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back the Birdman
RESTORING COLOUR TO THE
SACRED CULT
OF EASTER ISLAND
Early
visitors to
Easter
Island recorded strange designs of mysterious being. Now using
the latest technology and ancient records Paul Horley
Georgia
Lee and Paul Bahn
have
restored
glorious colour
to the
sacred site
o f
Orongo home
o f the mystical birdman.
T
he
f irst
Europeans reached
t h e shores of
Easter
island,
Rapa Nu i , in 1722 - o n
Easter
Sunday,
t h u s gi v i n g t h e
remote island its distinctive
n a m e .
Just
a century later, the society that
p ro d u c e d t h e famous moai, recognisable
th e
w o r l d over, was in serious decline.
Overpopulation and overuse of natural
resources reached crisis po in t , and the
islanders descended i n t o t r i b a l c o n f l i c t .
\Varfare drastically changed the social
order:
the king s power was diminis hed , and
th e
island gradually fell under the control
o f
t r i b a l w a r r i o r ch ie f s . W i t h i n decades,
t h e c o l o s s a l
statues on the cerem onial
platforms
or a h u were overthrown. By the
t i m e
John
L i n t o n P a l m e r, ship s surgeon
a b o a r d H M S Topaze,
arrived in 1868, n o
w o a i w a s
standing on a p l a t f o r m . Yet, out
of t h i s
chaos came
a completely new order;
the rule of the sacred b i r d m a n .
This drastic
change
not only had a
profound impact on island society, i t
also
b r o u g h t
w i t h
i t a c o m p l e t e l y n e w
a r t f o r m . The carved rocks of Orongo
village, the centre of birdm an ceremonies,
are v i v i d testimonies to the glory of this
emergent cult .
It
was in one of the houses o f Orongo
vil lage that the crew of the Topaze came
across a h a l f - b u ri e d nioni, w h i c h t h e y
b ro u gh t back to England w here it now can
be seen in the British Mus eum in Lo ndon .
This statue, cal led Hoa Hakananai a, is
beaut ifully sculpted fro m black basalt and
carved onto its back are the usual r i n g -
and-girdle motifs . However, new designs
have also been i n t ro d u c e d .
Tw o strange lo okin g creatures - ha l f
m a n , h a l f b i rd - c ro u c h f a c i n g each other.
Above th em is a st) lised
b ir d,
and on either
side there are ceremonial paddles ao ) and
d e p i c t i o n s o f
f er til ity
s y m b o l s {komari
-
these
last reflecting
the emphasis placed
o n
f er til ity
d u ri n g t h is
troublesome period
of Easter
I sland s history .
T h e l i n k
to birds is
also
significant. Sea
b irds were
believed to
be
messengers
f ro m t h e gods able to reach
t h e n i g h d y u n d e r w o d d ,
a n d t h e n
return at
the light of the day.
Ho a Hakananai a, therefore, represents
th e
t ransition between
th e
classical culture,
w i t h
it s emphasis on megalit hic statues,
an d
th e
n e w b i rd m a n
rule.
A good egg
T h e b i r d m a n , o r
taiigata uiaiiii
w a s a p p o i n t e d a n n u a l l y f o l l o w i n g a
com pet ition in Austral spr ing (September)
- see box p.22 . The part icipants gathered in
the ceremonial village of Orongo , perched
on t he l ip of the crater Rano Ka u
some
3 0 0 m ( 9 8 5 f t )
above
the roaring surf , a
place
of breathtaking beauty overlooking
t h e Pacific. Th i s spectacular location is
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EASTER ISLAND
LEFT
Panoramic view of
the crater
Rano Kau
with
Orongo
village,
centre of
the
birdman cult
on Easter Island
INSET
Painted
slab
with
facing birdmen belonging to
the collections of the Museo Antropologico Padre
Sebastian Englert ( MPSE) Easter Island
t o Easter Island, most notably
Katherine Routledge in 1914-191S,
as
well
as i n f o r m a t i o n obtained
from
archaeological study of t he ceremonial
village itself. We also have expedition
records
f r o m
the late
f 9 t h
and early
2 0 t h centuries, of w h i c h arguably the
most i m p o r t a n t comes
f r o m
the 1868
vis it
by surgeon
John
L i n t o n Palmer.
