tam suất. Thông qua việc
nghiên cứu những biện pháp tu từ trên, nhóm tác giả mong muốn sẽ nêu bật được những điểm
quan trọng trong cách tổng thống Obama dùng các thủ pháp tu từ nhằm thu hút, thuyết phục và
nhận được sự ủng hộ của người dân Mỹ khi bắt đầu nhiệm kỳ tổng thống của mình .
*******
1. Introduction
Language is not simply the means of communication used to exchange information among
people. More than that, language, as stated in Fromkin et al (2003:3) is “a source of human life
and power”. In other words, the language people employ reflects their attitude and perception
of the world, and they may gain the power by influencing others’ beliefs and views through
the use of language. According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, a language can shape thought
and emotions, and “it is very difficult to think outside of that framework”. (Thomas et al,
2004:39)
In the case of politics, where the gain of power may be the driving factor, politicians have
tried to make full use of the powerful tool of language to reinforce their ideologies, to
persuade and to win people supports. A specific issue regarding politics and public opinion
29
can best exemplify this: speeches made by politicians. A recent political speech that drew
attentions of millions of people, not only in the most powerful country in the word – the
United States- but also those outside its border was the inauguration speech delivered by
President Barrack Obama. The address, which was broadcasted live on television and the
Internet, has also been the hot topic for both political and linguistic discussions. Therefore, it
is worth analyzing the speech made by the this first African –American president of the USA
on the day he officially assumed his position, in which he had to make the most use of rhetoric
strategies to convince his citizens, who were hoping a new change of the new regime.
1.1 Aims
This essay aims at analyzing main aspects of persuasive language employed by President
Barrack Obama in his inauguration speech made on January, 11th 2009. What is more, the hope
is that the paper will contribute to the understanding of Obama’s style in using language in
front of the public for political purposes.
1.2 Methodology and data
Linguistic researchers have long realized the important roles of language use in politics;
therefore, many have studied the persuasive strategies realized in political speeches. In the
case of Barack Obama, his speeches during the presidential campaign have been the ‘hot”
topics for discussion of language experts and many have highly appreciated his techniques to
inspire and persuade millions of people. However, only a small numbers have attempted to
provide an insight into Obama’s use of persuasive language.
In her book Say it like Obama (2008), Leanne presented the persuasive skills that made
Obama’s speeches “eloquent, inspiring, compelling” and enabled him to gain support from
audience. She investigated different rhetorical techniques to convey “powerful message”
employed by the future American president such as the use of pronouns, the rule of three,
anaphora, epistrophe, alliteration and trilicon.
Admunsson (2008) analyzed Obama’s persuasive language in his speech on “Super
Tuesday” 2008 from an Aristotelian point of view. Based on textual analysis, the study
addressed the application of three means of persuasion: ethos, pathos and logos in the text.
Inspired by the findings of these two researches and by personal interests in American
politics in general and Barack Obama for his significance role as the first African-American
president as well as his attractive speaking styles in particular, the authors chose Obama’s
inauguration address 2009 as the primary data for their study. The speech is 18 min 33 second
in length and the transcription retrieved from www.chicagotribune.come includes 2401 words
according to MS Word. Only the three most prominent linguistic features, namely the use of
pronouns, word choice and the rule of three, were focused on due to the limited scope of the
paper.
The data were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. To investigate the
application of pronouns and word choice in Obama’s speech, the authors employed
Wordcounter to rank the most frequently used roots in the text. It should be noted that the
30
software would automatically group variations of the same roots. The results were then
compared with manual counting to cross-check the list of the most prominent vocabulary
appearing in the text. Next, more in-depth textual analysis was carried out to study the use of
pronouns and prominent words in context as well as the use of three part list, which could not
be counted. Examples for the employment of three prominent linguistic features will be
discussed in the following part.
2. Data analysis
2.1 Pronouns
According to Beard (2000:45), pronoun reference is an important rhetoric device for
politicians to persuade the audience. How personal pronouns are used plays a key role because
they convey semantic meanings. Singular forms (I/me/myself/mine) “show a clear sense of
personal involvement on the part of the speaker, which is especially useful when good news is
delivered”, while the use of plural pronoun forms (we/us/ourselves/ours) implies a
responsibility that both the orator and the listeners share, especially “when the decisions are
tricky, when the news is uncertain”. In their broadest sense, plural pronoun forms can show the
connection between the politician with the whole country, and even with the entire world.
(Beard, 2000:45)
The following table presents occurrence of first personal pronouns in the 2009
inauguration speech based on Wordcounter < wordcounter.com>
Counted number %
1st personal singular
I 3 1
Me/mine/myself 0_ 0_
2 1
1st personal plural
we 62 39
us 23 15
our 67 43
ourselves 3_ 2_
155 99
Total 157 100
The data show the extraordinary use of plural first pronouns we/us/our over singular form I,
99% and 1% respectively. Obama used I only three time in his 2401 word speech, in the first
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paragraph when he address the audience and say thank to his predecessor– President George
W. Bush and in the sixth paragraph. For the rest of the talk, plural forms were included.
It is clear that, in the first time Obama gave an officially talk to his citizens as the 44 th
president of the United States, he wanted to create a strong sense of unity, engage the listeners
and keep them on his side. The speech showed his ideologies and policies for the presidential
terms in the context that America had been experiencing a severe economic crisis since the
Great Depression and the threat of terrorism had not been diminished. The difficulties that
Obama, his government and the whole nation as well were facing were “too many” (Obama,
2009). Thus, the 44th president, by using an overwhelming number of inclusive pronouns “our
nation”, “our economy”, “our collective failure”, firstly skillfully showed to American
citizens that the existed problems were the difficulties they both shared, and that they were all
on the same boat: -“we are in the midst of crisis”.
(1) “That we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. Our nation is at war, against a far-
reaching network of violence and hatred. Our economy is badly weakened,(…) but also our
collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. Our health care is
too costly; our schools fail too many (….) the challenges we face are real.” [paragraph 4]
Secondly, Obama preferred the use of we to persuade his people that all citizens had a
mutual mission to fight the difficulties. We (the president and the whole country) all together
as a solid unity need to work side by side to resolve the current problems and overcome the
hard time.
(2) “For everywhere we look, there is work to be done (…) we will act (…) We will build the roads
and bridges, the electric grids and digital lines that feed our commerce and bind us together. We
will restore science to its rightful place, and wield technology's wonders to raise health care's
quality and lower its cost. We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and
run our factories. And we will transform our schools and colleges and universities to meet the
demands of a new age. All this we can do. And all this we will do.” [paragraph 15]
Interestingly, inclusive pronouns we plus auxiliary will are repeated six times successively
in (2), which makes these above lines become a call for immediate actions that everyone
should be involved and give a hand to make their contribution to the nation.
2. 2 Word choice
Word choice is another powerful rhetoric device in that it can partly tell about the “speakers’
concerns and priorities” and the issues conveyed in the speech as well. The frequency of
content words may reflect the most important notions in presidential speeches (Dypedahl and
Hasselgård, 2004 cited in Stenbbaken, 2007:38).
The table below presents 10 most frequently used words in Obama’s talk according to the
data collected by Wordcounter and revised by the authors:
Content word Frequency
nation(s) 15
new 11
32
America 9
every 8
generation(s) 8
must 8
less 8
let 7
people 7
today 7
The three most prominent words that can be seen from the chart are: nation(s), new and
America; in which nation as referred to the USA are repeated 11 times in the copra. Those
observing Barack Obama’s campaign for presidency may not find the results surprising. The
notion of America: new nation closely reflects his ideology of making changes for the
country, which had been realized in his slogan for the 2008 election “Change, we can believe
in”. Once a gain, by asserting these above-mentioned words throughout the inauguration
speech, President Obama proved for American people his determination to create changes
from the old administration and to make American a new nation with better changes and better
chances for the people during his new regime.
Additionally, the president mentioned generations of America 8 times in a thread of time
from the past to the present and the future. The notion of maintaining achievements inherited
from the previous generations and carrying them to the next generations, hence, is an
important message that Obama aimed to send to his citizens.
(3) “Our Founding Fathers, faced with perils we can scarcely imagine, drafted a charter to assure the
rule of law and the rights of man, a charter expanded by the blood of generations. (…) So it has
been. So it must be with this generation of Americans. (…) we carried forth that great gift of
freedom and delivered it safely to future generations.”[paragraph 19]
Acknowledging the heritage of the past- the gift of liberty and human rights- which people
had to struggle and endured hardship to maintain, Obama tactfully convinced the listeners to
take deliberate actions so that the future generations “our children’s children” could enjoy the
achievements Americans transfer from today.
2.3 Rule of three.
One of the most popular means to elicit approval from the audience is the “list of three”,
according to Atkinson cited in Beard (2000:38). Atkinson noted that the rule of three, which is
found in certain cultures, attracts both the speakers and the listeners because it gives “the sense
of unity and completeness.”
Obama, who ranks highly in comparison with other great orators through American
history like Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King, has given particular interest in three-
33
part list, contrast and various combinations of the two (Atkinson, 2008). Evidence of the
preference for the list of three is very obvious in the 2009 presidential inauguration speech.
The full text of the president’s address with underlined three-part lists is provided in the
Appendix.
The 44th master of the White House started his address with a list of three:
(4) “I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed,
mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors.” [paragraph 1]
By giving a three-part list in (4), he impressed the audience through painting a clear picture
of his feelings when he spoke to the public in the role of American president for the first time.
In addition, Obama tried to persuade the audience that he was fully aware of his responsibility
and work waiting ahead to deserve the trust people had had in him in the presidential election
as well as the scarifies of the previous generations.
(5) “The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward
that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the God-given
promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of
happiness.” [paragraph 9]
Two continuous lists of three powerfully reaffirm the vital value of America – individual
freedom. The first three-part list was mentioned to persuade people to take action: work
together to maintain the traditional belief. Three phrases which are started by three verbs
actually have the same core meaning. Obama then repeated the idea stated in the Declaration
of Independence in a group of three parallel clauses to emphasize the undeniable rights of all
people reflected in American tradition: the right of equality, the right of freedom and the right
to pursue individual happiness.
