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Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2014-2024
34
Table 1.10 Photovoltaics for Energy Harvesting unit value dollars 2014-2024
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Automotive
Outdoor
advertising/
posters/
awnings
POP Smart
Labels/
indoor
advertising
Mobile
devices
Apparel/
military/
emergency
Other
portable/
disposable
electronics
PV for
developing
countries
Wireless
sensors
Other, BIPV, large projects/utilities: not included
Source IDTechEx
Fig. 1.10 Photovoltaics for Energy Harvesting unit value dollars 2014-2024
Source IDTechEx
For complete data please purchase this report
For complete data please purchase this report
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Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2014-2024
42
Fig. 1.16 Power requirements of small electronic products including Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
and GSM mobile phones and the types of battery employed
Standby
32 KHz quartz oscillator
Electronic watch
or calculator
RFID Tag
Hearing aid
Miniature FM Receiver
Transceiver Bluetooth
PALM, MP3
GSM
µP laptop
µP desktop
10 nW
100 nW
1 µW
10 µW
100 µW
1 mW
10 mW
100 mW
1 W
10 W
100 W
Bicycle lighting
Source IDTechEx
Nowadays, much of the focus on energy harvesting concerns microsystems including ones in the
human body, and here the relative situation is much the same as shown below in an assessment by
the Tyndall National Institute in Dublin, Ireland.
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Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2014-2024
50
Table 1.19 Some types of energy to harvest with examples of harvesting technology, applications,
developers and suppliers
Energy
harvested
Method Applications Storage Some of the
organisations
involved
Vibration Piezoelectric
Inorganic or electrodynamic
Actuators and generators –
commercial, consumer, medical
including wireless sensors in engines,
vehicles and aircraft
Lithium
batteries,
capacitors
Arveni
AmbioSystems
Clarkson
University
GreenPeak
National
Physical
Laboratory
IMEC
MicroStrain
Midé
Technology
Perpetuum
Smart Material
University of
Bristol
University of
Southampton
KCF
Technologies
Magnetostrictive North Carolina
State University
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Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2014-2024
123
Fig. 6.1 Perpetuum energy harvesting powered wireless sensor monitoring wheel wear in trains.
Source: Perpetuum
Cepnic continues: “With the VEH460 Ferro Solutions, Inc. builds a harvester for similar applications.
To power remote controls, Brother Inc. demonstrated a harvester in size of a AA battery. Several
authors published body worn or implantable prototypes, and prototypes to be integrated in a shoe
to harvest from human walking. A commercially available example with the form of a stick that can
be put into a backpack is the nPowerPEG.
Electrodynamic harvesters were also designed for structural monitoring applications, e.g., by
powering wireless sensor notes for transmission, temperature and acceleration monitoring on
bridges . A study about a harvester mounted to a car engine shows that enough power can
permanently be harvested to supply different condition monitoring sensors.”
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Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2014-2024
208
pairs – ten to hundred times more than conventional devices. Hence our thermogenerators
produce voltages in the range of 0.5-5 Volt depending on actual temperature differences on just a
few square millimeters of footprint – sufficient for driving a wide range of low power wireless
systems such as remote sensors or self-sustained data loggers. Micropelt thermogenerator
devices offer small custom designs for energy harvesting and energy scavenging applications.”
7.84. Microsemi
Microsemi (formerly Zarlink Semiconductor)
400 March Rd
Ottawa
Ontario
K2K 3H4
Canada
www.zarlink.com
Microsemi is a leading supplier of high performance, high quality analog devices, ICs, all the way to
complete subsystems for a variety of industry sectors.
Through the acquisition of Zarlink Semiconductor in October 2011, Microsemi expanded its
activities into implant grade (400MHz) and wearable (ISM band 779-965MHZ covering most
countries) ultra low-power radios. "The medical products group (MPG) was a growing segment of
Zarlink's revenue." Mr Mauricio Peres, product marketing director with Microsemi, says. "Due to
high industry interest level in ultra-low power radios, Microsemi kept the group intact". And he
continues: "In the summer prior to its acquisition, Zarlink was expanding to applications outside of
medical. So now the same products for ISM band are being promoted into other vertical markets
too, such as commercial/industrial wireless sensors that require ultra low-power".
Products - ZL 70250
Power consumption of Microsemi radios is very low, due to requirements from past customers that
really needed compact size and low power, which translates to market interest from companies in
various segments. The radio chip measures at 2mmx3mm and is very thin- around 250microns in
thickness. With an added 120microns chip scale packaging is possible and allows for the use of
regular manufacturing flow.
ZL 70250, the lowest power radio transceiver according to customer testimonials, uses only 2mA to
transmit a packet in a few milliseconds. Once the CPU initializes the radio, the CPU can duty cycle
it at a required frequency bringing the average current consumption in the 100's of μA, depending
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Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitors: Supercapacitors 2014-2024
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Fig. 1.6 Maxwell Technologies supercapacitor pack for electric vehicles
Source NREL
In 2011, Maxwell Technologies estimated that 300,000 cars using its supercapacitor product will be
on the road by the end of 2011 and 1 million by the end of 2012.