Palmer was much fascinated by Mata
Ngarahu; he
w r o t e :
At the end of this
settlement., ahvostall the blocks of lava
are more or less sculptured; but as they are
weatherworn, and the material perishable
and overgrown, it is difficult to make out
the design - so much that made a coloured
sketch... without perceiving at the time that
the one represented a face, which quite startled
me on looking at my work. I wish
1
could have
spent some hours, nay, the whole night, up
there, working away with niy pencil; but at
2.30 was the last boat, and so duty called me
away from a most interesting place.
Palmer was a gifted painter. Many of
his watercolours show the famous statues,
the island s landscapes, tat too designs,
and characteristic woodcarvings. The
collection of his
work
at London s Royal
Geographical Society includes three
p r e v i o u sly unpublished paintings of
the decorations of Orongo village.
One of these shows a boulder
w i t h
a
face carved on its e x t r e m i t y (see p.21 .
The very same rock was documented
photographically by W i l l i a m Safford in
1886, durin g the American expedition led
by W i l l i a m Judah Thomson. Comparison
o f Palmer s waterc olour and Safford s >
exposed to s t r o n g w i n d s and p o u r i n g rain,
so about 50
elliptical
drystone houses were
constructed
to provide shelter f r o m the
elements. The ceremonial heart of Orongo
is the sacred precinct of Mata Ngarahu,
constructed
over a natural basalt o u t c r o p .
Each stone here is adorned
w i t h
stylised
images of b i r d m e n and large-eyed masks
representing
the chief deity Makemake.
Our knowledge about the b i r d m a n
c u l t comes f r o m the l i v i n g memory of
the
islanders recorded by early visitors
THE MO I OF EASTER ISLAND
Easter Island is a tiny speck o f l and lost in the s eemingly boundl ess East Pacific. Its
Polynesian name Rapa Nui was adopted in the second half of the 19th century. The
island
is
worid-famous for its monolithic statues:
moai,
which stood on ceremonial
platforms or ahu, arou nd the co ast The se figures representing venerated ancestors
were carved in quarries at the extinct volcano of Rano
Raraku.
According to the
islanders the
moai
possessed spiritual power
imana)
that protected the people living
in
the villages in front of th e ceremonial structures . The y were a strong link betwee n
ancestors and descendants betwee n the past and present
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p h o t o shows tha t Palmer caug ht the
essential details of the
scene,
a l l o w i n g
posit ive iden tif icati on of every rock in
his painting. This is crucial because not
o n l y
does
i t prove th at
Palmer s
work
wa s accurate an d t r u s t w o r t h y , but the
watercolour is one of only three
images
t h a t
show this particular rock
w i t h
a face
carving. The original boulder is now gone:
between 1905 and 1914, it slid do w n t he
cliffs of Rano Kau into the roaring surf.
Palmer was also th e
first
person to
document graphically the painted slabs
inside the houses o f O r o n g o . These
paintings were made
w i t h
red and wh ite
p i gm e n t s , p ro b a b l y m i x e d
w i t h
shark-
liver
oil as a binding
agent.
Th i s
choice
of colours has deep roots in Polynesian
culture. Red was sacred - the colour of
life a nd
associated
w i t h
sacred power
ma n a
and the god Makemake. W hite
backgrou nds were essential to create a
visual contrast to the red pigment on
g r e \ish-brown stone slabs set inside the
d a i k interiors
of
Orongo s
windowless
houses
w i t h
their narrow entrances.