3. Conclusion.
The essay has analyzed how the three most salient rhetoric devices are employed to increase
the persuasive power in Barack Obama’s inauguration address 2009. The use of first personal
pronouns, word choice and three-part list greatly facilitated President Obama in manipulating
the audience perception. Illustrations of each linguistic tool have been discussed in connection
with the overall context in which the speech orated.
Due to the limitations of time and essay framework, the authors did not mention other
useful linguistic features which are frequently applied in political talks and can also be traced
in speeches of the 44th president of the United States such as parallelism, metaphor, metonymy
and contrastive pairs. Moreover, the data collected for quantitative analysis were not
extensive. To have better understanding of Obama’ persuasive language style, more in-depth
researches are needed with the aids of more sophisticated word-counting software.
34
References
Assmundson, M. 2008. Persuading the Public: A Linguistic Analysis of Barack Obama’s
Speech on “Super Tuesday” 2008. 5 April 2009. <http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:du-
3436>
Atkinson, M. 2008. Rhetoric and Imagery in Obama’s Victory Speech. 8 Dec 2009.
http://maxatkinson.blogspot.com/2008/11/rhetoric-imagery-in-obamas-victory.html
Beard, A. 2000. The Language of Politics. Routledge. London.
Fromkin, V., R. Rodman and N. Hyams. 2003. An Introduction to Language (7th edition).
Wadsworth. Boston.
Leanne, S. 2008. Say it like Obama. McGraw-Hill. New York.
Obama, B. 2009. Presidential Inauguration Speech. 5 April 2009.
<http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/obama/chi-obama-speech-
090120,0,1085546.story>
Stenbakken, A. 2007. What makes a politician persuasive? A study of ideology, rhetoric and
modality in speeches by Tony Blair and George W. Bush. 5 April 2009.
http://www.duo.uio.no/sok/work.html?WORKID=69169&lang=en
Luong, T. 2008. Comparing persuasive language in Obama and Mccain’ convention speeches.
Unpublished research paper.
Thomas, L. et al. 2004. Language, Society and Power (2nd edition). Routledge. London.
Wordcounter. 8 Dec 2009. <www.wordcounter.com>
Wordle. 8 Dec 2009. <www.wordle.net>
35
Appendix
Barack Obama’s Inauguration Speech
Jan 20th 2009
FULLTEXT
My fellow citizens:
[1]I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors. I thank President Bush for his service to our nation, as well as the generosity and cooperation he has shown throughout this transition.
[2]Forty-four Americans have now taken the presidential oath. The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace. Yet, every so often the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms. At these moments, America has carried on not simply because of the skill or vision of those in high office, but because We the People have remained faithful to the ideals of our forbearers, and true to our founding documents.
[3]So it has been. So it must be with this generation of Americans.
[4]That we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. Our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred. Our economy is badly weakened, a consequence of greed and irresponsibility on the part of some, but also our collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. Homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered. Our health care is too costly; our schools fail too many; and each day brings further evidence that the ways we use energy strengthen our adversaries and threaten our planet.
[5]These are the indicators of crisis, subject to data and statistics. Less measurable but no less profound is a sapping of confidence across our land - a nagging fear that America's decline is inevitable, and that the next generation must lower its sights.
[6]Today I say to you that the challenges we face are real. They are serious and they are many.
[7]They will not be met easily or in a short span of time. But know this, America - they will be met. On this day, we gather because we have chosen hope over fear, unity of purpose over conflict and discord.
[8]On this day, we come to proclaim an end to the petty grievances and false promises, the recriminations and worn out dogmas, that for far too long have strangled our politics.
[9]We remain a young nation, but in the words of Scripture, the time has come to set aside childish things. The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the God-given promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of happiness.
[10]In reaffirming the greatness of our nation, we understand that greatness is never a given. It must be earned. Our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the faint-hearted - for those who prefer leisure over work, or seek only the pleasures of riches and fame. Rather, it has been the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things
36
- some celebrated but more often men and women obscure in their labor, who have carried us up the long, rugged path towards prosperity and freedom.
[11]For us, they packed up their few worldly possessions and traveled across oceans in search of a new life.
[12]For us, they toiled in sweatshops and settled the West; endured the lash of the whip and plowed the hard earth.
[13]For us, they fought and died, in places like Concord and Gettysburg; Normandy and Khe Sahn. Time and again these men and women struggled and sacrificed and worked till their hands were raw so that we might live a better life. They saw America as bigger than the sum of our individual ambitions; greater than all the differences of birth or wealth or faction.
[14]This is the journey we continue today. We remain the most prosperous, powerful nation on Earth. Our workers are no less productive than when this crisis began. Our minds are no less inventive, our goods and services no less needed than they were last week or last month or last year. Our capacity remains undiminished. But our time of standing pat, of protecting narrow interests and putting off unpleasant decisions - that time has surely passed. Starting today, we must pick ourselves up, dust ourselves off, and begin again the work of remaking America.
[15]For everywhere we look, there is work to be done. The state of the economy calls for action, bold and swift, and we will act - not only to create new jobs, but to lay a new foundation for growth. We will build the roads and bridges, the electric grids and digital lines that feed our commerce and bind us together. We will restore science to its rightful place, and wield technology's wonders to raise health care's quality and lower its cost. We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories. And we will transform our schools and colleges and universities to meet the demands of a new age. All this we can do. And all this we will do.
[16]Now, there are some who question the scale of our ambitions - who suggest that our system cannot tolerate too many big plans. Their memories are short. For they have forgotten what this country has already done; what free men and women can achieve when imagination is joined to common purpose, and necessity to courage.
[17]What the cynics fail to understand is that the ground has shifted beneath them - that the stale political arguments that have consumed us for so long no longer apply. The question we ask today is not whether our government is too big or too small, but whether it works - whether it helps families find jobs at a decent wage, care they can afford, a retirement that is dignified. Where the answer is yes, we intend to move forward. Where the answer is no, programs will end. And those of us who manage the public's dollars will be held to account - to spend wisely, reform bad habits, and do our business in the light of day - because only then can we restore the vital trust between a people and their government.
[18]Nor is the question before us whether the market is a force for good or ill. Its power to generate wealth and expand freedom is unmatched, but this crisis has reminded us that without a watchful eye, the market can spin out of control - and that a nation cannot prosper long when it favors only the prosperous. The success of our economy has always depended not just on the size of our Gross Domestic Product, but on the reach of our prosperity; on our ability to extend opportunity to every willing heart - not out of charity, but because it is the surest route to our common good.
37
[19]As for our common defense, we reject as false the choice between our safety and our ideals. Our Founding Fathers, faced with perils we can scarcely imagine, drafted a charter to assure the rule of law and the rights of man, a charter expanded by the blood of generations. Those ideals still light the world, and we will not give them up for expedience's sake. And so to all other peoples and governments who are watching today, from the grandest capitals to the small village where my father was born: know that America is a friend of each nation and every man, woman, and child who seeks a future of peace and dignity, and that we are ready to lead once more.
[20]Recall that earlier generations faced down fascism and communism not just with missiles and tanks, but with sturdy alliances and enduring convictions. They understood that our power alone cannot protect us, nor does it entitle us to do as we please. Instead, they knew that our power grows through its prudent use; our security emanates from the justness of our cause, the force of our example, the tempering qualities of humility and restraint.
[21]We are the keepers of this legacy. Guided by these principles once more, we can meet those new threats that demand even greater effort - even greater cooperation and understanding between nations. We will begin to responsibly leave Iraq to its people, and forge a hard-earned peace in Afghanistan. With old friends and former foes, we will work tirelessly to lessen the nuclear threat, and roll back the specter of a warming planet. We will not apologize for our way of life, nor will we waver in its defense, and for those who seek to advance their aims by inducing terror and slaughtering innocents, we say to you now that our spirit is stronger and cannot be broken; you cannot outlast us, and we will defeat you.
[22]For we know that our patchwork heritage is a strength, not a weakness. We are a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus - and non-believers. We are shaped by every language and culture, drawn from every end of this Earth; and because we have tasted the bitter swill of civil war and segregation, and emerged from that dark chapter stronger and more united, we cannot help but believe that the old hatreds shall someday pass; that the lines of tribe shall soon dissolve; that as the world grows smaller, our common humanity shall reveal itself; and that America must play its role in ushering in a new era of peace.
[23]To the Muslim world, we seek a new way forward, based on mutual interest and mutual respect.
[24]To those leaders around the globe who seek to sow conflict, or blame their society's ills on the West - know that your people will judge you on what you can build, not what you destroy. To those who cling to power through corruption and deceit and the silencing of dissent, know that you are on the wrong side of history; but that we will extend a hand if you are willing to unclench your fist.
[25]To the people of poor nations, we pledge to work alongside you to make your farms flourish and let clean waters flow; to nourish starved bodies and feed hungry minds. And to those nations like ours that enjoy relative plenty, we say we can no longer afford indifference to suffering outside our borders; nor can we consume the world's resources without regard to effect. For the world has changed, and we must change with it.
[26]As we consider the road that unfolds before us, we remember with humble gratitude those brave Americans who, at this very hour, patrol far-off deserts and distant mountains. They have something to tell us today, just as the fallen heroes who lie in Arlington whisper through the ages.
38
[27]We honor them not only because they are guardians of our liberty, but because they embody the spirit of service; a willingness to find meaning in something greater than themselves. And yet, at this moment - a moment that will define a generation - it is precisely this spirit that must inhabit us all.
[28]For as much as government can do and must do, it is ultimately the faith and determination of the American people upon which this nation relies. It is the kindness to take in a stranger when the levees break, the selflessness of workers who would rather cut their hours than see a friend lose their job which sees us through our darkest hours. It is the firefighter's courage to storm a stairway filled with smoke, but also a parent's willingness to nurture a child, that finally decides our fate.
[29]Our challenges may be new. The instruments with which we meet them may be new. But those values upon which our success depends - hard work and honesty, courage and fair play, tolerance and curiosity, loyalty and patriotism - these things are old. These things are true. They have been the quiet force of progress throughout our history. What is demanded then is a return to these truths. What is required of us now is a new era of responsibility - a recognition, on the part of every American, that we have duties to ourselves, our nation, and the world, duties that we do not grudgingly accept but rather seize gladly, firm in the knowledge that there is nothing so satisfying to the spirit, so defining of our character, than giving our all to a difficult task.
[30]This is the price and the promise of citizenship.