Fig. 1.7 Hybrid bus with supercapacitors on roof
Source Maxwell Technologies
1.6. AEDLC/supercabatteries
However, to address the need in some applications to have higher energy density while
surrendering some supercapacitor advantages, devices with one battery-like positive electrode and
one EDL electrode are being developed, several already being on the market. Such asymmetric
electrochemical double layer capacitors AEDLCs ie supercabatteries store 85 to 115% more energy
(volumetric or gravimetric energy density)than a conventional supercapacitor, while retaining a
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Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitors: Supercapacitors 2014-2024
75
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The only electrode (nanocarbon based or otherwise) reported having a higher maximum power (3.2
MW/kg, 16 kW/l vs 0.99 MW/kg, 396 kW/l for the composite electrodes) was composed of a sparse
MWNT forest electrode (density of 0.005 g/cm3). Sparse CNT forest electrodes naturally have
higher power performance as essentially individual CNTs within the forest are immersed in an
almost infinite sea of electrolyte, i.e., infinite supply of ions. Here, our composite material has
achieved a similar power performance, by tailoring the pore structure to optimize electrolyte
retention yet having a density eighty times that of the sparse CNT forest.
Following early collaboration between NASA JSC Battery group, Inorganic Specialists Inc. and
Reytec Corporation on carbon nanotube supercapacitors for use in space suits for battery load
levelling in the jetpack, many organisations across the world are developing carbon nanotube
active material in supercapacitors and supercabatteries. Some are described below and in the
manufacturer profiles.
3.3.1. Carbon aerogel
Supercapacitors are also being made of carbon aerogel. This is a unique material providing
extremely high surface area of about 400-1000 m²/g. The electrodes of aerogel supercapacitors are
usually made of non-woven paper made from carbon fibers and coated with organic aerogel, which
then undergoes pyrolysis. The paper is a composite material where the carbon fibers provide
structural integrity and the aerogel provides the required large surface. Small aerogel
supercapacitors are being used as backup electricity storage in microelectronics, but applications
for electric vehicles are expected. The voltage of an aerogel capacitor is limited to a few volts.
Higher voltages will lead to ionization of the carbon, which will damage the capacitor. Carbon
aerogel capacitors have achieved 325 J/g (90 Wh/Kg) energy density and 20 W/g power density.
Fig. 3.2 Carbon aerogel supercapacitors
Source Evil Mad Scientist Labs
3.3.2. Solid activated carbon
The company Reticle claims to be able to make supercapacitors from activated carbon in solid
form with major cost and performance advantages. It has made a prototype supercapacitor to
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Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitors: Supercapacitors 2014-2024
83
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their bonds. Shown below are two very high resolution images of single sheets of graphene
material.
Fig. 3.5 Single sheets of graphene material
Source Graphene Energy Inc
Our technology is the result of the efforts of the Ruoff research group at the University of Texas at
Austin. Prof. Ruoff, who holds the Cockrell Family Regents Chair in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, states, “Graphene’s surface area of 2630 m2/gram, almost the area of a football field
in about 1/500th of a pound of material. This means that a greater number of positive or negative
ions in the electrolyte can form a layer on the graphene sheets resulting in exceptional levels of
stored charge.” After about nine months of research with the new material, they have shown
storage abilities similar to those of ultracapacitors already on the market, and they believe
Graphene’s ultra thin structure will allow for sheets of the material to be stacked to increase
energy storage and possibly double the current capacity of ultracapacitors. This would allow
ultracapacitors to expand into many other renewable and clean energy storage applications.
Fig. 3.6 Graphene supercapacitor cross section
Source Graphene Power Inc
The surface area of a single graphene sheet is 2630 m2/g, substantially higher than values derived
from BET surface area measurements of activated carbons used in current electrochemical double
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Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitors: Supercapacitors 2014-2024
103
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Fig. 3.16 The energy storage membrane
Source NUS
Led by Principal Investigator Dr Xie Xian Ning, the research team used a polystyrene-based
polymer to deposit the membrane which, when sandwiched between and charged by two graphite
plates, can store charge at 0.2 farads per square centimetre. This is well above the typical upper
limit of 1 microfarad per square centimetre for a standard capacitor. The cost involved in energy
storage is also reduced from about US$7 to store each farad using existing technologies based on
liquid electrolytes to about US$0.62 per farad with this new material.
Using organic waste such as plastic bags, the conversion process from waste to membrane takes
about one to two days on average. It is also said that a ton of plastic bags can produce a ton of
membrane, depending on the polymer functionalization process. Besides a faster charging speed,
the new material can also be charged 5,000 to 6,000 times, about 10 times that of rechargeable
batteries.
Dr Xie said: “Compared to rechargeable batteries and supercapacitors, the proprietary membrane
allows for very simple device configuration and low fabrication cost. Moreover, the performance of
the membrane surpasses those of rechargeable batteries, such as lithium ion and lead-acid
batteries, and supercapacitors.”
Supported by grants from the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research & Technology (SMART) and the
National Research Foundation, the research took about one and a half years to reach its current
status and the team has also successfully filed a US patent for this novel invention.
The discovery has also attracted the attention of scientific journals worldwide, and was featured in
Energy & Environmental Science and highlighted by renowned international journal Nature.
Going forward, the team will explore more applications for this efficient energy storage solution. It
is also looking into opportunities to work with venture capitalists to commercialise the invention.
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