\ V i t h t l i e passing years, the pigm ents
have
dried and faded, so th at out of scores
of p a i n t i n gs e x i s t i n g i n
Orongo
in the
19th century, only about a dozen survive
todav. Therefore, Palmer s watercolours
OVE
The rocks of
the
sacred precinct Mata
Ngarahu are densely caiA/ed
with
birdman motifs
in
bas-relief
Many stylised
faces
were caived at Orongo;
some, as seen here, are thought to represent the
chief god Makemake.
s h o w i n g
these
p a i n t i n gs i n
full
colour
contain invaluable inform atio n about the
aesthetics and iconog raphy of the ancient
i s la n d e rs. O f c o u rs e, d o c u m e n t a t i o n
of painted slabs inside the houses was
well beyond the reach of 19th-century
p h o t o g r a p h y . Palmer s w a t e rc o l o u rs
re c o rd t h e p a i n t i n gs o t h e rw i s e k n o w n
onl y fro m a single set of pho tog rap hs
taken by Safford 18 years later. A n unu sual
t w o - h e a d e d
bir d
was a variation of a
classical s o o t y tern design. The exact
mea ning o f this design is un kn ow n, but
it is quite frequent in the rock art and
wngurongo, the mysteriou s script of Easter
Island. The large frigate bird
image
has
a characteristic curved
beak.
Thanks to
Palmer s
watercolours, we know that the
f a d i n g p i gm e n t o f t h e b i rd s
eyes
was
black - tho ug h this is far from obvio us m
t h e m o n o c h r o m e h i s t o ric a l p h o t o gra p h s .
Paddle
w i th
power
One of Palmer s w a t e rc o l o u rs f ro m
Orongo documents an entire composit ion
made of four motifs depicted on a single
slab (see
r i g h t ) .
In the central posit ion
there is a ceremonial paddle or oar {ao .
I n
th e i apa N u i language, ao also means
governing power , so that the depiction
of the oar was a personified image of an
authority symbol . Thus, the oar design
has explicit human-like features: a clear
face
w i t h eyes
a n d nose, a ceremonial
feather
headdress
above
i t , and a painted
or tattooed body, as denoted by numerous
red-and- white stripes.
The actual specimens of ao collected
in
the 19th century are very impressive,
reaching over 2m (6ft) in length;
some
o f
them are painted red and w h i t e , i n
full
accordance w i t h
I^almer s w ater colo ur.
Several
no paintings were docum ented
in
the 20th century; some were rescued
f r o m l e a k i n g houses and depos ited in
t h e i s la n d s A n t h ro p o l o gi c a l M u s e u m .
However, none of the known paintings is
comparable
w i t h
th e ao i n Palmer s picture.
Once
again, Palmer s b r u s h
saved
for
p o s t e ri t y
a l o n g- l o s t , u n i q u e p a i n t e d
c o m p o s i t i o n . I t d e p i c ts a c e re m o n i a l
paddle accompanied b y t w o b i r d m e n
and another object - possibly a stylised
depiction of a plant or marine creature.
Th e n u m b e r o f p a i n t i n gs
once
a d o rn i n g Orongo houses is impressive:
only a handful of wall-paintings are
known elsewhere on the island, hidden
in
caves. A re these t h e o n l y vestiges of the
use of colo ur in arch itectur e? W ere th e
n u m e ro u s b i rd m a n p e t ro gh- p h s of the
sacred precinct of ata N g a r a h u - as
well as those scattered a m o n g t h e h o u s e s
of
Orongo
vil lage - also i C ^ r r . c d v . l t l i
paint? If so, do we
have
en; u;r. data to
reconstruct Orongo,
alee;:
tentativ ely, as
it
looked when the b i r d m a n competit ions
were
still
occurring? Here, again. Palmer s
expedition
makes
a c o n t r i b u t i o n .
B E L O W John
Linton Palme
~=-;ec this
previously
unpublished watercolour
in
^S£S handwritten
caption explains that this mot
=:;eared
on a side-
slab
fronting the entrance of a .=-ge stone house.
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Painted
moai
The published
accounts
of Palmer s visit
to the island briefly mention that the
moai
Hoa Hakananai a, fo und inside
the house at Orongo, was painted red
and
w h i t e .
The pigments were mostly
w ip ed away when the statue was
dragged on its back down the slopes
of
Rano
Kau, and then rafted to the
s h i p .
As it stood on deck aboard ship
dur i n g the entire journey to Europe,
exposed
to the elements, t he
dr i v i ng
rains at sea removed st i l l more colour.