[31]This is the source of our confidence - the knowledge that God calls on us to shape an uncertain destiny.
[32]This is the meaning of our liberty and our creed - why men and women and children of every race and every faith can join in celebration across this magnificent mall, and why a man whose father less than sixty years ago might not have been served at a local restaurant can now stand before you to take a most sacred oath.
[33]So let us mark this day with remembrance, of who we are and how far we have traveled. In the year of America's birth, in the coldest of months, a small band of patriots huddled by dying campfires on the shores of an icy river. The capital was abandoned. The enemy was advancing. The snow was stained with blood. At a moment when the outcome of our revolution was most in doubt, the father of our nation ordered these words be read to the people:
[34]"Let it be told to the future world...that in the depth of winter, when nothing but hope and virtue could survive...that the city and the country, alarmed at one common danger, came forth to meet [it]."
[35]America. In the face of our common dangers, in this winter of our hardship, let us remember these timeless words. With hope and virtue, let us brave once more the icy currents, and endure what storms may come. Let it be said by our children's children that when we were tested we refused to let this journey end, that we did not turn back nor did we falter; and with eyes fixed on the horizon and God's grace upon us, we carried forth that great gift of freedom and delivered it safely to future generations.
39
BACKCHANNEL IN THE ENGLISH MIXED-SEX
CONVERSATIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF VIETNAM:
A DISCUSSION OF FREQUENCY, GENDER TYPICAL
EXPRESSION, AND LEVEL OF SUPPORT
Đinh Thị Vinh Quy, Hoàng Vân Trang & Đỗ Phương Thúy
Vài nét về nhóm tác giả
Đinh Thị Vinh Quy tốt nghiệp chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại Đại học Ngoại ngữ - Đại
học Quốc gia Hà Nội năm 2007 và hiện nay đang theo học chương trình Thạc sỹ chuyên ngành
Ngôn ngữ ứng dụng của trường Hogskolan Dalarna, Thụy Điển. Đinh Thị Vinh Quy hiện là
cán bộ giảng dạy của Sư phạm tiếng Anh, ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN.
Email: vinhquy_dinh0509@yahoo.com
Hoàng Vân Trang là giảng viên Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh từ năm 2002 và đã tốt nghiệp Thạc
sỹ chuyên ngành Phương pháp lý luận và giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ,
Đại học Quốc Gia Hà Nôi. Sở thích nghiên cứu của Hoàng Vân Trang là phương pháp giảng
dạy tiếng Anh và các phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học.
Email: vantrang80@yahoo.com
Tốt nghiệp đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội năm 2006, Đỗ Phương Thúy có 4
năm kinh nghiệm giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại Bộ môn Cử tuyển, Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh, trường
ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN. Hiện nay Đỗ Phương Thúy đang theo học chương trình Thạc sỹ chuyên
ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại Khoa Sau đại học, ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN (HULIS-VNU). Email:
tearsvn1@yahoo.com
1. Introduction:
According to Zimmerman and West (1975), Fishman (1983), Coates (1989), and Jenkins &
Cheshire (1990), women tended to be more active than men in supportive roles in
conversation. They showed their conversation support by signaling that the speaker’s
messages had been received, understood, agreed to and/or brought out a certain effect
(Orestrom, 1983). This phenomenon was originally addressed as backchannel by Yngve
(1970). However, the bulk of above research was conducted in such English-speaking
countries as the United States, Britain and New Zealand (Thomas, L. et al, 2004). Then
whether this pattern is also true for non-English-speaking context like Vietnam is still subject
to test. Additionally, many studies on backchannel items, especially appreciative utterances in
Vietnamese context have been documented such as Hoang, T. H. (2006), Nguyen, M. H.
(2005), yet these papers are discussed under the light of Pragmatic or Cross-culture rather than
Language-and-Gender domain. Finally, little body of research explicitly seeks to learn typical
expressions and level of interest that men and women employ as their own strategies in
40
conversations. This research gap urges the need for an in-depth study on English Backchannel
in conversations in the context of Vietnam.
2. Aims, Research Questions and Scopes of Study:
The paper purports to address the following research questions: (1) is there any difference in
frequency of backchannel items in mixed-sex conversations? If yes, which gender use more
backchannel responses?; (2) is there any difference in their backchannel expressions? If yes,
which expressions are typical for each sex?; and (3) is there any difference in level of interest
between the two genders? If yes, which sex uses higher level?. The findings would provide a
modest contribution to linguistic analysis work based on gender and application to better real-
life communications.
Due to the limitation of time, the paper excludes such other influential factors as: age, ethnic
groups, religion, class, sexual orientation, and regional and cultural background. The number
of samples is also limited within the capacity of the researcher’s analysis.
3. Core Concept: Backchannel
In Linguistics, backchannels are defined as listener responses that can be either verbal or non-
verbal in nature. Backchannel responses used to refer to the short utterances (e.g., uh, huh,
okay, Yeah, I see) that would occur in the backchannel by the non-primary speaker or the
listener as the front channel is occupied by the primary speaker (Yngve, 1970). Later, scholars
extended the scope of backchannel responses to include sentence completions, requests for
clarification, brief statements, and non-verbal responses (Duncan & Niederehe, 1974; Duncan
& Fiske, 1977). To recognize backchannel responses, two criteria must to be fulfilled: (a) they
do not seriously interrupt the primary speaker’s speakership, and (b) they do not intend to take
over the floor of the current speaker (Clancy, Thompson, Suzuki & Tao, 1996). The two major
functions of backchannel responses are ‘‘continuers’’ and ‘‘assessments’’ (Goodwin, 1986;
Schegloff, 1982). That is to say, they are indications to the current speaker that the listener is
paying attention to and/or understands what is being said.
4. Method and Data:
Participants
Ten participants (five males and five females) volunteered to participate in the study without
any incentives offered. They formed five dyads of mix-sexed conversation. However, one
dyad was dropped from the data analysis since they both did not follow the instruction and
were highly aware of recording. The majority of participants were in their twenties or early
thirties with an average of 29.1. The mean ages for the males and females were 30.0 and 28.2,
respectively. These means were not statistically significant: t (1,78) = -1.90, P > 0.05. All the
participants were recruited from English Department of University of Languages and
41
International Studies (HULIS). Prior to this recruitment, the ethics approval was obtained from
the University’s Ethics Review Board. Since all the participants were the instructors and
students of English in HULIS, their English proficiency was highly ensured. Additionally,
they all had an IELTS score of band 5.5 or over at the time of recording.
Experimental Design and Procedure
A daily-topic-conversation design was applied under two conditions: over-the-phone and
face-to-face conversations. All the participants were well informed about the recording and the
purpose of data collection. An open atmosphere was created by a well-trained facilitator,
which was supposed to mitigate the psychological confront by high awareness of recording.
The bulk of recorded data proved to be of natural contribution except for the first two minutes
since the participants were still well conscious about the tape-recorder. Therefore, all the data
retrieved from the first-two-minute block was dropped from the data analysis. The targeted
conversations were then transcripted and coded properly. In the first stage, all the backchannel
items were counted and compared between dyads and the two sexes. Next, typical
backchannel expressions in each sex were documented and then compared between the two
genders. At the final stage, a discourse analysis (function-focused) was conducted to learn the
level of supportiveness in these expressions.
5. Result: Discussion of Findings
Discussion of frequency of backchannel items between two sexes
It can be seen from the figure 1 that males prove to use more backchannel items than females,
only except for the conversation 4. In addition, the ratio is rather high: 15 times in the
conversation 2, over 3 times in the conversation 1, and nearly 2 times in the conversation 3.
Meanwhile, the conversation 4 presents only two times of females’ employment of
backchannel items over that of the males. This result is obviously contradictory to the
hypothesis generated from the previous research. It should be well noted that in the three
conversations 1-3, the female speakers are the primary source of information giving.
Therefore, the males are just information token. They accordingly have no or little chance to
take the floor. However, in the conversation 4 where the male speaker is the main information
0
24
6
8
1012
14
16
C1 C2 C3 C4
Male
Female
Figure 1: Frequency of backchannel items
42
deliverer and the female is rather a passive receiver, then the reverse stages. The number of
backchannel items that the female employs actually doubles that by the male. Apparently, the
frequency of backchannel use, in this case study, depends heavily on the role of the
participant. A common pattern can be roughly established that who is the primary source of
information tends to employ less backchannel items and vise verse.
Discussion of typical features in backchannel use between the two sexes
Backchannel Males % Females %
/oh/ 9 12% 1 1.2%
/oh?/ 4 5% 0 0%
/um, umhm, mmhm/ 4 5% 2 2.4%
/uh, uhuh, huh, ahah/ 5 6% 5 6%
/yeh, yeah, yah/ 6 7.5% 4 5%
/yep?/ 0 0% 1 1.2%
/yes/ 4 5% 1 1.2%
/ah/ 2 2.5% 0 0%
/ok/ 4 5% 1 1.2%
/so/ 0 0% 2 2.4%
/right, that’s right/ 0 0% 2 2.4%
Sentence with /good, great,
nice, well, interesting,
beautiful, helpful/
7 9% 1 1.2%
Others 7 9% 7 9%
/laugh/ 1 1.2% 0 0%
Total 53 >=67% 26 =<33%
As shown in the figure 2, the majority of the backchannel items that the females use is rather
short (either a single word or two). Meanwhile, the responses from the males’ utterances seem
to be longer. This feature is also different from the previous research, which contends that the
females’ sentences tend to be longer that the males’ (Fishman (1983), Coates (1989), and
Jenkins & Cheshire (1990)). The males in this case study employ quite many sentences with
positive words such as: “good, great, nice, well, beautiful and helpful” in comparison with
only one utterance from the female in the conversation 3. This reveals that the males highly
appreciate the information that the females send out. It is well noticing that a laugh was
Figure 2: Typical features in backchannel use between the two sexes
43
recorded in the male’s utterance in the conversation 1, whereas none was found in the
females’. Since a laugh can, according to Steiner (2005), show a spontaneous and strongly
emotional response, it can be a good indicator of supportiveness in conversation. Therefore,
the males seem to support the wheel of conversation better than the females. And once again,
the situation plays a key factor in determining those who would be more supportive.
Discussion of level of interest between the two sexes
To learn the level of interest between the two sexes, a “level-of-interest” scale should be well-
defined as the following groups:
- the single form (oh, uhuh, yeah, mh, ah, so, ok, yes) (single words)
- the complex form (yeah yeah, oh ok) (two words or more)
- the questions (yep?, oh? Really?, about half an hour?)
- the restatement
- the appreciative full sentences
- the laughter
The order above indicates the increasing level of interest.
At most of the levels of interest, the males prove to have a higher involvement than the
females except for the restatement. It should be noted that the restatement is regularly used by
the female in the conversation 4 since she is noting the information that the male delivers. So
her restatement purports to confirm the messages that she has taken from him. Additionally,
the males tend to use more appreciative full-sentence response to show their interest than the
females. However, this pattern is designated by the particular setting in which the females are
informants and the males themselves are information tokens.
05
101520253035
single
complex
question
restatement
appreciative
laugh
Males
Females
Figure 3: Level of Interest
Low Interest High Interest
44
6. Conclusion:
From the discussion above, (1) the males prove to be more supportive in mix-sexed
conversations than the females. This is contradictory to the hypothesis stated in the
introduction. This pattern clearly depends on the roles of the participants in the conversations
rather than their genders. Those who primarily give information tends to deliver less
backchannel items than the other and vice versa. (2) The males’ responses are longer, more
varied, and embedded with more feelings and functions than those of the females. However,
the situation accounts for this reverse phenomenon. (3) At the bulk of levels, the males present
their higher interest in the message transfers. However, due to the limitation of the target
population and the settings of conversations, these findings and interpretations should not be
over-generalized. This is a case study to prove the hypothesis aforementioned should not be
widely administrated. For further research, the paper suggests a more in-depth investigation of
the effects of participants’ roles over their use of backchannel items.
REFERENCES
Coates, J.(1989). Gossip revisited: language in all-female groups. In Coates, J. and Cameron,
D. (eds.) Women in their speech communications, London: Longman.
Fishman, Pamela (1983), Interaction: the work women do, in Thorne, B., Kramerae, C. and
Henley, N. (eds.), Language and sex: Difference and dominance, Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
Hoang, Thi Hanh (2006), Appreciating Utterances in Conversation: A Cross-culture Analysis,
PhD Thesis. Faculty of Art, Melbourne University
Jenkins, Nancy and Cheshire, Jenny (1990), Gender issues in the GCSE oral English
examination: part 1’, Language and education, 4: 261-92.
Nguyen, Thi Mai Hoa (2005), Pragmatic Analysis of Appreciating Responses in daily
conversations: A comparison between Vietnamese and Australian Culture, PhD Thesis,
Faculty of Art, Melbourne University.
Thomas, Linda, et al. (2004), Language, Society and Power, London: Routledge.
Zimmerman, Dan and West, Candace (1975), Sexroles, interruptions and silences in
conversation, inThorne, B. , Kramerae, C., and Henley, N. (eds.), Language and sex:
Difference and dominance, Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
45
APPENDIX
Conversation 1
FM1: 563721, EBC company.
M1: Good morning. Can I speak to Mary? It’s her brother here.
FM1: Oh, hi Jack. This is Mary. When did you come? I thought you were coming this
afternoon.
M1: Yes. Well, I planned to. But my friend bought a ticket for this morning instead, so …
FM1: I see. Well, I’m sorry I’m very busy now so I can’t really leave. Well, you can have a
rest and take a shower…
M1: That’s just it. I’m going to take a shower but I don’t know how to use your hot water
tank.
FM1: Oh, OK … well … don’t plug in the electricity – the hot water tank, until you are
absolutely sure you’ve filled it with water.
M1: Don’t plug in the hot water tank? Sorry?
FM1: Don’t plug it into the mains.
M1: Oh
FM1: Yep?
M1: I see … before it’s full of water … Oh, I’m with you.
FM1: Um … because as at the moment, er … it’s drained off for the winter, you see.
M1: I get you. Yeh.
FM1: Now the tank … it’s got two taps underneath it.
M1: Yes.
FM1: One’s red. One’s black.
M1: Right.
FM1: You are all right?
M1: Uhhuh.
FM1: Now here … you’ve got to close the red one first.
M1: Close the red first, yes.
FM1: That’s the drainage tap.
M1: Yeah.
FM1: Then you’ve got to open the black one.
M1: Open the black one.
FM1: … which is the supple tap …
M1: Yes … um, well, yes, … open the black one, right.
FM1: And it’ll take about five minutes probably to fill up.
46
M1: Umhmm
FM1: And then you can plug it into the mains.
M1: Good. And then I get …?
FM1: And … about half an hour later you should have some hot water with any luck.
M1: About a half hour?
FM1: Um.
M1: Fine … so I’ve got electricity and water.
FM1: Yes.
M1: Great … well … (laughs) sounds like …
FM1: You should be all right.
M1: OK. Thanks. See you soon.
Conversation 2:
M2: Good morning. 5723490.
FM2: Good morning, Richard. This is Sally.
M2: Hello, Sally. How are you?
FM2: Fine, thanks. Listen, are you free this weekend?
M2: Yes. Why?
FM2: You know, I’ve just bought a new house in the countryside.
M2: Oh, have you? Congratulations.
FM2: Thank you. I would like to invite you to have dinner with my family this weekend.
M2: That’s very kind of you. I’d love to. You’d better tell me how to get there. Where is your
new house?
FM2: In Greenwich. How will you be coming?
M2: By car, of course.
FM2: All right. So you’ll be coming from Andover. You need to take the road to Grand Town.
M2: Take the road … yeh. Hang on a moment, hang on a minute …
FM2: from Grand Town…
M2: ‘Cause I’m … I’m writing this down, ‘cause I … Grand Town, that’s Gra …
FM2: That’s G-R-A-N-D T-O-W-N. That’s right. Now you’ll approach the village from the
north.
M2: Coming from the north. Uhuh.
FM2: The house is about two miles outside the village, by the way.
M2: House is two … Uhuh.
FM2: Mmhmm. So now you get … you … you come into the centre of the village and you’ll
arrive at the main square …
47
M2: Come into centre …
FM2: On the far side…
M2: Yeh, I … I can’t get lost there, can I?
FM2: No, you can’t miss it.
M2: Mm.
FM2: … far side of the square you’ll see the Town Hall, “le Mairie” …
M2: Far side … hang on, far side … see Town Hall …
FM2: Right.
M2: Yah.
FM2: Now, you need to go past the Town Hall, leaving it on your left …
M2: Past … leave it on my left … yeh.
FM2: And cross the bridge over the river.
M2: Bridge … over … river. OK.
FM2: Now, the thing I, when you get across the bridge …
M2: Mm.
FM2: There’s a junction but there aren’t any signposts.
M2: Oh, that’s helpful.
FM2: Well … you know how it is. So you turn right.
M2: I cross the bridge … hang on. There’s a junction …yeh …and then I have to go right at
the junction.
FM2: That’s right. You turn right immediately after the bridge.
M2: Mmhmm.
FM2: And … basically you keep on that road. The road bears round to the left …
M2: Oh, that doesn’t sound too bad … yeh.
FM2: First of all … um … after about half a mile, there’s a chateau on your right.
M2: Is that your place?
FM2: Mm … ‘fraid not. Couldn’t afford it.
M2: Chateau … on … on the right, yehm?
FM2: And there’s a road going off opposite that … but ignore that road.
M2: Oh?
FM2: Keep straight on… you keep straight on right.
M2: Yeh.
FM2: Past the chateau.
M2: Keep straight on … yes?
FM2: The next thing you come to is a farm at a place called Villac …
48
M2: Farm … and then … Villac. That’s V-I-L-L …?
FM2: A-C.
M2: A-C?
FM2: That’s it.
M2: Uhuh?
FM2: And just after that the valley narrows and the road comes much closer to the river.
M2: Yes.
FM2: So you run along the river …
M2: Uhuh.
FM2: For a little … few hundred metres really. The house is in the next group of buildings.
M2: Ah.
FM2: You’ve got a mill … opposite the house.
M2: Ah … it sounds beautiful.
FM2: Well … it’s got … er … I think … I think you’ll like it when you get there.
M2: So … hang on a minute, the mill id opposite.
FM2: Yeh, you’ve got the river on your right.
M2: Yeh.
FM2: You come to the mill…which is on your right and three …
M2: Yes?
FM2: Three houses on the left opposite the mill … and the house is the middle one.
M2: House is the middle … one. OK.
FM2: Right? So do you think you’ll find it.
M2: Well … well, with my sense of direction I’m not sure, but now … I … I think I’ve got
everything down.
FM2: Fine. I’m sure you will. Dinner will start at six.
M2: Do I need to bring something?
Conversation 3:
M3: Excuse me, is this the accommodation office?
FM3: Yes, it is.
M3: Hi, my name is … um … Wolfgang. I … I’m a new student here. I’m wondering if you
can tell me some information about the housing arrangements at this college?
FM3: Yes, certainly. Well, I mean … basically there are two types of … um …
accommodation. The most popular is … um, the college accommodation … um … but also we
offer accommodation with local families.
M3: You mean a kind of home stay?
49
FM3: Yes, that’s right.
M3: Well, let me … can I … do you mind if I ask you a few questions about both of them?
Let me start with the college accommodation. Um … what kind of rooms are they?
FM3: Well, there are basically two types of room, either a single or a twin study bedroom. So
that’s …
M3: I’d have a roommate then?
FM3: That’s right, yes. So it’s two people sharing a room.
M3: Do all of the rooms have their own bathrooms?
FM3: Erm … they don’t. You … you have to share … um, a bathroom and a toilet … and
showers with a group of rooms. So it’s about six to eight other students.
M3: I see. Well, well … that sounds fine. What about bedding? Is …er … is that provided by
the college or …?
FM3: Yes, yes, it is. Um … so all the bed – linen is supplied.
M3: And the towels?
FM3: No. So you have to bring your own towels with you.
M3: Oh … uhuh. Well, If I … then … to wash my towels, is there a place where I can go to
do that or …?
FM3: Yes, yes. So … um … there are two accommodation buildings in the college and both of
these have launderettes.
M3: I’m sorry, they have a what?
FM3: They have launderettes. So these are places … um … where you can take your washing
and there are washing machines.
M3: Oh, is … is it free or …?
FM3: Er, no. They’re coin-operated washing machines …
M3: Oh. So I use the coin to make the machine work.