Once at the Bri tish Mus eum, it was
e x h i b i t e d
in the exterio r por tic o for a
l o n g
time, .seemingly erasing all hope
of
discovering anything about its
or iginal
paint. However, some hints of
or iginal
colours can st i l l be glimpsed in
his tor ical
photographs - and even, most
surpr is ingly ,
on the statue itself.
One of the earliest pho tog raphs
i l lustrating
the back of the statue shows
t ha t its bas-relief carvings were marked
in
wh i t e .
Was this simply an outline or a
completely white-washed background, as
seen
in Orongo paintings? We believe that
a solid background is most probable. This
t heo ry
is substantiated by two birdman
rocks inside the houses of Mata Ngarahu
t ha t s t i l l preserve traces of a uniform
wh i t e background.
The historical photo of Hoa
Hakananai a
seems to show tha t the ceremo nial
paddles
ao)
featured a set of horiz ont al
lines, similar to those
seen
in Palmer s
wate r co lour ,
suggesting t hat the
ao
were
usually painted as they are portrayed on
the painted
slabs
inside Orongo houses.
LOW Palmer s v atercolour
1868,
previously
unpublished) of a tv o-headed bird and a stylised
frigate bird.
RIGI- i
Safford s
photograph
1886)
of painted
slabs,
including
the two-headed
bird
depicted by Palmer
Incredib ly ,
given the
statue s
exposure
to rain
for so many years, digital
image
processing revealed traces of red on the
statue s
back.
Red was a colour favoured by the
ancient
Easter
Islanders: they applied
it to wood carvings and their paper-
mulber ry clothing, as we l l as using it to
paint their bodies. The red pigment ki ea
was generally
made
fro m red-coloured >
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clay. Tho ugh this clay is sticky whe n
w e t , once dry it falls off easily. Indeed,
there is a charming
Rapa
Nui story t h a t
relates how a tr i ckster named UrePooi
played a practical joke on the girls by
m a k i n g
the roosters sing long before
d a w n .
The girls awoke and, believing it
was m or ni ng , began
their
preparations
for that evening's feast, painting
their
faces w i t h
ki en.
But, as they had got up
too
early, the pigment d r i e d and fell off
before they reached the feast. Ifki eci did
no t hold on girls
faces
for a day, how
could
it possibly survive for more than a
c e nt u r y
on niocii Hoa Hakananai'a?
The answer lies in the statue's porous
basalt rock. As the moai was painted
several ti mes - for it is safe to assume
the pigment was reapplied annually
fo r the b i r d m a n ceremony - these pores
were
t i g h t l y
stuffed w i t h m u l t i p l e layers
o f reddish clay. And, though ki ea has
problems when attached to a smooth
surface ( t h i s is wh y so many Oron go
paintings have not s u r v i v e d ) , it w o u l d
become i mbedded, layer upon layer, w i t h i n
the t i n y holes on the porous surface of the
ABOVE A digital reconstruction of the paintings
on
the back
of Hoa Hakananai'a as it nnay have appeared
when
found
half-buried
inside
a house
in
Orongo
village.
statue; so, even after prolonged exposure
to
the elements, some clay particles w o u l d
survive inside the pores even today. The
w h i t e pigm ent , however, was made
from a pulverised w h i t e tuff called
marikuru that turns i n t o a fine
powder
o n d r y i n g . It w o u l d
not stick to the pores' walls as the clayish
ki ea d i d , and so has not survived.
L o o k i n g at d i g i t a l l y enhanced
images of Hoa Hakananai'a, one can
see t h a t the carvings of ao, the bird,
and b i r d m e n
display many traces of red
pigment. The bottom
p a r t
of the moai
also features large red-coloured areas,
w h i c h is
unsurpri si ng
since the statue
was buri ed to waist level in the reddish
soil
at Orongo. The independent
con
fi
r m a t i o n t h a t bas-relief
carv i
ngs
were paint ed red - simi lar to t hose
stones at Mata Ngarahu w i t h preserved
w h i t e pigment covering the entire
background of the carving -
comes
f r o m
a boulder collected in 1905 by
Alexander
Agassiz's
expedition (now in
the Peabody Museum of Archaeology
and Ethnologv in Cambridg e,
Massachusetts), w hi ch shows traces
of red pigment in rock pores.