FM3: Uhuh, yes, that’s right.
M3: Oh, OK. That sounds fine.
FM3: And the … the … rooms are actually cleaned … um … every week and the bed – linen
is changed, also at the same time.
M3: Oh, that’s wonderful. That sounds fine. Um … if I … if I do decide to stay in the … in
the dormitory, I’m going to want to … er … have a chance to watch television. I wan to use
TV to practice my English. Is there a TV in the room?
FM3: Well, no, there isn’t a TV in every room … um … but there is a common room which
has … um … a colour TV in it, and some kinds of sitting areas so students can meet together
and they can watch TV.
M3: Oh, well, that sounds fine.
50
FM3: Uhuh … and, oh, but actually there’s also a large hall for films and discos, and kind of
parties and other social occasions.
M3: Oh, well, that sounds very good. That sounds interesting. I may want to do that, but
before I decide for sure, let me ask about the other possibility. I think you said there’s a kind
of homestay programme, is that right?
FM3: Yes, that’s right. So we select local families who … um … want to have students
staying with them for short periods.
M3: Hmm … well, that sounds interesting. How do I … er … how does that work? Do I eat
there everyday and … and sleep there as well, and so on?
FM3: Oh, well, basically there’re … there’re two kinds of accommodation available here… so
… um … The first one is half board so this is where … um …you just eat breakfast and
evening dinner with the family.
M3: Oh, and then lunch I would have on campus?
FM3: That’s right, yes. So that’s … that’s during the week, but at weekends you’ll have al
your meals …
M3: All the meals there …?
FM3: … with the … yeah … with the family. Um … so that’s …
M3: The other one was …
FM3: Uhuh. So that was the half board. The … the other one is bed and breakfast. So this is
where you just have breakfast with the family, seven days a week. So that includes weekends.
M3: And then I would have the lunch and dinner on campus. Is that how it’d work?
FM3: That’s right, yes. So it’s just breakfast.
M3: Well, now that I think about it, I wonder if maybe that might not … not be the better
option for me. The way I would have a chance to be practising my English with the British
family. I … yes, I think I will sign up for that. I’m pretty much sure that’s what I want to do
right now. Is it OK to go ahead and sign up immediately?
FM3: OK, yes, yes, that’s fine. Right, let me just see if I can find the forms. OK, right … so
your name is …?
M3: My name is Wolfgang Schmidt. That’s Wolfgang …
FM3: Wolfgang? Oh, how do you spell that?
M3: W-O-L-F-G-A-N-G.
FM3: OK … G-A-N-G … uhuh.
M3: And my last name is Schmidt.
FM3: Schmidt, ahah …
M3: S-C-H-M-I-D-T
FM3: S-C-H-M-D-T. And your address?
51
M3: You mean in Germany?
FM3: Yes, …yes, your home address.
M3: Ah … it’s Franz Dieter Strausse
FM3: Oh, how do you spell that?
M3: That’s F-R-A-N-Z …
FM3: F-R-A-N-Z … we say “zed” in Britain.
M3: Oh. I’m sorry – zed, yes. F-R-A-N-Z and the next word is Dieter. That’s D-I-E-T-E-R.
FM3: Uhuh … and …
M3: And the last word is Strausse.
FM3: Strausse, so that S-T- …
M3: S-T-R-A-U-S-S-E.
FM3: … S-S-E.
M3: Franz Dieter Strausse, number five.
FM3: Number five … uhuh.
M3: in Bonne …
FM3: Right, and that’s Germany, obviously.
M3: Germany. Uhuh.
FM3: And your age?
M3:I’m 20 … I’m sorry … no … I just turned 21 yesterday.
FM3: Oh, really? Happy birthday.
M3: Thank you.
FM3: Uhuh .. OK … and the programme that you’re in?
M3: I;m on the four-month programme, so I’ll be staying here until the end of December.
FM3: Right. And so you have any dietary requirements?
M3: I’m sorry. I’m not sure what you mean …
FM3: Ah, is … is there any kind of special food that you need or that you don’t eat?
M3: oh, no. I like to eat most anything … um …
FM3: Oh, that’s just as well with British food.
M3: I don’t think so. I’m looking forward to … er … trying some British dishes.
FM3: Really? Well …OK…um… we like to ask you something about yourself … your
personal interests and things, so that we can match you with an appropriate family, so …
M3: Oh, OK …
FM3: So, do … have you got any personal interests or hobbies?
M3: Well, I … I like to do sports … um … I specially like football. If it’s possibleI’d like to
be with a family maybe where there ‘s somebody I could practise football with.
52
FM3: Right … football … um… and have you got any special requirements for the family that
you are going to stay with … um …
M3: Oh, well … you know, I come from a large family back in Germany, so maybe, if it is
possible, you could put me with a family where there might be …er … another young person
or two, perhaps – would be good.
FM3: Right. So someone about your own age, perhaps …
M3: Mmm, maybe someone I could play football with …yeah.
FM3: Right. Well, actually I interviewed a family yesterday who seem just right for you …
M3: Oh.
FM3: Um … their name is Roberts … so it’s the Roberts family. Um … Mr. Robert is a bank
manager.
M3: Oh, really? My father is a bank manager.
FM3: Oh, well, and …
M3: That sounds very good.
FM3: So his … his wife is a part – time nursery school teacher, so she just work in the
morning.
M3: Oh, OK.
FM3: And they have two children … the girl is eighteen, but she is actually just gone away to
college, so this is why they have a room vacant.
M3: Oh, so I would … I would stay in her room then?
FM3: That’s right, uhuh.
M3: Oh, that sounds fine..
FM3: And their son is sixteen years old and he likes football very much.
M3: Well, that sounds very good. I think I … I’d like to meet this family. Is that possible to
… to do that?
FM3: Yes, it is. Um … what I’ll do is … I’ll give Mrs. Roberts a ring now. In fact, she should
be … should be home at this time. So I’ll give her a ring.
M3: Ok. Thank you.
Conversation 4
FM4: Hi, Wolfgang.
M4: Ah, Mary. How are you?
FM4: Oh, fine. How’s it going? Have you just had a class?
M4: Yes, I just finished my listening class. It was …er… a little bit difficult.
FM4: Yeah, yeah, it’s always difficult when you first arrive somewhere. I found it
quite hard when I first arrived. Mmm … but you know, what really made a difference was
53
going on these social activities that the … the college arranges for you. It kinda … gives you a
chance to practice your English and …
M4: Hmm … I’ve heard that the college is pretty good about organizing those kinds of
things. How … how do I find out about it?
FM4: Well, I’ve just picked up a schedule today. Let’s … let’s have a look at it. Here it is …
M4: What is it? A schedule for … for this week or …?
FM4: Yeah, yeah. Let’s have a look.
M4: Oh, OK … yeah … maybe we can do something together … in fact.
FM4: Yeah, that’d be great, so …
M4: Let’s see. What are they doing tonight? Monday night …
FM4: Well, they’ve … so … oh. They’ve got Singing with Guitar. So I went to this last week.
It’s …
M4: Oh, really?
FM4: Yes, it’s quite good fun.
M4: Is it pretty good?
FM4: Yeah, yeah.
M4: What do they do? Do they have a concert or …?
FM4: It’s … they teach you … um … modern and traditional songs.
M4: Mm … well … I’m not much of a singer, but … er…
FM4: Oh, come on. You should go. It’s really good fun.
M4: Well, I suppose it’d be a good way to practice my English.
FM4: Yeah, ‘cause you learn kinda British folk songs and things. It’s … yeah … really
interesting.
M4: Oh, but look at that. That starts at eight. But I notice at nine o’clock there’s a … er …
late night coach to Cambridge for a film. I think I’d want to go to try that … er … what time
does this singing finish? Do you know? about two hours, but I mean, we can always leave
earlier – they don’t mind, do …
M4: Oh, OK. So we can do both of them?
FM4: Yeah, so …
M4: Right. So that’s at nine o’clock … yea … yeah …
FM4: What movie is it? Let me see …
M4: Er … oh. It’s Rocky. Have you seen it?
FM4: Rocky … Rocky? Oh, that’s … that’s … er … the one with Richard Dreyfuss, isn’t it?
M4: Richard Dreyfuss? No, it’s Sylvester Stallone.
FM4: Oh, yes. I remember now … American movie … yes, I haven’t seen that. I wanna see
that. Good. Let’s go to that.
54
M4: All right. Ok. Oh, did you see on Tuesday that there’s a tennis tournament?
FM4: Tennis? Mm… what time is that?
M4: Well, that’s at four o’clock in the afternoon.
FM4: Where is it? Is it on campus or …
M4: No … no. It’s at Wembley, so that’s in London.
FM4: Oh, oh, so that … it’s pretty far away then. What time will it be coming back?
M4: Um … so it … the coach gets back at midnight.
FM4: Oh, midnight? Well, hmm … tell you what, I think maybe I’d better cancel on that
because I’ve got a class Wednesday morning, and I’m afraid … at about eight thirty … I’m
afraid if I came back that late I probably would …er… I’d be tired in class, and actually I …
I’m more into football myself, anyway.
M4: Oh, football? Well, did you see there’s a football match on Wednesday?
FM4: Oh, yeah? Well, who’s … who’s playing? Let’s see …
M4: Oh, it’s England and Brazil.
FM4: Oh, I really want to see that. Would you like to go together?
M4: Yeah, sure. What time is it?
FM4: Let me see… It says fifteen thirty, so that would be three thirty.
M4: Three thirty? Huh …
FM4: Now, I’ve got a … I have a lecture … er … right after lunch on Wednesday, at one
thirty
M4: Uhuh, what lecture is that?
FM4: Oh, well, there’s a journalist coming from the BBC. He’s going to talk about his
experiences as a foreign correspondent.
M4: Huh, that sounds interesting.
FM4: Would you … would you like to go?
Wolfgang: Yeah. What time did you say it was?
FM4: Er … right after lunch, around one thirty.
M4: Oh, one thirty? I have a class then. What a sh … yeah …
FM4: Oh, that’s too bad. Well, what time does your class finish?
M4: Well, it finishes … it’s an hour long … so it finishes at two thirty.
FM4: Oh, well, I shouldn’t imagine … the lecture shouldn’t go much later than that either, so
after your class and after my lecture we can get together to go to the football game.
M4: Ok … so we can meet …
FM4: Let’s see, maybe three o’clock or … maybe three fifteen.
M4: Yeah, maybe three fifteen would be all right.
55
FM4: OK. Where should we meet?
M4: Well, usually these … on these kinds of trips, the coach leaves from in front of the
dining hall, so maybe we could meet there.
FM4: OK, so in front of the dining hall at three fifteen. That sounds fine.
M4: Yeah, right. On Thursday there’s International Evening in the school hall.
FM4: Yeah, all songs and dances, performance by students from all over the world. That’s
very interesting. Would you like to go and see?
M4: Yes, when is that?
FM4: It will start at eight. Shall we meet at seven fifty in front of the school hall?
Wolfgang: Fine, seven fifty in front of the school hall.
56
PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE -
A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ON ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE PLOSIVE
CONSONANTS
Hoàng Thị Mỵ
Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh
Vài nét về tác giả
Tốt nghiệp đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội năm 2006, Hoàng Thị Mỵ có 4 năm
kinh nghiệm giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại khoa Tiếng Anh và hiện nay là tại khoa Sư phạm tiếng
Anh, trường ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN. Hiện nay Hoàng Thị Mỵ đang theo học chương trình Thạc sỹ
tại Khoa Sau đại học, ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN (HULIS-VNU).
Abstract
It is now accepted that English is the major language globally, and that there are
probably more speakers of English as a second or foreign language than there are people who
speak it as their first language. More and more people need to use English for social,
educational, and professional reasons in all kinds of contexts, locally and internationally. It is
essential, therefore, that people who use English to communicate have a high level of
intelligibility. Among aspects of language, pronunciation plays a significant role in language
learning and linguistic development as well as successful communication. Each language has
its own system of pronunciation. For Vietnamese learners of English, pronunciation especially
plosive consonants cause many difficulties and they make a lot of mistakes when pronouncing
these sounds. Therefore, in order to have a better understanding between English and
Vietnamese pronunciation, especially consonants, I would like to avail myself of this
opportunity to do a research on this potential problem by using a contrastive analysis method
to find out the similarities and differences between phonology, consonants especially plosive
consonants of English and Vietnamese.
INTRODUCTION
1. Definition of the terms
1.1. Contrastive analysis
“Contrastive analysis is a linguistic enterprise aimed at producing inverted two –
valued typologies (a CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded on the
assumption that languages can be compared.”
James (1980:3)
1.2. Consonant
“Consonants are sounds produced by partially or completely blocking the air in its
passage from the lungs through the vocal tract.”
57
Finegan (2004:89)
Each consonant can be distinguished by basic
features, which are the manner of articulation, the
place of articulation, and the voicing of the
consonant.
Since the number of consonants in the
world's languages is much greater than the number
of consonant letters in any one alphabet, linguists
have devised systems such as the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique symbol
to each attested consonant.
1.3. Stops consonants
Stop consonants are the sounds in the production of which there is a complete closure of
the articulators involved so that the air-stream cannot escape through the mouth. There are two
kinds of stops:
Oral stops (Plosives) are the sounds which are produced with the air-stream being stopped
in the oral cavity and the soft palate is raised blocking off the nasal cavity. Then the two
articulators come apart quickly and the air escapes through the oral tract.
Nasal stops (Nasals) are the sounds which are produced with the air-stream being stopped
in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that the air can go out through the nose.
In the scope of this term paper, it is our intention to just focus on the contrastive analysis
of plosive consonants (oral stops) in English and in Vietnamese.
According to Ha Cam Tam (2004: 16), a plosive consonant has the following stages:
- The closing stage, during which the articulating organs move together in order to form
the obstruction. In this stage, there is often an on-glide or transition audible in a
preceding sound segment and visible in an acoustic analysis as characteristic curve of
formants of the preceding sound.
- The compression stage, during which lung action compresses the air behind the
closure. This stage may or may not be accompanied by voice, i.e. vibration of the vocal
cords.
- The explosion stage, during which the organs forming the obstruction part rapidly,
allowing the compressed air to escape abruptly. If the compression stage is voiced, the
vocal cord vibration may continue in this stage. If the compression stage is voiceless,
this stage may also be voiceless before silence or before the onset of voice.
2. English phonology versus Vietnamese phonology
There are similarities as well as differences between English and Vietnamese
phonology. However, with the aim to getting an overview of English and Vietnamese
58
phonology in order to have the best understanding of consonants of these two languages, we
focus on differences between English and Vietnamese phonology.
The first difference is that English is multisyllabic language, whereas Vietnamese is
basically monosyllabic one. For Vietnamese this causes problems in pronunciation difficulties
such as word stress, breath control and derivative words. Therefore, it is difficult for
Vietnamese students to pronounce long, multisyllabic words, and joining syllables. Because
they are used to pronouncing short, simple words in Vietnamese. In other words, English has
stressed-time language, while Vietnamese is a syllable-timed language. As a result,
Vietnamese learners have to be acquainted with the concept of word stress, which is much
different from the concept of tone in Vietnamese. Moreover, word stress in English has no
orthographic indication, the only way to remember it is to learn by heart. Because of the
monosyllabic nature of Vietnamese, our students are not familiar with weakened vowels, or
unstressed syllables. That is, English has stressed syllables which are spoken with more effort
and energy and unstressed syllables that are pronounced with less effort. This does not happen
in Vietnamese, so the mistake that students of English often make is to produce all English
syllables with an even tone. In addition to this, word stress movement in related words such as
photograph, photography, photographer, photographic causes the learners many difficulties.
The second difference between English and Vietnamese is the liking sounds. In
English, the role of consonants is very important when these consonants are placed at the end
of the front word and the appearance of a vowel at the beginning of the next word. The
consonant and the vowel are linked together. This does not exist in Vietnamese. Therefore,
Vietnamese learners often produce English words and syllables separately, and it is also very
difficult for them to listen to native speakers as many linking sounds may occur in a sentence.
The next problem is the prosodic phenomena in Vietnamese and English. That is, in
Vietnamese, there are six tones: level, falling, rising, low-rising, broken and dot. These tones
are lexical. They change the meaning of words, just as, in English, changing one of the
segmental phonemes (consonants and vowels) can change the meaning of words. Let’s have a
look at the following examples:
Vietnamese English
Ma ghost
Má mother
Mả grave
Mà but
Mạ seed
Mã horse
As for a larger unit of speech- suprasegmental unit-intonation, in Vietnames, we do not
pay much attention to intonation because, according to Doan Thien Thuat (1997:187), a tonal
59
language often has a very limited intonation. It has, actually, intonation, but its role is vague.
For example, in order to express questions, Vietnamese speakers often use particles such as: à,
á, hả, ư, whereas in English intonation plays a greater role. A statement can become a question
if we change its intonation.
Example:
You are Tom?
The biggest difference between Vietnamese and English is in sound system of vowels and
consonants.
3. English consonants versus Vietnamese consonants
- English consonants
English contains 24 consonants which are classified by the criterion of distinction such
as: places of articulation, manners of articulation and voicing. This can be shown in the
following table:
Bilabial
- +
Labio-
dental
- +
Dental
- +
Alveolar
- +
Palato-
alveolar
- +
Palatal
- +
Velar
- +
Glotal
- +
Plosive p b t d k ɡ
Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
Affricate tʃ
dʒ
Nasal m n ŋ
Lateral l
Apro.
w
r
j
Place of articulation Labial Tongue tip
60
Manner of articulation
Tongue
blade
Tongue
root
GlottalStrait Retroflex
Plosive Noise
consonant
Aspirated
ť
Un-
aspirated
Voiceless
t ʈ c k ?
Voiced
b d
Nasal sonant
m n ɲ
Ŋ
Fricative
Noise
consonant Voiceless
f s ʂ X h
Voiced v z ʑ
Lateral sonant
l
Table: Chart of English consonant phonemes
(English phonetics and phonology – Peter Roach (p. 52:1990)
- Vietnamese consonants
According to Le Quang Thiem (2004), there are 30 Vietnamese consonants, in which
there are 22 initial consonants, only six final consonants: /p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ and two
semi-vowels. The possible Vietnamese consonants are represented in the following table in
IPA format.
Table: Chart of Vietnamese initial consonant phonemes
(Source: Nghiên cứu đối chiếu các ngôn ngữ - Lê Quang Thiêm (2004:100))
Manner of
articulation
Place of articulation
LabialTongue tip
Tongue tip Tongue blade
Plosive p t k
61
Fricativ
e
Non-
Nasal
m n Ŋ
Nasal Semi-vowel
u
Semi-vowel
i
Table: Chart of Vietnamese final-syllable consonants
When comparing between English consonant chart by Peter Roach (2004) and
Vietnamese consonant chart by Le Quang Thiem (2004), it can be seen that in describing
consonants, the Vietnamese researcher focus more on features of tongue position, whereas the
English researcher pay more attention to features of other articulators such as dental, alveolar
etc.
There are differences between the phonemic symbols and the writing symbols in both
English and Vietnamese. Therefore, the following tables will clarify the writing symbols and
the phonemic symbols in English and Vietnamese.
NO Phonemic
symbol
Writing
symbol
Example NO Phonemic
symbol
Writing
symbol
Example
1. p p pea, pin 13. b b been, bee
2. t t toe, tea 14. d d do, does
3. k c cap, car 15. g g gap, go
4. f f fat, fan 16. v v van
5. θ th thing, thank 17. ð th this, that
6. s s sip, sea 18. z z zip
7. ʃ sh ship, shape 19. ʒ measure
8. h h hat, hear 20. l l lead
9. m m map, man 21. r r red
10. n n now, nap 22. j y yet
11. ŋ ng hang, hung 23. w w wet, was
12 tʃ ch chin, China 24. dʒ g gin
Table: English phonemic symbol and their corresponding writing symbol
(Source: Nghiên cứu đối chiếu các ngôn ngữ - Lê Quang Thiêm (2004:107))
NO
Phonemic
symbol
Writing
symbolExample NO
Phonemic
symbol
Writing
symbolExample
62
1. b b ba, bàn 12. ʈ tr trâu trắng
2. m m mạ, mang 13. ʂ s sâu sắc
3. f ph phao, pha 14. ʐ r ráo riết
4. v v vào, việt 15. c ch chào chú
5. t’ th thầy, tha 16. ɲ ng nhà nho
6. t t tay, ta 17. k c, k, q co, quá, kẹo
7. d đ đi, đứng 18. ŋ ng, ngh ngày, nghèo
8. n n nao, núng 19. x kh khó khăn
9. s x xanh, xây 20. ɣ g, gh gà, ghẻ
10. z d, gi dày, gian 21. ? khuyết
11. l l lo, lắng 22. h h hay, ho
Table: Vietnamese initial consonants and their corresponding writing symbol
N0 Phonemic symbol Writing symbol Example
1 -p p tạp, úp
2 -t t át, lát, mát
3 -kch dịch, sách
c lấc cấc
4 -m m mam, âm
5 -n n nhân dân
6 -ɲ nh tính, sinh
7 - ŋ ng trông mong
Table: Vietnamese final consonants and their corresponding writing symbol
(Source: Nghiên cứu đối chiếu các ngôn ngữ - Lê Quang Thiêm (p.105 ))
From the comparison of inventory of Vietnamese consonants and English one, some
points can be focused as follows.