Therefore , basing our case on the
evidence of colour-use in painted slabs
inside
houses, hi stori cal photographs
o f moai Hoa Hakananai'a. pigment
traces seen in car\'ed rocks, as w e l l as
THE BIRDMAN AND THE EGG
According to tradition, the first egg of the sooty tern to be laid each
year
overflov*/ed with
mana
(power). He who found it was ano inted
birdman of Easter Island for the year. Later, the participants used
proxies, or
hopu,
who woul d compete on their behalf. The competitors
had to climb down the cliff of Rano Kau, and swim about 1.5km
1
mile) through the rough sea to the offshore islet of
Motu
Nui,
where the birds made their nests each spring. They waited there,
sometimes for we eks, for the birds to start laying. Th e man wh o found
the first egg signalled to Oron go, annou ncin g that his patron was to
bec ome birdman, before swimmi ng back to the island, climbing back
up to
Orongo
and presenting the magical egg.
The newly proclaimed birdman shaved his head, eyebrows, and
eyelashes. He also took a new name, which was then adopted as the name
of th e year; this provided a chronology of sorts. In 1914-1915, the British
archaeologist K atherine Routledge r ecorded almost 100 such names,
directly from informants who participated in birdman ceremonies.
The birdman, or
tangata
manu, then danced and sang his way from
Orongo to his new residence at the quarries of Ra no Raraku or in the
fermer
royal residence at Anakena, where he lived, in seclusion, for
the
entire
year, in a grass-thatched house sh aped like an ove rtur ned
boot
He spent his days sitting in the hut s shadow, serving as a kind of
orade to visitors wh o bnDught him food, and abstained from bathing
or cutting his fingernails and hair Meanwhile, his tribe enjoyed
pan-island power - which was often abused by tribe members
who plundered the fields of rival clans.
Though in theory each group had the chance to this privilege,
politics and power played an important role: not every trtie was actually
allowed to take part in the competition.
We do not know the exact origins of the birdman cutt However, it was
synchronised with the seasonal
arrival
of
binds
and pelagic fish, so it seems
prxjbable
it
ernerged n
response
D the neecb of an extended island popuiartkD^
that required better management of
food
resources Latei; the competition
became a hugely important social event, enduring until 1867wherv acconding
to folkore, the last birdman was Rue, who took t he nam e Rokung a
BELOV / View towards the bird islets of Motu Nui
(left),
Motu Iti (centre)
and Motu Kaokao (right)
from
the courtyard
area
of Mata Ngarahu Orongo.
Every boulder here
is
carved
with birdman
designs.
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E STER ISL ND
The distinctive face of mo i Hoa Hal<ananai a
(ABOVE); carvings on the bacl< o f
the
statue
(ABOVE CENTRE); 19th-century photograph
showing
white
symbol outlines (ABOVE RIGHT);
the modern image enhanced, to show traces o f
red pigment
in rocl<
pores (ABOVE FAR RIGHT).
computer-enhanced
images
of the statue,
we
have
been able t o create a t e n t a t i v e
reconstruction of the statue s back as it was
painted at the times of the
t ng t
m nu
cerem onies, inside a large
house
i n Orongo
vil lage. We suggest t h a t t h e
eyes
of the
b i r d m e n ,
bir d,
a n d o were black, just as
they were painted on the slabs a d o r n i n g
house interiors seen
today in the museum s,
as well as on Palmer s watercolours.
The resulting image shows that the use
o
colour was necessary t o
emphasise
the
reliefs carved on the statue standing inside
the stone house,
w i t h
it s sole source o f
l ight coming through the narrow entrance
passage at ground level. Such a dark
space
w o u l d have needed a white background
to highlight the carvings on the
statue s
back, and ensure t hey were clearly visible.
Moreover, the consistent use of colour,
both to highlight the carvings
o
mo i Hoa
Hakananai a
a n d i n t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l
m u r a l s o f O r o n g o , establishes a bridge
between the two domains.