63
The first point is that Vietnamese has some consonants which are the same as English
in terms of writing symbol and phonemic symbol. In other words, they are the same in
spelling and phonemic symbol, including p /p/, b /b/, t /t/, c or k /k/, ph /f/, h /h/, v /v/, m /m/, n
/n/, ng /ŋ /, l /l/. For the same features of the above consonants, Vietnamese learners of
English have little difficulty in practicing and making these sounds correctly.
The second point is that there are some Vietnamese consonants which have the same
spelling but differ in pronunciation from English consonants. The consonants are mentioned
below.
o Writing symbol d has phonemic symbol as /z/ (dọn dẹp) in Vietnamese but as /d/
in English (dinner, door, bed)
o Writing symbol x has phonemic symbol as /s/ (xin xỏ) in Vietnamese but as /z/
(xenomorphic, exam) or /s/ (Xerox) in English.
o Writing symbol s has phonemic symbol as /ʂ/ (sung sướng) in Vietnamese but as
/s/ (sun, sight), /z/ (months), / dʒ/ (vision), /ʒ/ (treasure), /∫/ (mission) in English.
o Writing symbol gi has phonemic symbol as /z/ (giá cả) in Vietnamese but as / dʒ/
(giant) in English
o Writing symbol r has phonemic symbol as /ʐ/ (run rẩy, rung rinh) in Vietnamese
but as /r/ (run, ring) in English.
o Writing symbol g or gh has phonemic symbol as /ɣ/ (gọn gàng, ghé thăm) in
Vietnamese but as /g/ (gay, get, gharry) in English.
o Writing symbol ch has phonemic symbol as /c/ (chăm chỉ, chạy vạy) in
Vietnamese but as /t∫/ (chair) in English.
o Writing symbol tr has phonemic symbol as [ʈ] (trồng trọt) in Vietnamese but as
/tr/ (tree) in English.
When using the English consonants that have the same spelling but different
pronunciation compared with Vietnamese, Vietnamese speakers often make mistake in
pronunciation. In stead of making the correct sound in English, they make the sound in
Vietnamese that has the same writing symbol. The mistake will become more popular if the
phonetic symbols in English are not included in Vietnamese inventory of consonants.
The third point is about the consonants which have the same phonetic symbols but
different writing symbols. These consonants are:
Phonemic
symbol
Writing symbol
Vietnamese English
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/d/ đ(đó đây, đại hội) d (dinner, dog, desk)
/s/ x (xin xỏ, xinh xắn) c (circus), s (sun)
/f/ ph (phi thường, phổng
phao)
f (fun, finger)
/z/ gi (giá cả, gia công) gi (giant), z (zebra), x
(xerox)
/n/ n (nài nỉ) n (no), kn (know), gn
(gnotobiotics), pn
(pneumatic)
/w/ u/o w (wet), wh (wheel)
/j/ y/i (yêu quí, im lặng) g (vignette)
For the English consonants carrying this feature, Vietnamese speakers have less
difficulty in pronunciation because these sounds appear in the inventory of
Vietnamese consonants but sometimes they just look at the letters of
English words and make the sounds as ones of the letters in Vietnamese.
The fourth point can be realized through the comparison is existence
of some Vietnamese consonants that are not included in English and vice
versa. There are actually consonants existing in Vietnamese inventory of consonant but not
in English in terms of phonemics. The consonants include /ʈ/ (trong trắng), /c/ (chiến
tranh), /d/ (đi đứng), /ʂ/ (sa chân), /x/ (khó khăn), /ɣ/ (gọn gàng, ghe
chài), /ɲ/ (nhẹ nhàng, nhanh nhẹn). There are also consonants only
appearing in English inventory of consonant but not in Vietnamese. The
consonants are mentioned as follow: /g/ (get, got), /t∫/ (chew, nature), /dʒ/
(jaw, adjective, soldier, usage), // (thin), /ð/ (this), /∫/ (ship, election, machine, mission,
pressure, schedule), /ʒ/ (treasure, azure, evasion)
In the process of grasping English language, Vietnamese learners feel confused to
recognize and create sounds that Vietnamese does not have and in this case, they tend to find
and make these sounds like ones existing in Vietnamese which have a similar point to them.
In conclusion, there are some interesting points of similarities and differences between
the inventory of Vietnamese consonants and the inventory of English consonants. To use
English successfully, Vietnamese learners should understand and flexibly associate the two
inventories.
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ON PLOSIVE ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE CONSONANTS
4. Similarities
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In general, both plosive consonants of English and Vietnamese share typical features of
a plosive sound, which is produced with a complete closure of the vocal tract followed by a
sudden release of the air. The articulation is accompanied by a burst, a sort of explosion.
Moreover, there are similar features in position and place of articulation of plosive consonants
in two languages.
Plosive English consonants
- Place of articulation
Plosive p
b
t
d
k
ɡ
Place of
articulation
Bilabial
- +
Labio-
dental
- +
Dental
- +
Alveolar
- +
Palato-
alveolar
- +
Palatal
- +
Velar
- +
Note: -: voiceless sounds
+: voiced sounds
- Position of English plosive sounds in words
Position/p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/
Initial pick balloon tea doll kick garden
Middle capture laboratory kitchen kidnap postcard goose
Final stop climb put mild pick dig
Plosive Vietnamese consonants
- Place of articulation
Place of articulation
Manner of articulation
Labial Tongue tip Tongue
blade
Tongue
root GlottalStrait Retroflex
Plosive
Noise
consonant
Aspirated
ť
Un-
aspirated
Voiceless
t ʈ c k ?
Voiced
b d
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Note: -: voiceless sounds
+: voiced sounds
- Position of Vietnamese plosive sounds in words
Position/p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/
Initial Foreign loans
only
bạn tôi đúng đắn kéo gánh
Middle Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø
Final nấp Ø chát Ø các Ø
- Plosive English and Vietnamese share many plosive consonants in terms of phonemic
symbol: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/
- Some plosive English and Vietnamese consonants appear in the similar position.
* Initial position
b (bà or bear),
d (đen or doll),
k (kéo or kite)
* Final position
p (lớp or hop)
t (ít or bat),
k (gác or luck)
- The most important similarity is that articulation of some plosive English and Vietnamese
consonants has similarities.
Firstly, it can be seen that /b/ in English and Vietnamese has the same place and
manner of articulation.
/b/ + Closing stage: The soft palate being raised and the
nasal resonator shut off, the primary obstacle to the air-
stream is provided by the closure of the lips.
+ Compression stage: Lung air is compressed behind
this closure, during which stage the vocal cords vibrate.
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+ Release stage: Then the closure is released suddenly
for the air to escape with a kind of explosion.
It still causes debates if /p/ belongs to the initial consonant in Vietnamese or not. Some
researchers stated that /p/ only appears in foreign loan words; therefore it does not belong to
Vietnamese initial consonants. However we agree with the point of view of Dang Thi Lanh et.
al. (1997) in the book “Vietnamese” to categorize /p/ as the initial consonant in Vietnamese
because of its appearance in words “đèn pin”, “Sa Pa”, “Pắc Bó”, etc. In addition, nowadays
these words with consonant /p/ have become an integrated part of Vietnamese vocabulary. In
terms of place of articulation and manner, /p/ in English and Vietnamese is similar.
/p/
+ Closing stage: The soft palate being raised and the
nasal resonator shut off, the primary obstacle to the air-
stream is provided by the closure of the lips.
+ Compression stage: Lung air is compressed behind
this closure, during which stage the vocal cords are held
wide apart.
+ Release stage: Then the closure is released suddenly
for the air to escape with a kind of explosion.
Beside /b/ and /p/, the articulation of /d/ in English is the same as /d/ in Vietnamese.
However, it should be noticed here that the written symbols of /d/ in English and in
Vietnamese are different. /d/ in English often has the written symbols as “d”(door, do), but in
Vietnamese it has the written symbols as “đ” (đỉnh, đầu)
/d/ + Closing stage: The soft palate being raised and the
nasal resonator shut off, the primary obstacle to the air-
stream is formed by a closure made between the tip and
rims of the tongue and the upper alveolar ridge and side
teeth.
+ Compression stage: Lung air is compressed behind
this closure, during which stage the vocal cords are
vibrate.
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+ Release stage: The air escapes with noise upon the
sudden separation of the alveolar closure.
Along with similarities, in each language of English and Vietnamese, the way of
formulating plosive sounds also has distinctive features, which will be dealt in the following
part.
5. Differences
- Position
Moreover, it can be seen clearly from the tables above, stop consonants in English can
stand at initial, middle, final positions, whereas in Vietnamese stop consonants do not appear
at middle position. In addition, since Vietnamese only has six final consonants and only three
of them can stand at the end of words (syllable-final), /p/ (nấp), /t/ (chát), /k/ (các).
Therefore, English appears to have a wider variety of final consonant sounds at the end
of words, /p/ (rip), /b/ (rib), /t/ (writ), /d/ (rid), /k/(rick), /g/ (rig)
- Articulation
Final position
One prominent difference between English plosive consonants and Vietnamese plosive
consonants occurring at the final position of a syllable is that in English, the consonants /p/, /t/,
/k/ may be plosive whereas the finals /p/, /t/, /k/ in Vietnamese are implosives, that is they are
made with an egressive air stream from the lungs. Specifically, at the end of words (syllable-
final), in Vietnamese syllable-final /p/ is produced with no air released after pronunciation, /t/
is always pronounced shortly and sharply without aspiration, /k/ with the writing symbols of
“c”, “ch” (ngọc, nghịch) is also produced without aspiration.