Cleady, exposure to rain
wil l
damage
the pain tin gs . However, there is a
striking difference between plain-su rface
and bas-relief paintings: the latter are
r e s is t a n t t o c o l o u r - m i x i n g . I n d e e d ,
while the pigment from elevated areas
m ay filter to some
degree
over a white
b a c k g r o u n d , t h e w h i t e p i g m e n t
does
>
BELOW Stone houses o f Orongo village, construct ed
of dry-laid basalt slabs. The foreground four-entrance
house, called Taura Renga
once
sheltered the
mo i
called Hoa Hakananai a.
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n o t
get washed over the red
bas-reUefs.
As a result, the
designs
stand out well
i n
t h e i r c o rre c t c o l o u rs w i t h o u t m u c h
s m u d g i n g , even a f t e r p ro l o n ge d ra i n f a l l .
Waking the birdman
I f
there are carved rocks
w i t h
traces of paint
inside the Mata Ngarahu
houses,
could the
entire
sacred precinct
have
been painted? We
t h i n k
that the
chances
of this are reasonably
h i g h .
A pplication of colour may
have
been
considered an im po rta nt act associated
w i t h
replenishing their sacred power
mana).
I t is not too fanciful to envisage the act
o f p a i n t i n g b e i n g a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f
t h e c e re m o n y d u ri n g w h i c h t h e names o f
al
the birdmen carved on the boulders of
M a t a Nga ra h u w e re i n v o k e d . W i t h t h e i r
eyes
pain ted black, the
images
would be
"awakened' to
l i fe,
much as the island's
m o n u m e n t a l statues were when their
coral
eyes w i t h
obsidian pupils were
inserted into their eye sockets.
Traditionally,
the black pigment on
Easter
Island was prepared fr om charred
leaves o f a Cordyline p l a n t , m i x e d
w i t h
sugar-cane juice. The Rapa N u i
name
of the
sacred precinct, Mata Ngarahu, translates as
the 'soot eyes - ma ki ng a perfect reference
to
th e
place
where
each
rock
literally
stares
back at the beholder
w i t h
a m u l t i t u d e o f
soot-black
eyes
p a i n t e d o n
tangata manu
reliefs and Makemake face masks.
F o r t h e a n n u a l c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e
re-pai ntin g of Mata Ngarahu petrogl>^hs
m a y w e l l have functioned as an off ic ial
opening ceremony, thereby preparing the
site for selection of the new sacred ruler
w h o w o u l d b r i n g a b u n d a n t f o o d a n d
prosperity
to the island throughout the
f o l l o w i n g
year,
n
ABOVE
Tentative reconstruoion of arited petj-oglyphs
at Mata Ngarahu,
based
on
Gec a Lee s
photograph
of the
sacred site.
SOURCES
Dr Paul Horley Dr
Georgia
Lee, and Dr Paul Bahn are
rock-art
specialists.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are very grateful to Joy Wheeler
(tlie
Royal Geographical
Society
with
IBG, London), Alice Moschetti and Yolande Ferreira (the British Museum, London), Daisy
Njoku (the National Anthropological Archives, Washington DC),
Susan
Snyder (the Bancroft
Library
Berkeley), William
Hydec
Mark Olivet; and Pierre
Lesage
fo r
their kind
help
with
digital
image
files and
permissions to use th e corresponding pictures
in
this article.
FURTHER READIXC;
P Bahn
€ /
J Flenley
Easter sland
Eanh Island
Santiago:
Rapa N ui
Press, 2 1 2
G Lee, Th e Rock Art of
Easte r s land
symbols
of power, prayers to the
gods Lo s Angeles:
UCLA Institute
of Archaeology, 1992,
J A van
Tilburg,
Remote Possibilities:
HMS
Topaze on Easter Island
Research
Paper 158,
London:
British
Museum Press, 2006.
J Flenley &
P
Bahn, Enigmas
of Easter
Island
New
York:
Oxford University
Press,
2002.
CURRENTV ORLDARCHAEOLOGY
Issue 6