For example:
Vietnamese English
tóp top
sót sought
các cake
Initial position
There are the differences of articulation between some plosive consonants in English
and in Vietnamese.
Firstly, there are some plosive consonants that only exist in Vietnamese. These
consonants include / th /, /c/, / ţ /.
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Phoneme /th/, written “th” in Vietnamese is a strong aspirated initial, for example:
thúng, thanh. The Vietnamese “th” is different from the English /θ/. It is pronounced with the
tip of one’s tongue behind the upper front teeth.
The next consonant is the palatal /c/ which is a specific consonant in Vietnamese. This
consonant is produced when the tongue tip is down near the back of the lower teeth and
contact is made by the tongue blade against the hard palate. The Vietnamese phoneme /c/ is
also represented by the written symbol of “ch”. However, it should not be mixed up with the
English phoneme /t∫/.
Vietnamese /c/ English /t∫/
Vietnamese /c/ is a palatal stop which is
created by the tongue tip being near the
backs of the lower teeth, with the blade
rising towards the back of the alveolar
ridge and the front of the hard palate.
English /t∫/ is a palato-alveolar sound,
which is generally produced by the tongue
tip against the alveolar ridge with the
blade touching just behind it.
For example: Vietnamese “cha”, “chú”, “cho” versus English “char”, “choose”,
“chop”.
Another specific plosive consonant in Vietnamese is /ţ/, which is produced with the
tongue tip curved upward and towards the back of the mouth (retroflex). Vietnamese /ţ/ is a
retroflex voiceless stop consonant such as in “trời”. However, Hanoi dialect does not
distinguish the two consonants; they are pronounced like /c/(ch). It should be noted that /ţ/ in
Vietnamese indicates one consonant sound unlike the combination of two characters “tr” in
English where they indicate two separate sounds “t” and “r”, for instance: train, treat.
Secondly, there are some sounds existing in both languages but they have different
articulation.
Place of articulation of Vietnamese consonants
Labial Dental Alveolar Post alveolar Velar Glottal
p t ʂ c k h
f t’ z s x
b d ʑ ʈ
v l ɲ Ŋ
m n
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(Source: Nguyen Thanh Tri (2005:8))
Place of articulation of English consonants
Bilabial Labio-
dental
Dental Alveolar Palato-
alveolar
Palatal Velar Glotal
p b t d k ɡ
f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
tʃ dʒ
m n ŋ
l
w r j
(English phonetics and phonology – Peter Roach (p. 52:1990)
The phonemic symbol of /t/ in English and in Vietnamese is the same, but the place
and manner of articulation are different. In order to pronounce /t/ in English, “the tongue
blade is pressed against the alveolar ridge” (Roach, P: 32) whereas /t/ in Vietnamese the tip
and rims of the tongue touch the side teeth (Đặng et al. : 102). For phoneme /t/ one point that
should be paid attention to is that /t/ in English is not the same as /t/ in Vietnamese but it has
the similar place and manner of articulation as /t’/ (th) in Vietnamese, which is dental
aspirated. This happens when /t/ combines with front vowels and then it is being velarised into
/t’/ (Đặng et. al., 102)
/t/
It is the same as /d/, except at the compression stage,
the vocal folds are wide apart.
The phoneme /t/ in Vietnamese is the voiceless counterpart of the voiced phoneme /d/,
for example: ta, tu, ti. The Vietnamese /t/ is an unaspirated phoneme, whereas English /t/ can
be aspirated.
Although as it has been presented in the previous part, because /p/ is a foreign loan in
Vietnamese; therefore it has similar place and manner of articulation in English and in
Vietnamese. However, just in very few dialects /p/ in Vietnamese is pronounced as /p/ in
English. Instead, /p/ in most dialects in Vietnamese is unaspirated and may sound like “b” to
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an English speaker. In English, /p/ may be aspirated depending on context. /p/ in English is
aspirated when it is at the beginning of a stressed syllable.
While /g/ is plosive in English, it is fricative in Vietnamese //. // in Vietnamese is a
velar voiced fricative consonant, the voiced counterpart of the voiceless consonant /x/(kh).
When producing the phoneme // in Vietnamese, the tongue blade is moving backwards, the
tongue tip is located at the bottom of the lower teeth, the back of the tongue rises towards the
velum, leaving a narrow channel through which the air squeezes on its way out. Vietnamese
phoneme // is unlike the English g, which is also a stop consonant produced by the back of
the tongue and the velum coming together and completely cutting off the flow of air
momentarily, then separating abruptly. For example: Vietnamese ga, ghi and English garment,
give.
As for /k/, in English, it is velar; the back of the tongue is pressed against the area
where the hard palate ends and the soft palate begins.
/k/
+ Closing stage: The soft palate being raised and the
nasal resonator shut off, the primary obstacle to the air
stream is formed by a closure made between the back of
the tongue and the soft palate
+ Compression stage: Lung air is compressed behind
this closure, during which stage the vocal cords are
wide apart.
+ Release stage: The escapes with noise upon the
sudden separation of the velar closure
However, /k/ in Vietnamese is a little different with tongue root involved. /k/ is
produced fortis and unaspirated. Perhaps one of the most common words beginning with “k” is
“kem” which means “ice cream” and “kẹo” which means “candy”.
- Consonant cluster
Moreover, while in Vietnamese at initial position, there is no consonant cluster
(Lê:117), plosive consonants in English can occur in clusters with fricatives and approximants,
as well as each other, as illustrated in the examples below:
/pt/ apt
/kt/ act
/ft/ lift”
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(Martha C. Pennington (1997:49))
When we have two or more consonants together, we call them a consonant cluster.
Initial two-consonant clusters are of two sorts in English. One sort is composed of s followed
by one of a small set of consonants. These clusters are shown in Table 2:
Sp t k f m n
spin stick skin sphere smell snow
Table 2: Two-consonant clusters with pre-initial s
(Source: English phonetics and phonology - Peter Roach (p. 60: 1990)
The other sort begins with one of a set of about fifteen consonants. However, here we just pay
attention to plosive consonants. This can be best shown in table form.
p t k b d ɡ
l play - Clay black - glue
r pray tray Cry bring Drip green
w - twin Quick - Dwell -
j pure tune Cue beauty Due -
Table: Two-consonant clusters with l, r, w, j
(Source: English phonetics and phonology - Peter Roach (p. 61- 1990)
5. Common problems in pronouncing plosive consonants for Vietnamese learners
*Substitution:
EFL learners tend to use other similar sounds to substitute for English sounds which do
not exist in their first language. For example, Vietnamese learners often replace the
unaspirated /t/ in Vietnam with the aspirated /t/ in English. Vietnamese learners also often
does not pay attention to aspiration, voice and voiceless of sounds, which leads to the
mispronunciation of the pair /p/, /b/. For example, instead of pronouncing “pen”, /pen/, they
may pronounce /ben/.
*Sound deletions:
Another common problem with pronunciation is created when the speaker leaves out or
deletes a sound. The deleted sounds normally fall in the single consonant at the beginning,
middle or end of a word, especially consonants in sound clusters. There has been a large body
research on the common problems facing Vietnamese EFL and many researches concluded
that Vietnamese EFL learners generally have more difficulties in pronouncing the final
consonants. Many of Vietnamese EFL learners often delete the final sound. An illustration for
this is that many Vietnamese learners produce “want” /wan/ instead of /want/ or “went” as
/wen/ instead of /went/.
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*Sound insertions:
Non-native speakers may sometimes add more sounds to the words. For instance,
Vietnamese learners of English can produce “train” as /tərein/, in stead of /trein/ because they
have difficulties pronouncing the sound cluster/tr/. This set of problems not only limits the
degree of intelligibility but could also cause unpleasantness on the part of the listeners.
*Mispronunciation between near-sounds in English and Vietnamese
In fact, Vietnamese sounds system did affect Vietnamese students when learning
English as a second language. As a result, when Vietnamese students encounter with these
words like “then, thick, thanks, etc” they may be confused and may pronounce the initial
consonant as /t‘/ in Vietnamese such as “thiết tha”, “thơm tho” instead of /θ/ in English.
*Consonant clusters
Due to the fact that Vietnamese language does not have any consonants cluster either at
the initial of final position; therefore, it is fairly hard for them to produce these sounds
correctly.
These are some typical examples of Vietnamese students’ misunderstanding in
pronunciation when learning English as a second language. From my own experience, to help
students to avoid such these mistakes, the most important thing should be noticed is that the
English teachers instruct students to recognize the differences among phonemes of two
languages from the beginning. Encouraging students to listen to the model and to practice the
sounds as much as possible is also a very useful way.
CONCLUSION
To sum up, each language has its own system of sounds. In this assignment, I have
conducted a research into the system of English and Vietnamese phonology, English and
Vietnamese consonants and especially the similarities and differences of plosive consonants
between Vietnamese and English. From the contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese
plosive consonants, as teachers of English, I point out some common mistakes that
Vietnamese learners often make.
However, due to time pressure and the lack of materials, especially materials in
Vietnamese, this assignment still consists of shortcomings, which may include limited
illustrations of ways of pronunciation of Vietnamese. I really hope that in the future we will
have chances to carry out further researches relating to this interesting and useful topic.
REFERENCES
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nghiệp.
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3. Hà, Cẩm Tâm. (2004). English phonetics and phonology. Hà Nội: NXB ĐHQGHN
4. Ngo, Như Bình. (2005). Elementary Vietnamese: Revised Edition. USA: Tuttle Publishing.
5. Nguyen, Thanh Tri. (2005). Simple Vietnamese for You. BookSurge. Xuất bản bởi
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6. Finegan, E. (2004). Language: Its Structure and Use. USA: Thomson Wadsworth.
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8. Martha, C. Pennington. (1997). Phonology in English, Language teaching: An international
Approach. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited,.
9. Lê, Quang Thiêm.(2004). Nghiên cứu đối chiếu các ngôn ngữ. Hà Nội: NXB ĐHQGHN
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